title: Texas Revolution

text: Over the next several hours, two brief skirmishes occurred. Texians won the first, forcing a small group of dragoons and the Mexican artillery to withdraw. Mexican dragoons then forced the Texian cavalry to withdraw. In the melee, Rusk, on foot to reload his rifle, was almost captured by Mexican soldiers, but was rescued by newly arrived Texian volunteer Mirabeau B. Lamar. Over Houston's objections, many infantrymen rushed onto the field. As the Texian cavalry fell back, Lamar remained behind to rescue another Texian who had been thrown from his horse; Mexican officers "reportedly applauded" his bravery. Houston was irate that the infantry had disobeyed his orders and given Santa Anna a better estimate of their strength; the men were equally upset that Houston hadn't allowed a full battle.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Throughout the night, Mexican troops worked to fortify their camp, creating breastworks out of everything they could find, including saddles and brush. At on April 21, Cos arrived with 540 reinforcements, bringing the Mexican force to 1,200 men, which outnumbered the Texians. Cos's men were raw recruits rather than experienced soldiers, and they had marched steadily for more than 24 hours, with no rest and no food. As the morning wore on with no Texian attack, Mexican officers lowered their guard. By afternoon, Santa Anna had given permission for Cos's men to sleep; his own tired troops also took advantage of the time to rest, eat, and bathe.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Not long after the Mexican reinforcements arrived, Houston ordered Smith to destroy Vince's Bridge, away, to slow down any further Mexican reinforcements. At the Texians began creeping quietly through the tall grass, pulling the cannon behind them. The Texian cannon fired at 4:30, beginning the battle of San Jacinto. After a single volley, Texians broke ranks and swarmed over the Mexican breastworks to engage in hand-to-hand combat. Mexican soldiers were taken completely by surprise. Santa Anna, Castrillón, and Almonte yelled often conflicting orders, attempting to organize their men into some form of defense. Within 18 minutes, Mexican soldiers abandoned their campsite and fled for their lives. The killing lasted for hours.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Many Mexican soldiers retreated through the marsh to Peggy Lake. Texian riflemen stationed themselves on the banks and shot at anything that moved. Many Texian officers, including Houston and Rusk, attempted to stop the slaughter, but they were unable to gain control of the men. Texians continued to chant "Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!" while frightened Mexican infantry yelled "Me no Alamo!" and begged for mercy to no avail. In what historian Davis called "one of the most one-sided victories in history", 650 Mexican soldiers were killed and 300 captured. Eleven Texians died, with 30 others, including Houston, wounded.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Although Santa Anna's troops had been thoroughly vanquished, they did not represent the bulk of the Mexican army in Texas. An additional 4,000 troops remained under the commands of Urrea and General Vicente Filisola. Texians had won the battle due to mistakes made by Santa Anna, and Houston was well aware that his troops would have little hope of repeating their victory against Urrea or Filisola. As darkness fell, a large group of prisoners were led into camp. Houston initially mistook the group for Mexican reinforcements and shouted out that all was lost.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Santa Anna had successfully escaped towards Vince's Bridge. Finding the bridge destroyed, he hid in the marsh and was captured the following day. He was brought before Houston, who had been shot in the ankle and badly wounded. Texian soldiers gathered around, calling for the Mexican general's immediate execution. Bargaining for his life, Santa Anna suggested that he order the remaining Mexican troops to stay away. In a letter to Filisola, who was now the senior Mexican official in Texas, Santa Anna wrote that "yesterday evening [we] had an unfortunate encounter" and ordered his troops to retreat to Béxar and await further instructions.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Urrea urged Filisola to continue the campaign. He was confident that he could successfully challenge the Texian troops. According to Hardin, "Santa Anna had presented Mexico with one military disaster; Filisola did not wish to risk another." Spring rains ruined the ammunition and rendered the roads almost impassable, with troops sinking to their knees in mud. Mexican troops were soon out of food, and began to fall ill from dysentery and other diseases. Their supply lines had completely broken down, leaving no hope of further reinforcements. Filisola later wrote that "Had the enemy met us under these cruel circumstances, on the only road that was left, no alternative remained but to die or surrender at discretion".


title: Texas Revolution

text: For several weeks after San Jacinto, Santa Anna continued to negotiate with Houston, Rusk, and then Burnet. Santa Anna suggested two treaties, a public version of promises made between the two countries, and a private version that included Santa Anna's personal agreements. The Treaties of Velasco required that all Mexican troops retreat south of the Rio Grande and that all private property—code for slaves—be respected and restored. Prisoners-of-war would be released unharmed, and Santa Anna would be given passage to Veracruz immediately. He secretly promised to persuade the Mexican Congress to acknowledge the Republic of Texas and to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between the two countries.


title: Texas Revolution

text: When Urrea began marching south in mid-May, many families from San Patricio who had supported the Mexican army went with him. When Texian troops arrived in early June, they found only 20 families remaining. The area around San Patricio and Refugio suffered a "noticeable depopulation" in the Republic of Texas years. Although the treaty had specified that Urrea and Filisola would return any slaves their armies had sheltered, Urrea refused to comply. Many former slaves followed the army to Mexico, where they could be free. By late May the Mexican troops had crossed the Nueces. Filisola fully expected that the defeat was temporary and that a second campaign would be launched to retake Texas.


title: Texas Revolution

text: When Mexican authorities received word of Santa Anna's defeat at San Jacinto, flags across the country were lowered to half staff and draped in mourning. Denouncing any agreements signed by Santa Anna, a prisoner of war, the Mexican authorities refused to recognize the Republic of Texas. Filisola was derided for leading the retreat and quickly replaced by Urrea. Within months, Urrea gathered 6,000 troops in Matamoros, poised to reconquer Texas. However, the renewed Mexican invasion of Texas never materialized as Urrea's army was redirected to address continued federalist rebellions in other state regions in Mexico.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Most in Texas assumed the Mexican army would return quickly. So many American volunteers flocked to the Texian army in the months after the victory at San Jacinto that the Texian government was unable to maintain an accurate list of enlistments. Out of caution, Béxar remained under martial law throughout 1836. Rusk ordered that all "Tejanos" in the area between the Guadalupe and Nueces Rivers migrate either to east Texas or to Mexico. Some residents who refused to comply were forcibly removed. New Anglo settlers moved in and used threats and legal maneuvering to take over the land once owned by "Tejanos". Over the next several years, hundreds of "Tejano" families resettled in Mexico.


