title: Craig David

text: In July 2012, it was revealed David was writing with Backstreet Boys on their 20th-anniversary album, the follow-up to their 2009 album "This Is Us" and the first they released since the return of Kevin Richardson who departed from the band in 2005.


title: Craig David

text: In January 2013, David announced on Twitter that he had signed a publishing deal with Universal Music Publishing Group (UMPG). The deal saw David's publishing company, formally known as Bootyman Music Publishing merge to become JEM Music.


title: Craig David

text: Starting in March 2013, David embarked on a world tour starting with three shows across Australia, followed by four in Europe (France, Belgium, Germany and The Netherlands) and finally finishing in May with four shows in England (Birmingham, Manchester, Southampton and London). In September 2013, Capital FM announced that David's DJ show 'TS5' would move


title: Craig David

text: On 2 July 2014, David previewed a teaser track titled "Cold" on his official SoundCloud page. Premiering it on his TS5 radio show the week before, he wanted to preview some of the new music he has been working on in anticipation of his long-awaited sixth studio album. A further teaser track titled "Seduction" was uploaded to the same SoundCloud page in September 2014.


title: Craig David

text: On 5 September 2015, David featured on BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge with Sigala where they covered Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth's "See You Again" mixed with the Little Mix track "Black Magic". The following week, on 10 September 2015, David appeared on Kurupt FM's 'Sixty Minute Takeover' on BBC Radio 1Xtra with MistaJam. He performed "Fill Me In" over the track "Where Are Ü Now" and it became a viral internet hit. Two snippets of potential new album tracks were also played on the night and this 1Xtra appearance led to David making surprise performances of the "Fill Me In" / "Where Are Ü Now" remix at Fabric with Kurupt FM and Alexandra Palace with Major Lazer and Diplo.


title: Craig David

text: It was later revealed that the Radio 1Xtra appearance led to a collaboration between David and Big Narstie who also featured on the show and the track they recorded titled "When the Bassline Drops" was played on MistaJam's BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra show on 7 November 2015, it was later revealed the track is to be released under SpeakerBox/JEM on 27 November 2015. David made a surprise appearance on "The X Factor" on 13 December 2015, where he performed his breakthrough single "Re-Rewind" during a medley with Reggie 'n' Bollie and Fuse ODG. "When the Bassline Drops" debuted at number 50 in the UK and peaked at number 10 on 5 February 2016, becoming David's highest-charting single since 2007.


title: Craig David

text: On 25 January 2016, it was announced that Craig David had signed a recording contract with Insanity Records (a joint venture between Sony Music UK and Insanity Management) and independent company Speakerbox Media.


title: Craig David

text: On 19 March 2016, at the second day of the Ultra Music Festival 2016, during the set of the Dutch DJ and record producer Hardwell, he appeared to present their new track "No Holding Back", which was released on 19 August 2016.


title: Craig David

text: In 2016, David appeared on Kaytranada's album "99.9%", on the track "Got It Good", which he also co-wrote. This song also appeared on his sixth studio album. On 19 August 2016, Craig announced on social networks that his sixth studio album, "Following My Intuition", would finally be released on 30 September 2016. It debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, giving David his first number-one album since his debut, "Born to Do It", reached the top spot in 2000.


title: Craig David

text: On 15 September 2017, David announced the release of the seventh studio album, "The Time Is Now", which was released in January 2018, along with the single "Heartline".


title: Craig David

text: On 23 November, David released his second single from "The Time Is Now", "I Know You" featuring Bastille. David and Dan Smith from Bastille performed the song live a day later on "Sounds Like Friday Night". The single peaked at number 5 in 2018, making it David's highest charting single since "Don't Love You No More (I'm Sorry)" in 2005.


title: Craig David

text: On 31 May 2019, David released a new single "When You Know What Love Is" from his upcoming eighth album. In July, David made a cameo appearance in Love Island, performing the single as a DJ at a Ministry of Sound pool party.


title: Craig David

text: On 31 December 2019 and 1 January 2020, David performed on BBC One's New Year Live concert at Westminster Central Hall with his full band and TS5 DJ set.


title: Craig David

text: After appearing on KSI's BMG-released album "All Over the Place", David went independent as a solo artist in order to release his new album.


title: Craig David

text: In May 2021, he appeared on "Summertime", a single from "People Just Do Nothing" stars Kurupt FM, which appeared on their album "The Greatest Hits (Part 1)". In October, he scored a Top 40 single with MNEK called "Who You Are", which was produced by Digital Farm Animals and released by Moor in association with BMG.


title: Craig David

text: David ended the year as one of the judges on new talent show "Walk the Line". Debuting on ITV on 12 December 2021, David joined Gary Barlow, Dawn French and Alesha Dixon on the judging panel.


title: Craig David

text: In August 2022 he performed "7 Days", "Live in the Moment" and "Fill Me In" alongside Coldplay at Wembley Stadium.


title: Craig David

text: On September 30, 2022, David released his eighth studio album, "22", via his own TS5 label and Moor Records under exclusive license to BMG. The album was preceded by and features singles "Who You Are" (featuring MNEK), "My Heart's Been Waiting for You" (featuring Duvall), "G Love" (featuring Nippa) and "DNA" (featuring Galantis). "Who You Are (Part 2)", "Who You Are" (Stripped) and "DNA (Part 2)" were also released as additional promotional singles.


title: Craig David

text: On 14 November 2022, music festival Camp Bestival announced their 2023 lineup, which included David, alongside Primal Scream, Melanie C, Grace Jones, The Kooks, the Human League, and others.


title: Craig David

text: On 9 September 2020, David signed a global publishing deal with New York-based Round Hill Music. The agreement includes all of David's music catalogue to date, and also includes a futures agreement that will see all of his new music administered by the company.


title: Craig David

text: David was frequently caricatured by comedian Leigh Francis on the British TV comedy show "Bo' Selecta!"; the show's title itself being a reference to his song "Re-Rewind (The Crowd Say Bo Selecta)". Although many other celebrities lampooned in the series appreciated the jokes and even appeared in the series themselves, David – the series's most prominently mocked target – did not enjoy the attention, remarking that the public were no longer taking him seriously. Speaking to "The Sunday Times" in 2007, David said that "The whole "Bo' Selecta!" thing was killing me for a while because this idiot had a cult following and I was the main caricature. ... Inside it was absolutely pissing me off and hurtful beyond belief. There were times when I thought I just want to knock this guy out".


title: Craig David

text: Although he made an appearance himself on the programme (as the pseudo-fictional tribute act "Craig Davis"), he regretted it. However, he has also denied that his career had been ruined as a result of the show, and has said that he was satisfied with his musical output over the years.


title: Craig David

text: In a 2015 interview with the "Daily Mirror", David stated that he had no hard feelings towards Francis, explaining how he had seen him at a wedding and given him a hug, assuring him they were "cool". He further explained in the interview that it was his PR team who suggested that he "play hurt" by the caricature. He reiterated this stance on "The Jonathan Ross Show" in 2016 and explained that, contrary to popular belief, he had not fled the UK to escape negative attention brought about from the show.


title: Craig David

text: In June 2020, Francis apologised for his portrayal of David (among other black and mixed race celebrities such as Michael Jackson, Mel B, and Trisha Goddard) in the show as a response to the Black Lives Matter movement and George Floyd protests, stating that "I want to say sorry for any upset I caused whether I was Michael Jackson, Craig David or Trisha Goddard... all people who I am a big fan of." "Bo' Selecta!" was removed from the video on demand service All 4 later that same month for similar reasons.


title: Craig David

text: David raised the topic again in October 2022. "Every sketch felt personal", he told "The Times". "It felt like a vendetta and when it got a following, it became something that affected me. People would shout at me on the street and I felt the same feeling I had when I was bullied at school. Leigh Francis had normalised bullying by making it comedy. When he put blackface on, that was being racist. We can all apologise when on the back foot. Has he reached out to any of the people he did on his show? He hasn't reached out to me. Has he gone to communities to talk about bullying? Racism? And to be educated? You can only ask him."


title: Craig David

text: On 24 March 2010 (World Tuberculosis Day), the World Health Organization appointed Craig David as a Goodwill Ambassador against tuberculosis. His first activity in this role was to travel to South Africa to learn more about tuberculosis, where he met people suffering from the disease and those who have recovered, and scientists who have dedicated their lives to fighting tuberculosis. David stated that his mission is to help overcome the social stigma of TB in order to combat the disease.


title: Craig David

text: In January 2021 it was announced that Craig David would appear in an E-Sports series in a campaign with Mclaren and British American Tobacco (BAT) in order to enable them to reach their customers "in new, exciting and engaging ways" to push the nicotine pouch brand VELO. He appears in the series alongside other UK stars including presenter Rory Reid and Fred Sirieix. Craig has also been criticised by Action on Smoking and Health in 2013 for appearing in another Big Tobacco funded appearance in Penang, Malaysia where Japan Tobacco International sponsored a concert.


title: Craig David

text: On 30 December 2020, it was announced that in the Queen’s New Year Honours List David had been appointed as MBE in recognition of his services to music. His manager Colin Lester was also appointed OBE in recognition of his services to the music industry and to charity. David received his award at Windsor Castle on 15 December 2021.


title: The Undoing

text: The Undoing is a 2020 American mystery psychological thriller television miniseries based on the 2014 novel "You Should Have Known" by Jean Hanff Korelitz. It was written and produced by David E. Kelley and directed by Susanne Bier. The miniseries stars Nicole Kidman and Hugh Grant and premiered on HBO on October 25, 2020.


title: The Undoing

text: "The Undoing" was the first HBO show to gain viewership every week over the course of the season, and was the biggest U.S. show to launch on Sky in the U.K, beating the record previously held by "Game of Thrones". It was the most-watched show on HBO in 2020. The series received generally positive reviews, with critics praising the performances (particularly Kidman and Grant), cinematography and production design, but some criticizing the writing, pace and characterization.


