title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The aircraft was so aerodynamically clean that rapid descent ("penetration") from high cruise altitude to the landing pattern required dragging the deployed rear landing gear. The relatively high wing loading (weight/wing area) required a high landing speed of . To shorten the landing roll, USAF test pilot Major Guy Townsend promoted the addition of a German-invented "ribbon" drag chute (thrust reversers had not then been developed). For the same reason, the B-47 was the first mass-produced aircraft to be equipped with an anti-skid braking system.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: A related problem was that the aircraft's engines would have to be throttled down on landing approach. Since it could take as long as 20 seconds to throttle them back up to full power, the bomber could not easily do a "touch and go" momentary landing. A 16-foot "approach chute" (drogue parachute) provided aerodynamic drag so that the aircraft could be flown at approach speeds with the engines throttled at ready-to-spool-up medium power. On the ground, the pilots used the 32-foot "brake chute". The brake chute could be deployed to stop the aircraft from "porpoising", or bouncing, after a hard landing on the front nose gear. Training typically included an hour of dragging the approach chute around the landing pattern for multiple practice landings.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The USAF Strategic Air Command operated multiple B-47 models (B-47s, EB-47s, RB-47s and YRB-47s) from 1951 through 1965. Upon entry to service, its performance was closer to that of contemporary fighters than SAC's extant B-36 Peacemaker bomber, setting multiple records with ease. It handled well in flight, the controls having a fighter-like light touch. The large bubble canopy enhanced the flying crew's vision and gave a fighter-like feel, but also caused internal temperature variations for the crew. The three-man crew consisted of the commander, copilot and a navigator/bombardier or a crew chief.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: In 1953 the B-47 became operational. It was sluggish on takeoff and too fast on landings, an unpleasant combination. If landed at the wrong angle, the B-47 would "porpoise", bouncing fore-and-aft. If the pilot did not lift off for another go-around, instability would quickly cause it to skid onto one wing and cartwheel. Because the wings and surfaces flexed in flight, low-altitude speed restrictions were necessary to ensure effective flight control. The B-47 was regarded as a maintenance "hog". General reliability was good, the only major issuing relating to the avionics, typical of the vacuum tube technology used and the placement of equipment outside the pressurized crew compartment. Much work was done to improve avionics reliability, but avionics remained troublesome throughout the B-47's operational life.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Starting in 1950, several models of the B-47 included a fuel tank inerting system, in which dry ice was sublimed into carbon dioxide vapor while the fuel pumps operated or while the in-flight refueling system was in use. The carbon dioxide was pumped into both the fuel tanks and the fuel system to ensure low oxygen levels throughout. It was implemented largely to reduce the probability of an explosion from static electricity discharges.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Initial mission profiles included the loft bombing of nuclear weapons. As the training for this imposes repeated high stress on the aircraft, the airframe lifetime would have been severely limited by metal fatigue, and this maneuver was eliminated. Improved training led to a good safety record, and few crews felt the aircraft was unsafe or too demanding, but apparently there were some aircrews who had little affection for the B-47. Crew workload was high, having only three crew members to operate it. Boeing's B-52 Stratofortress, in contrast, generally had six crewmen, five officers and one enlisted, with more internal cabin space.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: An XB-47 was flown in the 1951 Operation Greenhouse nuclear weapons test. This was followed by a B-47B being flown in the 1952 test, Operation Ivy and the 1954 test, Operation Castle. A B-47E was then flown in the 1956 test, Operation Redwing. "Reflex" missions proved the long-endurance (eighteen hours) and long range capability of the B-47 and aircrews. These were "simulated strike missions against the then Soviet enemy".


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Three B-47s flew cross country from March Air Force Base to the Philadelphia International Airport as participants in the 1955 Labor Day race. In the 1956 event, three B-47s participated in the G.E. Trophy race for Jet Bombers, flying from Kindley Field, Bermuda, to Oklahoma City. One of these set a course speed record of .


