title: Read-only memory

text: In mask ROM, the data is physically encoded in the circuit, so it can only be programmed during fabrication. This leads to a number of serious disadvantages:


title: Read-only memory

text: Subsequent developments have addressed these shortcomings. Programmable read-only memory (PROM), invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, allowed users to program its contents exactly once by physically altering its structure with the application of high-voltage pulses. This addressed problems 1 and 2 above, since a company can simply order a large batch of fresh PROM chips and program them with the desired contents at its designers' convenience.


title: Read-only memory

text: The advent of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), invented at Bell Labs in 1959, enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements in semiconductor memory, a function previously served by magnetic cores in computer memory. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) in 1971. The 1971 invention of EPROM essentially solved problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by exposure to strong ultraviolet light.


title: Read-only memory

text: Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at the Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972, went a long way to solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be programmed in-place if the containing device provides a means to receive the program contents from an external source (for example, a personal computer via a serial cable). Flash memory, invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s and commercialized in the late 1980s, is a form of EEPROM that makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and reprogrammed thousands of times without damage. It permits erasure and programming of only a specific part of the device, instead of the entire device. This can be done at high speed, hence the name "flash".


title: Read-only memory

text: All of these technologies improved the flexibility of ROM, but at a significant cost-per-chip, so that in large quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for many years. (Decreasing cost of reprogrammable devices had almost eliminated the market for mask ROM by 2000.) Rewriteable technologies were envisioned as replacements for mask ROM.


title: Read-only memory

text: The most recent development is NAND flash, also invented at Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from past practice, stating plainly that "the aim of NAND flash is to replace hard disks," rather than the traditional use of ROM as a form of non-volatile primary storage. , NAND has nearly completely achieved this goal by offering throughput higher than hard disks, lower latency, higher tolerance of physical shock, extreme miniaturization (in the form of USB flash drives and tiny microSD memory cards, for example), and much lower power consumption.


title: Read-only memory

text: Many stored-program computers use a form of non-volatile storage (that is, storage that retains its data when power is removed) to store the initial program that runs when the computer is powered on or otherwise begins execution (a process known as bootstrapping, often abbreviated to "booting" or "booting up"). Likewise, every non-trivial computer needs some form of mutable memory to record changes in its state as it executes.


title: Read-only memory

text: Forms of read-only memory were employed as non-volatile storage for programs in most early stored-program computers, such as ENIAC after 1948. (Until then it was not a stored-program computer as every program had to be manually wired into the machine, which could take days to weeks.) Read-only memory was simpler to implement since it needed only a mechanism to read stored values, and not to change them in-place, and thus could be implemented with very crude electromechanical devices (see historical examples below). With the advent of integrated circuits in the 1960s, both ROM and its mutable counterpart static RAM were implemented as arrays of transistors in silicon chips; however, a ROM memory cell could be implemented using fewer transistors than an SRAM memory cell, since the latter needs a latch (comprising 5-20 transistors) to retain its contents, while a ROM cell might consist of the absence (logical 0) or presence (logical 1) of one transistor connecting a bit line to a word line. Consequently, ROM could be implemented at a lower cost-per-bit than RAM for many years.


title: Read-only memory

text: Most home computers of the 1980s stored a BASIC interpreter or operating system in ROM as other forms of non-volatile storage such as magnetic disk drives were too costly. For example, the Commodore 64 included 64 KB of RAM and 20 KB of ROM containing a BASIC interpreter and the KERNAL operating system. Later home or office computers such as the IBM PC XT often included magnetic disk drives, and larger amounts of RAM, allowing them to load their operating systems from disk into RAM, with only a minimal hardware initialization core and bootloader remaining in ROM (known as the BIOS in IBM-compatible computers). This arrangement allowed for a more complex and easily upgradeable operating system.


title: Read-only memory

text: In modern PCs, "ROM" is used to store the basic bootstrapping firmware for the processor, as well as the various firmware needed to internally control self-contained devices such as graphic cards, hard disk drives, solid state drives, optical disc drives, TFT screens, etc., in the system. Today, many of these "read-only" memories – especially the BIOS/UEFI – are often replaced with EEPROM or Flash memory (see below), to permit in-place reprogramming should the need for a firmware upgrade arise. However, simple and mature sub-systems (such as the keyboard or some communication controllers in the integrated circuits on the main board, for example) may employ mask ROM or OTP (one-time programmable).


title: Read-only memory

text: ROM and successor technologies such as flash are prevalent in embedded systems. These are in everything from industrial robots to home appliances and consumer electronics (MP3 players, set-top boxes, etc.) all of which are designed for specific functions, but are based on general-purpose microprocessors. With software usually tightly coupled to hardware, program changes are rarely needed in such devices (which typically lack hard disks for reasons of cost, size, or power consumption). As of 2008, most products use Flash rather than mask ROM, and many provide some means for connecting to a PC for firmware updates; for example, a digital audio player might be updated to support a new file format. Some hobbyists have taken advantage of this flexibility to reprogram consumer products for new purposes; for example, the iPodLinux and OpenWrt projects have enabled users to run full-featured Linux distributions on their MP3 players and wireless routers, respectively.


title: Read-only memory

text: ROM is also useful for binary storage of cryptographic data, as it makes them difficult to replace, which may be desirable in order to enhance information security.


title: Read-only memory

text: Since ROM (at least in hard-wired mask form) cannot be modified, it is only suitable for storing data which is not expected to need modification for the life of the device. To that end, ROM has been used in many computers to store look-up tables for the evaluation of mathematical and logical functions (for example, a floating-point unit might tabulate the sine function in order to facilitate faster computation). This was especially effective when CPUs were slow and ROM was cheap compared to RAM.


title: Read-only memory

text: Notably, the display adapters of early personal computers stored tables of bitmapped font characters in ROM. This usually meant that the text display font could not be changed interactively. This was the case for both the CGA and MDA adapters available with the IBM PC XT.


title: Read-only memory

text: The use of ROM to store such small amounts of data has disappeared almost completely in modern general-purpose computers. However, NAND Flash has taken over a new role as a medium for mass storage or secondary storage of files.


title: Read-only memory

text: "Mask ROM" is a read-only memory whose contents are programmed by the integrated circuit manufacturer (rather than by the user). The desired memory contents are furnished by the customer to the device manufacturer. The desired data is converted into a custom mask layer for the final metallization of interconnections on the memory chip (hence the name).


title: Read-only memory

text: It is common practice to use rewritable non-volatile memory – such as UV-EPROM or EEPROM – for the development phase of a project, and to switch to mask ROM when the code has been finalized. For example, Atmel microcontrollers come in both EEPROM and mask ROM formats.


title: Read-only memory

text: The main advantage of mask ROM is its cost. Per bit, mask ROM is more compact than any other kind of semiconductor memory. Since the cost of an integrated circuit strongly depends on its size, mask ROM is significantly cheaper than any other kind of semiconductor memory.


title: Read-only memory

text: However, the one-time masking cost is high and there is a long turn-around time from design to product phase. Design errors are costly: if an error in the data or code is found, the mask ROM is useless and must be replaced in order to change the code or data.


title: Read-only memory

text: , four companies produce most such mask ROM chips: Samsung Electronics, NEC Corporation, Oki Electric Industry, and Macronix.


title: Read-only memory

text: Some integrated circuits contain only mask ROM. Other integrated circuits contain mask ROM as well as a variety of other devices. In particular, many microprocessors have mask ROM to store their microcode. Some microcontrollers have mask ROM to store the bootloader or all of their firmware.


title: Read-only memory

text: Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are integrated circuits that physically encode the data to be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their contents after fabrication.


title: Read-only memory

text: By applying write protection, some types of reprogrammable ROMs may temporarily become read-only memory.


title: Read-only memory

text: There are other types of non-volatile memory which are not based on solid-state IC technology, including:


title: Read-only memory

text: Although the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has varied over time, large RAM chips can be read faster than most ROMs. For this reason (and to allow uniform access), ROM content is sometimes copied to RAM or shadowed before its first use, and subsequently read from RAM.


title: Read-only memory

text: For those types of ROM that can be electrically modified, writing speed has traditionally been much slower than reading speed, and it may need unusually high voltage, the movement of jumper plugs to apply write-enable signals, and special lock/unlock command codes. Modern NAND Flash achieves the highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM technology, with speeds as high as 10 GB/s. This has been enabled by the increased investment in both consumer and enterprise solid state drives and flash memory products for higher end mobile devices. On a technical level the gains have been achieved by increasing parallelism both in controller design and of storage, the use of large DRAM read/write caches and the implementation of memory cells which can store more than one bit (DLC, TLC and MLC). The latter approach is more failure prone but this has been largely mitigated by overprovisioning (the inclusion of spare capacity in a product which is visible only to the drive controller) and by increasingly sophisticated read/write algorithms in drive firmware.


title: Read-only memory

text: Because they are written by forcing electrons through a layer of electrical insulation onto a floating transistor gate, rewriteable ROMs can withstand only a limited number of write and erase cycles before the insulation is permanently damaged. In the earliest EPROMs, this might occur after as few as 1,000 write cycles, while in modern Flash EEPROM the endurance may exceed 1,000,000. The limited endurance, as well as the higher cost per bit, means that Flash-based storage is unlikely to completely supplant magnetic disk drives in the near future.


title: Read-only memory

text: The timespan over which a ROM remains accurately readable is not limited by write cycling. The data retention of EPROM, EAROM, EEPROM, and Flash may be time-limited by charge leaking from the floating gates of the memory cell transistors. Early generation EEPROM's, in the mid 1980's generally cited 5 or 6 year data retention. A review of EEPROM's offered in the year 2020 shows manufacturers citing 100 year data retention. Adverse environments will reduce the retention time (leakage is accelerated by high temperatures or radiation). Masked ROM and fuse/antifuse PROM do not suffer from this effect, as their data retention depends on physical rather than electrical permanence of the integrated circuit, although fuse re-growth was once a problem in some systems.