title: Texas Revolution

text: For years, Mexican authorities used the reconquering of Texas as an excuse for implementing new taxes and making the army the budgetary priority of the impoverished nation. Only sporadic skirmishes resulted. Larger expeditions were postponed as military funding was consistently diverted to other rebellions, out of fear that those regions would ally with Texas and further fragment the country. The northern Mexican states, the focus of the Matamoros Expedition, briefly launched an independent Republic of the Rio Grande in 1839. The same year, the Mexican Congress considered a law to declare it treasonous to speak positively of Texas. In June 1843, leaders of the two nations declared an armistice.


title: Texas Revolution

text: On June 1, 1836, Santa Anna boarded a ship to travel back to Mexico. For the next two days, crowds of Texian soldiers, many of whom had arrived that week from the United States, gathered to demand his execution. Lamar, by now promoted to Secretary of War, gave a speech insisting that "Mobs must not intimidate the government. We want no French Revolution in Texas!", but on June 4 soldiers seized Santa Anna and put him under military arrest. According to Lack, "the shock of having its foreign policy overturned by popular rebellion had weakened the interim government irrevocably". A group of soldiers staged an unsuccessful coup in mid-July. In response, Burnet called for elections to ratify the constitution and elect a Congress, the sixth set of leaders for Texas in a 12-month period. Voters overwhelmingly chose Houston the first president, ratified the constitution drawn up by the Convention of 1836, and approved a resolution to request annexation to the United States. Houston issued an executive order sending Santa Anna to Washington, D.C., and from there he was soon sent home.


title: Texas Revolution

text: During his absence, Santa Anna had been deposed. Upon his arrival, the Mexican press wasted no time in attacking him for his cruelty towards those prisoners executed at Goliad. In May 1837, Santa Anna requested an inquiry into the event. The judge determined the inquiry was only for fact-finding and took no action; press attacks in both Mexico and the United States continued. Santa Anna was disgraced until the following year, when he became a hero of the Pastry War.


title: Texas Revolution

text: The first Texas Legislature declined to ratify the treaty Houston had signed with the Cherokee, declaring he had no authority to make any promises. Although the Texian interim governments had vowed to eventually compensate citizens for goods that were impressed during the war efforts, for the most part livestock and horses were not returned. Veterans were guaranteed land bounties; in 1879, surviving Texian veterans who served more than three months from October 1, 1835, through January 1, 1837 were guaranteed an additional in public lands. Over 1.3 million acres (559 thousand ha) of land were granted; some of this was in Greer County, which was later determined to be part of Oklahoma.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Republic of Texas policies changed the status of many living in the region. The constitution forbade free blacks from living in Texas permanently. Individual slaves could only be freed by congressional order, and the newly emancipated person would then be forced to leave Texas. Women also lost significant legal rights under the new constitution, which substituted English common law practices for the traditional Spanish law system. Under common law, the idea of community property was eliminated, and women no longer had the ability to act for themselves legally – to sign contracts, own property, or sue. Some of these rights were restored in 1845, when Texas added them to the new state constitution. During the Republic of Texas years, "Tejanos" likewise faced much discrimination.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Mexican authorities blamed the loss of Texas on United States intervention. Although the United States remained officially neutral, 40 percent of the men who enlisted in the Texian army from October 1 through April 21 arrived from the United States after hostilities began. More than 200 of the volunteers were members of the United States Army; none were punished when they returned to their posts. American individuals also provided supplies and money to the cause of Texian independence. For the next decade, Mexican politicians frequently denounced the United States for the involvement of its citizens.


title: Texas Revolution

text: The United States agreed to recognize the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory. The fledgling republic now attempted to persuade European nations to agree to recognition. In late 1839 France recognized the Republic of Texas after being convinced it would make a fine trading partner.


title: Texas Revolution

text: For several decades, official British policy was to maintain strong ties with Mexico in the hopes that the country could stop the United States from expanding further. When the Texas Revolution erupted, Great Britain had declined to become involved, officially expressing confidence that Mexico could handle its own affairs. In 1840, after years in which the Republic of Texas was neither annexed by the United States nor reabsorbed into Mexico, Britain signed a treaty to recognize the nation and act as a mediator to help Texas gain recognition from Mexico.


title: Texas Revolution

text: The United States voted to annex Texas as the 28th state in March 1845. Two months later, Mexico agreed to recognize the Republic of Texas as long as there was no annexation to the United States. On July 4, 1845, Texians voted for annexation. This prompted the Mexican–American War, in which Mexico lost almost 55 percent of its territory to the United States and formally relinquished its claim on Texas.


title: Texas Revolution

text: Although no new fighting techniques were introduced during the Texas Revolution, casualty figures were quite unusual for the time. Generally in 19th-century warfare, the number of wounded outnumbered those killed by a factor of two or three. From October 1835 through April 1836, approximately 1,000 Mexican and 700 Texian soldiers died, while the wounded numbered 500 Mexican and 100 Texian. The deviation from the norm was due to Santa Anna's decision to label Texian rebels as traitors and to the Texian desire for revenge.


title: Texas Revolution

text: During the revolution, Texian soldiers gained a reputation for courage and militance. Lack points out that fewer than five percent of the Texian population enrolled in the army during the war, a fairly low rate of participation. Texian soldiers recognized that the Mexican cavalry was far superior to their own. Over the next decade, the Texas Rangers borrowed Mexican cavalry tactics and adopted the Spanish saddle and spurs, the riata, and the bandana.


title: Texas Revolution

text: The Texas Veterans Association, composed solely of revolutionary veterans living in Texas, was active from 1873 through 1901 and played a key role in convincing the legislature to create a monument to honor the San Jacinto veterans. In the late 19th century, the Texas Legislature purchased the San Jacinto battlesite, which is now home to the San Jacinto Monument, the tallest stone column monument in the world. In the early 20th century, the Texas Legislature purchased the Alamo Mission, now an official state shrine. In front of the church, in the center of Alamo Plaza, stands a cenotaph designed by Pompeo Coppini which commemorates the defenders who died during the battle. More than 2.5 million people visit the Alamo every year.