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: By 1956, the USAF had 28 wings of B-47 bombers and five wings of RB-47 reconnaissance aircraft. The B-47 was the first line of America's strategic nuclear deterrent, often operating from forward bases in the UK, Morocco, Spain, Alaska, Greenland and Guam. B-47s were often set up on "one-third" alert, with a third of operational aircraft available sitting on hardstands or an alert ramp adjacent to the runway, loaded with fuel and nuclear weapons, crews on standby, ready to attack the USSR at short notice. Crews were trained to perform "Minimum Interval Take Offs (MITO)", one bomber following another into the air at intervals of as little as 15 seconds to launch as fast as possible. MITO could be hazardous, as the bombers left wingtip vortices and general turbulence behind them; the first generation turbojet engines, fitted with water-injection systems, also created dense black smoke.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The B-47 was the backbone of SAC into 1959, when the B-52 began to assume nuclear alert duties and the number of B-47 bomber wings started to be reduced. B-47 production ceased in 1957, though modifications and rebuilds continued. Operational practice for B-47 bomber operations during this time went from high-altitude bombing to low-altitude strike, which was judged more likely to penetrate Soviet defenses. Crews were trained in "pop-up" attacks, coming in at low level at and then climbing abruptly near the target before releasing a nuclear weapon.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Stress and fatigue incurred in low-altitude operations led to a number of wing failures and crashes, and an extensive refit program was begun in 1958 to strengthen the wing mountings. The program was known as "Milk Bottle", named after the big connecting pins that were replaced in the wing roots.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: One of the more notable mishaps involving a B-47 occurred on 5 February 1958 near Savannah, Georgia, in the so-called 1958 Tybee Island B-47 crash. A B-47 based at Homestead AFB, Florida, was engaged in a simulated combat exercise against an F-86 fighter. As was the practice at the time, the B-47 was carrying a single Mark 15 nuclear bomb, without its core. During this exercise, the two aircraft collided. The F-86 crashed after the pilot ejected, while the B-47 suffered substantial damage, including loss of power in one outboard engine. After three unsuccessful landing attempts at Hunter Air Force Base, the bomber pilot had to "safe" soft drop the Mark 15 weapon off the coast of Savannah, Georgia near Tybee Island, after which the B-47 landed safely. Despite an extensive nine-month search, the unarmed bomb was never found.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: In 1963, the Kennedy administration offered 24 B-47E bombers as an interim Canberra Mk 20 replacement for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), pending delivery of the much delayed F-111C aircraft. Three B-47E aircraft flew to Australia for demonstration purposes, but RAAF declined the B-47E as technically outdated and too resource-intensive.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: During 1963, final phaseout of B-47 bomber wings began, the last were out of SAC service by 1966. The last USAF operational aircraft, WB-47Es assigned to the Air Weather Service, were withdrawn from use in September 1969. Shortly before, a B-47E, USAF Serial Number 53-2280, was used as a testbed for a newly developed fly-by-wire system. The U.S. Navy kept specialized EB-47E test aircraft from USAF inventory in occasional use to support the "Fleet Electronic Warfare Systems Group (FEWSG)" until December 1977, being replaced by government owned/contractor operated (GOCO) NKC-135 modified Stratotankers also loaned from the USAF.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The final recorded flight of a B-47 was on 17 June 1986, when a B-47E was restored to flightworthy condition for a one-time ferry flight. This aircraft was flown from Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake, California, to Castle Air Force Base, California, for static display at the Castle Air Museum, where it presently resides.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The only B-47s to see anything close to combat were the aerial reconnaissance variants. The first overflight of Soviet territory with a B-47B, fitted with special radar and cameras in the bomb bay, occurred on 15 October 1952, overflying Soviet airfields in Northeastern Siberia. RB-47s operated from almost every airfield that gave them access to the USSR and routinely probed Soviet airspace. Occasionally, they would avoid confrontations with speed and evasion. At least five aircraft were fired upon and three were shot down. The RB-47s returned fire with their tail turrets, although it is uncertain if they scored any kills; these were the only shots fired in anger by any B-47.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 8 May 1954, after a top secret reconnaissance mission near the Kola Peninsula, a 4th Air Division / 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Wing RB-47E, flown by then-Capt (later Col) Harold "Hal" Austin, overflew the Soviet Union at high altitude, out of reach of MiG-15s. Unknown to USAF intelligence, MiG-17s capable of intercepting it had been stationed nearby. The RB-47E was chased by several MiG-17s, firing upon it with their guns over Soviet and Finnish airspace. While taking damage, the RB-47E escaped over Sweden to its home base at RAF Fairford, Gloucestershire. Its top speed and combat radius superiority to the fighter jets were decisive factors. The mission marked the first time a jet aircraft equipped with modern aerial photography equipment, K-17 and K-38 cameras, was used for USAF reconnaissance over the Soviet Union. The incident was kept secret by all parties.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Other interceptions resulted in losses. An RB-47 flying from Alaska was scouting the Kamchatka Peninsula on 17 April 1955, when it was intercepted by Soviet MiG-15s in international airspace before disappearing. Between 21 March and 10 May 1956, 16 RB-47Es and five RB-47Hs operating from Thule performed overflights the length of Siberia 156 times under Project HOMERUN. The Soviets filed a complaint with the US government, which attributed the overflights to "navigational difficulties". MiGs intercepted RB-47s on three separate occasions in late 1958: over the Black Sea on 31 October, over the Baltic on 7 November, and over the Sea of Japan on 17 November.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 1 July 1960, a PVO Strany MiG-19 shot down an RB-47H (AF Serial No. 53-4281) in international airspace over the Barents Sea, killing four of the crew while two were captured by the Soviets and released in 1961. The co-pilot reported that the MiG-19 jammed his MD-4 FCS (that aimed the tail guns), rendering it defenseless. The last known confrontation between MiGs and RB-47s occurred on 28 April 1965, when an ERB-47H was intercepted by two North Korean MiG-17s over the Sea of Japan. While hit by the MiGs, it returned to Yokota Air Base in Japan with three engines out. A few operated during the Vietnam War on missions such as relaying ELINT data, but were replaced by more efficient and capable Boeing RC-135s. The last RB-47H was retired on 29 December 1967.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: The final 15 RB-47s, built from December 1955, were fitted with additional equipment, including the AN/APD "side looking airborne radar" (SLAR) system, and gear to sample the air for fallout from nuclear tests. These were given the designation RB-47K and generally used for weather reconnaissance missions, carrying a load of eight "dropsonde" weather sensors that were released at various checkpoints along the flight path. Data radioed back from the dropsondes was logged by the navigator. The RB-47Ks were in service until 1963. The type was succeeded by dedicated reconnaissance aircraft such as the Lockheed U-2.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: Over the operating history of the B-47, 203 aircraft were lost in crashes, with 464 deaths. This represents approximately 10% of the total number produced.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 8 February 1954, a B-47 of the 22nd Bomber Wing, March AFB, California, crashed in Stoke Wood, a mile and a half short of the runway at RAF Upper Heyford, England, while on a training run. All three crew were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 28 February 1955, a crippled B-47 crashed into a trailer park in Lake Charles, Louisiana, killing the three crewmen and two people on the ground.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 10 March 1956, four B-47s left MacDill Air Force Base in Florida for a non-stop flight to Ben Guerir Air Base in Morocco. After descending through clouds to begin their second round of aerial refueling over the Mediterranean Sea at 14,000 feet, one of the four aircraft, serial number 52-0534, failed to make contact with the tanker; neither the aircraft, its two nuclear weapon cores, nor its personnel were ever found.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 28 March 1956, a B-47 exploded near Wichita, Kansas, with an instructor and two student pilots on board. It crashed four miles northeast of the city, killing its crew of three. The office of information services at McConnell Air Force Base said the explosion occurred after takeoff, probably at about 2,000 feet altitude. Wreckage was strewn along the countryside for several miles as the wings sheared off and the fuselage tumbled to earth.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 27 July 1956, a B-47 of the 307th Bombardment Wing crashed at RAF Lakenheath killing its crew and causing a near radioactive incident when it hit a storage igloo containing three MK-6 nuclear weapons. Although the bombs involved lacked their fissile cores, each carried about 8,000 pounds of high explosives for their trigger mechanism. The crash and ensuing fire did not ignite the high explosives and no detonation occurred.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: In November 1956, B-47E serial number 51-2421 of the 96th Bombardment Wing, flying from Altus AFB, crashed on a farm near Hobart, Oklahoma, following engine problems. Four crewmen were killed in the incident.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 9 October 1957, B-47 serial number 51-2177A, of the 447th Bomb Squadron, 321st Bomb Wing at Pinecastle Air Force Base suffered wing failure and crashed northwest of Orlando, Florida, and west of Winter Park, Florida, while conducting a practice demonstration for the annual Strategic Air Command Bombing Navigation and Reconnaissance Competition at Pinecastle AFB. The wing commander, Colonel Michael Norman Wright McCoy, was killed in the crash; Pinecastle AFB was later renamed McCoy AFB in his honor.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 4 December 1957, a MacDill Air Force Base B-47 exploded in mid-air over Choctawhatchee Bay, Okaloosa County, Florida. Parts were scattered over a wide underwater area that varied in depth from 20 to 30 feet. Assistance from US Navy divers from the Mine Detection Laboratory, Panama City, Florida, the Underwater Demolition Team No. 21 from Little Creek, Va., the 3201st Boat Squadron, APGC, recovered most of the plane. The three crew were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 5 February 1958, a B-47 was involved in a mid-air collision with an F-86 fighter over Georgia, known as 1958 Tybee Island mid-air collision.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 26 February 1958, RB-47E serial number 52-0720 crashed six miles south of Lancaster, OH on approach to Lockbourne AFB, OH, hitting the ground at an angle of 50 degrees. It was determined that the aircraft attained an unusual attitude and/or high speed through disorientation, from which there was no recovery. In actuality, a wheel door had broken away and prevented the control surfaces being fully active.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 13 March 1958, two B-47s crashed on the same date in separate incidents when the lower wing skin failed at the same structural location. One exploded over southeast Tulsa, Oklahoma, killing one crewman and raining debris over at least 8 square miles, witnessed by thousands of people on the ground. Two of the three men on a training mission from McConnell Air Force Base in Wichita, Kansas, parachuted to safety. The third was trapped in the nose of the plane and died.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 10 April 1958, a B-47 from Lockbourne Air Force Base, Ohio, exploded mid-flight behind the KC-97G tanker that was to refuel it. The KC-97 was unharmed, but the wreckage fell within a half-mile of a highway and none of the crew survived.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 15 April 1958, a B-47 from Walker Air Force Base in New Mexico, serial number 52–0562, crashed on takeoff at Pease Air Force Base in New Hampshire; all four crewmen were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 22 November 1958, a B-47B crashed while taking off from Loring Air Force Base in Maine, killing all four crew members on board. The plane belonged to a unit at McCoy Air Force Base in Orlando, Florida. The plane was described as having veered sharply to the right while two-thirds of the way down the runway, eventually crashing 400 feet north of the runway. On 25 November 1958, a KC-135 of the 42d Air Refueling Squadron crashed on takeoff roughly in the same area as the B-47 three days before.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 4 April 1959, B-47 serial number 52-0320 crashed in the Santa Rita mountains, south of Tucson, Arizona, while attempting to land at Davis-Monthan AFB. All three crew were killed. Investigators noted that a faulty altimeter was a contributing factor.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 24 April 1959, Captain John S. Lappo, operating from Lockbourne AFB flew a B-47 with two crewmen on board under the Mackinac Bridge in Michigan. Following a general court-martial, he was grounded for life.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 30 December 1959, a B-47B crashed at Torrejón Air Base, Spain one minute after takeoff. All four crew members were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 31 March 1960, B-47E serial number 52-1414, of the 384th Bomb Wing (SAC), 545th Bombardment Squadron, Little Rock AFB, exploded inflight over Little Rock, Arkansas. Three of the four crew and two civilians on the ground were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 4 January 1961, B-47 serial number 53-4244, based at Pease Air Force Base, crashed on takeoff; all four crewmen were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 24 February 1961, a B-47 crashed 10 miles southwest of Hurley, Wisconsin, while on a practice bombing mission from the 40th Bomb Wing at Forbes Air Force Base, Topeka, Kansas. Its four crew were killed. An engine was found 600 yards from the point of impact, indicating it detached prior to the crash.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 2 May 1961, a B-47 crashed eight miles southwest of Hurley, Wisconsin, only a few miles from the scene of a prior B-47 crash on 24 February 1961. Two of four crew survived. Evidence showed that it was steeply diving when the crash occurred.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: In January 1962, a B-47 based at Plattsburgh Air Force Base on a training mission crashed into the side of Wright Peak in the High Peaks in the Adirondacks of New York. All four crew were killed. It had veered about 30 miles east due to inclement weather. Wreckage can still be found at the summit, including a landing gear strut and a partial engine.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 23 July 1962, a B-47 based at Dyess Air Force Base near Abilene, Texas, departed on a training mission through Montana. After crossing into Paradise Valley, it crashed into Emigrant Peak and exploded while turning toward the northwest. All four crew were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 3 August 1962, B-47 serial number 52-0526, based at Pease Air Force Base, crashed on takeoff; all three crew were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 22 August 1962, B-47 serial number 52-0553, based at Davis–Monthan Air Force Base near Tucson, Arizona, crashed on a training mission shortly before midnight in the Idaho mountains south of Smiths Ferry; controlled flight into terrain started a forest fire, and all three crew were killed.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 20 February 1963, a B-47 of the 98th Bomb Wing based at Lincoln AFB, Nebraska, crashed in Bashaw Township, approximately three miles north of the town of Comfrey, Minnesota. All four crew were killed. It had just completed a low-altitude simulated bombing run near the town of Heron Lake, Minnesota, when the sixth engine failed, causing it to crash in a field, resulting in a 25-foot deep by 50-foot wide crater.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 20 August 1963, a QB-47 veered off course on its landing approach at Eglin Air Force Base and crash landed on a road parallel to the runway. It was used for Bomarc Missile Program tests, normally operated from Eglin Air Force Base Auxiliary Field Number Three (Duke Field), approximately north of the main base. Two cars were crushed, killing two occupants and injuring a third.


title: Boeing B-47 Stratojet

text: On 8 December 1964, B-47 serial number 52-0339, based at Pease Air Force Base, crashed in Newington, New Hampshire, shortly after takeoff; all four crewmen were killed.


title: Kathoey

text: Kathoey or katoey (; ) is an identity used by some people in Thailand, whose identities in English may be best described as transgender women in some cases, or effeminate gay men in other cases. Transgender women in Thailand mostly use terms other than when referring to themselves, such as (, 'woman'). A significant number of Thai people perceive "kathoey" as belonging to a separate sex, including some transgender women themselves.


title: Kathoey

text: In the face of the many sociopolitical obstacles that ' navigate in Thailand, ' activism has led to legal recognition as of January 2015.


title: Kathoey

text: A study of 195 Thai transgender women found that most of the participants referred to themselves as ' ( 'women'), with a minority referring to themselves as ' ('second kind of woman') and only a very few referring to themselves as '. Related phrases include ' (, 'third sex'), and ' or ' (, —both meaning 'second-type female'). The word "" is of Khmer . It is most often rendered as "ladyboy" in English conversation, an expression that has become popular across Southeast Asia.


title: Kathoey

text: Although ' is often translated as 'transgender woman' in English, this term is not correct in Thailand. As well as transgender people, the term can refer to gay men, and was originally used to refer to intersex people. Before the 1960s, the use of ' included anyone who deviated from the dominant sexual norms. Because of this confusion in translation, the English translation of "" is usually 'ladyboy' (or variants of the term).