title: Read-only memory

text: The contents of ROM chips can be extracted with special hardware devices and relevant controlling software. This practice is common for, as a main example, reading the contents of older video game console cartridges. Another example is making backups of firmware/OS ROMs from older computers or other devices - for archival purposes, as in many cases, the original chips are PROMs and thus at risk of exceeding their usable data lifetime.


title: Read-only memory

text: The resultant memory dump files are known as ROM images or abbreviated "ROMs", and can be used to produce duplicate ROMs - for example to produce new cartridges or as digital files for playing in console emulators. The term "ROM image" originated when most console games were distributed on cartridges containing ROM chips, but achieved such widespread usage that it is still applied to images of newer games distributed on CD-ROMs or other optical media.


title: Read-only memory

text: ROM images of commercial games, firmware, etc. usually contain copyrighted software. The unauthorized copying and distribution of copyrighted software is a violation of copyright laws in many jurisdictions, although duplication for backup purposes may be considered fair use depending on location. In any case, there is a thriving community engaged in the distribution and trading of such software and abandonware for preservation/sharing purposes.


title: Amine

text: In chemistry, amines (, ) are compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are formally derivatives of ammonia (), wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group (these may respectively be called alkylamines and arylamines; amines in which both types of substituent are attached to one nitrogen atom may be called alkylarylamines). Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine, and aniline. Inorganic derivatives of ammonia are also called amines, such as monochloramine ().


title: Amine

text: Compounds with a nitrogen atom attached to a carbonyl group, thus having the structure , are called amides and have different chemical properties from amines.


title: Amine

text: Amines can be classified according to the nature and number of substituents on nitrogen. Aliphatic amines contain only H and alkyl substituents. Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an aromatic ring.


title: Amine

text: Amines, alkyl and aryl alike, are organized into three subcategories based on the number of carbon atoms adjacent to the nitrogen(how many hydrogen atoms of the ammonia molecule are replaced by hydrocarbon groups):


title: Amine

text: It is also possible to have four organic substituents on the nitrogen. These species are not amines but are quaternary ammonium cations and have a charged nitrogen center. Quaternary ammonium salts exist with many kinds of anions.


title: Amine

text: Amines are named in several ways. Typically, the compound is given the prefix "amino-" or the suffix "-amine". The prefix ""N"-" shows substitution on the nitrogen atom. An organic compound with multiple amino groups is called a diamine, triamine, tetraamine and so forth.


title: Amine

text: Hydrogen bonding significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines. For example, methyl and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions, whereas the corresponding methyl and ethyl alcohols are liquids. Amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive "fishy" and foul smell.


title: Amine

text: The nitrogen atom features a lone electron pair that can bind H to form an ammonium ion RNH. The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water solubility of simple amines is enhanced by hydrogen bonding involving these lone electron pairs. Typically salts of ammonium compounds exhibit the following order of solubility in water: primary ammonium () > secondary ammonium () > tertiary ammonium (RNH). Small aliphatic amines display significant solubility in many solvents, whereas those with large substituents are lipophilic. Aromatic amines, such as aniline, have their lone pair electrons conjugated into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished. Their boiling points are high and their solubility in water is low.


title: Amine

text: Typically the presence of an amine functional group is deduced by a combination of techniques, including mass spectrometry as well as NMR and IR spectroscopies. H NMR signals for amines disappear upon treatment of the sample with DO. In their infrared spectrum primary amines exhibit two N-H bands, whereas secondary amines exhibit only one.


title: Amine

text: Alkyl amines characteristically feature tetrahedral nitrogen centers. C-N-C and C-N-H angles approach the idealized angle of 109°. C-N distances are slightly shorter than C-C distances. The energy barrier for the nitrogen inversion of the stereocenter is about 7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella into a strong wind.


title: Amine

text: Amines of the type NHRR' and NRR′R″ are chiral: the nitrogen center bears four substituents counting the lone pair. Because of the low barrier to inversion, amines of the type NHRR' cannot be obtained in optical purity. For chiral tertiary amines, NRR′R″ can only be resolved when the R, R', and R″ groups are constrained in cyclic structures such as N-substituted aziridines (quaternary ammonium salts are resolvable).


title: Amine

text: In aromatic amines ("anilines"), nitrogen is often nearly planar owing to conjugation of the lone pair with the aryl substituent. The C-N distance is correspondingly shorter. In aniline, the C-N distance is the same as the C-C distances.


title: Amine

text: Like ammonia, amines are bases. Compared to alkali metal hydroxides, amines are weaker (see table for examples of conjugate acid "K" values).


title: Amine

text: Owing to inductive effects, the basicity of an amine might be expected to increase with the number of alkyl groups on the amine. Correlations are complicated owing to the effects of solvation which are opposite the trends for inductive effects. Solvation effects also dominate the basicity of aromatic amines (anilines). For anilines, the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen delocalizes into the ring, resulting in decreased basicity. Substituents on the aromatic ring, and their positions relative to the amino group, also affect basicity as seen in the table.


title: Amine

text: Solvation significantly affects the basicity of amines. N-H groups strongly interact with water, especially in ammonium ions. Consequently, the basicity of ammonia is enhanced by 10 by solvation. The intrinsic basicity of amines, i.e. the situation where solvation is unimportant, has been evaluated in the gas phase. In the gas phase, amines exhibit the basicities predicted from the electron-releasing effects of the organic substituents. Thus tertiary amines are more basic than secondary amines, which are more basic than primary amines, and finally ammonia is least basic. The order of pK's (basicities in water) does not follow this order. Similarly aniline is more basic than ammonia in the gas phase, but ten thousand times less so in aqueous solution.


title: Amine

text: In aprotic polar solvents such as DMSO, DMF, and acetonitrile the energy of solvation is not as high as in protic polar solvents like water and methanol. For this reason, the basicity of amines in these aprotic solvents is almost solely governed by the electronic effects.


title: Amine

text: Unlike the reaction of amines with alcohols the reaction of amines and ammonia with alkyl halides is used for synthesis in the laboratory:


title: Amine

text: In such reactions, which are more useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, the degree of alkylation is difficult to control such that one obtains mixtures of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, as well as quaternary ammonium salts.


title: Amine

text: Selectivity can be improved via the Delépine reaction, although this is rarely employed on an industrial scale. Selectivity is also assured in the Gabriel synthesis, which involves organohalide reacting with potassium phthalimide.


title: Amine

text: Aryl halides are much less reactive toward amines and for that reason are more controllable. A popular way to prepare aryl amines is the Buchwald-Hartwig reaction.


title: Amine

text: Disubstituted alkenes react with HCN in the presence of strong acids to give formamides, which can be decarbonylated. This method, the Ritter reaction, is used industrially to produce tertiary amines such a tert-octylamine.


title: Amine

text: Hydroamination of alkenes is also widely practiced. The reaction is catalyzed by zeolite-based solid acids.


title: Amine

text: Via the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated N-containing functional groups are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst. Suitable groups include nitriles, azides, imines including oximes, amides, and nitro. In the case of nitriles, reactions are sensitive to acidic or alkaline conditions, which can cause hydrolysis of the group. is more commonly employed for the reduction of these same groups on the laboratory scale.


title: Amine

text: Many amines are produced from aldehydes and ketones via reductive amination, which can either proceed catalytically or stoichiometrically.


title: Amine

text: Aniline () and its derivatives are prepared by reduction of the nitroaromatics. In industry, hydrogen is the preferred reductant, whereas, in the laboratory, tin and iron are often employed.


title: Amine

text: Aside from their basicity, the dominant reactivity of amines is their nucleophilicity. Most primary amines are good ligands for metal ions to give coordination complexes. Amines are alkylated by alkyl halides. Acyl chlorides and acid anhydrides react with primary and secondary amines to form amides (the "Schotten–Baumann reaction").


title: Amine

text: Similarly, with sulfonyl chlorides, one obtains sulfonamides. This transformation, known as the Hinsberg reaction, is a chemical test for the presence of amines.


title: Amine

text: Because amines are basic, they neutralize acids to form the corresponding ammonium salts . When formed from carboxylic acids and primary and secondary amines, these salts thermally dehydrate to form the corresponding amides.


title: Amine

text: Amines reacts with nitrous acid to give diazonium salts. The alkyl diazonium salts are of little importance because they are too unstable. The most important members are derivatives of aromatic amines such as aniline ("phenylamine") (A = aryl or naphthyl):


title: Amine

text: Anilines and naphthylamines form more stable diazonium salts, which can be isolated in the crystalline form. Diazonium salts undergo a variety of useful transformations involving replacement of the group with anions. For example, cuprous cyanide gives the corresponding nitriles:


title: Amine

text: Aryldiazonium couple with electron-rich aromatic compounds such as a phenol to form azo compounds. Such reactions are widely applied to the production of dyes.


title: Amine

text: Imine formation is an important reaction. Primary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form imines. In the case of formaldehyde (R'  H), these products typically exist as cyclic trimers.


title: Amine

text: Amines are ubiquitous in biology. The breakdown of amino acids releases amines, famously in the case of decaying fish which smell of trimethylamine. Many neurotransmitters are amines, including epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, and histamine. Protonated amino groups () are the most common positively charged moieties in proteins, specifically in the amino acid lysine. The anionic polymer DNA is typically bound to various amine-rich proteins. Additionally, the terminal charged primary ammonium on lysine forms salt bridges with carboxylate groups of other amino acids in polypeptides, which is one of the primary influences on the three-dimensional structures of proteins.


title: Amine

text: Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of azo dyes. It reacts with nitrous acid to form diazonium salt, which can undergo coupling reaction to form an azo compound. As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as:


title: Amine

text: Aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA), diglycolamine (DGA), diethanolamine (DEA), diisopropanolamine (DIPA) and methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) are widely used industrially for removing carbon dioxide (CO) and hydrogen sulfide (HS) from natural gas and refinery process streams. They may also be used to remove CO from combustion gases and flue gases and may have potential for abatement of greenhouse gases. Related processes are known as sweetening.