title: Texas Revolution

text: The Texas Revolution has been the subject of poetry and of many books, plays and films. Most English-language treatments reflect the perspectives of the Anglos and are centered primarily on the battle of the Alamo. From the first novel depicting events of the revolution, 1838's "Mexico versus Texas", through the mid-20th century, most works contained themes of anticlericalism and racism, depicting the battle as a fight for freedom between good (Anglo Texian) and evil (Mexican). In both English- and Spanish-language literature, the Alamo is often compared to the battle of Thermopylae. The 1950s Disney miniseries "Davy Crockett", which was largely based on myth, created a worldwide craze for everything Alamo-related. Within several years, John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best-known and perhaps least historically accurate film versions, "The Alamo" (1960). Notably, this version made the first attempt to leave behind racial stereotypes; it was still banned in Mexico. In the late 1970s, works about the Alamo began to explore "Tejano" perspectives, which had been all but extinguished even from textbooks about the revolution, and to explore the revolution's links to slavery.


title: James McCartney

text: James Louis McCartney (born 12 September 1977) is a British-American musician and songwriter. He is the only son of singer, songwriter, and former Beatle Paul McCartney. He has contributed to solo albums by his parents, including "Flaming Pie" (1997) and "Driving Rain" (2001) by Paul McCartney and "Wide Prairie" (1998) by Linda McCartney. He has released two EPs and two albums. His most recent, "The Blackberry Train", was released on 6 May 2016.


title: James McCartney

text: James Louis McCartney was born at Avenue Clinic in St John's Wood, London on 12 September 1977. He is the only son of songwriter and former Beatle Paul McCartney and his first wife Linda McCartney. He was named after both his paternal grandfather Jim McCartney and his father, whose full name is James Paul McCartney, as well as Linda's late mother, Louise Sara (Lindner) Eastman. His mother was Jewish, and his father is the son of a Catholic mother.


title: James McCartney

text: He spent the first two and a half years of his life on the road while his parents toured with their band Wings. After the band broke up in 1980, the McCartneys settled in Rye, East Sussex. He attended the local state secondary school, the Thomas Peacocke Community College. He has said his earliest inspiration to learn guitar was Michael J. Fox in "Back to the Future". He began playing music when his father gave him a Fender Stratocaster at age nine. The guitar had previously been owned by Carl Perkins.


title: James McCartney

text: In 1989, McCartney and his sisters Mary McCartney and Stella McCartney again joined Paul and Linda on a world tour. He continued his education with a tutor while on the road. In 1993, at age 16, while surfing with friends, he was swept out to sea. The coast guard was called, his family rushed to the site, and he emerged safe on his own 40 minutes later. In 1995, James introduced his sister Mary to television producer Alistair Donald, whom she later married.


title: James McCartney

text: On 17 April 1998, in Tucson, Arizona, James, along with his father and sisters, was at his mother's side when she died from breast cancer, which had been diagnosed in 1995. Later that year, he graduated from Bexhill College, near his home in East Sussex, where he pursued studies in A-level Art and Sculpture.


title: James McCartney

text: James has played guitar and drums on some of his father's solo albums, including "Flaming Pie" (1997) and "Driving Rain" (2001), as well as co-writing a few songs. On "Flaming Pie" he has an electric guitar solo on the track "Heaven on a Sunday". On "Driving Rain", he co-wrote the songs "Spinning on an Axis" and "Back in the Sunshine Again" with his father, and played percussion on the former track and guitar on the latter.


title: James McCartney

text: He also plays lead guitar on his mother's posthumously released solo album, "Wide Prairie" (1998), which included tracks recorded privately over the previous twenty years.


title: James McCartney

text: In 2004, he again left the McCartney family home and began living in a flat in Brighton, where he waited tables while he attended college and worked on his music. In 2005, he accompanied Paul during his 'US' Tour.


title: James McCartney

text: Around 2008, he began working with David Kahne, his father, and a number of other musicians on recording his own music. He made his US performing debut with his own original solo material on 14 November 2009 at the Fairfield Arts & Convention Center, during the Fourth Annual David Lynch Weekend for World Peace and Meditation in Fairfield, Iowa. He performed under the pseudonym Light.


title: James McCartney

text: "Available Light" was McCartney's first official release as both a performer and songwriter. The EP included four original songs composed by James as well as a cover of Neil Young's classic "Old Man". In addition to composing the songs and singing, he plays electric and acoustic guitar, mandolin, piano and bass on the recordings. Produced by David Kahne and Paul McCartney, the EP was recorded between Sussex, London and New York over the previous year, including Abbey Road Studios.


title: James McCartney

text: He stated, "The music was inspired by The Beatles, Nirvana, The Cure, PJ Harvey, Radiohead—and all good music. It is basically rock n' roll, clean sounding and vocal. The words on the album refer to spirituality, love, family, trying to sort out one's life, and many other things."


title: James McCartney

text: He previewed tracks from "Available Light" when he toured the UK for the first time in February and March 2010, though he at first performed under a pseudonym. The album was released electronically September 2010 on Blake Morgan's Engine Company Records, (now ECR Music Group) to positive reviews. "Close at Hand", his second EP, was released in 2011.


title: James McCartney

text: McCartney's "The Complete EP Collection" was released on 22 November 2011. The album combines the previous two EPs along with five new original tracks and two new covers. It is his first physical release, the two individual EPs being digital only. Like the EPs, it was produced by Paul McCartney and David Kahne, and is being released by Engine Company Records (now ECR Music Group). "Rolling Stone" called the opening track, "Angel," a "light and cheerful pop track." "AntiMusic" dubbed the release "whimsical and reflective, sharp-witted and affectionate. Full of smart, engaging pop songwriting." In a "Rolling Stone" song exclusive about the track "New York Times", James notes he composed the main riff on a family trip when his father "... was just inches away from me."


title: James McCartney

text: In April 2012, McCartney told a BBC interviewer that he had mooted the idea "a little bit" of forming a "next generation" version of the Beatles with Sean Lennon, Zak Starkey, and Dhani Harrison.


title: James McCartney

text: McCartney released his first album on 21 May 2013, titled "Me". The album was supported by a tour of the US, starting on 6 April 2013.


title: James McCartney

text: McCartney played at San Francisco's Outside Lands Music Festival in August 2013. He recorded The Beatles' "Hello, Goodbye" with The Cure for the album "The Art of McCartney", a collection of The Beatles and Paul McCartney solo covers.


title: James McCartney

text: Like his elder half-sister Heather McCartney, James lived a relatively private life before going out on tour for his music; his sisters Stella, a fashion designer, and Mary, a photographer, have a higher public profile. He has a much younger half-sister, Beatrice Milly McCartney, born in 2003 to Paul and his second wife, Heather Mills.


title: James McCartney

text: In November 2012, James performed at a London benefit for the David Lynch Foundation, which his father also supports.


title: James McCartney

text: McCartney practises Transcendental Meditation: "Transcendental Meditation plays a big role in my life as it has done for my father and the other Beatles. I meditate regularly—twice a day. ... I find that just 30 minutes of Transcendental Meditation refreshes me as if I had slept a few hours!"