title: Kathoey

text: Use of the term suggests that the person self-identifies as a type of male, in contrast to ' (which, like "trans woman", suggests a "female" (') identity), and in contrast to ' ('third sex'). The term " song", which can be translated as 'second-type female', is also used to refer to '. Australian scholar of sexual politics in Thailand Peter Jackson claims that the term ' was used in antiquity to refer to intersex people, and that the connotation changed in the mid-20th century to cover cross-dressing males. ' became an iconic symbol of modern Thai culture. The term can refer to males who exhibit varying degrees of femininity. Many dress as women and undergo "feminising" medical procedures such as breast implants, hormones, silicone injections, or Adam's apple reductions. Others may wear make-up and use feminine pronouns, but dress as men, and are closer to the Western category of effeminate gay man than transgender.


title: Kathoey

text: The term ' may be considered pejorative, especially in the form '. It has a meaning similar to the English language 'fairy' or 'queen'. " can also be seen as a derogatory word for those who are gay.


title: Kathoey

text: Bunmi, a Thai Buddhist author, believes that homosexuality stems from "lower level spirits" (), a factor that is influenced by one's past life. Some Buddhists view " as persons born with a disability as a consequence of past sins. Using the notion of karma, some Thais believe that being a "kathoey" is the result of transgressions in past lives, concluding that "kathoey" deserve pity rather than blame. Others, however, believe that "kathoeys" should rectify their past life transgressions. This is done through merit-making such as "making donations to a temple or by ordaining as monks".


title: Kathoey

text: In 1965, Johns Hopkins Hospital in the US became the first institution to perform sex-reassignment surgery. Today, in cities such as Bangkok, there are two to three gender-affirming surgery (GAS) operations per week, more than 3,500 over the past thirty years. With the massive increase in GASs, there has also been an increase in prerequisites, measures that must be taken in order to be eligible for the operation. Patients must be at least 18 years old with permission from parents if under 20 years old. One must provide evidence of diagnosis of gender dysphoria from a psychologist or psychiatrist. Before going through gender reassignment surgery, one must be on hormones/antiandrogens for at least one year. Patients must have a note from the psychiatrist or clinical psychologist. Two months prior to the surgery, patients are required to see a psychiatrist in Thailand to confirm eligibility for gender-affirming surgery.


title: Kathoey

text: "Kathoeys" are more visible and more accepted in Thai culture than transgender people are in other countries in the world. Several popular Thai models, singers, and movie stars are "kathoeys", and Thai newspapers often print photographs of the winners of female and "kathoey" beauty contests side by side. The phenomenon is not restricted to urban areas; there are "kathoeys" in most villages, and "kathoey" beauty contests are commonly held as part of local fairs.


title: Kathoey

text: A common stereotype is that older, well-off "kathoey" provide financial support to young men with whom they are in romantic relationships.


title: Kathoey

text: "Kathoeys" currently face many social and legal impediments. Families (and especially fathers) are typically disappointed if a child becomes a "kathoey", and "kathoeys" often have to face the prospect of disclosing their birth sex. However, "kathoey" generally have greater acceptance in Thailand than most other East Asian countries. Problems can also arise in regards to access to amenities and gender allocation.


title: Kathoey

text: Many "kathoey" work in predominately female occupations, such as in shops, restaurants, and beauty salons, but also in factories (a reflection of Thailand's high proportion of female industrial workers). Discrimination in employment is rampant as many perceive "kathoeys" as having mental problems and refuse to hire them. For this reason, many "kathoeys" are only able to find work in sex and entertainment industries. These sorts of jobs include tourist centers, cabarets, and sex work. "Kathoeys" who work in the tourism sector must conform to a physical image that is preferred by tourists.


title: Kathoey

text: "Kathoeys" who obtain jobs in the civil service sector are required to wear uniforms coinciding with their assigned sex of male.


title: Kathoey

text: Many schools teach students that being transgender is wrong and a form of sexual deviancy. Thai schools utilize gendered uniforms as well. In 2015, Bangkok University revised its uniform guidelines to allow transgender students to wear the uniform of their preferred gender, however, many other institutions still force transgender students to wear the uniform that matches their assigned sex.


title: Kathoey

text: Thailand's 2015 Gender Equality Act is currently the strongest legal tool for advocating for transgender rights. It protects those who are "of a different appearance from his/her own sex by birth" from unfair gender discrimination. Prior to the creation of the 2016 Thai constitution, people believed that anti-discrimination terms would be set for a new category called 'third gender'. This term, however, was missing from the new constitution and no protections for transgender people were specifically outlined. Instead, the constitution prohibited "unjust discrimination" based on differences in sex.


title: Kathoey

text: Legal recognition of "kathoey"s and transgender people is nonexistent in Thailand: even if a transgender person has had sex reassignment surgery, they are not allowed to change their legal sex on their identification documents. Identification documents are particularly important for daily life in Thailand as they facilitate communication with businesses, bureaucratic agencies (i.e., signing up for educational courses or medical care), law enforcement, etc. The primary identification form used in Thailand is The Thai National Identification Card, which is used for many important processes such as opening a bank account. The vast majority of transgender people are unable to change these documents to reflect their chosen gender, and those who are allowed must uphold strict standards. Transgender individuals are often accused of falsifying documents and are forced to show their identification documents. This threatens their safety and results in their exclusion from various institutions like education or housing. Impeded by these identity cards on a daily basis, transsexuals are "outed" by society.


title: Kathoey

text: The criminal justice sector relies on identification cards when deciding where to detain individuals. This means that "kathoeys" are detained alongside men. By law, women are not allowed to be detained alongside men, and since "kathoeys" are not legally classified as women, they reside in the male section in prison. Within prison, "kathoeys" are forced to cut their hair and abide by strict rules governing gender expression. Additionally, they are denied access to hormones and other "transition-related health care".


title: Kathoey

text: Transgender individuals were automatically exempted from compulsory military service in Thailand. "Kathoeys" were deemed to suffer from "mental illness" or "permanent mental disorder". These mental disorders were required to appear on their military service documents, which are accessible to future employers. In 2006, the Thai National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) overturned the use of discriminatory phraseology in Thailand's military service exemption documents. With Thai law banning citizens from changing their sex on their identification documents, everyone under the male category must attend a "lottery day" where they are randomly selected to enlist in the army for two years. In March 2008, the military added a "third category" for transgender people that dismissed them from service due to "illness that cannot be cured within 30 days". In 2012, the Administrative Court ruled that the Military and Defense needed to revise the reasoning for their exemption of "kathoeys" from the military. As such, "kathoeys" are now exempt from the military under the reasoning that their "gender does not match their sex at birth".


title: Kathoey

text: began to gain prominence in the cinema of Thailand during the late-1980s. The depiction at first was negative by showing suffering bad karma, suicide, and abandoned by straight lovers. Independent and experimental films contributed to defying sexual norms in gay cinema in the 1990s. The 2000 film "The Iron Ladies", directed by Yongyoot Thongkongtoon, depicted a positive portrayal of an almost entirely volleyball team by displaying their confidence. The rising middle-class in Bangkok and vernacular queer culture made the mainstream portrayal of "kathoeys" more popular on television and in art house cinemas.


title: Kathoey

text: Feminine beauty in Thailand allowed transgender people to have their own platform where they are able to challenge stereotypes and claim cultural recognition. Miss Tiffany's Universe is a beauty contest that is opened to all transgender women. Beginning in 1998, the pageant takes place every year in Pattaya, Thailand during May. With over 100 applicants, the pageant is considered to be one of the most popular transgender pageants in the world. Through beauty pageants, Thailand has been able to promote the country's cosmetic surgery industry, which has had a massive increase in medical tourism for sex reassignment surgery. According to the Miss Tiffany's Universe website, the live broadcast attracts record of fifteen million viewers. The winner of the pageant receives a tiara, sash, car, grand prize of 100,000 baht (US$3,000), equivalent to an annual wage for a Thai factory worker. The assistant manager director, Alisa Phanthusak, stated that the pageant wants to be visible and to treat them as normal. It is the biggest annual event in Pattaya.


title: Kathoey

text: Transgender beauty contests are found in the countryside at village fairs or festivals. All-male revues are common in gay bars in Bangkok and as drag shows in the tourist resort of Pattaya.


title: Kathoey

text: In 1993, Thailand's teacher training colleges implemented a semi-formal ban on allowing homosexual (which included ) students enrolling in courses leading to qualification for positions in kindergartens and primary schools. In January 1997, the Rajabhat Institutes (the governing body of the colleges) announced it would formalize the ban, which would extend to all campuses at the start of the 1997 academic year. The ban was quietly rescinded later in the year, following the replacement of the Minister of Education.


title: Kathoey

text: In 1996, a volleyball team composed mostly of gays and , known as "The Iron Ladies" (, ), later portrayed in two Thai movies, won the Thai national championship. The Thai government, concerned with the country's image, barred two of the from joining the national team and competing internationally.


title: Kathoey

text: Among the most famous in Thailand is Nong Tum, a former champion Thai boxer who emerged into the public eye in 1998. She would present in a feminine manner and had commenced hormone therapy while still a popular boxer; she would enter the ring with long hair and make-up, occasionally kissing a defeated opponent. She announced her retirement from professional boxing in 1999 – undergoing genital reassignment surgery, while continuing to work as a coach, and taking up acting and modeling. She returned to boxing in 2006.


title: Kathoey

text: In 2004, the Chiang Mai Technology School allocated a separate restroom for , with an intertwined male and female symbol on the door. The fifteen students are required to wear male clothing at school but are allowed to sport feminine hairdos. The restroom features four stalls, but no urinals.


title: Kathoey

text: Following the 2006 Thai coup d'état, are hoping for a new third sex to be added to passports and other official documents in a proposed new constitution. In 2007, legislative efforts have begun to allow to change their legal sex if they have undergone genital reassignment surgery; this latter restriction was controversially discussed in the community.


title: Kathoey

text: Bell Nuntita, a contestant of the "Thailand's Got Talent" TV show, became a YouTube hit when she first performed singing as a girl and then switched to a masculine voice.


title: Kathoey

text: It is estimated that as many as six in every thousand native males later present themselves as transgender women or .