title: Amine

text: Amines are often used as epoxy resin curing agents. These include dimethylethylamine, cyclohexylamine, and a variety of diamines such as 4,4 -diaminodicyclohexylmethane. Multifunctional amines such as tetraethylenepentamine and triethylenetetramine are also widely used in this capacity. The reaction proceeds by the lone pair of electrons on the amine nitrogen attacking the outermost carbon on the oxirane ring of the epoxy resin. This relieves ring strain on the epoxide and is the driving force of the reaction.


title: Amine

text: Low molecular weight simple amines, such as ethylamine, are only weakly toxic with between 100 and 1000 mg/kg. They are skin irritants, especially as some are easily absorbed through the skin. Amines are a broad class of compounds, and more complex members of the class can be extremely bioactive, for example strychnine and heroin.


title: Band on the Run

text: Band on the Run is the third studio album by the British–American rock band Paul McCartney and Wings, released in December 1973. It was McCartney's fifth album after leaving the Beatles in April 1970. Although sales were modest initially, its commercial performance was aided by two hit singles – "Jet" and "Band on the Run" – such that it became the top-selling studio album of 1974 in the United Kingdom and Australia, in addition to revitalising McCartney's critical standing. It remains McCartney's most successful album and the most celebrated of his post-Beatles works.


title: Band on the Run

text: The album was mostly recorded at EMI's studio in Lagos, Nigeria, as McCartney wanted to make an album in an exotic location. Shortly before departing for Lagos, drummer Denny Seiwell and guitarist Henry McCullough left the group. With no time to recruit replacements, McCartney went into the studio with just his wife Linda and Denny Laine. McCartney therefore played bass, drums, percussion and most of the lead guitar parts. The studio was of poor quality and conditions in Nigeria were tense and difficult; the McCartneys were robbed at knifepoint, losing a bag of song lyrics and demo tapes. After the band's return to England, final overdubs and further recording were carried out in London, mostly at AIR Studios.


title: Band on the Run

text: In 2000, "Q" magazine placed "Band on the Run" at number 75 in its list of the "100 Greatest British Albums Ever". In 2012, it was listed at 418 on "Rolling Stone"'s revised list of "the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". A contemporary review by Jon Landau in "Rolling Stone" described the album as being "with the possible exception of John Lennon's "Plastic Ono Band", the finest record yet released by any of the four musicians who were once called the Beatles". It was McCartney's last album issued on the Apple record label. In 2013, "Band on the Run" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.


title: Band on the Run

text: By 1973, three years after the break-up of the Beatles, Paul McCartney had yet to regain his artistic credibility or find favour with music critics for his post-Beatles work. After completing a successful UK tour with his band Wings, in July 1973, he planned their third album as a means to re-establish himself after the mixed reception given to "Wild Life" and "Red Rose Speedway".


title: Band on the Run

text: Keen to record outside the United Kingdom, McCartney asked EMI to send him a list of all their international recording studios. He selected Lagos in Nigeria and was attracted to the idea of recording in Africa. In August, the band – consisting of McCartney and his wife Linda, ex-Moody Blues guitarist and pianist Denny Laine, Henry McCullough on lead guitar, and Denny Seiwell on drums – started rehearsals for the new album at the McCartneys' Scottish farm. During one rehearsal session, McCullough and McCartney argued, and McCullough quit. Seiwell left a week later, the night before the band flew out to Nigeria. This left just McCartney, Linda and Laine to record in Lagos, assisted by former Beatles engineer Geoff Emerick. McCartney had chosen Lagos, as he felt it would be a glamorous location where he and the band could sun on the beach during the day and record at night; the reality, however, was that after the end of a civil war in 1970, Nigeria was run by a military government, with corruption and disease commonplace.


title: Band on the Run

text: The band and their entourage arrived in Lagos on 9 August 1973. EMI's studio, located on Wharf Road in the suburb of Apapa, was ramshackle and under-equipped. The control desk was faulty and there was only one tape machine, a Studer 8-track. The band rented houses near the airport in Ikeja, an hour away from the studio. McCartney, Linda and their three children stayed in one, while Laine, his wife JoJo, Emerick, and Wings' two roadies stayed in another.


title: Band on the Run

text: The group established a routine of recording during the week and playing tourist on the weekends. McCartney temporarily joined a local country club, where he would spend most mornings. The band would be driven to the studio in the early afternoon where recording would last into the late evening and sometimes early morning. To make up for the departed band members, McCartney would play drums and lead guitar parts, in addition to his contributions on bass guitar, with Laine playing rhythm guitar and Linda adding keyboards. The first track they recorded at Apapa was "Mamunia", the title for which McCartney appropriated from the name of a hotel in Marrakesh where Wings had stayed in April 1973.


title: Band on the Run

text: Several of the songs on "Band on the Run" reflect themes of escape and freedom, while the structure of the album recalled the Beatles' "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band" and "Abbey Road". The song "Band on the Run" was partly inspired by a remark George Harrison had made during one of the many business meetings the Beatles attended in 1969, in an effort to address the problems afflicting their Apple Corps enterprise. Four years later, the album's creation coincided with what author Peter Doggett terms McCartney's "moral victory in the debate over Allen Klein", as Harrison, John Lennon and Ringo Starr now became embroiled in litigation against Klein – the business manager they had appointed to run Apple in 1969, despite strong opposition from McCartney. Doggett writes that McCartney was perhaps liberated creatively by this recent development, resulting in "Band on the Run" bearing "a frothy self-confidence that was reminiscent of the Beatles at their most productive".


title: Band on the Run

text: Aside from the challenges presented by the substandard studio, various incidents plagued Wings' Lagos stay. While out walking one night against advice, McCartney and Linda were robbed at knifepoint. The assailants made away with all of their valuables and even stole a bag containing a notebook full of handwritten lyrics and songs, and cassettes containing demos for songs to be recorded. On another occasion, McCartney was overdubbing a vocal track when he began gasping for air. According to Emerick: "Within seconds, [McCartney] turned as white as a sheet, explaining to us in a croaking voice that he couldn't catch his breath. We decided to take him outside for some fresh air ... [but] once he was exposed to the blazing heat he felt even worse and began keeling over, finally fainting dead away at our feet. Linda began screaming hysterically; she was convinced that he was having a heart attack ... The official diagnosis was that he had suffered a bronchial spasm brought on by too much smoking." Another incident was the confrontation with local Afrobeat pioneer and political activist Fela Kuti, who publicly accused the band of being in Africa to exploit and steal African music after their visit to his club. Kuti went to the studio to confront McCartney, who played their songs for him to show that they contained no local influence. Later on, drummer and former Cream member Ginger Baker invited Wings to record their entire album at his ARC Studio in Ikeja. McCartney agreed to go there for one day. The song "Picasso's Last Words (Drink to Me)" was recorded at ARC, with Baker contributing a percussive tin of gravel.


title: Band on the Run

text: Recording for the majority of the album's basic tracks, together with initial overdubbing, was completed after six weeks in Nigeria. After hosting a beach barbecue to celebrate the end of recording, Wings flew back to England on 23 September 1973 where they were met by fans and journalists. Upon returning to London, the McCartneys received a letter from EMI dated before the band had left England warning them to not go to Lagos due to an outbreak of cholera.


title: Band on the Run

text: In October, two weeks after the band's return to London, work began at George Martin's AIR Studios on transferring many of the eight-track recordings to sixteen-track. "Jet", named after one of the McCartneys' Labrador puppies, was recorded in its entirety at AIR. McCartney, Laine and Linda carried out further overdubs on the Lagos recordings during this period; all the orchestral arrangements for the album were taped at AIR in a single day, conducted by Tony Visconti. Visconti was given three days to write the arrangements, including the 60-piece orchestra for the title track. Visconti said that the arrangements were collaborations with McCartney, and was surprised he was not correctly credited for his work until the 25th anniversary reissue. Another contributor was saxophonist Howie Casey, who overdubbed solos on "Bluebird", "Mrs. Vandebilt" and "Jet", and would go on to become Wings' regular horn player. Final mixing on the album was completed over three days at London's Kingsway Studios in early November.


title: Band on the Run

text: "Helen Wheels" was released as a non-album single in late October, and became a top 10 hit in America the following January. For commercial reasons, Capitol Records, the US distributor for Apple Records, asked to include "Helen Wheels" on the album. McCartney agreed, although it was never his intention to include the track. While "Helen Wheels" is not included on UK versions of the "Band on the Run" CD (except as a bonus cut on the 1993 "The Paul McCartney Collection" edition of the CD), it has always appeared on US editions of the CD starting with the initial Columbia Records release in 1984. Early versions of the Capitol release fail to list "Helen Wheels" on the label or the CD insert, making the song a "hidden track".


title: Band on the Run

text: The album cover photograph was taken at Osterley Park, west London, on 28 October 1973 by photographer Clive Arrowsmith. It depicts McCartney, Linda and Laine plus six other well-known people dressed as convicts caught in the spotlight of a prison searchlight. They are Michael Parkinson, Kenny Lynch, James Coburn, Clement Freud, Christopher Lee and John Conteh. Arrowsmith detailed that the eventual cover was one of the four he found acceptable in the 24 attempts he took. The spotlight's low potency meant everyone had to stand still for two seconds for proper exposure, which was made difficult by the photographer and subjects reportedly being in a "substance haze" following a party held by McCartney, making it harder for them to hold the pose. The golden hue of the picture is due to Arrowsmith using a regular daytime film instead of a Tungsten film, which would be better suited for night-time photographs.


title: Band on the Run

text: Apple Records issued "Band on the Run" on 5 December 1973 in America (as Apple SO 3415), with the UK release following two days later (as Apple PAS 10007). Rather than having the band promote the album on radio and television or with a tour, McCartney undertook a series of magazine interviews, most notably with Paul Gambaccini for "Rolling Stone". The conversations with Gambaccini took place at various locations from September 1973 onwards and combined to form, in the words of authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter, "a remarkably forthcoming interview in comparison to the 'thumbs-aloft' profiles usually allowed by [McCartney]".