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: Goodnight Mommy (; UK: Goodnight Mummy) is a 2014 Austrian psychological horror film, written and directed by Veronika Franz and Severin Fiala. The film stars Susanne Wuest and twin actors Elias and Lukas Schwarz, and follows the complex relationship between twin boys and their newly-returned-from-the-hospital mother in a large isolated house. The boys begin to question the woman's identity, believing that she isn't the same person as the one who went to surgery, and therefore wondering if she is their real mother.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: "Goodnight Mommy" had its world premiere at the 71st Venice International Film Festival on 30 August 2014 and was theatrically released on 5 January 2015, by Stadtkino Verleih. The film grossed $2 million worldwide and received generally positive reviews from critics, with praise for its performances, direction and screenplay. It was selected as the Austrian entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 88th Academy Awards, but it was not nominated.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: An American remake of the film starring Naomi Watts was released on Amazon Prime Video on September 16, 2022.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: A woman is singing to her identical twin sons and is being filmed. Later a car is driving the boys who are a little older now to a modern lakeside house near a forest with one of the boys drawing a picture of himself (Elias), his brother (Lukas) and their mother.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: They arrive home and do not see their mother but later do. She is bandaged up on the face and has just undergone a facial surgery. We see the mother acknowledging only Elias by handing him a present. She sets rules that they should live by. The mother orders the twins to keep the blinds closed during the day (as recommended by her doctor to avoid sunlight) and not allow any visitors or any animals in the house, imposes a strict rule of silence inside the house (as she’s required to rest after the surgery), and allows them to only play outdoors in the garden. Later that night the mother puts the boys to sleep but doesn't sing them a song she used to sing them which makes the boys suspicious. The mother also acts cruelly and lashes out at Elias physically and verbally when he is mischievous or disobedient. The boys comment that this is something their mother would never do.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: The twins begin to suspect that beneath her bandages, their mother may not be the same person. These doubts are confirmed when they find an old picture in the photo album that shows their mother with green eyes and yet the suspected imposter has blue eyes. With the suspicion that the woman residing in their house is an impostor, the twins escape from the house and go to an abandoned building in a nearby town, where they try to get sleep and take shelter from the heavy storm but are found by the sheriff and an officer. The sheriff drives them home, and is satisfied with the woman's explanation that she is their mother now the bandages are not on her face anymore.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: The boys tie the woman to the bed with bandages and tape and refuse to let her go until she tells them where their real mother is. The woman insists that she is their mother, and the twins use a magnifying glass to burn her face to compel her to reveal where their real mother is. They then seal her mouth with tape.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: Two employees of the Red Cross arrive to collect donations. Although they initially await the return of the mother, they finally leave the house after receiving a large amount of cash from Elias, which he discreetly stole from his mother's purse. Meanwhile, the woman breaks free from the adhesive tape around her mouth and yells for help, but is too late to attract the attention of the Red Cross employees. The twins seal her lips with super glue, only to realize that she is unable to eat. The twins cut open her lips with a small pair of scissors, slicing her mouth in the process.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: As the woman is still bound and trapped, she wets her bed. The twins briefly set her free from her shackles to change the bedding, allowing her to subdue the boys and escape. The twins, however, have set up a booby trap that causes her to fall, knocking her unconscious. The woman wakes glued to the living room floor. Elias starts to burn down the house to pressure her into telling them the truth about their mother. The woman firmly insists that she is the twins' real mother. As Lukas holds a candle to the curtains, Elias asks her to tell him what he is doing, claiming that if she was really their mother, she would know.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: Desperate, the woman breaks down and says she will play along with pretending that Lukas is there, revealing that Lukas in fact drowned during the opening sequence of the film. Lukas has been merely a hallucination, as Elias is suffering dissociative identity disorder and Capgras delusion, incapable of accepting his other half's demise. Elias ignores her, allowing Lukas to set fire to the house. The flames spread, presumably killing them both.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: As firefighters attempt to put out the fire, the woman, now unharmed and wearing a yellow dress that was previously shown in a happy family photo, leaves the house and walks into the woods. The final shot of the film shows Elias and Lukas walking through the cornfield and emerging to be with their mother, the three of them smiling and embracing, singing Lukas's favorite song.


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: The film generally received positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 85%, based on 145 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Dark, violent, and drenched in dread, Goodnight Mommy is perfect for extreme horror enthusiasts -- or filmgoers who prefer to watch between splayed fingers." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 81 out of 100, based on 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Goodnight Mommy

text: The National Board of Review named "Goodnight Mommy" one of the Top 5 Foreign Language Films of 2015.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Volkswagen Type 2, known officially (depending on body type) as the Transporter, Kombi or Microbus, or, informally, as the Bus (US), Camper (UK) or Bulli (Germany), is a forward control light commercial vehicle introduced in 1950 by the German automaker Volkswagen as its second car model. Following – and initially deriving from – Volkswagen's first model, the Type 1 (Beetle), it was given the factory designation Type 2.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: As one of the forerunners of the modern cargo and passenger vans, the Type 2 gave rise to forward control competitors in the United States in the 1960s, including the Ford Econoline, the Dodge A100, and the Chevrolet Corvair 95 Corvan, the latter adapting the rear-engine configuration of the Corvair car in the same manner in which the VW Type 2 adapted the Type 1 layout.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: European competition included the 1947–1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959–1980 Renault Estafette (both FF layout), the 1952–1969 semi forward-control Bedford CA and the 1953–1965 FR layout Ford Transit.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Japanese manufacturers also introduced similar vehicles, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and Subaru Sambar.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Like the Beetle, the van has received numerous nicknames worldwide, including the "microbus", "minibus", and, because of its popularity during the counterculture movement of the 1960s, "Hippie van/bus".