title: Kathoey

text: Thai activists have mobilized for over two decades to secure sexual diversity rights. Beauty pageant winner Yollada Suanyot, known as Nok, founded the Trans Female Association of Thailand on the basis of changing sex-designation on identification cards for post-operative transsexual women. Nok promoted the term instead of but was controversial because of its connotation with gender identity disease. The goal of the Thai Transgender Alliance is to delist gender dysphoria from international psychological diagnostic criteria and uses the term to advocate for transgender identity. A common protest sign during sexual rights marches is meaning "Kathoey are not mentally ill".


title: Kathoey

text: Activism in Thailand is discouraged if it interferes with official policy. In January 2006, the Thai Network of People Living With HIV/AIDS had their offices raided after demonstrations against Thai-US foreign trade agreements. Under the Thai Constitution of 1997, the right to be free of discrimination based on health conditions helped to minimize the stigma against communities living with HIV/AIDS. In most cases, governments and their agencies fail to protect transgender people against these exclusions. There is a lack of HIV/AIDS services for specifically transgender people and feminizing hormones largely go without any medical monitoring.


title: Kathoey

text: Trans prejudice has produced discriminatory behaviors that have led to the exclusion of transgender people from economic and social activity. World-wide, transgender people face discrimination amongst family members, religious settings, education, and the work-place. Accepted mainly in fashion-related jobs or show business, people who are transgender are discriminated against in the job market and have limited job opportunities. have also experienced ridicule from coworkers and tend to have lower salaries. Long-term unemployment reduces the chances of contributing to welfare for the family and lowers self-esteem, causing a higher likelihood of prostitution in specialized ladyboy bars. "Ladyboy" bars also can provide a sense of community and reinforces a female sense of identity for . Harassment from the police is evident especially for who work on the streets. may be rejected in official contexts being rejected entry or services.


title: Kathoey

text: Based on a study by AIDS Care participants who identified as a girl or at an early age were more likely to be exposed to prejudice or violence from men in their families. are more subjected to sexual attacks from men than are other homosexuals.


title: Kathoey

text: Anjaree is one of Thailand's gay feminist organizations, established in mid-1986 by women's right activists. The organization advocated wider public understanding of homosexuality based on the principles of human rights. The first public campaign opposing sexual irregularity was launched in 1996.


title: Kathoey

text: Social spaces are often limited for even if Thai society does not actively persecute them. Indigenous Thai cultural traditions have given a social space for sexual minorities. In January 2015, the Thai government announced it would recognize the third sex in its constitution in order to ensure all sexes be treated equally under the law.


title: Kathoey

text: The first all- music group in Thailand was formed in 2006. It is named "Venus Flytrap" and was selected and promoted by Sony BMG Music Entertainment. "The Lady Boys of Bangkok" is a revue that has been performed in the UK since 1998, touring the country in both theatres and the famous "Sabai Pavilion" for nine months each year.


title: Kathoey

text: "Ladyboys", also a popular term used in Thailand when referring to transgender women, was the title of a popular documentary in the United Kingdom, where it was aired on Channel 4 TV in 1992 and was directed by Jeremy Marre. Marre aimed to portray the life of two adolescent living in rural Thailand, as they strove to land a job at a cabaret revue in Pattaya.


title: Kathoey

text: The German-Swedish band Lindemann wrote the song "Ladyboy", on their first studio album "Skills in Pills", about a man's preference for .


title: Kathoey

text: In series 1, episode 3 of British sitcom "I'm Alan Partridge", the protagonist Alan Partridge frequently mentions ladyboys, seemingly expressing a sexual interest in them.


title: Kathoey

text: "Uncle Go Paknam", created by Pratchaya Phanthathorn, is a popular non-heterosexual advice column that first appeared in 1975 in a magazine titled ', meaning 'strange'. Through letters and responses it became an outlet to express the desires and necessities of the non-heterosexual community in Thailand. The magazine achieved national popularity because of its bizarre and often gay content. It portrayed positive accounts of 's and men called "sharks" to view transgender people as legitimate or even preferred sexual partners and started a more accepting public discourse in Thailand. Under the pen name of Phan Thathron he wrote the column "Girls to the Power of 2" that included profiles of 's in a glamorous or erotic pose. "Girls to the Power of 2" were the first accounts of ' lives based on interviews that allowed their voices to be published in the mainstream press of Thailand. The heterosexual public became more inclined to read about transgender communities that were previously given negative press in Thai newspapers. Go Paknam's philosophy was "kathoeys are good (for men)."


title: Kathoey

text: A documentary entitled "Inside Thailand's Third Gender" examines the lives of in Thailand and features interviews with various transgender women, the obstacles these people face with their family and lovers, but moreover on a larger societal aspect where they feel ostracized by the religious Thai culture. Following contestants participating in one of the largest transgender beauty pageants, known as Miss Tiffany's Universe, the film not only illustrates the process and competition that takes place during the beauty pageant, but also highlights the systems of oppression that take place to target the transgender community in Thailand.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Anthony Jay Smith (born July 26, 1988) is an American professional mixed martial artist. He currently competes in the Light Heavyweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). A professional competitor since 2008, Smith has also formerly competed for Strikeforce and Bellator. As of December 6, 2022, he is #6 in the UFC light heavyweight rankings.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Born in Corpus Christi, Texas, Smith grew up in Nebraska City. He was raised by his single mother and grandfather, as his dad was absent. He has stated that he is biracial. Smith dropped out of high school in the middle of his senior year. He started working full-time as a concrete finisher, which he continued until 2016.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith started his career in 2008 and fought mainly for local promotions in the midwestern United States. He compiled a professional record of 13–7, with wins against WEC veterans Logan Clark, Eric Schambari and losses to UFC veterans Jake Hecht and Jesse Forbes, before signing with Strikeforce.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith made his Strikeforce debut on July 22, 2011, at Strikeforce Challengers: Bowling vs. Voelker III against Ben Lagman, replacing an injured Louis Taylor. He won via KO in the second round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Adlan Amagov on November 18, 2011, at Strikeforce Challengers: Britt vs. Sayers. He lost via KO in the first round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: In his debut, Smith faced Antônio Braga Neto on June 8, 2013, at . He lost the fight via kneebar submission in the first round. He was subsequently released from the UFC.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: On April 18, 2014, Smith made his Bellator MMA debut facing Victor Moreno at Bellator 117 winning via triangle choke submission in the second round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Brian Green on October 17, 2014, at Bellator 129. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: On February 16, 2016 Smith was re-signed to the UFC. He faced promotional newcomer Leonardo Augusto Leleco on February 21, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 83, replacing an injured Trevor Smith. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith was briefly scheduled to face Scott Askham on July 8, 2016, at . However, Askham pulled out of the bout on April 28 and was replaced by Cezar Ferreira. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith next faced Elvis Mutapčić on December 3, 2016, at . He won the fight via TKO in the second round and was awarded a "Performance of the Night" bonus.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Andrew Sanchez on April 15, 2017, at UFC on Fox 24. He won the fight via knockout due to a combination of knee and punches in the third round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Héctor Lombard on September 16, 2017, at UFC Fight Night 116. He won the fight via technical knockout in the third round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Thiago Santos on February 3, 2018, at UFC Fight Night 125. He lost the fight via technical knockout. Both participants received a Fight of the Night bonus.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced former champion Rashad Evans in his light heavyweight debut on June 9, 2018, at UFC 225. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: On short notice, Smith replaced Volkan Oezdemir, and faced yet another former champion in Maurício Rua on July 22, 2018, at UFC Fight Night 134 main event. He won the fight via knockout in the first round. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: In his third fight in five months, Smith faced Volkan Oezdemir on October 27, 2018, at UFC Fight Night 138. He won the fight by submission in the third round. This win earned him the second consecutive Performance of the Night award.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: In the highest profile fight of his career, Smith faced Jon Jones for the UFC Light Heavyweight Championship on March 2, 2019, at UFC 235. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Alexander Gustafsson on June 1, 2019 in the main event at UFC Fight Night 153. He won the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the fourth round. The win also earned Smith a "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith was scheduled to face Glover Teixeira on April 25, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 173. However, on April 9, Dana White, the president of UFC announced that this event was postponed and rescheduled to May 13, 2020 at . Smith lost the fight via technical knockout in the fifth round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Aleksandar Rakić on August 29, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 175. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Devin Clark on November 28, 2020 at . He won the fight via a triangle choke submission in the first round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Jimmy Crute on April 24, 2021 at UFC 261. He won the fight by technical knockout before the second round after the doctor stopped the fight when Crute suffered foot drop as a result of a leg kick from Smith and was unable to continue.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Ryan Spann on September 18, 2021 at UFC Fight Night 192. He won the fight via rear-naked choke submission in round one. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith faced Magomed Ankalaev on July 30, 2022, at UFC 277. He lost the fight via technical knockout in the second round.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: Smith was scheduled to face Jamahal Hill on March 11, 2023, at UFC Fight Night 221. However, Hill was pulled from the bout after being rebooked to headline UFC 283 for the vacant UFC Light Heavyweight Championship against Glover Teixeira. It is unknown if a replacement will be sought.


title: Anthony Smith (fighter)

text: At 4am on April 5, 2020, an intruder gained entry to Smith's home in Nebraska through an opened garage door. Smith found him “screaming at the top of his lungs” in his computer room, and proceeded to fight the man for 5 minutes until the police arrived. Smith states that the intruder "took everything that I gave him – every punch, every knee, every elbow. He took every single one of them and kept fighting me", describing the ordeal "as one of the toughest fights" of his life. The man was later identified to be 21-year-old Luke Haberman, an accomplished former high school wrestler.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. Since heparins depend on the activity of antithrombin, they are considered anticoagulants. Specifically it is also used in the treatment of heart attacks and unstable angina. It is given intravenously or by injection under the skin. Other uses for its anticoagulant properties include inside blood specimen test tubes and kidney dialysis machines.