title: Band on the Run

text: Upon release, "Band on the Run" received mostly favourable reviews. Author Robert Rodriguez writes that, after the disappointment of McCartney's previous work since the Beatles, "It was exactly the record fans and critics had long hoped he would make …"


title: Band on the Run

text: In a combined review for Starr's concurrently released "Ringo" album, Charles Shaar Murray of the "NME" wrote: "The ex-Beatle least likely to re-establish his credibility and lead the field has pulled it off with a positive master-stroke of an album entitled "Band On The Run"." In addition to praising McCartney for using synthesizer "like an instrument, and not like an electric whoopee cushion", Shaar Murray concluded: ""Band On The Run" is a great album. If anybody ever puts down McCartney in your presence, bust him in the snoot and play him this. He will thank you for it afterwards."


title: Band on the Run

text: Writing in "The New York Times", Loraine Alterman considered the album to be "bursting with a great deal of compelling music even if the lyrics at times make as much sense as that cover photo" and admired the "fascinating range of sounds" offered in the title track, as well as the "lovely, romantic aura" of "Bluebird". While noting the importance of studio production on the overall effect, Alterman wrote: "McCartney has managed to make the complexities of multi-track recording sound as natural and fresh as tomorrow." Jon Landau of "Rolling Stone" described the album as "with the possible exception of John Lennon's "Plastic Ono Band", the finest record yet released by any of the four musicians who were once called the Beatles". "Rolling Stone" named "Band on the Run" one of the Best Albums of the Year for 1973.


title: Band on the Run

text: "Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau wrote in 1981: "I originally underrated what many consider McCartney's definitive post-Beatles statement, but not as much as its admirers overrate it. Pop masterpiece? This? Sure it's a relief after the vagaries of "Wild Life" and "Red Rose Speedway"." He praised the title track and the "Afro-soul" introduction to "Mamunia", calling them "the "high points"". Christgau ultimately awarded the album a C+ rating, indicating "a not disreputable performance, most likely a failed experiment or a pleasant piece of hackwork". In his retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine feels that while some songs are excellent and the album overall is enjoyable, it is more showmanship than content. A subsequent review on Allmusic by Al Campbell was more generous, considering the arrangements and melodic hooks of the songs up to the caliber of McCartney's work in the Beatles and concluding, "Though it lacks the emotional resonance of contemporaneous releases by John Lennon and George Harrison, McCartney's infallible instinct for popcraft overflows on this excellent release." The "Rolling Stone" reviewer of the 30th Anniversary Deluxe Edition said that "the real action still lies in the original LP's revved-up pleasures". Writing for "Mojo" magazine in 2011, John Harris included "Band on the Run" among "the trilogy of truly essential post-Beatles solo albums", along with Harrison's "All Things Must Pass" and Lennon's "Plastic Ono Band".


title: Band on the Run

text: In 2000, "Q" magazine placed "Band on the Run" at number 75 in its list of the "100 Greatest British Albums Ever". In 2012, it was voted 418th on "Rolling Stone"s revised list of "the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time". The album is featured in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Band on the Run

text: The commercial reception was unspectacular initially, with the record-buying public wary after Wings' preceding releases. On the UK Albums Chart, "Band on the Run" climbed to number 9 on 22 December, remaining there for a second week before dropping to number 13. On America's "Billboard" Top LPs & Tape chart, it peaked at number 7 on 2 February 1974 and then spent the next six weeks in the lower reaches of the top ten. The album went on to achieve considerable success, however, thanks to the popularity of the two singles culled from it – "Jet" and the title track. Writing in 1981, Bob Woffinden described "Band on the Run" as the first Beatles-related release to be "planned with a marketing strategy", as Capitol Records now assumed a fully active role in promoting the album following the removal of Klein's ABKCO Industries as managers of Apple. Although McCartney had been reluctant to issue album tracks as singles, the public's apparent lack of interest in "Band on the Run" led to him ceding to the recommendations of Capitol's head of marketing, Al Coury, who had similarly pushed for the inclusion of "Helen Wheels". McCartney therefore authorised single edits for the two new A-sides.


title: Band on the Run

text: "Jet" was issued on 28 January in America, with "Mamunia" as the B-side for the single's initial pressings, although this was soon replaced by "Let Me Roll It", which was the B-side for the UK release, on 15 February. The single's success provided new impetus for the album, which hit number 2 in the UK at the end of March and topped "Billboard"s listings on 13 April. Apple issued "Band on the Run" on 8 April in America, backed by "Nineteen Hundred and Eighty-Five"; the UK release followed on 28 June, with the non-album instrumental "Zoo Gang" as the B-side. Due to the popularity of "Band on the Run", the album returned to number 1 on "Billboard" on 8 June, when the single simultaneously topped the Hot 100. In Britain, the album finally hit number 1 on 27 July, for the first of seven consecutive weeks at the top. On the alternative UK listings compiled by "Melody Maker", "Band on the Run" remained in the top ten from 26 January through to 23 November 1974. During that time, its chart performance similarly reflected the popularity of the two singles, with the album spending three weeks at number 2 in April, and six weeks at number 1 throughout August and the first week of September.


title: Band on the Run

text: The album topped the "Billboard" chart on three separate occasions during 1974, and was the top selling album of that year in Australia and Canada. In Britain, it came second in the year-end standings, behind the compilation "" by the Carpenters. Through this success with Wings, McCartney established himself as the most commercially successful of the four former Beatles. Rodriguez views the album's arrival at number 1 on "Billboard", in April 1974, as the moment when McCartney usurped George Harrison as the "ex-Beatle Most Likely to Succeed", so beginning a period of public acclaim that reached its zenith with the Wings Over America Tour in 1976.


title: Band on the Run

text: "Band on the Run" was eventually certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America; it would go on to sell 6 million copies worldwide and become EMI's top selling album of the 1970s in the UK. Its continued success through 1974 was also beneficial in allowing Wings to recruit a new guitarist and drummer, and to integrate them into the band before beginning new recordings.


title: Band on the Run

text: In 1993, "Band on the Run" was remastered and reissued on CD as part of the "Paul McCartney Collection" series with "Helen Wheels" and its B-side, "Country Dreamer", as bonus tracks. In 1996, it was released on 5.1 Music Disc. In May 2007, the album was made available through the iTunes Store.


title: Band on the Run

text: In 1999, "Band on the Run: 25th Anniversary Edition", a special extended edition of the album, was released to coincide with twenty-five years after the album began to take off in March 1974 after a slow start. On this version, "Helen Wheels" appeared as track 8, between "No Words" and "Picasso's Last Words (Drink to Me)", as it had been positioned on the original US release. The package includes an extra disc of live renditions of songs throughout the years, as well as brief new renditions by McCartney. Spoken testimonials are also included from McCartney himself, late wife Linda (to whom this retrospective release is dedicated), Laine, Dustin Hoffman (the inspiration behind "Picasso's Last Words"), and the celebrity faces on the cover, including James Coburn, who was in Britain at the time filming "The Internecine Project", and Christopher Lee.


title: Band on the Run

text: On 2 November 2010, the album was reissued by Hear Music/Concord Music Group as the first release in the Paul McCartney Archive Collection. It was released in multiple formats:


title: Band on the Run

text: All songs written by Paul and Linda McCartney, except "No Words" written by Paul McCartney and Denny Laine.


title: Band on the Run

text: This disc contains an audio documentary of the album, originally released in 1999 as Disc 2 of the "25th Anniversary Edition" reissue.


title: Band on the Run

text: Best Buy's version of the new "Band on the Run" reissue adds a fourth disc with a bonus DVD to the 2 CD/1 DVD version package.


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: Cursed is an American fantasy drama streaming television series that premiered on Netflix on July 17, 2020. It is based on the illustrated novel of the same name by Frank Miller and Tom Wheeler. The set location of the series is the United Kingdom. In July 2021, the series was canceled after one season.


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: "Cursed" is described as "a re-imagining of the Arthurian legend, told through the eyes of Nimue, a young heroine with a mysterious gift who is destined to become the powerful (and tragic) Lady of the Lake. After her mother's death, she finds an unexpected partner in Arthur, a young mercenary, in a quest to find Merlin and deliver an ancient sword to him. Over the course of her journey, Nimue will become a symbol of courage and rebellion against the terrifying Red Paladins, and their complicit King Uther." In addition, Andreeva calls the show "a coming-of-age story whose themes are familiar to our own time: the obliteration of the natural world, religious terror, senseless war, and finding the courage to lead in the face of the impossible".


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: In 2018 it was announced that Netflix had given the production a series order for a first season consisting of ten episodes. The show is based on the novel of the same name by Frank Miller and Tom Wheeler (Simon & Schuster 2019). In addition to creating the television adaptation, Miller and Wheeler were also expected to executive produce the series as well. In September 2018 it was announced that Zetna Fuentes is set to direct and serve as an executive producer for the first two episodes of the series. On July 9, 2021, Netflix canceled the series after one season.


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: In September 2018, Katherine Langford was cast in the series' lead role. In March 2019, it was announced Devon Terrell, Gustaf Skarsgård, Peter Mullan, Lily Newmark, Shalom Brune-Franklin, Daniel Sharman, Sebastian Armesto, Emily Coates and Billy Jenkins had joined the cast. Creator Frank Miller appears in a cameo.