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2 series of Type 2, which ceased production on 31 December 2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This (after the 2002 termination of its T3 successor in South Africa) marked the end of the era of rear-engine Volkswagens, which originated in 1935 with their Type 1 prototypes.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. It has similarities in concept to the 1920s Rumpler Tropfenwagen and 1930s Dymaxion car by Buckminster Fuller, neither of which reached production. Pon visited Wolfsburg in 1946, intending to purchase Type 1s for import to the Netherlands, where he saw a "Plattenwagen", an improvised parts-mover based on the Type 1 chassis, and realized something better was possible using the stock Type 1 pan. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated 23 April 1947, proposing a payload of and placing the driver at the very front. The sketch is now in the Rijksmuseum. Production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a short three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a ladder chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1's. Engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 82, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a flat four engine.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor (with an initial ), engineers used the wind tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a "vee" helped the production Type 2 achieve , exceeding the Type 1's . Volkswagen's new chief executive officer Heinz Nordhoff (appointed 1 January 1948) approved the van for production on 19 May 1949 and the first production model, now designated Type 2, rolled off the assembly line to debut 12 November. Only two models were offered: the Kombi (with two side windows and middle and rear seats that were easily removable by one person), and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951. In all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat, and added a "tailgate"-style rear door. These features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: These were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Unlike other rear engine Volkswagens, which evolved constantly over time but never saw the introduction of all-new models, the Transporter not only evolved, but was completely revised periodically with variations retrospectively referred to as versions "T1" to "T5" (a nomenclature only invented after the introduction of the front-drive T4 which replaced the T3). However, only generations T1 to T3 can be seen as directly related to the Beetle (see below for details).


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Type 2, along with the 1939 Citroën TUB and the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first 'forward control' vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA, 1958 RAF-977, 1959 Renault Estafette, 1960 BMC Morris J4, and 1960 Commer FC also used the concept. In the United States, the Corvair-based Chevrolet Corvan cargo van and Greenbrier passenger van adopted the use of the rear-engine layout of the Corvair car in the same manner that the Type 2 had used the rear-engine layout of the Type 1, using the Corvair's horizontally opposed, 6 cylinder air-cooled engine for power. Except for the Greenbrier, various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, and the Mazda Bongo, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. This was a disadvantage for the early "barndoor" Panel Vans, which could not easily be loaded from the rear because the engine cover intruded on interior space, but generally advantageous in traction and interior noise. The Corvair pickup used a folding side panel that functioned as a ramp into the bed when opened, and was called the "Rampside". The VW "pickup" in both single and double cab versions had a bed/floor that was flat from front to back at the height of the engine compartment cover, which had the advantage of a flat load floor but at a greater height, while the Corvair "pickup" bed/floor stepped down in front of the engine compartment to a much lower load floor which worked well with the unique "Rampside" configuration for loading.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Decades after production of the Type 2 ended, Volkswagen announced in 2017 that they would be bringing an electric VW microbus out based on the new MEB platform in 2022.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Apart from these factory variants, there were a multitude of third-party conversions available, some of which were offered through Volkswagen dealers. They included, but were not limited to, refrigerated vans, hearses, ambulances, police vans, fire engines and ladder trucks, and camping van conversions by companies other than Westfalia. There were even 30 Klv 20 rail-going draisines built for Deutsche Bundesbahn in 1955.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In South Africa, it is known as a well-loved variation of the ice cream van (first, second and third generations).


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The first generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 with the split windshield, informally called the Microbus, Splitscreen, or Splittie among modern fans, was produced from 8 March 1950 through the end of the 1967 model year. From 1950 to 1956, the T1 (not called that at the time) was built in Wolfsburg; from 1956, it was built at the completely new Transporter factory in Hanover. Like the Beetle, the first Transporters used the 1100 Volkswagen air-cooled engine, an , DIN-rated , air-cooled flat-four-cylinder 'boxer' engine mounted in the rear. This was upgraded to the 1200 – an in 1953. A higher compression ratio became standard in 1955; while an unusual early version of the engine debuted exclusively on the Type 2 in 1959. Any 1959 models that retain that early engine today are rare. Since the engine was discontinued almost immediately, no spare parts were made available.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The early versions of the T1 until 1955 were often called the "Barndoor" (retrospectively called T1a since the 1990s), owing to the enormous rear engine cover, while the later versions with a slightly modified body (the roofline above the windshield is extended), smaller engine bay, and 15" roadwheels instead of the original 16" ones are nowadays called the T1b (again, only called this since the 1990s, based on VW's retrospective T1,2,3,4 etc. naming system.). From the 1964 model year, when the rear door was made wider (same as on the bay-window or T2), the vehicle could be referred to as the T1c. 1964 also saw the introduction of an optional sliding door for the passenger/cargo area instead of the outwardly hinged doors typical of cargo vans.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1962, a heavy-duty Transporter was introduced as a factory option. It featured a cargo capacity of instead of the previous , smaller but wider 14" roadwheels, and a 1.5 L, DIN engine. This was so successful that only a year later, the 750 kg, 1.2 L Transporter was discontinued. The 1963 model year introduced the 1500 engine – as standard equipment to the US market at DIN with an bore, stroke, and 7.8:1 compression ratio. When the Beetle received the 1.5 L engine for the 1967 model year, its power was increased to DIN.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: German production stopped after the 1967 model year; however, the T1 still was made in Brazil until 1975, when it was modified with a 1968–79 T2-style front end, and big 1972-vintage taillights into the so-called "T1.5" and produced until 1996. The Brazilian T1s were not identical to the last German models (the T1.5 was locally produced in Brazil using the 1950s and 1960s-era stamping dies to cut down on retooling, alongside the Beetle/Fusca, where the pre-1965 body style was retained), though they sported some characteristic features of the T1a, such as the cargo doors and five-stud Pitch Circle Diameter rims. Wheel tracks varied between German and Brazilian production and with 14-inch, 15-inch and 16-inch wheel variants but commonly front track varied from 1290 mm to 1310 mm and rear track from 1370 mm to 1390 mm.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Among American enthusiasts, it is common to refer to the different models by the number of their windows. The basic Kombi or Bus is the 11-window (a.k.a. three-window bus because of three side windows) with a split windshield, two front cabin door windows, six rear side windows, and one rear window. The DeLuxe model featured eight rear side windows and two rear corner windows, making it the 15-window (not available in Europe). Meanwhile, the sunroof DeLuxe with its additional eight small skylight windows is, accordingly, the 23-window. From the 1964 model year, with its wider rear door, the rear corner windows were discontinued, making the latter two the 13-window and 21-window respectively. The 23- and later 21-window variants each carry the nickname "Samba" or in Australia, officially "Alpine".