title: Heparin

text: Common side effects include bleeding, pain at the injection site, and low blood platelets. Serious side effects include heparin-induced thrombocytopenia. Greater care is needed in those with poor kidney function.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin is contraindicated for suspected cases of vaccine-induced pro-thrombotic immune thrombocytopenia (VIPIT) secondary to SARS-CoV-2 vaccination, as heparin may further increase the risk of bleeding in an anti-PF4/heparin complex autoimmune manner, in favor of alternative anticoagulant medications (such as argatroban or danaparoid).


title: Heparin

text: Heparin appears to be relatively safe for use during pregnancy and breastfeeding. Heparin is produced by basophils and mast cells in all mammals.


title: Heparin

text: The discovery of heparin was announced in 1916. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. A fractionated version of heparin, known as low molecular weight heparin, is also available.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin was discovered by Jay McLean and William Henry Howell in 1916, although it did not enter clinical trials until 1935. It was originally isolated from dog liver cells, hence its name ("hepar" or "ήπαρ" is Greek for "liver"; "hepar" + "-in").


title: Heparin

text: McLean was a second-year medical student at Johns Hopkins University, and was working under the guidance of Howell investigating pro-coagulant preparations, when he isolated a fat-soluble phosphatide anticoagulant in canine liver tissue. In 1918, Howell coined the term 'heparin' for this type of fat-soluble anticoagulant. In the early 1920s, Howell isolated a water-soluble polysaccharide anticoagulant, which he also termed 'heparin', although it was different from the previously discovered phosphatide preparations. McLean's work as a surgeon probably changed the focus of the Howell group to look for anticoagulants, which eventually led to the polysaccharide discovery.


title: Heparin

text: In the 1930s, several researchers were investigating heparin. Erik Jorpes at Karolinska Institutet published his research on the structure of heparin in 1935, which made it possible for the Swedish company Vitrum AB to launch the first heparin product for intravenous use in 1936. Between 1933 and 1936, Connaught Medical Research Laboratories, then a part of the University of Toronto, perfected a technique for producing safe, nontoxic heparin that could be administered to patients, in a saline solution. The first human trials of heparin began in May 1935, and, by 1937, it was clear that Connaught's heparin was safe, easily available, and effective as a blood anticoagulant. Prior to 1933, heparin was available in small amounts, was extremely expensive and toxic, and, as a consequence, of no medical value.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin production experienced a break in the 1990s. Until then, heparin was mainly obtained from cattle tissue, which was a by-product of the meat industry, especially in North America. With the rapid spread of BSE, more and more manufacturers abandoned this source of supply. As a result, global heparin production became increasingly concentrated in China, where the substance was now procured from the expanding industry of breeding and slaughtering hog. The dependence of medical care on the meat industry assumed threatening proportions in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, several studies demonstrated the efficacy of heparin in mitigating severe disease progression, as its anticoagulant effect counteracted the formation of immunothrombosis. However, the availability of heparin on the world market was decreased, because concurrently a renewed swine flu epidemic had reduced significant portions of the Chinese hog population. The situation was further exacerbated by the fact that mass slaughterhouses around the world became corona hotspots themselves and were forced to close temporarily. In less affluent countries, the resulting heparin shortage also led to worsened health care beyond the treatment of covid, for example through the cancellation of cardiac surgeries.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin acts as an anticoagulant, preventing the formation of clots and extension of existing clots within the blood. While heparin itself does not break down clots that have already formed (unlike tissue plasminogen activator), it allows the body's natural clot lysis mechanisms to work normally to break down clots that have formed. Heparin is generally used for anticoagulation for the following conditions:


title: Heparin

text: Heparin and its low-molecular-weight derivatives (e.g., enoxaparin, dalteparin, tinzaparin) are effective in preventing deep vein thromboses and pulmonary emboli in people at risk, but no evidence indicates any one is more effective than the other in preventing mortality.


title: Heparin

text: In angiography, 2 to 5 units/mL of unfractionated heparin saline flush is used to prevent the clotting of blood in guidewires, sheaths, and catheters, thus preventing thrombus from dislodging from these devices into the circulatory system .


title: Heparin

text: Unfractionated heparin is used in hemodialysis. Comparing to low-molecular-weight heparin, unfractionated heparin does not have prolonged anticoagulation action after dialysis, and low cost. However, the short duration of action for heparin would require it to maintain continuous infusion to maintain its action. Meanwhile, unfractionated heparin has higher risk of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia.


title: Heparin

text: A serious side-effect of heparin is heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT), caused by an immunological reaction that makes platelets a target of immunological response, resulting in the degradation of platelets, which causes thrombocytopenia. This condition is usually reversed on discontinuation, and in general can be avoided with the use of synthetic heparins. Not all patients with heparin antibodies will develop thrombocytopenia. Also, a benign form of thrombocytopenia is associated with early heparin use, which resolves without stopping heparin. Approximately one-third of patients with diagnosed heparin-induced thrombocytopenia will ultimately develop thrombotic complications.


title: Heparin

text: Two non-hemorrhagic side-effects of heparin treatment are known. The first is elevation of serum aminotransferase levels, which has been reported in as many as 80% of patients receiving heparin. This abnormality is not associated with liver dysfunction, and it disappears after the drug is discontinued. The other complication is hyperkalemia, which occurs in 5 to 10% of patients receiving heparin, and is the result of heparin-induced aldosterone suppression. The hyperkalemia can appear within a few days after the onset of heparin therapy. More rarely, the side-effects alopecia and osteoporosis can occur with chronic use.


title: Heparin

text: As with many drugs, overdoses of heparin can be fatal. In September 2006, heparin received worldwide publicity when three prematurely born infants died after they were mistakenly given overdoses of heparin at an Indianapolis hospital.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin is contraindicated in those with risk of bleeding (especially in people with uncontrolled blood pressure, liver disease, and stroke), severe liver disease, or severe hypertension.


title: Heparin

text: Protamine sulfate has been given to counteract the anticoagulant effect of heparin (1 mg per 100 units of heparin that had been given over the past 6 hours). It may be used in those who overdose on heparin or to reverse heparin's effect when it is no longer needed.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin's normal role in the body is unclear. Heparin is usually stored within the secretory granules of mast cells and released only into the vasculature at sites of tissue injury. It has been proposed that, rather than anticoagulation, the main purpose of heparin is defense at such sites against invading bacteria and other foreign materials. In addition, it is observed across a number of widely different species, including some invertebrates that do not have a similar blood coagulation system. It is a highly sulfated glycosaminoglycan. It has the highest negative charge density of any known biological molecule.


title: Heparin

text: In addition to the bovine and porcine tissue from which pharmaceutical-grade heparin is commonly extracted, it has also been extracted and characterized from:


title: Heparin

text: The biological activity of heparin within species 6–11 is unclear and further supports the idea that the main physiological role of heparin is not anticoagulation. These species do not possess any blood coagulation system similar to that present within the species listed 1–5. The above list also demonstrates how heparin has been highly evolutionarily conserved, with molecules of a similar structure being produced by a broad range of organisms belonging to many different phyla.


title: Heparin

text: In nature, heparin is a polymer of varying chain size. Unfractionated heparin (UFH) as a pharmaceutical is heparin that has not been fractionated to sequester the fraction of molecules with low molecular weight. In contrast, low-molecular-weight heparin (LMWH) has undergone fractionation for the purpose of making its pharmacodynamics more predictable. Often either UFH or LMWH can be used; in some situations one or the other is preferable.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin binds to the enzyme inhibitor antithrombin III (AT), causing a conformational change that results in its activation through an increase in the flexibility of its reactive site loop. The activated AT then inactivates thrombin, factor Xa and other proteases. The rate of inactivation of these proteases by AT can increase by up to 1000-fold due to the binding of heparin. Heparin binds to AT via a specific pentasaccharide sulfation sequence contained within the heparin polymer:


title: Heparin

text: The conformational change in AT on heparin-binding mediates its inhibition of factor Xa. For thrombin inhibition, however, thrombin must also bind to the heparin polymer at a site proximal to the pentasaccharide. The highly negative charge density of heparin contributes to its very strong electrostatic interaction with thrombin. The formation of a ternary complex between AT, thrombin, and heparin results in the inactivation of thrombin. For this reason, heparin's activity against thrombin is size-dependent, with the ternary complex requiring at least 18 saccharide units for efficient formation. In contrast, antifactor Xa activity via AT requires only the pentasaccharide-binding site.


title: Heparin

text: This size difference has led to the development of low-molecular-weight heparins (LMWHs) and fondaparinux as anticoagulants. Fondaparinux targets anti-factor Xa activity rather than inhibiting thrombin activity, with the aim of facilitating a more subtle regulation of coagulation and an improved therapeutic index. It is a synthetic pentasaccharide, whose chemical structure is almost identical to the AT binding pentasaccharide sequence that can be found within polymeric heparin and heparan sulfate.


title: Heparin

text: With LMWH and fondaparinux, the risk of osteoporosis and heparin-induced thrombocytopenia (HIT) is reduced. Monitoring of the activated partial thromboplastin time is also not required and does not reflect the anticoagulant effect, as APTT is insensitive to alterations in factor Xa.


title: Heparin

text: Danaparoid, a mixture of heparan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and chondroitin sulfate can be used as an anticoagulant in patients having developed HIT. Because danaparoid does not contain heparin or heparin fragments, cross-reactivity of danaparoid with heparin-induced antibodies is reported as less than 10%.


title: Heparin

text: The effects of heparin are measured in the lab by the partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), one of the measures of the time it takes the blood plasma to clot. Partial thromboplastin time should not be confused with prothrombin time, or PT, which measures blood clotting time through a different pathway of the coagulation cascade.


title: Heparin

text: Heparin is given parenterally because it is not absorbed from the gut, due to its high negative charge and large size. It can be injected intravenously or subcutaneously (under the skin); intramuscular injections (into muscle) are avoided because of the potential for forming hematomas. Because of its short biologic half-life of about one hour, heparin must be given frequently or as a continuous infusion. Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas LMWH has a half-life of four to five hours. The use of LMWH has allowed once-daily dosing, thus not requiring a continuous infusion of the drug. If long-term anticoagulation is required, heparin is often used only to commence anticoagulation therapy until an oral anticoagulant e.g. warfarin takes effect.