title: The Undoing

text: On March 12, 2018, it was announced that HBO had given the production a series order. The miniseries was written by David E. Kelley who also serves as executive producer alongside Nicole Kidman, Per Saari, and Bruna Papandrea. Production companies involved in the series include Blossom Films, Made Up Stories, and David E. Kelley Productions. On November 7, 2018, it was reported that Susanne Bier would direct every episode of the series and serve as an executive producer. On March 8, 2020, it was announced that the series was set to premiere on May 10, 2020. However, it was later delayed to October 25, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: The Undoing

text: Alongside the initial series announcement, it was confirmed that, in addition to executive producing the series, Nicole Kidman had been cast in the series' lead female role. In November 2018, it was announced that Hugh Grant and Donald Sutherland had been cast in starring roles. On January 28, 2019, it was reported that Noah Jupe had joined the main cast. In March, Fala Chen, Édgar Ramírez, Lily Rabe, Ismael Cruz Córdova and Matilda De Angelis were added to the cast. In April 2019, it was announced that Noma Dumezweni had joined the cast. Also in April 2019, it was announced that Michael Devine had joined the cast.


title: The Undoing

text: The show filmed in New York City and Kingston, New York. Planned filming on Shelter Island, New York, was canceled due to objections from residents, and therefore the beach and beach house scenes were instead filmed on the North Fork of Long Island.


title: The Undoing

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the miniseries holds an approval rating of 77% based on 90 reviews, with an average rating of 7.13/10. The website's critics consensus reads, ""The Undoing" is a beautifully shot mystery that benefits greatly from Nicole Kidman and Hugh Grant's performances—if only its story was as strong as its star power." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 64 out of 100 based on 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: The Undoing

text: Kristen Baldwin of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the series a 'B' grade and wrote, "Through all of the misdirects, the characters' dumb decisions, the dreamy detours, "The Undoing" kept me guessing—and, of course, gloating over everyone's misfortune." Reviewing the miniseries for "Rolling Stone", Alan Sepinwall gave it 2 out of 5 stars and said, "It's all extremely rote, like an expanded version of the mid-budget Nineties movie that would have starred Kidman and Grant at their respective heights of celebrity."


title: The Undoing

text: Assessing the series as a whole following the finale, Roxana Hadadi of "Vulture" unfavorably compared "The Undoing" to David E. Kelley's previous series, "Big Little Lies" (also starring Kidman), stating, "Kelley re-created the elitism of "Big Little Lies" when adapting "You Should Have Known" into "The Undoing", but neither its introspective spirit nor its curiosity about the inner lives of women." Hadadi particularly criticized the series for its inconsistent and shallow characterization of its protagonist, Grace Fraser, compared to Kidman's "Big Little Lies" character, Celeste Wright: "In prioritizing unbelievable twists rather than steady character development, Kelley re-creates Grace as a shell of Celeste, making her the hollow center of "The Undoing." Grace wears the same kind of clothes as Celeste, and has access to the same powerful allies as Celeste, and lives in the same sort of mansions as Celeste. But Kidman’s performance here is mostly one of wide, shocked eyes and blank, inexpressive despair; her Grace rarely, if ever, talks about herself, her emotions, or her decisions." Eve Gerber of "The Atlantic" criticized the series for glamorizing domestic violence, noting that critical discussion about the series largely avoided the subject and instead focused more on the series' production values, makeup and costuming.


title: The Undoing

text: The series gained traction as the season continued and broke records. For HBO, the show made history as the network's first original series to gain viewership every week over the course of the season and the finale was the most-watched night on the network since the Season 2 finale of "Big Little Lies". It became HBO's most-watched show of 2020, surpassing the audience of "Big Little Lies." It also became the biggest U.S. show to launch on Sky in the U.K, beating the record previously held by "Game of Thrones".


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Isaac "Bougie" Herzog (; born 22 September 1960) is an Israeli politician who has been serving as the 11th president of Israel since 2021. He is the first president to be born in Israel after its Declaration of Independence.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Son of former Israeli president Chaim Herzog, he is a lawyer by profession and served as the Government Secretary from 1999 and 2001. He was a member of the Knesset from 2003 to 2018. He held several ministerial posts between 2005 and 2011, including serving as Minister of Welfare and Social Services from 2007 to 2011 under prime ministers Ehud Olmert and Benjamin Netanyahu.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: He served as chairman of the Labor Party and the Zionist Union alliance from 2013 and 2017. He served as the Leader of the Opposition from 2013 to 2018 and was the Labor Party candidate for prime minister during the 2015 elections.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: He was elected in the 2021 Israeli presidential election and was inaugurated on 7 July 2021. He is the first son of an Israeli president to become president himself.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Isaac (Yitzhak) Herzog, aka "Bougie", was born in Tel Aviv. He is the son of General Chaim Herzog, who served two terms as the Sixth President of Israel from 1983 to 1993, and Aura Ambache, founder of the Council for a Beautiful Israel. Herzog's father was born in Ireland and his mother was born in Egypt; their families were of Eastern European Jewish descent (from Poland, Russia, and Lithuania). He has two brothers and a sister. His paternal grandfather, Rabbi Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog, was the first Chief Rabbi of Ireland from 1922 to 1935 and Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Israel from 1936 to 1959. The third foreign minister of Israel, Abba Eban, was his uncle.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: When his father served as permanent representative of Israel to the United Nations for three years, Herzog lived in New York City and attended the Ramaz School. In the following years, while also studying in high school, Herzog gained an advanced academic education at Cornell University and New York University and spent summers at Camp Ramah. He also accompanied his father to visit the Lubavitcher Rebbe in Brooklyn.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: When he returned to Israel at the end of 1978, he enlisted in the Israel Defense Forces and served as a major officer in Unit 8200 of the Israeli Intelligence Corps.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Herzog studied law at Tel Aviv University. He worked at a law firm founded by his father, Herzog, Fox & Ne'eman.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Although he did not win a seat in the 1999 elections, Herzog served as the secretary of the government in Ehud Barak's cabinet until 2001 when Barak was defeated by Ariel Sharon in a special election for prime minister. In 1999, he was also investigated in the "Amutot Barak" scandal (a scandal involving allegations that the party funding law was violated), but maintained his silence. The Attorney General, therefore, decided to close the case against him due to lack of evidence. From 2000 until 2003, he served as chairman of the Israel Anti-Drug Authority.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Herzog won a seat in the 2003 election as a member of the Labor Party, and was appointed Minister of Housing and Construction at his request when Labor joined Ariel Sharon's coalition government on 10 January 2005. However, on 23 November 2005, he resigned from his cabinet post along with the rest of the party. Prior to the 2006 elections, Herzog won second place on Labor's list in the party's primaries. He was initially appointed Minister of Tourism in Ehud Olmert's Kadima-led coalition, but was reassigned to the Social Affairs ministry in March 2007 after Yisrael Beiteinu was awarded the Tourism Ministry following their late entry to the governing coalition, and was also appointed Minister of the Diaspora, Society and the Fight Against Antisemitism. He was again second on the party's list for the 2009 elections. Following the election, he was appointed Minister of Welfare and Social Services and Minister of the Diaspora. In January 2009 he was appointed by PM Ehud Olmert as the Israel Government Coordinator for the provision of humanitarian aid to the population of Gaza. He later resigned from the cabinet after Ehud Barak left the Labor Party to establish Independence in January 2011.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In 2011 Herzog was an unsuccessful candidate for the Labor Party leadership. He finished third in the primaries that year after Shelly Yachimovich and Amir Peretz.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: On 22 November 2013 Herzog was elected leader of the Labor Party, defeating incumbent Shelly Yachimovich by 58.5% to 41.5%. In doing so, he became Leader of the Opposition. Whereas Yachimovich focused first on socioeconomic issues, Herzog prioritizes security and resolution of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Ten days after the election, Herzog met with Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas to pledge his support for the two-state solution.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Herzog reportedly reached out to Shas leader Aryeh Deri to increase cooperation between the two opposition factions.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In June 2014, Herzog criticized PM Benjamin Netanyahu for failing to engage the international community, failing to present a proposal for peace with Palestinians, and failure to work effectively with the President of the United States, Barack Obama. Herzog declared that Netanyahu's "loathing and hostility for Barack Obama" was one of his greatest failures, since it put Israel's security at risk.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: With the governing coalition dissolving and new elections expected in March 2015, Herzog called on Hatnua and Kadima parties to join his Labor Party in forming a new coalition. In an interview with Ynet, he stated, "I am capable of replacing Netanyahu. I will do everything in order to establish a bloc before the elections." Shortly thereafter, Herzog and Tzipi Livni, who was justice minister and is head of a centrist faction, announced they would campaign on a joint slate in the upcoming election in an effort to keep Netanyahu, leader of the Likud Party, from securing a fourth term as prime minister. The joint list was named Zionist Union, winning 24 seats to Likud's 30 in the 2015 election, making it the largest Opposition faction.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In July 2017, Herzog was eliminated in the first round of the Labor party primaries. Avi Gabbay went on to win the leadership elections; however, Herzog remained official leader of the opposition in the Knesset as Gabay was not an elected MK. After being elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel, Herzog resigned as Leader of the Opposition and from the Knesset. Tzipi Livni succeeded him as Leader of the Opposition, whilst Robert Tiviaev replaced him in the Knesset.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In June 2018 Herzog was unanimously elected chairman of the Jewish Agency for Israel. Herzog marked bridging the gap between the Jewish people and the State of Israel as one of his objectives. In an interview on Ynet news, Herzog stated that he views intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews as a plague to which there must be a solution. On October 24, 2018, Herzog led a resolution to reaffirm the Jewish Agency's Board of Governors' commitment to the principles of a democratic Israel as emerging from the Declaration of Independence.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Following the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, Herzog expressed his concern from the rising anti-Semitism all over the world. In the International Holocaust Remembrance Day ceremony at the European Parliament in Brussels he urged the leaders of European countries to fight anti-Semitism and to adopt the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance's definition of anti-Semitism. In March 2019 the Jewish Agency became the first public institution in Israel to help employees finance surrogacy services abroad so that they can become parents (this includes gay and single parents).