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Volkswagen Samba, in the United States marketed as the Sunroof Deluxe, was the most luxurious version of the T1. Volkswagen started producing Sambas in 1951.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In the US Volkswagen vans were informally identified by the window count. This particular model had 23 and later 21 windows including eight high windows in the roof. The 23 window variant also had curved windows in the rear corners. To distinguish it from the normal Volkswagen van, the name "Samba" was coined.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Samba had bi-parting doors in lieu of a sliding door, and could be ordered with a large fabric sunroof. Volkswagen advertised the Samba for making tourist trips through the Alps.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Standard paint finishes on the Samba were two-tone, usually with the upper bodywork in white. The lower bodywork carried a contrasting color, the areas separated by a decorative strip. The roof carried slightly forward of the windshield at the front, creating an integral visor. The windows had chrome tables and the van had a more comprehensive dashboard than the normal T1.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: When Volkswagen started producing the successor of the T1 (the T2) the company also stopped producing the Samba, ending the Samba and the concept of a van with such a high window count.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Certain models of the Volkswagen Type 2 played a role in a historic episode during the early 1960s known as the Chicken War. France and West Germany had placed tariffs on imports of US chicken. Diplomacy failed, and in January 1964, two months after taking office, President Johnson imposed a 25% tax (almost ten times the average US tariff) on potato starch, dextrin, brandy, and light trucks. Officially, the tax targeted items imported from Europe as approximating the value of lost American chicken sales to Europe.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In retrospect, audio tapes from the Johnson White House revealed a quid pro quo unrelated to chicken. In January 1964, President Johnson attempted to convince United Auto Workers' president Walter Reuther not to initiate a strike just before the 1964 election, and to support the president's civil rights platform. Reuther, in turn, wanted Johnson to respond to Volkswagen's increased shipments to the United States.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Chicken Tax directly curtailed importation of German-built Type 2s in configurations that qualified them as light trucks – that is, commercial vans (panel vans) and pickups; vans imported in passenger configuration were not affected. In 1964, US imports of trucks from West Germany declined to a value of $5.7 million – about one-third the value imported in the previous year. After 1971, Volkswagen cargo vans and pickup trucks, the intended targets, practically disappeared from the US market. While post-1971 Type 2 commercial vans and single-cab and double-cab pickups can be found in the United States today, they are exceedingly rare. Any post-1971 specimen found ostensibly has had its import tariff paid. The "Chicken tax" remains in effect today, even though it is now commonly circumvented by converting passenger vehicles to utility vehicles after they have entered the United States, a form of tariff engineering. This practice is ironically exercised by Ford (for its Transit Connect van) one of the companies the tax was meant to protect.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In late 1967, the second generation of the Volkswagen Type 2 (T2) was introduced. It was built in West Germany until 1979. In Mexico, the Volkswagen Kombi and Panel were produced from 1970 to 1994. Early models are often called the T2a (or "Early Bay"), models after 1971 are called the T2b (or "Late Bay") and models after 1991 are called the T2c.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: This second-generation Type 2 lost its distinctive split front windshield, and was longer and considerably heavier than its predecessor. Its common nicknames are "Breadloaf" and "Bay-window", or "Loaf" and "Bay" for short. At 1.6 L and DIN, the engine was also slightly larger. The battery and electrical system was upgraded to 12 volts, making it incompatible with electric accessories from the previous generation. The new model eliminated the swing axle rear suspension and transfer boxes previously used to raise ride height. Instead, half-shaft axles fitted with constant velocity joints raised ride height without the wild changes in camber of the Beetle-based swing axle suspension. The updated Bus transaxle is sought by off-road racers using air-cooled Volkswagen components.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The T2b was introduced by way of gradual change over three years. The first models featured rounded bumpers incorporating a step for use when the door was open (replaced by indented bumpers without steps on later models), front doors that opened to 90° from the body, no lip on the front guards, unique engine hatches, and crescent air intakes in the D-pillars (later models after the Type 4 engine option was offered, have squared off intakes). The 1971 Type 2 featured a new, 1.6 L engine with dual intake ports on each cylinder head and was DIN-rated at . An important change came with the introduction of front disc brakes and new roadwheels with brake ventilation holes and flatter hubcaps. Up until 1972, front indicators are set low on the nose rather than high on either side of the fresh air grille – giving rise to their being nicknamed "Low Lights". 1972's most prominent change was a bigger engine compartment to fit the larger 1.7- to 2.0-litre engines from the Volkswagen Type 4, and a redesigned rear end which eliminated the removable rear apron and introduced the larger late tail lights. The air inlets were also enlarged to accommodate the increased cooling air needs of the larger engines.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1971 the 1600cc Type 1 engine as used in the Beetle, was supplemented with the 1700cc Type 4 engine – as it was originally designed for the Type 4 (411 and 412) models. European vans kept the option of upright fan Type 1 1600 engine but the 1700 Type 4 became standard for US spec models.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In the Type 2, the Type 4 engine, or "pancake engine", was an option for the 1972 model year onward. This engine was standard in models destined for the US and Canada. Only with the Type 4 engine did an automatic transmission become available for the first time in the 1973 model year. Both engines were 1.7 L, DIN-rated at with the manual transmission and with the automatic. The Type 4 engine was enlarged to 1.8 L and DIN for the 1974 model year and again to 2.0 L and DIN for the 1976 model year. The two-litre option appeared in South African manufactured models during 1976, originally only in a comparably well-equipped "Executive" model. The 1978 2.0 L now featured hydraulic valve lifters, eliminating the need to periodically adjust the valve clearances as on earlier models. The 1975 and later US model years received Bosch L-Jetronic electronic fuel injection as standard equipment; 1978 was the first year for electronic ignition, utilizing a hall effect sensor and digital controller, eliminating maintenance-requiring contact-breaker points. As with all Transporter engines, the focus in development was not on power, but on low-end torque. The Type 4 engines were considerably more robust and durable than the Type 1 engines, particularly in Transporter service.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1972, for the 1973 model year, exterior revisions included relocated front turn indicators, squared off and set higher in the valance, above the headlights. Also, square-profiled bumpers, which became standard until the end of the T2 in 1979, were introduced in 1973. Crash safety improved with this change because of a compressible structure behind the front bumper. This meant that the T2b was capable of meeting US safety standards for passenger cars of the time, though not required of vans. The "VW" emblem on the front valance became slightly smaller.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Later model changes were primarily mechanical. By 1974, the T2 had gained its final shape. Very late in the T2's design life, during the late 1970s, the first prototypes of Type 2 vans with four-wheel drive (4WD) were built and tested.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The T2c, with a roof raised by about was built starting in the early 1990s for the Mexican, South American and Central American markets. Since 1991, the T2c has been built in México with the water-cooled 1.8 L inline four-cylinder carbureted engine—easily identified by the large, black front-mounted radiator—and since 1995 with the 1.6 L air-cooled engines for the Brazilian market.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Once production of the original Beetle ended in late 2003, the T2 was the only Volkswagen model with an air-cooled, rear-mounted boxer engine, but then the Brazilian model shifted to a water-cooled engine on 23 December 2005. There was a 1.6 L water-cooled diesel engine available from 1981 to 1985, which gave fuel economy of 15 km/L to 18 km/L—but gave slow performance and its insufficient cooling system led to short engine life.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The end of the Volkswagen air-cooled engine on a worldwide basis was marked by a Special Edition Kombi. An exclusive silver paint scheme, and limited edition emblems were applied to only 200 units in late 2005, and were sold as 2006 models.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Stricter emissions regulations introduced by the Brazilian government for 2006 forced a shift to a flexible-fuel water-cooled engine able to run on petrol or alcohol. Borrowed from the Volkswagen Gol, the engine is a rear-mounted EA-111 1.4 L 8v Total Flex , on petrol, and when run on ethanol, and torque.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The production of the Brazilian Volkswagen Kombi ended in 2013 with a production run of 600 Last Edition vehicles. A short film entitled ""Os Últimos Desejos da Kombi"" (English: The Kombi's Last Wishes) was made by Volkswagen Brazil to commemorate the end of production.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Volkswagen Type 2 (T3), (T25 within the UK) or Vanagon in the United States, the T3 platform was introduced in 1979, and was one of the last new Volkswagen platforms to use an air-cooled engine. The Volkswagen air-cooled engine was phased out for a water-cooled boxer engine (still rear-mounted) in 1983. Compared to its predecessor the T2, the T3 was larger and heavier, with square corners replacing the rounded edges of the older models. The T3 is sometimes called "the wedge" by enthusiasts to differentiate it from earlier Kombis.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: For 1990, the T4 generation was released, with the model range dropping the Type 2 name in favor of the Transporter nameplate. Over 15 years after the Golf was introduced as the replacement for the Type 1 (Beetle), the Transporter range also adopted a front-engine, front-wheel drive configuration (Syncro 4WD returned as an option). Worldwide, the model range now used water-cooled, fuel-injected engines, with inline (and later VR6) engines replacing the "wasserboxer".