title: Heparin

text: Unfractionated heparin has a half-life of about one to two hours after infusion, whereas low-molecular-weight heparin's half-life is about four times longer. Lower doses of heparin have a much shorter half-life than larger ones. Heparin binding to macrophage cells is internalized and depolymerized by the macrophages. It also rapidly binds to endothelial cells, which precludes the binding to antithrombin that results in anticoagulant action. For higher doses of heparin, endothelial cell binding will be saturated, such that clearance of heparin from the bloodstream by the kidneys will be a slower process.


title: Heparin

text: Native heparin is a polymer with a molecular weight ranging from 3 to 30 kDa, although the average molecular weight of most commercial heparin preparations is in the range of 12 to 15 kDa. Heparin is a member of the glycosaminoglycan family of carbohydrates (which includes the closely related molecule heparan sulfate) and consists of a variably sulfated repeating disaccharide unit.


title: Heparin

text: The main disaccharide units that occur in heparin are shown below. The most common disaccharide unit (see below) is composed of a 2-O-sulfated iduronic acid and 6-O-sulfated, N-sulfated glucosamine, IdoA(2S)-GlcNS(6S). For example, this makes up 85% of heparins from beef lung and about 75% of those from porcine intestinal mucosa.


title: Heparin

text: Not shown below are the rare disaccharides containing a 3-O-sulfated glucosamine (GlcNS(3S,6S)) or a free amine group (GlcNH). Under physiological conditions, the ester and amide sulfate groups are deprotonated and attract positively charged counterions to form a heparin salt. Heparin is usually administered in this form as an anticoagulant.


title: Heparin

text: GlcA = β--glucuronic acid, IdoA = α--iduronic acid, IdoA(2S) = 2-"O"-sulfo-α--iduronic acid, GlcNAc = 2-deoxy-2-acetamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl, GlcNS(6S) = 2-deoxy-2-sulfamido-α--glucopyranosyl-6-"O"-sulfate


title: Heparin

text: One unit of heparin (the "Howell unit") is an amount approximately equivalent to 0.002 mg of pure heparin, which is the quantity required to keep 1 ml of cat's blood fluid for 24 hours at 0 °C.


title: Heparin

text: The three-dimensional structure of heparin is complicated because iduronic acid may be present in either of two low-energy conformations when internally positioned within an oligosaccharide. The conformational equilibrium is influenced by sulfation state of adjacent glucosamine sugars. Nevertheless, the solution structure of a heparin dodecasaccharide composed solely of six GlcNS(6S)-IdoA(2S) repeat units has been determined using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and molecular modeling techniques. Two models were constructed, one in which all IdoA(2S) were in the S conformation (A and B below), and one in which they are in the C conformation (C and D below). However, no evidence suggests that changes between these conformations occur in a concerted fashion. These models correspond to the protein data bank code 1HPN.


title: Heparin

text: In these models, heparin adopts a helical conformation, the rotation of which places clusters of sulfate groups at regular intervals of about 17 angstroms (1.7 nm) on either side of the helical axis.


title: Heparin

text: Either chemical or enzymatic depolymerization techniques or a combination of the two underlie the vast majority of analyses carried out on the structure and function of heparin and heparan sulfate (HS).


title: Heparin

text: The enzymes traditionally used to digest heparin or HS are naturally produced by the soil bacterium "Pedobacter heparinus" (formerly named "Flavobacterium heparinum"). This bacterium is capable of using either heparin or HS as its sole carbon and nitrogen source. To do so, it produces a range of enzymes such as lyases, glucuronidases, sulfoesterases, and sulfamidases. The lyases have mainly been used in heparin/HS studies. The bacterium produces three lyases, heparinases I (), II (no EC number assigned) and III () and each has distinct substrate specificities as detailed below.


title: Heparin

text: The lyases cleave heparin/HS by a beta elimination mechanism. This action generates an unsaturated double bond between C4 and C5 of the uronate residue. The C4-C5 unsaturated uronate is termed ΔUA or UA. It is a sensitive UV chromophore (max absorption at 232 nm) and allows the rate of an enzyme digest to be followed, as well as providing a convenient method for detecting the fragments produced by enzyme digestion.


title: Heparin

text: Nitrous acid can be used to chemically depolymerize heparin/HS. Nitrous acid can be used at pH 1.5 or at a higher pH of 4. Under both conditions, nitrous acid effects deaminative cleavage of the chain. At both 'high' (4) and 'low' (1.5) pH, deaminative cleavage occurs between GlcNS-GlcA and GlcNS-IdoA, albeit at a slower rate at the higher pH. The deamination reaction, and therefore chain cleavage, is regardless of O-sulfation carried by either monosaccharide unit.


title: Heparin

text: At low pH, deaminative cleavage results in the release of inorganic SO, and the conversion of GlcNS into anhydromannose (aMan). Low-pH nitrous acid treatment is an excellent method to distinguish N-sulfated polysaccharides such as heparin and HS from non N-sulfated polysaccharides such as chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate and dermatan sulfate not being susceptible to nitrous acid cleavage.


title: Heparin

text: Current clinical laboratory assays for heparin rely on an indirect measurement of the effect of the drug, rather than on a direct measure of its chemical presence. These include activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) and antifactor Xa activity. The specimen of choice is usually fresh, nonhemolyzed plasma from blood that has been anticoagulated with citrate, fluoride, or oxalate.


title: Heparin

text: Considering the animal source of pharmaceutical heparin, the numbers of potential impurities are relatively large compared with a wholly synthetic therapeutic agent. The range of possible biological contaminants includes viruses, bacterial endotoxins, transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) agents, lipids, proteins, and DNA. During the preparation of pharmaceutical-grade heparin from animal tissues, impurities such as solvents, heavy metals, and extraneous cations can be introduced. However, the methods employed to minimize the occurrence and to identify and/or eliminate these contaminants are well established and listed in guidelines and pharmacopoeias. The major challenge in the analysis of heparin impurities is the detection and identification of structurally related impurities. The most prevalent impurity in heparin is dermatan sulfate (DS), also known as chondroitin sulfate B. The building-block of DS is a disaccharide composed of 1,3-linked N-acetyl galactosamine (GalN) and a uronic acid residue, connected via 1,4 linkages to form the polymer. DS is composed of three possible uronic acid (GlcA, IdoA or IdoA2S) and four possible hexosamine (GalNAc, Gal- NAc4S, GalNAc6S, or GalNAc4S6S) building-blocks. The presence of iduronic acid in DS distinguishes it from chrondroitin sulfate A and C and likens it to heparin and HS. DS has a lower negative charge density overall compared to heparin. A common natural contaminant, DS is present at levels of 1–7% in heparin API, but has no proven biological activity that influences the anticoagulation effect of heparin.


title: Heparin

text: In December 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recalled a shipment of heparin because of bacterial growth ("Serratia marcescens") in several unopened syringes of this product. "S. marcescens" can lead to life-threatening injuries and/or death.


title: Heparin

text: In March 2008, major recalls of heparin were announced by the FDA due to contamination of the raw heparin stock imported from China. According to the FDA, the adulterated heparin killed nearly 80 people in the United States. The adulterant was identified as an "over-sulphated" derivative of chondroitin sulfate, a popular shellfish-derived supplement often used for arthritis, which was intended to substitute for actual heparin in potency tests.


title: Heparin

text: According to the "New York Times": "Problems with heparin reported to the agency include difficulty breathing, nausea, vomiting, excessive sweating and rapidly falling blood pressure that in some cases led to life-threatening shock".


title: Heparin

text: In 2006, Petr Zelenka, a nurse in the Czech Republic, deliberately administered large doses to patients, killing seven, and attempting to kill ten others.


title: Heparin

text: In 2007, a nurse at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center mistakenly gave the 12-day-old twins of actor Dennis Quaid a dose of heparin that was 1,000 times the recommended dose for infants. The overdose allegedly arose because the labeling and design of the adult and infant versions of the product were similar. The Quaid family subsequently sued the manufacturer, Baxter Healthcare Corp., and settled with the hospital for $750,000. Prior to the Quaid accident, six newborn babies at Methodist Hospital in Indianapolis, Indiana, were given an overdose. Three of the babies died after the mistake.


title: Heparin

text: In July 2008, another set of twins born at Christus Spohn Hospital South, in Corpus Christi, Texas, died after an accidentally administered overdose of the drug. The overdose was due to a mixing error at the hospital pharmacy and was unrelated to the product's packaging or labeling. , the exact cause of the twins' death was under investigation.


title: Heparin

text: In March 2010, a two-year-old transplant patient from Texas was given a lethal dose of heparin at the University of Nebraska Medical Center. The exact circumstances surrounding her death are still under investigation.


title: Heparin

text: Pharmaceutical-grade heparin is derived from mucosal tissues of slaughtered meat animals such as porcine (pig) intestines or bovine (cattle) lungs. Advances to produce heparin synthetically have been made in 2003 and 2008. In 2011, a chemoenzymatic process of synthesizing low molecular weight heparins from simple disaccharides was reported.


title: Heparin

text: As detailed in the table below, the potential is great for the development of heparin-like structures as drugs to treat a wide range of diseases, in addition to their current use as anticoagulants.


title: Heparin

text: As a result of heparin's effect on such a wide variety of disease states, a number of drugs are indeed in development whose molecular structures are identical or similar to those found within parts of the polymeric heparin chain.


title: Harvey Korman

text: Harvey Herschel Korman (February 15, 1927May 29, 2008) was an American actor and comedian who performed in television and film productions. His big break was being a featured performer on CBS' "The Danny Kaye Show", but he is best remembered for his performances on the sketch comedy series "The Carol Burnett Show", for which he won four Emmy Awards, as well as his partnership with Tim Conway. Korman also appeared in several comedy films by Mel Brooks.