title: Isaac Herzog

text: On 19 May 2021, Herzog announced his candidacy in the 2021 Israeli presidential election. On 2 June 2021, he was elected as president by the Knesset. He won more votes than any presidential candidate in Israel's history, receiving 87 votes compared to 26 for his opponent Miriam Peretz, and was sworn in on 7 July 2021, becoming the first son of a former Israeli president to also become president.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In his inaugural speech as President of the State of Israel, on 7 July 2022, Herzog called for the healing of rifts in Israeli society and the building of bridges within Israel and between Israel and the Jewish Diaspora. Herzog said: “We must remember that it was baseless hatred that led to the destruction of the First and Second Temples. The same baseless hatred, the same factionalism and polarization that claim such a heavy price from us—nowadays, and every day. The heaviest price of all is the erosion of our national resilience.” Herzog also emphasized the importance of confronting the climate crisis.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Since entering the Israeli presidency, Herzog has conducted a number of major state visits. On 30 January 2022, Herzog conducted a historic state visit to the United Arab Emirates. In March 2022, Herzog embarked on a regional tour of neighboring Mediterranean states, taking in Greece, Cyprus, and a state visit to Turkey together with the First Lady, as the guests of President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and his wife Emine. Following months of dialogue since Herzog’s election as president, the presidents met for a summit at the Presidential Complex in Ankara, symbolizing their countries’ desire to move on from a period of tense relations. During the visit, Herzog addressed the “baggage of the past,” which he said “never disappears of its own accord,” and underscored that the Israeli-Turkish relationship would be determined by both states’ actions. In the latter part of his Turkish visit, as part of a broader policy of strengthening relations with the Jewish Diaspora during foreign engagements, Herzog and his wife Michal visited the Istanbul Jewish community at the Neve Shalom Synagogue, the target of various terror attacks over the years.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: On 29 March 2022, Herzog conducted a historic first public visit by an Israeli leader to Amman, Jordan, during which he met King Abdullah II, with whom he discussed to deepen the Israeli-Jordanian relationship, maintain regional stability, and bolster peace and normalization.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Further to his declared objective of embarking on a journey within Israeli society, and as part of his public engagements in Israel and visits to its diverse communities, on 29 October 2021 Herzog participated in a memorial for the victims of the 1956 Kafr Qasim Massacre and apologized on behalf of the State of Israel, making him the first Israeli official to ask for forgiveness at the official ceremony in Kafr Qasim. In his speech, Herzog said: “The killing and injury of innocents are absolutely forbidden. They must remain beyond all political arguments.”


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In October 2021, Herzog announced the establishment of the Israeli Climate Forum under the auspices of the Office of the President, appointing former Member of Knesset Dov Khenin as the forum’s chairman. The forum oversees a number of working groups focusing on different issues and brings together public officials and private citizens to coordinate efforts to combat the climate crisis. In his “Renewable Middle East” speech, delivered at the Haaretz Climate Change Forum, Herzog spelled out a vision for how the climate crisis presented opportunities for regional cooperation across the Middle East and Mediterranean Basin.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: On 28 November 2021, Herzog lit candles for the first night of Chanukah at the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron, attracting left-wing criticism. Visiting Hebron, Herzog declared that recognition of the Jewish People’s historical attachments to Hebron “must be beyond all controversy.”


title: Isaac Herzog

text: In December 2021, Herzog launched his “Think Good” campaign, with the objective of combating cyberbullying. The campaign, in collaboration with Meta, promoted respectful and inclusive discourse online.


title: Isaac Herzog

text: Herzog is married to Michal, a lawyer, and has three sons. He resides in his childhood home in the Tzahala neighborhood of Tel Aviv.


title: Natalie Zea

text: Natalie Zea (born March 17, 1975) is an American actress known for her performances on television. Zea began her acting career in theatre. Her first major role was on the NBC daytime soap opera "Passions" (2000–2002), where she played the role of Gwen Hotchkiss. Her breakout role was on the ABC primetime soap opera "Dirty Sexy Money" as socialite Karen Darling, where she starred from 2007 to 2009. Zea also has made many guest appearances on television, starred in a number of independent and made-for-television movies, and had recurring roles in "The Shield", "Hung", "Californication", and "The Unicorn".


title: Natalie Zea

text: In 2010, Zea began starring as Winona Hawkins in the FX critically acclaimed crime drama series "Justified" as a regular cast member during the first three seasons and recurring guest star later. In 2013, she also began starring as Claire Matthews in the Fox drama series "The Following". Zea played lead character Mickey Holmes-Harris on the canceled-before-airing ABC dramedy series, "Members Only", and starred in the 2016–2019 TBS sitcom "The Detour". In 2020, Zea had a recurring role as Shannon in the CBS sitcom "The Unicorn".


title: Natalie Zea

text: Zea was born in Harris County, Texas, attending high school in Monahans, graduating in 1993. She graduated from the American Musical and Dramatic Academy in New York City in 1995. Also in 1995, Zea co-starred as Lana Tisdel in the short film "Boys Don't Cry". In the 1999 feature film version of "Boys Don't Cry", the role was played by Chloë Sevigny. She also appeared in many national commercials for companies such as Dove, Snickers and Hellman's Salad Dressing.


title: Natalie Zea

text: Zea began her career in an Off-Broadway theatre, appearing in productions of The "Three Sisters" and "A Midsummer Night's Dream". She made her feature debut in the Shakespeare-themed independent drama "Macbeth in Manhattan" in 1999. In the following year, Zea made her television debut in an episode of short-lived The WB drama series, "D.C.". Later in that year she was cast as Gwen Hotchkiss Winthrop, a businesswoman and socialite, and the member of the wealthy Hotchkiss family, in the NBC daytime soap opera "Passions". She appeared in the show on a regular basis from November 15, 2000, to October 3, 2002. On her leaving, Zea said "I have decided not to renew my contract with "Passions". Although I enjoyed my experience, and learned quite a bit, especially initially, I know that the best thing for my career, and my craft, is to pursue new challenges. So after some deliberation, an amicable parting of ways seemed to be the best decision". Zea is the second actress who played the role of Gwen. Susan Lucci's daughter Liza Huber played the role from July 5, 1999, to November 8, 2000, and again, after Zea left the show.


title: Natalie Zea

text: In 2004, Zea was cast in a recurring role in the FX police drama series "The Shield". She played the role of Lauren Riley, a love interest of Michael Chiklis' character Vic Mackey. The following year, Zea won her first series regular role on primetime television, on the ABC drama series, "Eyes" opposite Tim Daly. The series was canceled after a single season. Her next major role was on the ABC primetime soap opera/comedy-drama "Dirty Sexy Money" opposite Jill Clayburgh, Donald Sutherland and Peter Krause. Zea played spoiled socialite Karen Darling. The soap aired from 2007 to 2009, and was canceled after two seasons. In 2009, she had a recurring role during the first season of the HBO comedy series "Hung". She also had many guest-starring roles, on "", "Two and a Half Men", "Without a Trace", "Medium", "Franklin & Bash", and "Person of Interest".


title: Natalie Zea

text: In 2010, Zea began starring as series regular during the first three seasons of the FX drama "Justified", changing to a recurring role from Season 4. She played the role of Winona Hawkins, the ex-wife of Raylan Givens. Zea was originally a guest star in the pilot for "Justified", but was made a regular right after the pilot with a two-year deal. Alongside her regular role on "Justified", from 2012 to 2013, Zea had the recurring role on Showtime comedy-drama, "Californication" as a new love interest for David Duchovny' character. In film, Zea had supporting role in the 2010 comedy "The Other Guys". As lead actress, she co-starred alongside Sean Patrick Flanery in the 2011 independent thriller "InSight", and in the Lifetime movie "Burden of Evil" (2012).


title: Natalie Zea

text: In 2013, Zea starred in the major role of Dr. Claire Matthews, the estranged wife of a serial killer in the Fox drama series, "The Following". She returned to show in second season on a recurring basis. Also in 2013, she had a recurring role as Maxine Seagrave, a drug and gambling kingpin, on the first season of CBS summer series, "Under the Dome". Later in that year, Zea was cast in her first series leading role of the Amazon comedy pilot "The Rebels". The pilot premiered in February 2014, but not was picked up to series. Later in that year, Zea was cast in two independent films: "Too Late" in the female lead role opposite John Hawkes, and "The Grey Lady" as lead character.


title: Natalie Zea

text: On August 4, 2014, it was announced that Zea was cast as lead character in the straight-to-series ordered ABC primetime soap opera, "Members Only". She plays the role of Mickey Holmes-Harris the "most well-educated and put-together member of the family that founded the country club around which the show is centered." "Members Only" was cancelled by ABC before premiere. On December 2, 2014, Zea was cast as lead opposite Jason Jones in the TBS vacation comedy "The Detour".


title: Natalie Zea

text: On February 26, 2020, Zea will play in the lead role of Eve Harris in the NBC apocalyptic drama series "La Brea" which was written by David Appelbaum.