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: In January 2019, set building began on disused Army land in Deepcut, England. This was expected to continue until March 2019, with filming then scheduled to start and continue until September 2019.


title: Cursed (2020 TV series)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes compiled 52 reviews, identified 67% of them as positive, and assessed an average rating of 6.06/10. The website's critics consensus states, ""Cursed"s first season isn't as subversive as its source material, but strong plotting and a heroic performance from Katherine Langford make for an enjoyable escape." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the show a score of 59 out of 100 based on 13 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Lucy Mangan from "The Guardian" criticized the writing and the acting, but wrote that "at times during its 10 beautifully meaningless hours, it's great fun". Huw Fullerton of "Radio Times" also opined about the "awkward performances and exposition" while saying that the series "never quite feels big enough to tell this epic story [...] but overall the storytelling does a good job of showcasing varied, interesting characters in a growing cycle of violence." Kelly Lawler of "USA Today" reviewed the series in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic, giving it an overall positive review, but stating that she was not sure whether it was good or simply "quarantine good".


title: Blue Movie

text: Blue Movie (also known as Fuck) is a 1969 American erotic film written, produced and directed by Andy Warhol. It is the first adult erotic film depicting explicit sex to receive wide theatrical release in the United States, and is regarded as a seminal film in the Golden Age of Porn. It helped inaugurate the "porno chic" phenomenon, in which porn was publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope) and taken seriously by film critics (like Roger Ebert), in modern American culture, and later, in many other countries throughout the world. According to Warhol, "Blue Movie" was a major influence in the making of "Last Tango in Paris", an internationally controversial erotic drama film starring Marlon Brando and released a few years after "Blue Movie" was made. Viva and Louis Waldon, playing themselves, starred in "Blue Movie".


title: Blue Movie

text: In 1970, "Mona", the second adult erotic film that received a wide release, was shown. Afterwards, other adult films, including "Boys in the Sand", "Deep Throat", "Behind the Green Door", and "The Devil in Miss Jones", were released to continue the Golden Age of Porn, beginning with "Blue Movie". In 2016, "Blue Movie" was shown at the Whitney Museum of American Art in Manhattan.


title: Blue Movie

text: The film includes dialogue about the Vietnam War, various mundane tasks and unsimulated sex, during a blissful afternoon in a New York City apartment (owned by art critic David Bourdon). The film was presented in the press as, "a film about the Vietnam War and what we can do about it." Warhol added, "the movie is about ... love, not destruction."


title: Blue Movie

text: According to Viva: "The Warhol films were about sexual disappointment and frustration: the way Andy saw the world, the way the world is, and the way nine-tenths of the population sees it, yet pretends they don’t."


title: Blue Movie

text: Andy Warhol described making "Blue Movie" as follows: "I'd always wanted to do a movie that was pure fucking, nothing else, the way "Eat" had been just eating and "Sleep" had been just sleeping. So in October '68 I shot a movie of Viva having sex with Louis Waldon. I called it just "Fuck"."


title: Blue Movie

text: The film was supposedly filmed in a single three-hour session, with 30 minutes initially cut for the 140-minute version. The climactic section was shot in a 35-minute take. According to "Variety", the film has only 10 minutes of actual sex.


title: Blue Movie

text: The film acquired a blue/green tint when Warhol utilized film stock that was meant for filming with tungsten lights, and the daylight coming through a large apartment window resulted in the film's middle reel turning blue. According to Wheeler Winston Dixon, a filmmaker and scholar who attended the first screening of the film at Warhol's Factory in the spring of 1969:


title: Blue Movie

text: The film had a benefit screening on June 12, 1969, at the Elgin Theater in New York City. "Variety" reported that the film was the "first theatrical feature to actually depict intercourse". While it was initially shown at The Factory, "Blue Movie" was not presented to a wider audience until it opened at the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theater in New York City on July 21, 1969, with a running time of 105 minutes. The film was also screened at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in California.


title: Blue Movie

text: On its opening day in New York, the film grossed a house record $3,050, with a total of $16,200 for the week. Warhol received 90% of the gross, which recovered the film's $3,000 cost quickly. Viva, in Paris, finding that "Blue Movie" was getting a lot of attention, said, "Timothy Leary loved it. Gene Youngblood did too. He said I was better than Vanessa Redgrave and it was the first time a real movie star had made love on the screen. It was a real breakthrough."


title: Blue Movie

text: On July 31, 1969, the staff of the New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre were arrested, and the film confiscated. The theater manager was eventually fined $250; afterwards, the manager said, "I don't think anyone was harmed by this movie ... I saw other pictures around town and this was a kiddie matinee compared to them." Warhol said, "What's pornography anyway? [...] The muscle magazines are called pornography, but they're really not. They teach you how to have good bodies [...] I think movies should appeal to prurient interests. I mean the way things are going now – people are alienated from one another. "Blue Movie" was "real". But it wasn't done as pornography—it was done as an exercise, an experiment. But I really do think movies "should" arouse you, should get you excited about people, should be prurient. Prurience is part of the machine. It keeps you happy. It keeps you running."


title: Blue Movie

text: Afterwards, in 1970, Warhol published "Blue Movie" in book form, with film dialogue and explicit stills, through Grove Press.


title: Blue Movie

text: When "Last Tango in Paris", an internationally controversial erotic drama film directed by Bernardo Bertolucci and starring Marlon Brando, was released in 1972, Warhol considered "Blue Movie" to be its inspiration.


title: Blue Movie

text: "Mona the Virgin Nymph", an erotic film depicting explicit sex, also received a mainstream theatrical release in the United States in 1970. Shortly thereafter, other adult films, such as "Boys in the Sand", "Deep Throat", "Behind the Green Door", and "The Devil in Miss Jones", were released, continuing the Golden Age of Porn that began with "Blue Movie". In 1973, the phenomenon of porn being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope) and taken seriously by film critics (like Roger Ebert), a development referred to by Ralph Blumenthal of "The New York Times" as "porno chic", began for the first time in modern American culture and later throughout the world.


title: Blue Movie

text: In 2005, "Blue Movie" was publicly screened in New York City for the first time in over 30 years. In 2016, the film was shown at the Whitney Museum of American Art in Manhattan.


title: Japanese bondage

text: ' means "tight binding," while ' literally means "the beauty of tight binding." is a Japanese style of bondage or BDSM which involves tying a person up using simple yet visually intricate patterns, usually with several pieces of thin rope (often jute, hemp or linen and generally around in diameter, but sometimes as small as , and between long. In Japanese this natural-fibre rope is known as . The allusion is to the use of hemp rope for restraining prisoners, as a symbol of power, in the same way that stocks or manacles are used in a Western BDSM context.


title: Japanese bondage

text: The word came into common use in the West at some point in the 1990s to describe the bondage art Kinbaku. is a Japanese word that broadly means "binding" or "tying" in most contexts, but is used in BDSM to refer to this style of decorative bondage.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Bondage as a sexual activity first came to notice in Japan in the late Edo period (about 1600s to 1860s). Generally recognized as "father of Kinbaku" is Seiu Ito, who started studying and researching "Hojōjutsu" (the art of binding a prisoner of war) and is credited with the inception of Kinbaku, though it is noted that he drew inspiration from other art forms of the time including Kabuki theatre and Ukiyoe woodblock prints. Kinbaku became widely popular in Japan in the 1950s through magazines such as "Kitan Club" and "Yomikiri Romance", which published the first naked bondage photographs. In the 1960s, people such as Eikichi Osada began to appear performing live SM shows often including a large amount of rope bondage, today these performers are often referred to as "Nawashi" (rope master) or "Bakushi" (from "kinbakushi", meaning bondage master).


title: Japanese bondage

text: In recent years, "Kinbaku" has become popular in the Western BDSM scene in its own right and has also profoundly influenced bondage, combining to produce many 'fusion' styles.


title: Japanese bondage

text: In Japan the most often used type of rope is a loose laid, three strand jute rope. This rope is referred to as "Asanawa" usually translated as "hemp rope" the word 'asa' as hemp and 'nawa' as rope, however this is using the more generic form of the word [hemp] referring to a range of natural fibre ropes rather than those pertaining to a particular plant.


title: Japanese bondage

text: In recent history a range of rope types have been used for Kinbaku in Japan though Nawashi rarely use synthetic fibre rope and most often use jute.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Kinbaku is practised with ropes of in length. Due to the generally larger physique of Western subjects, ropes are commonly used in the West. Though the rope material is usually jute (or hemp) many other materials are in use including cotton and various synthetics. Various techniques are used to make the natural fiber ropes softer.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Synthetic ropes have become popular in the USA for the vibrant colors which are available and ease of washing. Most commonly 6mm diameter, but also 8mm diameter and other sizes. The most common standard length is 30 feet or ten meters, however many vendors provide custom lengths.


title: Japanese bondage

text: The aesthetics of the bound person's position is important: in particular, Japanese bondage is distinguished by its use of specific "katas" (forms) and aesthetic rules. Sometimes, asymmetric and often intentionally uncomfortable positions are employed. In particular, Japanese bondage is very much about the way the rope is applied and the pleasure is more in the journey than the destination. In this way the rope becomes an extension of the nawashi's hands and is used to communicate.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Traditional Japanese bondage techniques use natural vegetable fiber rope (hemp, jute, or linen) exclusively, though contemporary Japanese Masters have been working with a range of rope materials. The natural fibers easily lock to each other which means the bondage can be held together by the friction of twists and turns or very simple knots.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Shibari has a strong presence in the works of some renowned contemporary artists, mainly photographers, like Nobuyoshi Araki in Japan, Jim Duvall in the United States and Hikari Kesho in Europe.


title: Japanese bondage

text: In 2014, Romanian singer-songwriter NAVI released a Shibari-themed music video, "Picture Perfect". The video, directed by Marian Nica, was controversial and banned by Romanian television for its explicit erotic content.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Shibari has also featured in Western pop culture. For example, in the music video for The Jonas Brothers song "Sucker," Joe Jonas and Sophie Turner briefly appear to be engaging in a form of Japanese-inspired bondage. More to the point, shibari is explicitly referenced in "Tying the Knot," the nineteenth episode of The Good Wife's fifth season, as the practice of shibari is integral to the episode's plot; in this episode, fictional characters Colin Sweeney and Renata Ellard Sweeney (portrayed by actors Dylan Baker and Laura Benanti respectively) are revealed to engage in the art of shibari, and shibari is also used as a means by which Renata's friend, Morgan Donnelly (portrayed by actress Jenn Gambatese), is murdered.