title: Harvey Korman

text: Korman, who was of Russian Jewish descent, was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Ellen (née Blecher) and Cyril Raymond Korman, a salesman. He served in the United States Navy during World War II. After being discharged, he studied at the Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University) and at HB Studio. He was a member of the Peninsula Players summer theater program during the 1950, 1957, and 1958 seasons.


title: Harvey Korman

text: Korman's first television role was as a head waiter in "The Donna Reed Show" episode, "Decisions, Decisions, Decisions". He appeared as a comically exasperated public relations man in a January 1961 episode of the CBS drama "Route 66". He was seen on numerous television programs after that, including the role of Blake in the 1964 episode "Who Chopped Down the Cherry Tree?" on the NBC medical drama "The Eleventh Hour" and a bartender in the 1962 "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Unsuitable Uncle." He frequently appeared as a supporting player on "The Danny Kaye Show" from 1963 through 1967. He was cast three times, including the role of Dr. Allison in "Who Needs Glasses?" (1962), on ABC's "The Donna Reed Show". He also guest-starred on "Dennis the Menace" and on the NBC contemporary western series "Empire".


title: Harvey Korman

text: From 1964 to 1966, he appeared three times in consecutive years on the CBS comedy "The Munsters" starring Fred Gwynne and Yvonne De Carlo. During the 1965–1966 season, Korman appeared regularly on ABC's "The Flintstones" as the voice of The Great Gazoo in its final season on network television.


title: Harvey Korman

text: The 1967 debut of "The Carol Burnett Show" gave Korman his greatest recognition. During his ten-year run on the show, he received six Emmy Award nominations and won four – in 1969, 1971, 1972, and 1974. The exact name of the category changed slightly during the period, but the award was for "Outstanding Achievement by a supporting performer in music or variety show". He was also nominated for four Golden Globes for the series, winning that award in 1975. In 1977, he left "The Carol Burnett Show" to headline his own sitcom on ABC, "The Harvey Korman Show", which only lasted five episodes.


title: Harvey Korman

text: While appearing on "The Carol Burnett Show", Korman gained further fame by appearing as the villainous Hedley Lamarr in the 1974 Mel Brooks film "Blazing Saddles". He also starred in Brooks' "High Anxiety" (1977) as Dr. Charles Montague. In 1978 he appeared in the CBS "Star Wars Holiday Special" providing levity in three of the special's variety segments: a cantina skit with Bea Arthur in which he plays a barfly who drinks through a hole in the top of his head, another as Chef Gormaanda, a four-armed parody of Julia Child, and one as a malfunctioning Amorphian android in an instruction video. In 1980, he played Captain Blythe in the Disney comedy, "Herbie Goes Bananas". The following year, he portrayed Count de Monet in Brooks' "History of the World, Part 1". In later years he did voice work for the live-action film "The Flintstones" as well as for the animated "". He also starred in the short-lived Mel Brooks TV series "The Nutt House", and in his final Mel Brooks film, as the zany Dr. Seward, in "". In 1986, he starred in the failed CBS comedy series "Leo & Liz in Beverly Hills" with Valerie Perrine.


title: Harvey Korman

text: In 1982 he reunited with Carol Burnett and Vicki Lawrence in the TV movie "Eunice" reprising his role of Ed Higgins from “The Family” sketches from "The Carol Burnett Show". He continued the portrayal on the spin-off series, "Mama’s Family" in addition to introducing each episode of the series during its initial two-season NBC network run, portraying fictional television host Alistair Quince as well as directing 31 episodes of the series.


title: Harvey Korman

text: He also reunited with fellow "Carol Burnett Show" alumnus Tim Conway, making a guest appearance on Conways 1980–1981 comedy-variety series "The Tim Conway Show". The two later toured the U.S., reprising skits from the show and performing new material. A DVD of new comedy sketches by Korman and Conway, "Together Again", was released in 2006. Korman and Conway had been jointly inducted into the Television Hall of Fame in 2002.


title: Harvey Korman

text: Korman was married to Donna Ehlert from 1960 to 1977, and they had two children together, Maria and Christopher Korman. He married Deborah Korman (née Fritz) in 1982 and was married to her until he died in 2008. They had two daughters together, Kate and Laura Korman.


title: Harvey Korman

text: Korman died at age 81 on May 29, 2008, at UCLA Medical Center, as the result of complications from a ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm he had suffered four months earlier. He is interred at Santa Monica's Woodlawn Cemetery.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: Dirk Benedict (born Dirk Niewoehner; March 1, 1945) is an American film, television and stage actor, philosopher and author. He is best known for playing the characters Lieutenant Starbuck in the original "Battlestar Galactica" film and television series and Lieutenant Templeton "Faceman" Peck in "The A-Team" television series. He is the author of "Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy" and "And Then We Went Fishing".


title: Dirk Benedict

text: Benedict was born Dirk Niewoehner in Helena, Montana, the son of Priscilla Mella (née Metzger), an accountant, and George Edward Niewoehner, a lawyer. He grew up in White Sulphur Springs, Montana. He graduated from Whitman College in 1967.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: Benedict allegedly chose his stage name from a serving of Eggs Benedict he had prior to his acting career. He is of German extraction.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: Benedict's film debut was in the 1972 film "Georgia, Georgia". When the New York run for "Butterflies Are Free" ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in Hawaii, opposite Barbara Rush. While there, he appeared as a guest lead on "Hawaii Five-O". The producers of a horror film called "Sssssss" (1973) saw Benedict's performance in "Hawaii Five-O" and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie. He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of Twiggy in her American film debut, "W" (1974). Benedict starred in the television series "Chopper One", which aired for one season in 1974. He made two appearances in "Charlie's Angels". He also appeared on the "Donny & Marie" variety show.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: Benedict's career break came in 1978 when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series "Battlestar Galactica". The same year Benedict starred in the TV film "Cruise into Terror", and appeared in the ensemble movie "Scavenger Hunt" the following year.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1980, Benedict starred alongside Linda Blair in an action-comedy movie called "Ruckus". In 1983, Dirk gained further popularity as con man Lieutenant Templeton "Face" Peck in 1980s action television series "The A-Team". He played "Faceman" from to , although the series didn't air until January 1983, and the final episode wasn't shown until 1987 rebroadcasts. The episode "Steel" includes a scene at Universal Studios where Face is seen looking bemused as a Cylon walks by him as an in-joke to his previous role in "Battlestar Galactica". The clip is incorporated into the series' opening credit sequence from season 3 onward.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1986, Benedict starred as low-life band manager Harry Smilac in the movie "Body Slam" along with Lou Albano, Roddy Piper, and cameo appearances by Freddie Blassie, Ric Flair, and Bruno Sammartino. His character Smilac ends up managing the pro-wrestler "Quick Rick" Roberts (Piper) and faces opposition by Captain Lou and his wrestling tag-team "the Cannibals".


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1987, Benedict took the title role of Shakespeare's "Hamlet" at the Abbey Theatre in Manhattan. Both his performance and the entire production were lambasted by critics. Benedict starred in the 1989 TV film "Trenchcoat in Paradise".


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1991, Benedict starred in "Blue Tornado," playing Alex, call sign Fireball, an Italian Air Force fighter pilot. Benedict published an autobiography, "Confessions of a Kamikaze Cowboy: A True Story of Discovery, Acting, Health, Illness, Recovery, and Life" (Avery Publishing ). In 1993, Benedict starred in "Shadow Force".


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 2000, Benedict wrote and directed his first screenplay, "Cahoots". Benedict appeared in the 2006 German film "Goldene Zeiten" ("Golden Times") in a dual role, playing an American former TV star as well as a German lookalike who impersonates him.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 2006, he wrote an online essay criticizing the then-airing "Battlestar Galactica" re-imagined series and, especially, its casting of a woman as his character, Starbuck, writing that "the war against masculinity has been won" and that "a television show based on hope, spiritual faith, and family is unimagined and regurgitated as a show of despair, sexual violence and family dysfunction".


title: Dirk Benedict

text: He appeared as a contestant on the 2007 UK series of "Celebrity Big Brother". He arrived on launch night in a replica of the "A-Team" van, smoking a cigar and accompanied by the "A-Team" theme tune.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 2010, Benedict starred in a stage production of "Prescription: Murder" playing Lieutenant Columbo for the Middle Ground Theatre Company in the UK. Benedict also made a cameo appearance in the 2010 film adaptation of "The A-Team" as Pensacola Prisoner Milt.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 2019, Benedict took on the role of Jack Strange in the B movie "Space Ninjas", written and directed by Scott McQuaid. Dirk plays an eccentric TV host of a show called "Stranger Than Fiction", which is like a hybrid of "The Twilight Zone" and "The X-Files". The movie is a sci-fi comedy horror that follows a bunch of high school students trying to survive the night of a Space Ninja invasion.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In the 1970s, Benedict survived a prostate tumor, which he refused to have tested for malignancy. Having rejected conventional medical treatment, he credited his survival to the adoption of a macrobiotic diet recommended to him by actress Gloria Swanson.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1986, he married Toni Hudson, an actress with whom he has two sons, George and Roland. Hudson had previously appeared as Dana in the fourth season "A-Team" episode titled "Blood, Sweat and Cheers". They divorced in 1995.