title: Natalie Zea

text: In June 2013, Zea announced her engagement to her former "Passions" co-star Travis Schuldt after 10 years of dating. The couple married on July 16, 2014, in Hawaii. In June 2015, they announced they were expecting their first child together. In October 2015, Zea gave birth to a daughter named Reygan.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Robert Pilatus (8 June 1965 – 3 April 1998) was a German singer, dancer, model, and rapper. He was a member of the pop music duo Milli Vanilli with Fab Morvan.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Pilatus was born in Munich, West Germany. His father was an African-American serviceman and his mother was a German dancer. He spent his first four years in a Bavarian orphanage before he was adopted by a Munich family. He stated he was an outsider as a child in Germany, being called "Kunta Kinte" (the African hero in the film "Roots") by his classmates. After leaving his adoptive home as a teen, Pilatus worked as a model and breakdancer, and appeared as a backing singer with the group Wind at the 1987 Eurovision Song Contest in Brussels. (The band finished in second place.) He met Fab Morvan on the dance scene in Munich in 1988, and after working as models, they formed a short lived group "Empire Bizarre" which consisted of three members, Pilatus, Morvan, and Charliene, performing locally with all members dancing and Rob singing lead while playing bass guitar.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Pilatus and Morvan both continued moving into music and were subsequently noticed by German music producer Frank Farian, who signed them to be part of a musical act. They signed contracts with Farian without taking legal advice. After a trip to Turkey, where the duo reputedly took part of their name from a local advertising slogan, Milli Vanilli was born. Pilatus and Morvan were surprised to learn from Farian that they would not be singing on their records. They initially refused, but were unable to pay back the advance they had received, which they had used to change and promote their images by investing in clothes and their trademark hair extensions. They decided to continue with the agreement for a short time until they had made enough money to pay back the advance. This meant that they were to be only the public faces for songs that had been pre-recorded with singers Charles Shaw and Brad Howell, who Farian thought were vocally talented but lacked marketable images. Farian had a history of acts, such as "Boney M", in which most of the actual singers (including Farian himself) were replaced by other performers on stage.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: The first Milli Vanilli platinum album, "Girl You Know It's True", became a worldwide hit. It produced five hit singles, including three number 1 hits: "Girl I'm Gonna Miss You", "Baby Don't Forget My Number" and "Blame It On The Rain". Milli Vanilli won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist on 21 February 1990 for "Girl You Know It's True".


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Milli Vanilli quickly rose to fame and fortune, making it difficult for Pilatus and Morvan to withdraw from their agreement with Farian. Their attractiveness and appealing dance performances added to their huge on-stage success. After several years, Pilatus and Morvan became the subject of rumours of onstage lip-synching. Charles Shaw, one of their recordings' actual vocalists, told the media the truth, but retracted his statement when Farian paid him $150,000.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: When Pilatus and Morvan pressured Farian to let them sing on their next album, Farian confessed to reporters on 15 November 1990 that the duo had not sung on the recordings. Milli Vanilli's Grammy Award was withdrawn four days later. Pilatus and Morvan said in an interview that they did the moral thing by initiating the withdrawal of the Grammy Award themselves. Arista Records released them from its label and removed their album and songs from their catalogue, making "Girl You Know It's True" the largest-selling album to be taken out of print. A United States court ruling allowed anyone who had bought the album to receive a refund.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Farian later attempted a comeback for the duo, but it was unsuccessful. Pilatus and Morvan decided to spend time apart to get their lives back on track. Months after the media backlash, they appeared in a commercial for Carefree Sugarless [chewing] Gum, where they jokingly lip-synched to an opera recording.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: In 1992, Pilatus and Morvan signed with a new label, Taj, and released "Rob & Fab", an album featuring their own voices, but it sold only around 2,000 copies due to its limited release. The label went bankrupt shortly thereafter.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: After Milli Vanilli attempted a comeback, Morvan and Pilatus spent time apart. In 1996, Pilatus served three months in prison for assault, vandalism and attempted robbery. Farian paid for Pilatus to spend six months in drug rehabilitation before returning to Germany from the United States.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: On 3 April 1998, on the eve of a promotional tour for a new Milli Vanilli album, "Back and in Attack", featuring Pilatus and Morvan on lead vocals, Pilatus was found dead from an alcohol and prescription drug overdose in a hotel room at Friedrichsdorf, near Frankfurt. His death was ruled accidental. The album has never been released.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: 2021/2022, Simon Verhoeven directed and wrote the Milli-Vanilli-Biopic "Girl You Know It's True", which was filmed in Munich, Berlin, Cape Town, and Los Angeles. The film was produced by Wiedemann & Berg Film, with Leonine as the theatrical distributor, due to be released in cinemas 2023. The movie stars Tijan Njie and Elan Ben Ali as Rob Pilatus and Fab Morvan as well as Matthias Schweighöfer as music producer Frank Farian. It will be released in cinemas 2023. Associate producers are Jasmin Davis, daughter of the late John Davis, and Brad Howell, the true voices behind Milli Vanilli. Carmen Pilatus, sister of the late Rob Pilatus, Milli Vanilli’s former assistant Todd Headlee, and Ingrid Segieth aka Milli, are also attached as associate producers.


title: Rob Pilatus

text: Previous attempts to produce a film about "Milli Vanilli" all had failed: On 14 February 2007, it was announced that Universal Pictures was developing a film based on the true story of Milli Vanilli's rise and fall in the music industry. Jeff Nathanson, a screenwriter known for "Catch Me If You Can", was to write and direct the film. Morvan was supposed to serve as a consultant, providing his and Pilatus's point of view. However, the project was never completed. In 2011 German director Florian Gallenberger declared that he was reviving the project and would be rewriting the script, which also didn't eventually happen. Director Bret Ratner attempted to make his version of a Milli Vanilli biopic, but the project was eventually cancelled in 2021 after numerous Time's Up sexual harassment allegations against Ratner became public.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: Debbie Does Dallas is a 1978 pornographic film starring Bambi Woods. The plot of the film focuses on a team of cheerleaders attempting to earn enough money to send the title character to Dallas, Texas to try out for the famous "Texas Cowgirls" cheerleading squad. The fictional name "Texas Cowgirls" was seen as an allusion to the real-life Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders. Woods had previously tried out for the Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders in real life, but was cut during auditions.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The film was highly successful, selling 50,000 copies when it made it to videotape, making it the most successful video release of a porn film in its time. It is regarded as one of the most important releases during the so-called "Golden Age of Porn" (1969–1984), and remains one of the best-known pornographic films. The film is in the public domain following a US court ruling in 1987 that declared its copyright to be lost.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The movie spawned a number of sequels and spin-offs including "Debbie Does New Orleans", "Debbie Does Wall Street", "Debbie Does Dallas Again" and the unrelated "Debbie Duz Dishes" franchise. It also spawned a 2002 Off Broadway musical, "".


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: Debbie Benton (Bambi Woods), captain of her high school cheerleading squad, has been accepted to try out for the "Texas Cowgirls". Her parents disapprove and refuse to pay her fare to Texas. In a bid to help Debbie, her squadmates Lisa (Georgette Sanders), Roberta (Misty Winter), Tammy (Arcadia Lake), Lynne (Kasey Rodgers), and Annie (Jenny Cole) decide to accompany her to Texas. With two weeks to raise the money, they swear off sexual activity with their boyfriends and form a company, called Teen Services.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: Tammy takes a job in the local record store run by Nick (Tony Mansfield). Debbie gets a job at a sports store run by Mr. Greenfeld (Richard Bolla). Roberta convinces Mr. Hardwick (Eric Edwards) to give her a job at the candle store with Mrs. Hardwick (Robyn Bird). Cindy (Sherri Tart) and Annie agree to wash Mr. Bradly's car.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The football team is annoyed by a lack of sex. Roberta's boyfriend Rick (David Morris) and his teammates join Roberta and Pat in the showers, where they have group sex. While working for Mr. Greenfeld at the sports store, Debbie is talked into allowing Mr. Greenfeld to see her breasts for $10 and fondle her breasts for another $10. Then, he sucks them for an additional $20.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: Realizing they will not be able to raise enough money by legitimate means, Debbie convinces the other girls to engage in sexual activities for more money. They agree, but only if it is on their terms.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: After Roberta is caught masturbating around Mrs. Hardwick, Roberta engages in sexual activity with Mr. and Mrs. Hardwick, earning extra money. Cindy and Annie go to see Mr. Bradly (David Suton), to wash his car. Mr. Bradly is not home, but they wash his car anyway. When Mr. Bradly returns home, he asks them in to dry off their wet clothes. They undress for him for $10 each. He performs cunnilingus on them, they each fellate him and then he has anal sex with Annie.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: At the library, Donna (Merril Townsend) flirts with Mr. Biddle, the librarian. Visiting her at work, her boyfriend Tim (Bill Barry) tries to have sex with her. She fellates him but is caught by Mr. Biddle (Jack Teague). Donna allows him to spank her to prevent him from telling her parents. Hamilton (Peter Lerman) and his friend Ashly (Ben Pierce) are in the tennis club sauna after a tennis game, and Hamilton convinces Lisa to fellate him while Ashly penetrates her.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: At the record store, Tammy has been avoiding Tony's advances; she calls Lisa, who joins them at the record store. Lisa offers Tony "anything" and she begins to fellate him, and then Tammy joins in, and he ejaculates on Tammy's breasts.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: In the final scene, Debbie arrives at Mr. Greenfeld's store after hours, in a Texas Cowgirls uniform as he requested. Greenfeld, dressed as Joe Namath, reveals his dream of being the quarterback who made love to the head cheerleader, and she obliges. She fellates him, and he penetrates her vagina with his finger and performs cunnilingus on her. Then they engage in vaginal sex, first in the missionary position, then doggy style, and then with Debbie on top. They finish in the missionary position with Mr. Greenfeld pulling out right before ejaculating.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The movie was produced and directed by Jim Clark. Some scenes were shot at the Brooklyn College athletic field, and the Pratt Institute library in Brooklyn, New York, without the administration's knowledge or approval. There is an unfounded internet rumor that certain scenes were shot at the State University of New York, Stony Brook, including the library scene. However, that was found to be unlikely after an investigation with alumni, and the president of the "Debbie Does Dallas" production company said such a claim "was purely inconclusive".