title: Japanese bondage

text: One modern distinction that has gained popularity among westerners wanting to distinguish the terms is that "shibari" refers to purely artistic, aesthetic rope, while "kinbaku" refers to the artistic, connective, sensual, sexual practice as a whole. While multiple books and articles have been written in Japanese about shibari, no one has found evidence of there being any thought given to the distinction between these words among Japanese practitioners of the art.


title: Japanese bondage

text: A traditional view is that the term is a Western misuse of Japanese vocabulary. The word denotes tying in Japanese, but in a generic way, and traditionally not in the context of bondage. The names for many particular ties include , but it was not traditional to name the entire activity in that way. Instead, is the term for artistic or erotic tying within traditional Japanese rope bondage circles.


title: Japanese bondage

text: An even more traditional view is that "shibari" is a term used for erotic bondage in Japan that is practically interchangeable with the term "kinbaku". Itoh Seiu (generally considered one of the fathers of contemporary Japanese rope bondage) used the term in the 1950s, with no sign of it being a "western Japonism" as did many other well-known Japanese . One of Nureki Chimuo's how-to video series from the 1980s, is titled Introduction to Shibari.


title: Japanese bondage

text: While some claim this is a somewhat hidebound definition and the word "shibari" is now increasingly being re-imported from the West to Japan, as the tying communities are very close-knit, there is no evidence to support such a conclusion as most practicing in Japan have very limited contact with the west and almost no interest in debating the meaning of words. Most Japanese do not object to the term , as it is common vernacular in the global community.


title: Japanese bondage

text: The actual term "Kinbaku" was first developed and used in the May–June 1952 issue of Kitan Club by author and Bakushi Minomura Kou and Bakushi Tsujimura Takashi. Until that issue, most magazines only had nude photographs of women but few in bondage. In order to specify the act of erotic bondage as opposed to the act of just tying Kinbaku was then created by the aforementioned Bakushi.


title: Japanese bondage

text: Kinbaku is based on fairly specific rope patterns, many of them derived from Hojojutsu ties though significantly modified to make them safer for bondage use. Many Hojojutsu ties were deliberately designed to cause harm to a prisoner and are therefore not suitable for erotic bondage. Of particular importance are the Ushiro Takatekote (a type of box tie which surrounds the chest and arms), which forms the basis of many Kinbaku ties, and the Ebi-tie, or "Shrimp", which was originally designed as a torture tie and codified as part of the Edo period torture techniques. Today the ebi-tie is used as part of BDSM play and can be considered a form of , rope torture.


title: Roger Allam

text: Roger William Allam (born 26 October 1953) is a British actor, who has performed on stage, in film, on television and radio.


title: Roger Allam

text: He played Inspector Javert in the original London production of the stage musical "Les Misérables", First Officer Douglas Richardson in the award-winning radio series "Cabin Pressure", and DCI Fred Thursday in the TV series "Endeavour". He is also known for his roles as Illyrio Mopatis in the HBO series "Game of Thrones", Royalton in "Speed Racer", Lewis Prothero in the 2005 adaptation of "V for Vendetta" and as Peter Mannion MP in "The Thick Of It".


title: Roger Allam

text: Allam was born in Bow, London, England. He was educated at Christ's Hospital and Manchester University. His father was rector of St Mary Woolnoth.


title: Roger Allam

text: From 1985 to 1986, he played Inspector Javert in the original London production of the stage musical "Les Misérables".


title: Roger Allam

text: He has also appeared in many radio dramas for the BBC. In 2001, he starred in BBC Radio 4's adaptation of "Les Misérables", as Valjean. In 2000 he played Adolf Hitler at the Royal National Theatre in David Edgar's "Albert Speer". He won an Olivier Award as Best Actor 2001, for his role as Captain Terri Denis in a revival of "Privates on Parade", opening in December 2001 at the Donmar Warehouse, Covent Garden. In November 2002 at the Comedy Theatre he co-starred with Gillian Anderson in Michael Weller's romantic comedy "What the Night Is For".


title: Roger Allam

text: In 2003, he appeared as former West German federal chancellor Willy Brandt in Michael Frayn's play "Democracy" which opened at the Cottesloe Theatre, in the Royal National Theatre. He stayed with the show for its transfer to the West End. In December 2004 and January 2005, Allam appeared as the villainous Abanazar in a pantomime of "Aladdin" at the Old Vic theatre, co-starring Ian McKellen, Maureen Lipman and Sam Kelly. He reprised this role at the Old Vic, once again with Ian McKellen and Frances Barber in 2006–07. In August 2005, Allam appeared in "Blackbird" by David Harrower alongside Jodhi May at the Edinburgh Festival in a production by German star director Peter Stein. The play transferred to the Albery Theatre in London in February 2006. "Blackbird" subsequently won a best new play award.


title: Roger Allam

text: In 2006 he appeared in Stephen Frears's film "The Queen", starring Oscar-winner Dame Helen Mirren, as the Queen's private secretary. In February 2007, he performed in the 1960s farce "Boeing-Boeing" at the Comedy Theatre in the West End, co-starring Mark Rylance, Frances de la Tour and Tamzin Outhwaite. In 2007, he appeared for the first time as Peter Mannion MP in the special episodes of the BBC comedy "The Thick of It". He reprised the role in the third series (2009), and returned in the final series (2012) as part of the expanded regular cast.


title: Roger Allam

text: In 2008, Allam played the role of Max Reinhardt, the Salzburg Festival impresario in Michael Frayn's play "Afterlife", the production staged by Michael Blakemore on the National Theatre's Lyttelton stage. In 2009, Allam played Albin/Zaza in "La Cage aux Folles" at the Playhouse in London. Allam played Falstaff in "Henry IV, Part 1" and "Henry IV, Part 2" at Shakespeare's Globe, in the 2010 season. He won the Olivier Award for Best Actor. In October 2010, Allam was reunited with his former cast mates from "Les Misérables" in the 25th anniversary concert for a performance of "One Day More".


title: Roger Allam

text: In January 2012, he starred in the first series of "Endeavour", the prequel to the long-running "Inspector Morse", playing the gruff but kind-hearted Detective Inspector Fred Thursday, young Endeavour Morse's mentor in 1960s Oxford. By 2018 Allam had portrayed his central character in five additional well-received series, which are also aired in America as part of the PBS Masterpiece Mystery! series. In March 2019, the show's sixth season had concluded on ITV, was scheduled for broadcast in the summer in the United States, and had been recommissioned for a seventh season to be set in 1970.


title: Roger Allam

text: In April 2012 he also starred as Serebrayakov in the play "Uncle Vanya" by Anton Chekhov at the Chichester Festival Theatre. In 2013 he played the role of Prospero in William Shakespeare's play "The Tempest" at Shakespeare's Globe theatre in London alongside Colin Morgan as Ariel. Allam presented Michael Frayn at the 2013 Olivier Awards with a Special Lifetime Award which was aired by ITV1. Allam has also reteamed with Stephen Frears in "Tamara Drewe", the film version of Posy Simmond's popular comic strip. He plays the crime novelist Nicholas Hardiment, who is bewitched by London journalist Tamara Drewe, played by Gemma Arterton. In the closing chapter of his "Timebends" autobiography (1987) Arthur Miller writes of Allam: "To play Adrian...in the 1986 Royal Shakespeare Company production of "The Archbishop's Ceiling", Roger Allam gave up the leading role as Javert in the monster hit "Les Misérables" because he had done it over sixty times and thought my play more challenging for him at that moment of his career. Nor did he consider his decision a particularly courageous one. This is part of what a theatre culture means and it is something few New York actors would have the sense of security even to dream of doing."


title: Roger Allam

text: In October and November 2016 Allam appeared as Brigadier Adrian Stone in the BBC series "The Missing".


title: Roger Allam

text: Since January 2020, Allam has co-starred with Joanna Lumley in the BBC Radio 4 comedy drama series "Conversations from a Long Marriage". As of March 2022, the show is in its third series.


title: Roger Allam

text: In March 2022, Allam debuted in the lead role of Antoine Verlaque in "Murder in Provence", a BritBox cosy crime drama based on the Verlaque & Bonnet detective novels by ML Longworth, alongside Nancy Carroll (The Crown) as his romantic partner Marine Bonnet.


title: Roger Allam

text: Allam is married to actress Rebecca Saire, with whom he has two sons, William, an actor, and Thomas. He, Rebecca and William appeared together in the Endeavour episode Raga (series 7, episode 2, broadcast February 2020). In that episode, Rebecca and William played mother and son.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Speaking in tongues, also known as glossolalia, is a practice in which people utter words or speech-like sounds, often thought by believers to be languages unknown to the speaker. One definition used by linguists is the fluid vocalizing of speech-like syllables that lack any readily comprehended meaning, in some cases as part of religious practice in which some believe it to be a divine language unknown to the speaker. Glossolalia is practiced in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity, as well as in other religions.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Sometimes a distinction is made between "glossolalia" and "xenolalia" or "xenoglossy", which specifically relates to the belief that the language being spoken is a natural language previously unknown to the speaker.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: "Glossolalia" is a borrowing of the , which is a compound of the , meaning "tongue" or "language" and , "to speak, talk, chat, prattle, or to make a sound". The Greek expression (in various forms) appears in the New Testament in the books of Acts and First Corinthians. In Acts 2, the followers of Christ receive the Holy Spirit and speak in the languages of at least fifteen countries or ethnic groups.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: The exact phrase "speaking in tongues" has been used at least since the translation of the New Testament into Middle English in the Wycliffe Bible in the 14th century. Frederic Farrar first used the word "glossolalia" in 1879.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In 1972, William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, published a thorough assessment of Pentecostal glossolalia that became a classic work on its linguistic characteristics. His assessment was based on a large sample of glossolalia recorded in public and private Christian meetings in Italy, the Netherlands, Jamaica, Canada, and the United States over the course of five years; his wide range of subjects included the Puerto Ricans of the Bronx, the snake handlers of the Appalachians and the spiritual Christians from Russia in Los Angeles ("Pryguny, Dukh-i-zhizniki").