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Through much of the world, the T4 was marketed as the Transporter, with 3-row passenger vans known as the Caravelle; the Vanagon name was used in Japan. In the United States, the T4 was marketed as the Eurovan mid-size van for 1993 and from 1999 to 2003; from 1995 to 2005, the Eurovan served as the basis for multiple recreational vehicles marketed through the United States and Canada. Sales of the Transporter in North America ended in 2003.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The Volkswagen Transporter T5 range is the fifth generation of Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles medium-sized light commercial vehicle and people movers. Launched 6 January 2003, the T5 went into full production in April 2003, replacing the fourth generation range.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Key markets for the T5 are Germany, the United Kingdom, Russia, France and Turkey. It is not sold in the US market because it is classed as a light truck, accruing the 25% chicken tax on importation. The T5 has a more aerodynamic design. The angle of the windshield and A-pillar is less; this makes for a large dashboard and small bonnet.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In June 2009, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles announced the one-millionth T5 rolled off the production line in Hanover.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: T5 GP introduced in 2010. Heavily facelifted with some new power plants including the 180 bi-turbo range topper. These new engines saw the demise of the now "dirty" 5 cylinder units.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Late 2015 will see the arrival of the "Neu Sechs", the New 6. The T6 will offer further engine changes in early 2016, but will launch with the previous generation engines. The new engines will see the introduction of Ad-Blu to meet with euro 6 emission compliance. The new 6 was expected by many to be more than just a facelift.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The new T6 launched with the old Euro 5 non-AdBlue power-plants, but is offered with a Euro 6 diesel engine with 204bhp and AdBlue. Three further Euro 6 Adblue diesel power-plants with 84ps, 102ps and 150ps are also offered.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: There is some debate in the community over whether the T6 is a new model, or simply a face-lift of the T5. There are obvious external changes to the nose and tailgate, while internally there is a new dash in two different versions. Volkswagen claims refinement to ride, handling and noise levels.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 2001, a Volkswagen Microbus Concept was created, with design cues from the T1 generation in a spirit similar to the New Beetle nostalgia movement. Volkswagen planned to start selling it in the United States market in 2007, but it was scrapped in May 2004 and replaced with a more cost-effective design to be sold worldwide.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Like the Beetle, from the beginning, the Type 2 earned many nicknames from its fans. Popular nicknames in German include "VW-Bus", "Bulli/Bully" (a portmanteau of "Bus" and "Lieferwagen" (delivery van)), "Hippie-van", or simply "der Bus". The Type 2 was meant to be officially named the Bully, but Heinrich Lanz, producer of the Lanz Bulldog farm tractor, intervened. The model was then presented as the Volkswagen Transporter and Volkswagen Kleinbus, but the Bully nickname still caught on.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The official German-language model names Transporter and Kombi ("Kombinationskraftwagen", combined-use vehicle) have also caught on as nicknames. Kombi is not only the name of the passenger variant but also the Australasian and Brazilian term for the whole Type 2 family, in much the same way that they are all called VW-Bus in Germany, even the pickup truck variations. In Mexico, the German Kombi was translated as Combi and became a household word thanks to the vehicle's popularity in Mexico City's public transportation system. In Peru, where the term "Combi" was similarly adopted, the term "Combi Asesina" (Murderous Combi) is often used for buses of similar size, because of the notorious recklessness and competition of bus drivers in Lima to get passengers. In Portugal it is known as "Pão-de-Forma" (Breadloaf) because its design resembles a bread baked in a mold. Similarly, in Denmark, the Type 2 is referred to as "Rugbrød" (Rye bread). Finns dubbed it "Kleinbus" (mini-bus), as many taxicab companies adopted it for group transportation; the name Kleinbus has become an appellative for all passenger vans. The vehicle is also known as Kleinbus in Chile.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In the US, however, it is a VW bus, minibus, hippie-mobile, hippie bus, hippie van, "combie", Microbus, or Transporter to aficionados. The early versions produced before 1967 used a split front windshield (giving rise to the nickname "Splitty"), and their comparative rarity has led to their becoming sought after by collectors and enthusiasts. The next version, sold in the US market from 1968 to 1979, is characterised by a large, curved windshield and is commonly called a "bay-window". It was replaced by the Vanagon, of which only the Westfalia camper version has a common nickname, "Westy".