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: New York's Pussycat Theater was enjoined in 1979 from showing the film by the Dallas Cowboy Cheerleaders under the Lanham Act, arguing that their uniforms were mimicked by the film's producers and used in advertising, infringing on their trademarks. The theater argued that uniforms are strictly functional items, but in affirming the lower court's decision, the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit found that "[i]t is well established that, if the design of an item is nonfunctional and has acquired secondary meaning, the design may become a trademark even if the item itself is functional." The decision has been criticized on free speech grounds, but the Seventh Circuit has cited it for the proposition that "confusion about sponsorship or approval, even when the mark does not mislead consumers about the source of the goods," may be sufficient to state a claim under Lanham Act 43(a).


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: When the film opened in October 1978, it was exhibited without a copyright notice. In 1979, rights-holder M & A Associates entered into an exclusive worldwide video distribution deal with VCX, whereby VCX agreed to pay M & A an advance and make royalty payments on each sale. Upon receiving a print of the film, VCX president Norman Arno contacted M & A president Arthur Weisberg to request copyright protection. Arno also retained the services of attorneys John Lappen and Peter Berger to combat unauthorized copying of the film. Before litigation could commence, VCX was required to add copyright notices to all copies of the film and file registration with the United States Copyright Office; however, VCX could not protect the rights by just adding a notice to the video cassette, since one also needed to be added to the theatrical prints. In 1981, Berger informed Weisberg of the need to add a copyright notice to the prints that had been sent to various theaters, but Weisberg refused. Both Lappen and Berger concluded the copyright had been lost, and in 1982, VCX terminated their contract with M & A and ceased making royalty payments, but continued to distribute the film. In 1987 M & A brought a case against VCX in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan for breach of contract. VCX argued that the contract was void due to M & A's failure to comply with the Copyright Act of 1976. The court found in favor of VCX, and the judge ruled that "Weisberg's actions had thrust the film irretrievably into the [United States] public domain."


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: In 1983, a court case in New York – "United States v. Various Articles of Obscene Merchandise" – found the film not to be obscene.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The 1986 publication of the Meese Report contained graphic descriptions of the film's sex scenes and uncensored excerpts of dialogue, which may have contributed to the report becoming a best-seller.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: The film has had numerous sequels and remakes across several decades. The Internet Adult Film Database lists twelve separate films as part of the film franchise spanning from 1978 until 2007. In the 2013 book "Pornography and Seriality: The Culture of Producing Pleasure", journalist David Slayden was quoted as saying, "No other pornographic film has been remade more often than "Debbie Does Dallas."" The filmography list includes:


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: In 2001, "" was created by Susan L. Schwartz for the New York International Fringe Festival. In 2002 it was made into an Off-Broadway musical comedy . Unlike the original movie, the musical did not contain any actual sex or nudity, which caused some disappointment among people, as false hype had been made and the musical's producers did nothing to dismiss it. Since then, the show has been performed around the world, often with racier direction and more explicit choreography. The story, dialogue and characters are fairly faithful to the original film, with musical numbers standing in for sex scenes or added for comic effect. As recent as 2015, the musical version continues to be performed.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: In 2005 a documentary called "Debbie Does Dallas Uncovered" was produced and shown on British television.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: In 2006, VCX employed Media Blasters to digitally re-master the movie from the original 35mm film into a "Definitive Collectors Edition" 2-Disc set on DVD.


title: Debbie Does Dallas

text: On April 11, 2007, Vivid Entertainment Group began including the original "Debbie Does Dallas" with a new release titled "Debbie Does Dallas ... Again" in DVD, Blu-ray, and HD DVD formats. It has also been remade with contemporary porn stars.


title: Shalini Pandey

text: Shalini Pandey (born 23 September 1993) is an Indian actress who works in Telugu, Tamil and Hindi films. She made her acting debut in the Telugu film "Arjun Reddy" (2017), and has since acted in the Tamil film "100% Kadhal" (2019), the Telugu films "Mahanati" (2018) and ""118"" (2019), and the Hindi film "Jayeshbhai Jordaar" (2022). Pandey ranked 19th in Hyderabad Times Most Desirable Women List of 2017.


title: Shalini Pandey

text: Pandey started her career in a theater in Jabalpur. She made her film debut with the Telugu film "Arjun Reddy" in 2017 opposite Vijay Deverakonda. She did her own dubbing, though she doesn't speak Telugu fluently. The film was a commercial success and she received SIIMA Award for Best Female Debut (Telugu) nomination for her performance as Preethi.


title: Shalini Pandey

text: She then appeared in a Cameo appearance in the Hindi film "Meri Nimmo" in 2018. The same year she appeared in the successful Telugu film "Mahanati".


title: Shalini Pandey

text: Pandey had five releases in 2019. She played Sowcar Janaki in Telugu film "". She then appeared in Telugu film "118" which was a commercial success. In October 2019, Pandey made her Tamil debut with "100% Kadhal". alongside G. V. Prakash Kumar. It became a box office failure. Her last two release of the year came with the Tamil film "Gorilla" and Telugu film "Iddari Lokam Okate".


title: Shalini Pandey

text: Pandey made her Hindi film debut in 2020 with the ZEE5 film "Bamfaad" alongside Aditya Rawal. She then appeared in the Telugu-Tamil bilingual "Nishabdham".


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Red Eye is a 2005 American psychological thriller film directed by Wes Craven and written by Carl Ellsworth based on a story by Ellsworth and Dan Foos. The film follows a hotel manager ensnared in an assassination plot by a terrorist while aboard a red-eye flight to Miami. The film score was composed and conducted by Marco Beltrami. It was distributed by DreamWorks Pictures and was released on August 19, 2005. The film received positive reviews from critics and fans of Craven's work and was a box office success. An extended version of the film, which added previously unused footage to increase the running time, was broadcast on the ABC network several times.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: After attending her grandmother's funeral, hotel manager Lisa Reisert arrives at Dallas Love Field to take a red-eye flight back to Miami, Florida. She meets a handsome young man named Jackson Rippner, also traveling to Miami. While waiting to board, they share a drink at the airport bar and engage in small talk.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Lisa is surprised to find that Jackson is seated beside her. After takeoff, his charming demeanor quickly turns sinister as he informs her that he works for a domestic terrorist organization planning to assassinate Charles Keefe, the current United States Deputy Secretary of Homeland Security. Lisa's managerial position at the Lux Atlantic Hotel in Miami, where Keefe and his family are staying, is crucial to their plot.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: As Acting Manager, Lisa must make a call from the in-flight phone to order the Keefe family be moved to a targeted room where a missile launched from a boat in the harbor will strike. Her non-compliance will result in Jackson's hitman accomplice killing Lisa's father, Joe.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: While Jackson is distracted, Lisa writes a warning inside the self-help book she had previously given away to a friendly fellow-passenger. He head-butts her unconscious and retrieves the book before the woman reads the message. Lisa awakens half an hour later and is forced to make the call to the hotel.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: When a storm disrupts the sky phone service mid-conversation with her co-worker, Cynthia, Lisa pretends to be ordering the room change until Jackson catches on. She then persuades him to let her use the restroom while the phone service is still disrupted. Lisa writes a fake bomb threat in soap on the mirror; Jackson, checking on her, sees it and angrily wipes it off. A young girl waiting outside becomes suspicious, telling the flight attendant that Jackson is inside with Lisa, but it is dismissed as a sexual escapade.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: When the sky phones are operational again, Lisa calls Cynthia and has her move the Keefe family to the targeted suite. She then pleads with Jackson to call off the accomplice waiting outside Joe's house, but he refuses until the assassination is confirmed.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: As the plane lands at Miami International Airport, Lisa reveals that she got the scar Jackson noticed on her chest during a violent rape at knife point two years earlier, and that she swore after the assault that something like that would never happen again. She then stabs Jackson in the throat with a ballpoint pen, grabs his phone, and flees the plane.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: To further slow Jackson down, the young girl who had previously observed him and Lisa trips him, making it look like an accident. Lisa makes her way to the airport exit while evading both Jackson and security personnel; once outside, she steals an unattended SUV. She calls Cynthia, telling her to evacuate the hotel and warn all of the Keefes. Cynthia, the Keefes, and U.S. Secret Service agents escape seconds before a Javelin missile hits the room.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: The cell phone's battery dies as Lisa is calling her dad. Arriving at his house and seeing the hitman at the front door, she hits and kills him with the car when he shoots at her with a suppressed pistol. Lisa's dad is unharmed and has called 9-1-1.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Lisa calls Cynthia, unaware Jackson arrived and incapacitated her dad. He pursues her throughout the house. As they struggle, he throws her down the staircase. Lisa, stunned, retrieves the dead hitman's gun and shoots Jackson. Wounded, he disarms her and is about to kill her when a revived Joe shoots Jackson with the gun. Lisa returns to the hotel to provide assistance where Keefe praises both women for their actions.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: "Red Eye" opened theatrically on August 19, 2005, in 3,079 venues, earning $16,167,662 in its opening weekend, ranking second in the domestic box office behind "The 40-Year-Old Virgin" ($21,422,815). At the end of its run, eight weeks later (on October 13), the film grossed $57,891,803 in the United States and Canada, and $37,685,971 overseas for a worldwide total of $95,577,774. Based on a $26 million budget, the film was a box office success.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 79% based on 193 critics, with an average rating of 6.68/10. The site's consensus states: "With solid performances and tight direction from Wes Craven, "Red Eye" is a brisk, economic thriller." On Metacritic, the film received a weighted score of 71 out of 100, based on 36 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave the film a 3.5/4 stars calling it the "best thriller of summer 2005" and a "gripping suspense [that] will pin you to your seat".