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Samarin found that glossolalic speech does resemble human language in some respects. The speaker uses accent, rhythm, intonation and pauses to break up the speech into distinct units. Each unit is itself made up of syllables, the syllables being formed from consonants and vowels found in a language known to the speaker:


title: Speaking in tongues

text: It is verbal behaviour that consists of using a certain number of consonants and vowels ... in a limited number of syllables that in turn are organized into larger units that are taken apart and rearranged pseudogrammatically ... with variations in pitch, volume, speed and intensity.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: [Glossolalia] consists of strings of syllables, made up of sounds taken from all those that the speaker knows, put together more or less haphazardly but emerging nevertheless as word-like and sentence-like units because of realistic, language-like rhythm and melody.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: That the sounds are taken from the set of sounds already known to the speaker is confirmed by others. Felicitas Goodman, a psychological anthropologist and linguist, also found that the speech of glossolalists reflected the patterns of speech of the speaker's native language. These findings were confirmed by Kavan (2004).


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Samarin found that the resemblance to human language was merely on the surface and so concluded that glossolalia is "only a facade of language". He reached this conclusion because the syllable string did not form words, the stream of speech was not internally organized, and – most importantly of all – there was no systematic relationship between units of speech and concepts. Humans use language to communicate but glossolalia does not. Therefore, he concluded that glossolalia is not "a specimen of human language because it is neither internally organized nor systematically related to the world man perceives". On the basis of his linguistic analysis, Samarin defined Pentecostal glossolalia as "meaningless but phonologically structured human utterance, believed by the speaker to be a real language but bearing no systematic resemblance to any natural language, living or dead".


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Felicitas Goodman studied a number of Pentecostal communities in the United States, the Caribbean, and Mexico; these included English-, Spanish- and Mayan-speaking groups. She compared what she found with recordings of non-Christian rituals from Africa, Borneo, Indonesia and Japan. She took into account both the segmental structure (such as sounds, syllables, phrases) and the supra-segmental elements (rhythm, accent, intonation) and concluded that there was no distinction between what was practised by the Pentecostal Protestants and the followers of other religions.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: It was a commonplace idea within the Ancient world that divine beings spoke languages different from human languages, and historians of religion have identified references to esoteric speech in Greco-Roman literature that resemble glossolalia, sometimes explained as angelic or divine language. An example is the account in the Testament of Job, a non-canonical elaboration of the Book of Job, where the daughters of Job are described as being given sashes enabling them to speak and sing in angelic languages.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: According to Dale B. Martin, glossolalia was accorded high status in the ancient world due to its association with the divine. Alexander of Abonoteichus may have exhibited glossolalia during his episodes of prophetic ecstasy. Neoplatonist philosopher Iamblichus linked glossolalia to prophecy, writing that prophecy was divine spirit possession that "emits words which are not understood by those that utter them; for they pronounce them, as it is said, with an insane mouth ("mainomenό stomati") and are wholly subservient, and entirely yield themselves to the energy of the predominating God".


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In his writings on early Christianity, the Greek philosopher Celsus includes an account of Christian glossolalia. Celsus describes prophecies made by several Christians in Palestine and Phoenicia of which he writes, "Having brandished these threats they then go on to add incomprehensible, incoherent, and utterly obscure utterances, the meaning of which no intelligent person could discover: for they are meaningless and nonsensical, and give a chance for any fool or sorcerer to take the words in whatever sense he likes".


title: Speaking in tongues

text: References to speaking in tongues by the Church fathers are rare. Except for Irenaeus' 2nd-century reference to many in the church speaking all kinds of languages "through the Spirit", and Tertullian's reference in 207 AD to the spiritual gift of interpretation of tongues being encountered in his day, there are no other known first-hand accounts of glossolalia, and very few second-hand accounts among their writings.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: During the 20th century, glossolalia primarily became associated with Pentecostalism and the later charismatic movement. Preachers in the Holiness Movement preachers Charles Parham and William Seymour are credited as co-founders of the movement. Parham and Seymour taught that "baptism of the Holy Spirit was not the blessing of sanctification but rather a third work of grace that was accompanied by the experience of tongues". It was Parham who formulated the doctrine of "initial evidence". After studying the Bible, Parham came to the conclusion that speaking in tongues was the Bible evidence that one had received the baptism with the Holy Spirit.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In 1900, Parham opened Bethel Bible College in Topeka, Kansas, America, where he taught initial evidence, a Charismatic belief about how to initiate the practice. During a service on 1 January 1901, a student named Agnes Ozman asked for prayer and the laying on of hands to specifically ask God to fill her with the Holy Spirit. She became the first of many students to experience glossolalia, in the first hours of the 20th century. Parham followed within the next few days. Parham called his new movement the apostolic faith. In 1905, he moved to Houston and opened a Bible school there. One of his students was William Seymour, an African-American preacher. In 1906, Seymour traveled to Los Angeles where his preaching ignited the Azusa Street Revival. This revival is considered the birth of the global Pentecostal movement. According to the first issue of William Seymour's newsletter, "The Apostolic Faith", from 1906:


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Parham and his early followers believed that speaking in tongues was xenoglossia, and some followers traveled to foreign countries and tried to use the gift to share the Gospel with non-English-speaking people. From the time of the Azusa Street revival and among early participants in the Pentecostal movement, there were many accounts of individuals hearing their own languages spoken 'in tongues'. The majority of Pentecostals and Charismatics consider speaking in tongues to primarily be divine, or the "language of angels", rather than human languages. In the years following the Azusa Street revival Pentecostals who went to the mission field found that they were unable to speak in the language of the local inhabitants at will when they spoke in tongues in strange lands.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: The revival at Azusa Street lasted until around 1915. From it grew many new Pentecostal churches as people visited the services in Los Angeles and took their newfound beliefs to communities around the United States and abroad. During the 20th century, glossolalia became an important part of the identity of these religious groups. During the 1960s, the charismatic movement within the mainline Protestant churches and among charismatic Roman Catholics adopted some Pentecostal beliefs, and the practice of glossolalia spread to other Christian denominations. The discussion regarding tongues has permeated many branches of Protestantism, particularly since the widespread charismatic movement in the 1960s. Many books have been published either defending or attacking the practice.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In Christianity, a supernatural explanation for glossolalia is advocated by some and rejected by others. Proponents of each viewpoint use the biblical writings and historical arguments to support their positions.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: The biblical account of Pentecost in the second chapter of the book of Acts describes the sound of a mighty rushing wind and "divided tongues like fire" coming to rest on the apostles. The text further describes that "they were all filled with the Holy Spirit, and began to speak in other languages". It goes on to say in verses 5–11 that when the Apostles spoke, each person in attendance "heard their own language being spoken". Therefore, the gift of speaking in tongues refers to the Apostles' speaking languages that the people listening heard as "them telling in our own tongues the mighty works of God". Glossolalists and cessationists both recognize this as xenoglossia, a miraculous ability that marked their baptism in the Holy Spirit. Something similar (although perhaps not xenoglossia) took place on at least two subsequent occasions, in Caesarea and Ephesus.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Glossolalists and cessationists generally agree that the primary purpose of the gift of speaking in tongues was to mark the Holy Spirit being poured out. At Pentecost the Apostle Peter declared that this gift, which was making some in the audience ridicule the disciples as drunks, be the fulfilment of the prophecy of Joel, which described that God would pour out his Spirit on all flesh ().


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Baptism with the Holy Spirit is regarded by the Holiness Pentecostals (the oldest branch of Pentecostalism) as being the third work of grace, following the new birth (first work of grace) and entire sanctification (second work of grace). Holiness Pentecostals teach that this third work of grace is accompanied with glossolalia.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Because Pentecostal and charismatic beliefs are not monolithic, there is not complete theological agreement on speaking in tongues. Generally, followers believe that speaking in tongues is a spiritual gift that can be manifested as either a human language or a heavenly supernatural language in three ways:


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Many Pentecostals and charismatics quote Paul's words in 1 Corinthians 14 which established guidelines on the public use of glossolalia in the church at Corinth although the exegesis of this passage and the extent to which these instructions are followed is a matter of academic debate.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: The gift of tongues is often referred to as a "message in tongues". Practitioners believe that this use of glossolalia requires an interpretation so that the gathered congregation can understand the message, which is accomplished by the interpretation of tongues. There are two schools of thought concerning the nature of a message in tongues:


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In addition to praying in the Spirit, many Pentecostal and charismatic churches practice what is known as singing in the Spirit.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In Christian theology, the "interpretation of tongues" is one of the spiritual gifts listed in 1 Corinthians 12. This gift is used in conjunction with that of the gift of tonguesthe supernatural ability to speak in a language (tongue) unknown to the speaker. The gift of interpretation is the supernatural enablement to express in an intelligible language an utterance spoken in an unknown tongue. This is not learned but imparted by the Holy Spirit; therefore, it should not be confused with the acquired skill of language interpretation. While cessationist Christians believe that this miraculous charism has ceased, Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians believe that this gift continues to operate within the church. Much of what is known about this gift was recorded by St. Paul in 1 Corinthians 14. In this passage, guidelines for the proper use of the gift of tongues were given. In order for the gift of tongues to be beneficial to the edification of the church, such supernatural utterances were to be interpreted into the language of the gathered Christians. If no one among the gathered Christians possessed the gift of interpretation, then the gift of tongues was not to be publicly exercised. Those possessing the gift of tongues were encouraged to pray for the ability to interpret.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Other religious groups have been observed to practice some form of theopneustic glossolalia. It is perhaps most commonly in Paganism, Shamanism, and other mediumistic religious practices. In Japan, the God Light Association believed that glossolalia could cause adherents to recall past lives.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: In the 19th century, Spiritism was developed by the work of Allan Kardec, and the practice was seen as one of the self-evident manifestations of spirits. Spiritists argued that some cases were actually cases of xenoglossia.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Glossolalia is classified as a non-neurogenic language disorder. Most people exhibiting glossolalia do not have a neuropsychiatric disorder.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Neuroimaging of brain activity during glossolalia does not show activity in the language areas of the brain. In other words, it may be characterized by a specific brain activity and it can be a learned behaviour.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: A 1973 experimental study highlighted the existence of two basic types of glossolalia: a static form which tends to a somewhat coaction to repetitiveness and a more dynamic one which tends to free association of speech-like elements.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: A study done by the "American Journal of Human Biology" found that speaking in tongues is associated with both a reduction in circulatory cortisol, and enhancements in alpha-amylase enzyme activitytwo common biomarkers of stress reduction that can be measured in saliva. Several sociological studies report various social benefits of engaging in Pentecostal glossolalia, such as an increase in self-confidence.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: As of April 2021, further studies are needed to corroborate the 1980s view of glossolaly with more sensitive measures of outcome, by using the more recent techniques of neuroimaging.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Speakers of glossolalia are capable of speaking in tongues on cue, contrary to the claim that it is a spontaneous event.


title: Speaking in tongues

text: Analysis of glossolalics reveals a pseudo-language that lacks consistent syntax, semantic meaning, usually rhythmic or poetic in nature and is similar to the speaker's native tongue. Samples of glossolalia shows a lack of consistency needed for meaningful comparison or translation. It also is not used to communicate between fellow glossolalia speakers, although the meaning is usually translated by the leader involved, in line with and supportive of whatever message or teaching had been given that day, in some way giving divine legitimacy to what is said.


title: Hominini

text: The Hominini form a taxonomic tribe of the subfamily Homininae ("hominines"). Hominini includes the extant genera "Homo" (humans) and "Pan" (chimpanzees and bonobos) and in standard usage excludes the genus "Gorilla" (gorillas).


title: Hominini

text: Arambourg combined the categories of "Hominina" and "Simiina" due to Gray (1825) into his new subtribe.


title: Hominini

text: Traditionally, chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans were grouped together as pongids. Since Gray's classification, evidence has accumulated from genetic phylogeny confirming that humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas are more closely related to each other than to the orangutan. The former pongids were reassigned to the subfamily Hominidae ("great apes"), which already included humans, but the details of this reassignment remain contested; within Hominini, not every source excludes gorillas, and not every source includes chimpanzees.


title: Hominini

text: Humans are the only extant species in the Australopithecine branch (subtribe), which also contains many extinct close relatives of humans.


title: Hominini

text: Concerning membership, when Hominini is taken to exclude "Pan", Panini ("panins") may refer to the tribe containing "Pan" as its only genus. Or perhaps place "Pan" with other dryopithecine genera, making the whole tribe or subtribe of Panini or Panina together. Minority dissenting nomenclatures include "Gorilla" in Hominini and "Pan" in "Homo" (Goodman et al. 1998), or both "Pan" and "Gorilla" in "Homo" (Watson et al. 2001).


title: Hominini

text: By convention, the adjectival term "hominin" (or nominalized "hominins") refers to the tribe Hominini, whereas the members of the subtribe Hominina (and thus all archaic human species) are referred to as "homininian" ("homininians"). This follows the proposal by Mann and Weiss (1996), which presents tribe Hominini as including both "Pan" and "Homo", placed in separate subtribes. The genus "Pan" is referred to subtribe Panina, and genus "Homo" is included in the subtribe Hominina (see below).


title: Hominini

text: However, there is an alternative convention which uses "hominin" to exclude members of Panina, i.e. either just for "Homo" or for both human and australopithecine species. This alternative convention is referenced in e.g. Coyne (2009) and in Dunbar (2014). Potts (2010) in addition uses the name Hominini in a different sense, as excluding "Pan", and uses "hominins" for this, while a separate tribe (rather than subtribe) for chimpanzees is introduced, under the name Panini. In this recent convention, "contra" Arambourg, the term "hominin" is applied to "Homo", "Australopithecus", "Ardipithecus", and others that arose after the split from the line that led to chimpanzees (see cladogram below); that is, they distinguish fossil members on the human side of the split, as "hominins", from those on the chimpanzee side, as "not hominins" (or "non-hominin hominids").


title: Hominini

text: This cladogram shows the clade of superfamily Hominoidea and its descendent clades, focused on the division of Hominini (omitting detail on clades not ancestral to Hominini). The family Hominidae ("hominids") comprises the tribes Ponginae (including orangutans), Gorillini (including gorillas) and Hominini, the latter two forming the subfamily of Homininae. Hominini is divided into Panina (chimpanzees) and Australopithecina (australopithecines). The Hominina (humans) are usually held to have emerged within the Australopithecina (which would roughly correspond to the alternative definition of Hominini according to the alternative definition which excludes "Pan").


title: Hominini

text: Genetic analysis combined with fossil evidence indicates that hominoids diverged from the Old World monkeys about 25 million years ago (Mya), near the Oligocene-Miocene boundary. The most recent common ancestors (MRCA) of the subfamilies Homininae and Ponginae lived about 15 million years ago. The most well-known fossil genus of Ponginae is "Sivapithecus", consisting of several species from 12.5 million to 8.5 million years ago. It differs from orangutans in dentition and postcranial morphology. In the following cladogram, the approximate time the clades radiated newer clades is indicated in millions of years ago (Mya).


title: Hominini

text: Both "Sahelanthropus" and "Orrorin" existed during the estimated duration of the ancestral chimpanzee–human speciation events, within the range of eight to four million years ago (Mya). Very few fossil specimens have been found that can be considered directly ancestral to genus "Pan". News of the first fossil chimpanzee, found in Kenya, was published in 2005. However, it is dated to very recent times—between 545 and 284 thousand years ago. The divergence of a "proto-human" or "pre-human" lineage separate from "Pan" appears to have been a process of complex speciation-hybridization rather than a clean split, taking place over the period of anywhere between 13 Mya (close to the age of the tribe Hominini itself) and some 4 Mya. Different chromosomes appear to have split at different times, with broad-scale hybridization activity occurring between the two emerging lineages as late as the period 6.3 to 5.4 Mya, according to Patterson et al. (2006), This research group noted that one hypothetical late hybridization period was based in particular on the similarity of X chromosomes in the proto-humans and stem chimpanzees, suggesting that the final divergence was even as recent as 4 Mya. Wakeley (2008) rejected these hypotheses; he suggested alternative explanations, including selection pressure on the X chromosome in the ancestral populations prior to the chimpanzee–human last common ancestor (CHLCA).


title: Hominini

text: Most DNA studies find that humans and "Pan" are 99% identical, but one study found only 94% commonality, with some of the difference occurring in non-coding DNA. It is most likely that the australopithecines, dating from 4.4 to 3 Mya, evolved into the earliest members of genus "Homo". In the year 2000, the discovery of "Orrorin tugenensis", dated as early as 6.2 Mya, briefly challenged critical elements of that hypothesis, as it suggested that "Homo" did not in fact derive from australopithecine ancestors. All the listed fossil genera are evaluated for:


title: Hominini

text: Some, including "Paranthropus", "Ardipithecus", and "Australopithecus", are broadly thought to be ancestral and closely related to "Homo"; others, especially earlier genera, including "Sahelanthropus" (and perhaps "Orrorin"), are supported by one community of scientists but doubted by another.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: Federico Chiesa (; born 25 October 1997) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a winger for club Juventus and the Italy national team. He is the son of former footballer Enrico Chiesa.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: Coming through Fiorentina's youth academy, Chiesa made his first-team debut in 2016. He stayed at the club for four years, scoring 34 goals in 153 appearances in all competitions. Chiesa moved to Juventus in the 2020–21 season, winning the Coppa Italia and Supercoppa Italiana in his first season.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: At international level, Chiesa made his senior debut for Italy in March 2018. He helped his country win the UEFA Euro 2020, while being named in the Team of the Tournament.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: Chiesa began his youth career with Settignanese from Settignano, a "frazione" northeast of Florence, where he was coached by Fiorentina legend Kurt Hamrin.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: He joined Fiorentina in 2007. Initially a member of their "Giovanili" side, Chiesa was assigned to the under-19 squad for the , and scored a single goal in seven appearances for their "Primavera" side. The following season, he made 23 appearances and scored seven goals. Chiesa signed his first professional contract with Fiorentina in February 2016.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: He made his competitive debut for Fiorentina in a 2–1 away defeat against Juventus, during the opening fixture of the 2016–17 Serie A season. Fiorentina manager Paulo Sousa opted to replace him at half-time with loan signing Cristian Tello. On 29 September, Chiesa made his Europa League debut in Fiorentina's 5–1 home win over Qarabağ. On 8 December, he marked his fourth Europa League appearance by scoring his first ever senior goal in a 1–2 away victory over Qarabağ; he was later sent off during the same match for a double booking.


title: Federico Chiesa

text: On 15 January 2017, Chiesa appeared to score the match-winner in a 2–1 home win over rivals Juventus, from a Milan Badelj pass; however, the goal was assigned to Badelj, as, following review, the replays did not confirm whether Chiesa had deflected the pass. Later that month, Chiesa extended his contract with Fiorentina until 30 June 2021. On 21 January, he scored his first goal in Serie A in a 3–0 away victory over Chievo. Just eight days later, Chiesa scored his second league goal in a 3–3 home draw against Genoa. On 7 May, he netted the opening goal for Fiorentina in an eventual 2–2 draw against Sassuolo; this being his third goal for the club, and his first in Serie A in nearly four months. The goal came just four minutes after teammate Nikola Kalinić's penalty miss just after the half-hour mark.