title: Dirk Benedict

text: In 1998, Benedict learned that he also has another son, John Talbert (born 1968), from an earlier relationship, who had been placed for adoption. With the help of his adoptive parents, Talbert discovered and contacted his birth parents.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: Deepwater Horizon is a 2016 American biographical disaster film based on the "Deepwater Horizon" explosion and oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Peter Berg directed it from a screenplay by Matthew Michael Carnahan and Matthew Sand. It stars Mark Wahlberg, Kurt Russell, John Malkovich, Gina Rodriguez, Dylan O'Brien, and Kate Hudson. It is adapted from "Deepwater Horizon's Final Hours", a December 25, 2010 article in "The New York Times" written by David Barstow, David Rohde, and Stephanie Saul.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: Principal photography began on April 27, 2015, in New Orleans, Louisiana. The film premiered at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival and was theatrically released in the United States on September 30, 2016. It received generally positive reviews, but was considered to be one of the biggest box-office bombs of all-time, grossing slightly less than $122 million worldwide against a budget of $156 million, resulting in a loss of $60–112 million for the studio. The film was nominated for two Oscars at the 89th Academy Awards: Best Sound Editing and Best Visual Effects, and a BAFTA Award for Best Sound at the 70th British Academy Film Awards.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: On April 20, 2010, "Deepwater Horizon", an oil drilling rig operated by private contractor Transocean, is set to complete drilling off the southern coast of Louisiana on behalf of BP. Chief Electronics Technician Michael "Mike" Williams and Offshore Installation Manager James "Mr. Jimmy" Harrell are surprised to learn that the workers assigned to test the integrity of recently completed cement work are being sent home early, without conducting a cement bond log (CBL), at the insistence of BP managers Donald Vidrine and Robert Kaluza. While Mike prepares the drilling team, including Caleb Holloway, Shane Roshto and Adam Weise. Harrell meets with Vidrine and persuades him to conduct a negative pressure test, which indicates the cement has not properly sealed the well from the high-pressure reservoir. Vidrine disputes the test finding and orders a second test. After concluding the second test was a success, Vidrine pressures senior toolpusher Jason Anderson to run more tests and orders the rig to remove the drilling mud and prepare the rig to move to its next job.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: At first, the operation goes smoothly, but the cement job eventually fails completely, triggering a massive blowout that overpowers and kills Weise, Roshto and majority of the other drill team members. Holloway and Vidrine manage to evacuate the floor in time.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: A chain of equipment malfunctions, coupled with a failed attempt to seal the well, ignites the oil, killing Anderson and the other toolpushers. Andrea Fleytas, the rig's Dynamic Position Operator, tries to alert the Coast Guard, only to be overruled by her superior, Captain Curt Kuchta, on the grounds that the rig is not in any imminent danger, at least until the rig erupts in flames, then Kuchta sends out his own call for help. With oil now spewing into the ocean, an oil-covered pelican flies into the bridge of a nearby vessel, the "Damon Bankston", which was there to collect the drilling mud from the well, and dies; the vessel heads towards the rig just as the workers begin a frantic evacuation, sending out a rescue team after seeing the rig burst into flames. Harrell, still alive, although seriously injured in the explosion, is rescued by Mike and assumes control of the situation, only to discover that the rig cannot be saved. Aaron Dale Burkeen, a close friend of Mike's, sacrifices himself to keep a burning crane from collapsing onto the surviving crew, while Mike and Caleb are able to rescue Vidrine and Kaluza and get them to safety.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: As night falls and the burning oil lights up the area, the Coast Guard becomes aware of the incident and sends ships and aircraft to rescue the survivors, who are being ferried in the lifeboats to the "Damon Bankston" as it was already on scene to assist with the evacuation and rescue. With all the lifeboats full, Mike locates the emergency life raft, but it becomes separated from the rig before he and Andrea can board, causing the latter to suffer a panic attack. Just as the oil in the well itself ignites and destroys the rig, the two jump into the water and are picked up by rescuers, who then ferry them to the "Damon Bankston", where the surviving crew mourn their lost crewmen and say the Lord's Prayer.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: Returned home, the workers reunite with their families in a hotel lobby; during which the parents of one of the missing crew members accost Mike, resulting in him having a panic attack. Luckily, Mike's family rush in to comfort him.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: The film ends with a series of clips showing the aftermath of the disaster, including testimony from the real-life Mike Williams and the revelation that Donald Vidrine and Robert Kaluza were the only two people prosecuted for their actions; both were charged with eleven cases of manslaughter. Pictures appear of the eleven men who lost their lives before the credits. The movie postscript reads: "The blowout lasted for 87 days, spilling an estimated 210 million gallons of oil into the Gulf of Mexico. It was the worst oil disaster in U.S. history."


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: On March 8, 2011, it was announced that Summit Entertainment, Participant Media, and Image Nation had acquired the film rights to "The New York Times" article "Deepwater Horizon's Final Hours", written by David Barstow, David S. Rohde, and Stephanie Saul, and published on December 25, 2010, about the 2010 "Deepwater Horizon" explosion and subsequent oil spill. Matthew Sand was set to write the screenplay, while Lorenzo di Bonaventura was in talks to produce the film under his Di Bonaventura Pictures banner. Summit and Participant Media/Imagination would also finance the film. On acquiring the article to develop into a film, the president of Participant Media, Ricky Strauss said,


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: This is a perfect fit for us–a suspenseful and inspiring real-life account of everyday people whose values are tested in the face of an impending environmental disaster.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: On July 24, 2012, Ric Roman Waugh was in talks with the studios to direct the film, Mark Vahradian was set to produce the film along with Bonaventura, and Lions Gate Entertainment also joined the project to produce and distribute. On July 11, 2014, it was announced that "All Is Lost's" director J. C. Chandor had been hired to direct the film; the screenplay's first draft was written by Sand, while Matthew Michael Carnahan wrote the second draft. In early October, it was confirmed that Summit would distribute the film, not Lionsgate. On January 30, 2015, it was reported that "Lone Survivor" director Peter Berg had replaced Chandor, and would re-team with Wahlberg on the film. Chandor exited due to creative differences.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: On August 19, 2014, casting began, with actor Mark Wahlberg added in the lead role of the film. Wahlberg plays Mike Williams, a real-life electronics technician on the "Deepwater Horizon" oil rig. On March 18, 2015, Gina Rodriguez was set to play a woman named Andrea Fleytas, who was on the bridge on board the Deepwater Horizon at the time of the blowout, and frantically tried to contact the Coast Guard. On April 10, 2015, "Deadline" reported that Dylan O'Brien was in talks to play Caleb Holloway. Kurt Russell joined the film on the same day O'Brien was in talks. Soon after, John Malkovich was confirmed cast, as a BP representative who fatally underestimates the dangers of working on the rig. Kate Hudson was announced as a cast member in May 2015, and playing the wife of Wahlberg's character; her role will be her first on-screen pairing with Russell, her stepfather, although they shared no dialogue in the film, only a hug.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on April 27, 2015. It was officially announced by Lionsgate on May 18, 2015, that filming had begun in New Orleans, Louisiana. Production designer Chris Seagers built a 70 ft (21m) tall, 85% scale version of the "Deepwater Horizon" rig in the parking lot of the abandoned Six Flags New Orleans park. The set included a functional helipad and elevators. Beneath it was a tank filled with two million gallons of water, simulating the Gulf of Mexico.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: The film cost a total of $156 million to produce, with $122 million spent in Louisiana. As a result, Lionsgate (the studio financing the film) received a $37.7 million subsidy from the state, under Louisiana's film incentive program. Later estimates put the production cost at $110 million.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: "Deepwater Horizon" had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival, on September 13, where it received a standing ovation from audiences after the screening. It opened in theaters on September 30, 2016, distributed by Summit Entertainment in the United States and Canada, and by Lionsgate Entertainment internationally.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: "Deepwater Horizon" grossed $61.4 million in the United States and Canada and $60.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $121.8 million, against a net production budget of around $110 million. The Hollywood Reporter judged it one of 2016's fourteen biggest box-office bombs.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Deepwater Horizon" was projected to gross $16–20 million from 3,259 theaters in its opening weekend, although some publications noted Wahlberg's films tend to outperform box office projections. The film made $860,000 from its Thursday night previews at 2,400 theaters, and $7.1 million on its first day. In total, the film earned $20.2 million during its opening weekend, debuting at number two at the box office behind Tim Burton's "Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children". The film was released at a time when the marketplace was already dominated by two other adult-skewing pictures, "The Magnificent Seven" and "Sully". The film over-performed in the Gulf Coast region, and also did exceptionally well in IMAX, which earned $2.7 million of the film's total opening weekend.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: The film's opening weekend was regarded as underwhelming and a disappointment, given its hefty production budget, but dramas released during the fall, and Wahlberg's films, tend to have box office legs. "Forbes" called the opening "good, but not great", especially considering the solid reviews. While most adult-skewing films would generally be made on a conservative budget in order to protect themselves financially, "Deepwater Horizon" was produced for $110–120 million (after tax rebates). Box office analyst Jeff Block said the film was "a hard sell. This should have been a $60 million film. The budget was out of control." Recent real-life drama films such as "Sully" ($60 million budget), "Bridge of Spies" ($40 million) and "Captain Phillips" ($55 million) were made for more moderate amounts. "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that when Hollywood spends north of $100 million on a film, it is intended for a much broader audience, but that was not the case for "Deepwater Horizon", as the main demographics were adults, with 67% of the total ticket buyers during its opening weekend being over the age of 35. Another possible reason for the film's mediocre debut was its marketing miss, which was also a subject of criticism; from the outset, Lionsgate marketed the film as a heroic tale versus an issues-oriented movie. The name ""Deepwater Horizon"" itself is more associated with the aftermath of the spill than the heroics of the men who survived and helped their fellow workers. "The Hollywood Reporter" estimated the film lost at least $60 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues.


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: Outside North America, "Deepwater Horizon" opened simultaneously in 52 markets, and grossed $12.4 million, of which IMAX made up $1 million 119 IMAX screens. The U.K. was the top earning market, with $2.6 million, followed by the Middle East ($1.5 million), Taiwan ($1.4 million), Australia ($1.3 million), and Russia ($1.2 million). In China, the film opened on Tuesday, November 15, where it delivered a six-day opening weekend of $7.9 million, debuting in third place, behind local film "I Am Not Madame Bovary" and the continuation of "Doctor Strange". The next major markets to open were Germany (November 24) and Spain (November 25).


title: Deepwater Horizon (film)

text: "Deepwater Horizon" received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 83% based on 260 reviews with an average rating of 7.00/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Deepwater Horizon" makes effective use of its titular man-made disaster to deliver an uncommonly serious – yet still suitably gripping – action thriller." On Metacritic, the film has a score 68 out of 100 based on 52 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.