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Roger Ebert commended the film, calling it a "good thriller" that moves "competently [and] relentlessly". He praised Craven for making the film "function so smoothly" and "doing exactly what it was intended to do". Ebert also expressed admiration for the performances of McAdams and Murphy, stating that they are "very effective together". He said that McAdams is "so convincing because she keeps [her performance] at ground level" and "she remains plausible even when the action ratchets up around her". He also complimented Murphy for his "ability to modulate his character instead of gnashing the scenery". He gave the film 3/4 stars.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" called the film a "nifty, tense thriller" and said that the casting of the two leads is "a nice surprise". She said that Murphy is "a picture-perfect villain" and McAdams has a "depth of intensity" that is uncommon.


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: "USA Today" film critic Claudia Puig said the film is "fun to watch because of the strong performances". She praised McAdams for blending "vulnerability and courage" to her performance and called Murphy "menacing". While she mentioned that the film is "tense, smart, and nerve-wracking" and "entertaining and scary" on the first hour, she criticizes the film for going "downhill" and becoming a "by-the-book action flick".


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: "Variety"'s Robert Koehler stated that ""Red Eye" relies on hoodwinking an audience with its tension, so that the sheer illogic of the conspiracy plot can slip by without detection" but complimented McAdams for finding "new and interesting ways of silently projecting fear".


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: Wesley Morris of "The Boston Globe" felt the film was like a "poor cousin of an episode of "24". Call it 12."


title: Red Eye (2005 American film)

text: In October 2006, the film ranked 25th in the "30 Even Scarier Movie Moments", a follow up to Bravo's "The 100 Scariest Movie Moments" which was aired in October 2004.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Lambda calculus (also written as "λ"-calculus) is a formal system in mathematical logic for expressing computation based on function abstraction and application using variable binding and substitution. It is a universal model of computation that can be used to simulate any Turing machine. It was introduced by the mathematician Alonzo Church in the 1930s as part of his research into the foundations of mathematics.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Lambda calculus consists of constructing § lambda terms and performing § reduction operations on them. In the simplest form of lambda calculus, terms are built using only the following rules:


title: Lambda calculus

text: If De Bruijn indexing is used, then α-conversion is no longer required as there will be no name collisions. If repeated application of the reduction steps eventually terminates, then by the Church–Rosser theorem it will produce a β-normal form.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Variable names are not needed if using a universal lambda function, such as Iota and Jot, which can create any function behavior by calling it on itself in various combinations.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Lambda calculus is Turing complete, that is, it is a universal model of computation that can be used to simulate any Turing machine. Its namesake, the Greek letter lambda (λ), is used in lambda expressions and lambda terms to denote binding a variable in a function.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Lambda calculus may be "untyped" or "typed". In typed lambda calculus, functions can be applied only if they are capable of accepting the given input's "type" of data. Typed lambda calculi are "weaker" than the untyped lambda calculus, which is the primary subject of this article, in the sense that "typed lambda calculi can express less" than the untyped calculus can, but on the other hand typed lambda calculi allow more things to be proven; in the simply typed lambda calculus it is, for example, a theorem that every evaluation strategy terminates for every simply typed lambda-term, whereas evaluation of untyped lambda-terms §need not terminate. One reason there are many different typed lambda calculi has been the desire to do more (of what the untyped calculus can do) without giving up on being able to prove strong theorems about the calculus.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Lambda calculus has applications in many different areas in mathematics, philosophy, linguistics, and computer science. Lambda calculus has played an important role in the development of the theory of programming languages. Functional programming languages implement lambda calculus. Lambda calculus is also a current research topic in category theory.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The lambda calculus was introduced by mathematician Alonzo Church in the 1930s as part of an investigation into the foundations of mathematics. The original system was shown to be logically inconsistent in 1935 when Stephen Kleene and J. B. Rosser developed the Kleene–Rosser paradox.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Subsequently, in 1936 Church isolated and published just the portion relevant to computation, what is now called the untyped lambda calculus. In 1940, he also introduced a computationally weaker, but logically consistent system, known as the simply typed lambda calculus.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Until the 1960s when its relation to programming languages was clarified, the lambda calculus was only a formalism. Thanks to Richard Montague and other linguists' applications in the semantics of natural language, the lambda calculus has begun to enjoy a respectable place in both linguistics and computer science.


title: Lambda calculus

text: There is some uncertainty over the reason for Church's use of the Greek letter lambda (λ) as the notation for function-abstraction in the lambda calculus, perhaps in part due to conflicting explanations by Church himself. According to Cardone and Hindley (2006):


title: Lambda calculus

text: By the way, why did Church choose the notation “λ”? In [an unpublished 1964 letter to Harald Dickson] he stated clearly that it came from the notation “formula_12” used for class-abstraction by Whitehead and Russell, by first modifying “formula_12” to “formula_14” to distinguish function-abstraction from class-abstraction, and then changing “formula_15” to “λ” for ease of printing.


title: Lambda calculus

text: This origin was also reported in [Rosser, 1984, p.338]. On the other hand, in his later years Church told two enquirers that the choice was more accidental: a symbol was needed and λ just happened to be chosen.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Scott recounts that he once posed a question about the origin of the lambda symbol to Church's former student and son-in-law John W. Addison Jr., who then wrote his father-in-law a postcard:


title: Lambda calculus

text: Russell had the iota operator, Hilbert had the epsilon operator. Why did you choose lambda for your operator?


title: Lambda calculus

text: According to Scott, Church's entire response consisted of returning the postcard with the following annotation: "eeny, meeny, miny, moe".


title: Lambda calculus

text: Computable functions are a fundamental concept within computer science and mathematics. The lambda calculus provides simple semantics for computation which are useful for formally studying properties of computation. The lambda calculus incorporates two simplifications that make its semantics simple.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The first simplification is that the lambda calculus treats functions "anonymously;" it does not give them explicit names. For example, the function


title: Lambda calculus

text: The second simplification is that the lambda calculus only uses functions of a single input. An ordinary function that requires two inputs, for instance the formula_21 function, can be reworked into an equivalent function that accepts a single input, and as output returns "another" function, that in turn accepts a single input. For example,


title: Lambda calculus

text: This method, known as currying, transforms a function that takes multiple arguments into a chain of functions each with a single argument.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The lambda calculus consists of a language of lambda terms, that are defined by a certain formal syntax, and a set of transformation rules for manipulating the lambda terms. These transformation rules can be viewed as an equational theory or as an operational definition.


title: Lambda calculus

text: As described above, having no names, all functions in the lambda calculus are anonymous functions. They only accept one input variable, so currying is used to implement functions of several variables.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The syntax of the lambda calculus defines some expressions as valid lambda calculus expressions and some as invalid, just as some strings of characters are valid C programs and some are not. A valid lambda calculus expression is called a "lambda term".


title: Lambda calculus

text: The following three rules give an inductive definition that can be applied to build all syntactically valid lambda terms:


title: Lambda calculus

text: Nothing else is a lambda term. Thus a lambda term is valid if and only if it can be obtained by repeated application of these three rules. However, some parentheses can be omitted according to certain rules. For example, the outermost parentheses are usually not written. See "Notation", below.


title: Lambda calculus

text: formula_36 binds the variable in the term . The definition of a function with an abstraction merely "sets up" the function but does not invoke it.


title: Lambda calculus

text: There is no concept in lambda calculus of variable declaration. In a definition such as formula_48 (i.e. formula_49), in lambda calculus is a variable that is not yet defined. The abstraction formula_48 is syntactically valid, and represents a function that adds its input to the yet-unknown .


title: Lambda calculus

text: Here, example 1 defines a function formula_52, where formula_56 is formula_53, the result of applying formula_58 to x, while example 2 is formula_54; formula_60 is the lambda term formula_58 to be applied to the input N. Both examples 1 and 2 would evaluate to the identity function formula_62.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In lambda calculus, functions are taken to be 'first class values', so functions may be used as the inputs, or be returned as outputs from other functions.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, formula_62 represents the identity function, formula_20, and formula_65 represents the identity function applied to formula_33. Further, formula_67 represents the constant function formula_68, the function that always returns formula_33, no matter the input. In lambda calculus, function application is regarded as left-associative, so that formula_70 means formula_71.


title: Lambda calculus

text: There are several notions of "equivalence" and "reduction" that allow lambda terms to be "reduced" to "equivalent" lambda terms.


title: Lambda calculus

text: A basic form of equivalence, definable on lambda terms, is alpha equivalence. It captures the intuition that the particular choice of a bound variable, in an abstraction, does not (usually) matter.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For instance, formula_62 and formula_73 are alpha-equivalent lambda terms, and they both represent the same function (the identity function).


title: Lambda calculus

text: The terms formula_1 and formula_33 are not alpha-equivalent, because they are not bound in an abstraction.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, the lambda term representing the identity formula_62 has no free variables, but the function formula_86 formula_1 has a single free variable, formula_33.


title: Lambda calculus

text: A systematic change in variables to avoid capture of a free variable can introduce error, in a functional programming language where functions are first class citizens.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Suppose formula_79, formula_46 and formula_91 are lambda terms and formula_1 and formula_33 are variables.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The notation formula_94 indicates substitution of formula_91 for formula_1 in formula_79 in a "capture-avoiding" manner. This is defined so that:


title: Lambda calculus

text: The freshness condition (requiring that formula_33 is not in the free variables of formula_91) is crucial in order to ensure that substitution does not change the meaning of functions.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, a substitution that ignores the freshness condition can lead to errors: formula_126. This substitution turns the constant function formula_127 into the identity formula_62 by substitution.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In general, failure to meet the freshness condition can be remedied by alpha-renaming with a suitable fresh variable.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, switching back to our correct notion of substitution, in formula_129 the abstraction can be renamed with a fresh variable formula_130, to obtain formula_131, and the meaning of the function is preserved by substitution.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The β-reduction rule states that an application of the form formula_132 reduces to the term formula_133. The notation formula_134 is used to indicate that formula_135 β-reduces to formula_136.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, for every formula_46, formula_138. This demonstrates that formula_139 really is the identity.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The lambda calculus may be seen as an idealized version of a functional programming language, like Haskell or Standard ML.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Under this view, β-reduction corresponds to a computational step. This step can be repeated by additional β-reductions until there are no more applications left to reduce. In the untyped lambda calculus, as presented here, this reduction process may not terminate.


title: Lambda calculus

text: That is, the term reduces to itself in a single β-reduction, and therefore the reduction process will never terminate.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Another aspect of the untyped lambda calculus is that it does not distinguish between different kinds of data.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For instance, it may be desirable to write a function that only operates on numbers. However, in the untyped lambda calculus, there is no way to prevent a function from being applied to truth values, strings, or other non-number objects.


title: Lambda calculus

text: To keep the notation of lambda expressions uncluttered, the following conventions are usually applied:


title: Lambda calculus

text: The abstraction operator, λ, is said to bind its variable wherever it occurs in the body of the abstraction. Variables that fall within the scope of an abstraction are said to be "bound". In an expression λ"x"."M", the part λ"x" is often called "binder", as a hint that the variable "x" is getting bound by appending λ"x" to "M". All other variables are called "free". For example, in the expression λ"y"."x x y", "y" is a bound variable and "x" is a free variable. Also a variable is bound by its nearest abstraction. In the following example the single occurrence of "x" in the expression is bound by the second lambda: λ"x"."y" (λ"x"."z x").


title: Lambda calculus

text: The set of "free variables" of a lambda expression, "M", is denoted as FV("M") and is defined by recursion on the structure of the terms, as follows:


title: Lambda calculus

text: An expression that contains no free variables is said to be "closed". Closed lambda expressions are also known as "combinators" and are equivalent to terms in combinatory logic.


title: Lambda calculus

text: We also speak of the resulting equivalences: two expressions are "α-equivalent", if they can be α-converted into the same expression. β-equivalence and η-equivalence are defined similarly.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The term "redex", short for "reducible expression", refers to subterms that can be reduced by one of the reduction rules. For example, (λ"x"."M") "N" is a β-redex in expressing the substitution of "N" for "x" in "M". The expression to which a redex reduces is called its "reduct"; the reduct of (λ"x"."M") "N" is "M"["x" := "N"].


title: Lambda calculus

text: α-conversion, sometimes known as α-renaming, allows bound variable names to be changed. For example, α-conversion of λ"x"."x" might yield λ"y"."y". Terms that differ only by α-conversion are called "α-equivalent". Frequently, in uses of lambda calculus, α-equivalent terms are considered to be equivalent.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The precise rules for α-conversion are not completely trivial. First, when α-converting an abstraction, the only variable occurrences that are renamed are those that are bound to the same abstraction. For example, an α-conversion of λ"x".λ"x"."x" could result in λ"y".λ"x"."x", but it could "not" result in λ"y".λ"x"."y". The latter has a different meaning from the original. This is analogous to the programming notion of variable shadowing.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Second, α-conversion is not possible if it would result in a variable getting captured by a different abstraction. For example, if we replace "x" with "y" in λ"x".λ"y"."x", we get λ"y".λ"y"."y", which is not at all the same.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In programming languages with static scope, α-conversion can be used to make name resolution simpler by ensuring that no variable name masks a name in a containing scope (see α-renaming to make name resolution trivial).


title: Lambda calculus

text: Substitution, written "M"["x" := "N"], is the process of replacing all "free" occurrences of the variable "x" in the expression "M" with expression "N". Substitution on terms of the lambda calculus is defined by recursion on the structure of terms, as follows (note: x and y are only variables while M and N are any lambda expression):


title: Lambda calculus

text: To substitute into an abstraction, it is sometimes necessary to α-convert the expression. For example, it is not correct for (λ"x"."y")["y" := "x"] to result in λ"x"."x", because the substituted "x" was supposed to be free but ended up being bound. The correct substitution in this case is λ"z"."x", up to α-equivalence. Substitution is defined uniquely up to α-equivalence.


title: Lambda calculus

text: β-reduction captures the idea of function application. β-reduction is defined in terms of substitution: the β-reduction of (λ"x"."M") "N" is "M"["x" := "N"].


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, assuming some encoding of 2, 7, ×, we have the following β-reduction: (λ"n"."n" × 2) 7 → 7 × 2.


title: Lambda calculus

text: β-reduction can be seen to be the same as the concept of "local reducibility" in natural deduction, via the Curry–Howard isomorphism.


title: Lambda calculus

text: η-reduction (eta reduction) expresses the idea of extensionality, which in this context is that two functions are the same if and only if they give the same result for all arguments. η-reduction converts between λ"x"."f" "x" and "f" whenever "x" does not appear free in "f".


title: Lambda calculus

text: η-reduction can be seen to be the same as the concept of "local completeness" in natural deduction, via the Curry–Howard isomorphism.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For the untyped lambda calculus, β-reduction as a rewriting rule is neither strongly normalising nor weakly normalising.


title: Lambda calculus

text: However, it can be shown that β-reduction is confluent when working up to α-conversion (i.e. we consider two normal forms to be equal if it is possible to α-convert one into the other).


title: Lambda calculus

text: Therefore, both strongly normalising terms and weakly normalising terms have a unique normal form. For strongly normalising terms, any reduction strategy is guaranteed to yield the normal form, whereas for weakly normalising terms, some reduction strategies may fail to find it.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The basic lambda calculus may be used to model booleans, arithmetic, data structures and recursion, as illustrated in the following sub-sections.


title: Lambda calculus

text: There are several possible ways to define the natural numbers in lambda calculus, but by far the most common are the Church numerals, which can be defined as follows:


title: Lambda calculus

text: A Church numeral is a higher-order function—it takes a single-argument function , and returns another single-argument function. The Church numeral is a function that takes a function as argument and returns the -th composition of , i.e. the function composed with itself times. This is denoted and is in fact the -th power of (considered as an operator); is defined to be the identity function. Such repeated compositions (of a single function ) obey the laws of exponents, which is why these numerals can be used for arithmetic. (In Church's original lambda calculus, the formal parameter of a lambda expression was required to occur at least once in the function body, which made the above definition of impossible.)


title: Lambda calculus

text: One way of thinking about the Church numeral , which is often useful when analysing programs, is as an instruction 'repeat "n" times'. For example, using the and functions defined below, one can define a function that constructs a (linked) list of "n" elements all equal to "x" by repeating 'prepend another "x" element' "n" times, starting from an empty list. The lambda term is


title: Lambda calculus

text: By varying what is being repeated, and varying what argument that function being repeated is applied to, a great many different effects can be achieved.


title: Lambda calculus

text: We can define a successor function, which takes a Church numeral and returns by adding another application of , where '(mf)x' means the function 'f' is applied 'm' times on 'x':


title: Lambda calculus

text: Because the -th composition of composed with the -th composition of gives the -th composition of , addition can be defined as follows:


title: Lambda calculus

text: are β-equivalent lambda expressions. Since adding to a number can be accomplished by adding 1 times, an alternative definition is:


title: Lambda calculus

text: The predecessor function defined by for a positive integer and is considerably more difficult. The formula


title: Lambda calculus

text: can be validated by showing inductively that if "T" denotes , then for . Two other definitions of are given below, one using conditionals and the other using pairs. With the predecessor function, subtraction is straightforward. Defining


title: Lambda calculus

text: By convention, the following two definitions (known as Church booleans) are used for the boolean values and :


title: Lambda calculus

text: Then, with these two lambda terms, we can define some logic operators (these are just possible formulations; other expressions are equally correct):


title: Lambda calculus

text: A "predicate" is a function that returns a boolean value. The most fundamental predicate is , which returns if its argument is the Church numeral , and if its argument is any other Church numeral:


title: Lambda calculus

text: The availability of predicates and the above definition of and make it convenient to write "if-then-else" expressions in lambda calculus. For example, the predecessor function can be defined as:


title: Lambda calculus

text: A pair (2-tuple) can be defined in terms of and , by using the Church encoding for pairs. For example, encapsulates the pair (,), returns the first element of the pair, and returns the second.


title: Lambda calculus

text: A linked list can be defined as either NIL for the empty list, or the of an element and a smaller list. The predicate tests for the value . (Alternatively, with , the construct obviates the need for an explicit NULL test).


title: Lambda calculus

text: There is a considerable body of programming idioms for lambda calculus. Many of these were originally developed in the context of using lambda calculus as a foundation for programming language semantics, effectively using lambda calculus as a low-level programming language. Because several programming languages include the lambda calculus (or something very similar) as a fragment, these techniques also see use in practical programming, but may then be perceived as obscure or foreign.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In lambda calculus, a library would take the form of a collection of previously defined functions, which as lambda-terms are merely particular constants. The pure lambda calculus does not have a concept of named constants since all atomic lambda-terms are variables, but one can emulate having named constants by setting aside a variable as the name of the constant, using abstraction to bind that variable in the main body, and apply that abstraction to the intended definition. Thus to use to mean "N" (some explicit lambda-term) in "M" (another lambda-term, the "main program"), one can say


title: Lambda calculus

text: Authors often introduce syntactic sugar, such as , to permit writing the above in the more intuitive order


title: Lambda calculus

text: By chaining such definitions, one can write a lambda calculus "program" as zero or more function definitions, followed by one lambda-term using those functions that constitutes the main body of the program.


title: Lambda calculus

text: A notable restriction of this is that the name be not defined in "N", for "N" to be outside the scope of the abstraction binding ; this means a recursive function definition cannot be used as the "N" with . The construction would allow writing recursive function definitions.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Recursion is the definition of a function using the function itself. Lambda calculus cannot express this as directly as some other notations: all functions are anonymous in lambda calculus, so we can't refer to a value which is yet to be defined, inside the lambda term defining that same value. However, recursion can still be achieved by arranging for a lambda expression to receive itself as its argument value, for example in  .


title: Lambda calculus

text: In the lambda expression which is to represent this function, a "parameter" (typically the first one) will be assumed to receive the lambda expression itself as its value, so that calling it – applying it to an argument – will amount to recursion. Thus to achieve recursion, the intended-as-self-referencing argument (called here) must always be passed to itself within the function body, at a call point:


title: Lambda calculus

text: The self-application achieves replication here, passing the function's lambda expression on to the next invocation as an argument value, making it available to be referenced and called there.


title: Lambda calculus

text: This solves it but requires re-writing each recursive call as self-application. We would like to have a generic solution, without a need for any re-writes:


title: Lambda calculus

text: Given a lambda term with first argument representing recursive call (e.g. here), the "fixed-point" combinator will return a self-replicating lambda expression representing the recursive function (here, ). The function does not need to be explicitly passed to itself at any point, for the self-replication is arranged in advance, when it is created, to be done each time it is called. Thus the original lambda expression is re-created inside itself, at call-point, achieving self-reference.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Now, to perform our recursive call to the factorial function, we would simply call ,  where "n" is the number we are calculating the factorial of. Given "n" = 4, for example, this gives:


title: Lambda calculus

text: Every recursively defined function can be seen as a fixed point of some suitably defined function closing over the recursive call with an extra argument, and therefore, using , every recursively defined function can be expressed as a lambda expression. In particular, we can now cleanly define the subtraction, multiplication and comparison predicate of natural numbers recursively.


title: Lambda calculus

text: the next section. is , the smallest term that has no normal form. is standard and defined above, and can also be defined as Y = BU(CBU). and defined above are commonly abbreviated as and .


title: Lambda calculus

text: If "N" is a lambda-term without abstraction, but possibly containing named constants (combinators), then there exists a lambda-term "T"(,"N") which is equivalent to "N" but lacks abstraction (except as part of the named constants, if these are considered non-atomic). This can also be viewed as anonymising variables, as "T"(,"N") removes all occurrences of from "N", while still allowing argument values to be substituted into the positions where "N" contains an . The conversion function "T" can be defined by:


title: Lambda calculus

text: In either case, a term of the form "T"(,"N") "P" can reduce by having the initial combinator I, K, or S grab the argument "P", just like β-reduction of "N" "P" would do. I returns that argument. K throws the argument away, just like "N" would do if has no free occurrence in "N". S passes the argument on to both subterms of the application, and then applies the result of the first to the result of the second.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The combinators B and C are similar to S, but pass the argument on to only one subterm of an application (B to the "argument" subterm and C to the "function" subterm), thus saving a subsequent K if there is no occurrence of in one subterm. In comparison to B and C, the S combinator actually conflates two functionalities: rearranging arguments, and duplicating an argument so that it may be used in two places. The W combinator does only the latter, yielding the B, C, K, W system as an alternative to SKI combinator calculus.


title: Lambda calculus

text: A typed lambda calculus is a typed formalism that uses the lambda-symbol (formula_144) to denote anonymous function abstraction. In this context, types are usually objects of a syntactic nature that are assigned to lambda terms; the exact nature of a type depends on the calculus considered (see Kinds of typed lambda calculi). From a certain point of view, typed lambda calculi can be seen as refinements of the untyped lambda calculus but from another point of view, they can also be considered the more fundamental theory and "untyped lambda calculus" a special case with only one type.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Typed lambda calculi are foundational programming languages and are the base of typed functional programming languages such as ML and Haskell and, more indirectly, typed imperative programming languages. Typed lambda calculi play an important role in the design of type systems for programming languages; here typability usually captures desirable properties of the program, e.g. the program will not cause a memory access violation.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Typed lambda calculi are closely related to mathematical logic and proof theory via the Curry–Howard isomorphism and they can be considered as the internal language of classes of categories, e.g. the simply typed lambda calculus is the language of Cartesian closed categories (CCCs).


title: Lambda calculus

text: Whether a term is normalising or not, and how much work needs to be done in normalising it if it is, depends to a large extent on the reduction strategy used. Common lambda calculus reduction strategies include:


title: Lambda calculus

text: There is no algorithm that takes as input any two lambda expressions and outputs or depending on whether one expression reduces to the other. More precisely, no computable function can decide the question. This was historically the first problem for which undecidability could be proven. As usual for such a proof, "computable" means computable by any model of computation that is Turing complete. In fact computability can itself be defined via the lambda calculus: a function "F": N → N of natural numbers is a computable function if and only if there exists a lambda expression "f" such that for every pair of "x", "y" in N, "F"("x")="y" if and only if "f"  = ,  where and are the Church numerals corresponding to "x" and "y", respectively and = meaning equivalence with β-reduction. See the Church–Turing thesis for other approaches to defining computability and their equivalence.


title: Lambda calculus

text: Church's proof of uncomputability first reduces the problem to determining whether a given lambda expression has a normal form. Then he assumes that this predicate is computable, and can hence be expressed in lambda calculus. Building on earlier work by Kleene and constructing a Gödel numbering for lambda expressions, he constructs a lambda expression that closely follows the proof of Gödel's first incompleteness theorem. If is applied to its own Gödel number, a contradiction results.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The notion of computational complexity for the lambda calculus is a bit tricky, because the cost of a β-reduction may vary depending on how it is implemented.


title: Lambda calculus

text: To be precise, one must somehow find the location of all of the occurrences of the bound variable in the expression , implying a time cost, or one must keep track of the locations of free variables in some way, implying a space cost. A naïve search for the locations of in is "O"("n") in the length "n" of . Director strings were an early approach that traded this time cost for a quadratic space usage. More generally this has led to the study of systems that use explicit substitution.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In 2014 it was shown that the number of β-reduction steps taken by normal order reduction to reduce a term is a "reasonable" time cost model, that is, the reduction can be simulated on a Turing machine in time polynomially proportional to the number of steps. This was a long-standing open problem, due to "size explosion", the existence of lambda terms which grow exponentially in size for each β-reduction. The result gets around this by working with a compact shared representation. The result makes clear that the amount of space needed to evaluate a lambda term is not proportional to the size of the term during reduction. It is not currently known what a good measure of space complexity would be.


title: Lambda calculus

text: An unreasonable model does not necessarily mean inefficient. Optimal reduction reduces all computations with the same label in one step, avoiding duplicated work, but the number of parallel β-reduction steps to reduce a given term to normal form is approximately linear in the size of the term. This is far too small to be a reasonable cost measure, as any Turing machine may be encoded in the lambda calculus in size linearly proportional to the size of the Turing machine. The true cost of reducing lambda terms is not due to β-reduction per se but rather the handling of the duplication of redexes during β-reduction. It is not known if optimal reduction implementations are reasonable when measured with respect to a reasonable cost model such as the number of leftmost-outermost steps to normal form, but it has been shown for fragments of the lambda calculus that the optimal reduction algorithm is efficient and has at most a quadratic overhead compared to leftmost-outermost. In addition the BOHM prototype implementation of optimal reduction outperformed both Caml Light and Haskell on pure lambda terms.


title: Lambda calculus

text: As pointed out by Peter Landin's 1965 paper "A Correspondence between ALGOL 60 and Church's Lambda-notation", sequential procedural programming languages can be understood in terms of the lambda calculus, which provides the basic mechanisms for procedural abstraction and procedure (subprogram) application.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The above example is an expression that evaluates to a first-class function. The symbol codice_1 creates an anonymous function, given a list of parameter names, codice_2 – just a single argument in this case, and an expression that is evaluated as the body of the function, codice_3. Anonymous functions are sometimes called lambda expressions.


title: Lambda calculus

text: For example, Pascal and many other imperative languages have long supported passing subprograms as arguments to other subprograms through the mechanism of function pointers. However, function pointers are not a sufficient condition for functions to be first class datatypes, because a function is a first class datatype if and only if new instances of the function can be created at run-time. And this run-time creation of functions is supported in Smalltalk, JavaScript and Wolfram Language, and more recently in Scala, Eiffel ("agents"), C# ("delegates") and C++11, among others.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The Church–Rosser property of the lambda calculus means that evaluation (β-reduction) can be carried out in "any order", even in parallel. This means that various nondeterministic evaluation strategies are relevant. However, the lambda calculus does not offer any explicit constructs for parallelism. One can add constructs such as Futures to the lambda calculus. Other process calculi have been developed for describing communication and concurrency.


title: Lambda calculus

text: The fact that lambda calculus terms act as functions on other lambda calculus terms, and even on themselves, led to questions about the semantics of the lambda calculus. Could a sensible meaning be assigned to lambda calculus terms? The natural semantics was to find a set "D" isomorphic to the function space "D" → "D", of functions on itself. However, no nontrivial such "D" can exist, by cardinality constraints because the set of all functions from "D" to "D" has greater cardinality than "D", unless "D" is a singleton set.


title: Lambda calculus

text: In the 1970s, Dana Scott showed that if only continuous functions were considered, a set or domain "D" with the required property could be found, thus providing a model for the lambda calculus.


title: Taboo

text: A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons. Such prohibitions are present in virtually all societies. Taboos may be prohibited explicitly, for example within a legal system or religion, or implicitly, for example by social norms or conventions followed by a particular culture or organization.


title: Taboo

text: Taboos are often meant to protect the individual, but there are other reasons for their development. An ecological or medical background is apparent in many, including some that are seen as religious or spiritual in origin. Taboos can help use a resource more efficiently, but when applied to only a subsection of the community they can also serve to suppress said subsection of the community. A taboo acknowledged by a particular group or tribe as part of their ways aids in the cohesion of the group, helps that particular group to stand out and maintain its identity in the face of others and therefore creates a feeling of "belonging".


title: Taboo

text: The meaning of the word "taboo" has been somewhat expanded in the social sciences to strong prohibitions relating to any area of human activity or custom that is sacred or forbidden based on moral judgment, religious beliefs, or cultural norms. "Breaking a taboo" is usually considered objectionable by society in general, not merely a subset of a culture.