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: A popular nickname for the T3 was "2.6i" or "transi" in reference to the 2.6 liter Microbus/Caravelle sold in South Africa and their robust design being a popular choice for transportation of children respectively. Kombi is also a generic nickname for vans and minibuses in South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe, often used as a means of public transportation. In Nigeria it is called Danfo.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In the UK, it is known as a "Campervan". In France, it was called a "camping-car" (usually hyphenated) though this has been expanded to include other, often more specialized vehicles in more recent times.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Among VW enthusiasts in countries of the former Yugoslavia, especially in Serbia and Croatia, VW T2 bus is commonly called a "Terrorist", probably due to its cameo appearance in the "Back to the Future" film in which it is driven by a group of Libyan terrorists.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: Offered initially only as a nine-passenger version called the Volkswagen Combi (Kombi in Brazil), and from 1973 also its cargo van version called the "Volkswagen Panel", both variants were fitted with the 1.5 L air-cooled boxer engine and four-speed manual gearbox. In 1974, the 1.6 L boxer engine replaced the 1.5 previous one, and production continued this way up to 1987. In 1987, the water-cooled 1.8 L inline four-cylinder engine replaced the air-cooled 1.6 L. This new model is recognisable by its black grille (for its engine coolant radiator), bumpers and moldings.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1975, Volkswagen de México ordered two specially made pickups from Germany, one single cab and one double cab, for the Puebla plant. These were evaluated for the possibility of building pickups in Mexico, and were outfitted with every option except the Arctic package, including front and rear fog lights, intermittent wipers, trip odometer, clock, bumper rubber, PVC tilt, and dual doors on the single cab storage compartment. VW de Mexico was interested in having the lights, wiring, brake systems and other parts manufactured in Mexico. Ultimately, VW de Mexico declined to produce pickups, and the pickups were sold to an Autohaus, a Volkswagen dealer in San Antonio, Texas, since they could not be sold in Mexico. By law, no German-made Volkswagens were to be sold in Mexico. These were probably the only pickups that were produced in Germany for Mexican import, and have the "ME" export code on the M-code plate. The green double cab was sold to a new owner in New York, and has been lost track of. The light gray (L345, licht grau) single cab still exists. Pickups were not manufactured in Mexico, nor were they imported into Mexico from Germany, save for these two examples.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1988, a luxury variant – the Volkswagen Caravelle – made its debut in the Mexican market to compete with the Nissan Ichi Van, which was available in cargo, passenger and luxury versions.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The main differences between the two are that the Caravelle was sold as an eight-passenger version, while the Combi was available as a nine-passenger version, the Caravelle was only painted in metallic colors, while the Combi was only available in non-metallic colors, and the Caravelle was fitted with an AM/FM stereo cassette sound system, tinted windows, velour upholstery, reading lights, mid and rear headrests, and wheel covers from the European T3 model.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1991, the higher roof made its debut in all variants, and the Combi began to be offered in eight- or nine-passenger variants. In 1991, since Mexican anti-pollution regulations required a three-way catalytic converter, a Digifant fuel injection system replaced the previous carburetor. The three variants continued without change until 1994.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: In 1994, production ended in Mexico, with models being imported from Brazil. The Caravelle was discontinued, and both the Combi and the Panel were only offered in white color and finally in 2002, replaced by the T4 EuroVan Pasajeros and EuroVan Carga, passenger and cargo van in long wheelbase version, inline five-cylinder 2.5 L 115 bhp and five-speed manual gearbox imported from Germany.


title: Volkswagen Type 2

text: The VW Type 2 became popular with the counterculture of the 1960s, thanks to its ability to transport a large group of people while being cheap and easy to maintain. Its design was simple yet spacious, thanks largely to the rear-mounted engine. It contrasted with the large sedans and station wagons that were normal at the time, giving the van an alternative and rebellious image. Vans were often painted with extravagant designs in bright colors, making them stand out on the road even more. The "hippie van" remains iconic today, thanks to being featured on the cover of albums by musicians such as Bob Dylan and the Beach Boys, and being used by fans of the Grateful Dead while following the band on tour. But most iconic of all, the music festival Woodstock, which was held in the summer of 1969, saw plenty of brightly-painted vans transporting excited young crowds.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias (, ; ), officially the Principality of Asturias (; ; Galician-Asturian: "Principao d'Asturias"), is an autonomous community in northwest Spain.


title: Asturias

text: It is coextensive with the province of Asturias and contains some of the territory that was part of the larger Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages. Divided into eight "comarcas" (counties), the autonomous community of Asturias is bordered by Cantabria to the east, by León (Castile and León) to the south, by Lugo (Galicia) to the west, and by the Cantabrian sea to the north.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias is situated in a mountainous setting with vast greenery and lush vegetation, making it part of Green Spain. The region has a maritime climate. It receives plenty of annual rainfall and little sunshine by Spanish standards and has very moderated seasons, most often averaging in the lower 20s celsius. Heatwaves are rare due to mountains blocking southerly winds. Winters are very mild for the latitude, especially near sea level.


title: Asturias

text: The most important cities are the communal capital, Oviedo, the seaport and largest city Gijón, and the industrial town of Avilés. Other municipalities in Asturias include Cangas de Onís, Cangas del Narcea, Gozón, Grado, Langreo, Llanera, Laviana, Lena, Llanes, Mieres, Siero, Valdés, Vegadeo and Villaviciosa ("see also List of municipalities and comarcas in Asturias").


title: Asturias

text: Asturias was inhabited first by "Homo erectus" then by Neanderthals. Since the Lower Paleolithic era, and during the Upper Paleolithic, Asturias was characterized by cave paintings in the eastern part of the area. In the Mesolithic period, a native culture developed, that of the "Asturiense", and later, with the introduction of the Bronze Age, megaliths and tumuli were constructed. In the Iron Age, the territory came under the cultural influence of the Celts; the local Celtic peoples, known as the Astures, were composed of tribes such as the "Luggones", the "Pesicos", and others, who populated the entire area with "castros" (fortified hill-towns). Today the Astur Celtic influence persists in place names, such as those of rivers and mountains.


title: Asturias

text: With the conquest of Asturias by the Romans under Augustus (29–19 BC), the region entered into recorded history. The Astures were subdued by the Romans, but were never fully conquered. After several centuries without foreign presence, they enjoyed a brief revival during the Germanic invasions of the late 4th century AD, resisting Suebi and Visigoth raids throughout the 5th century AD, ending with the Moorish invasion of Spain. However, as it had been for the Romans and Visigoths, the Moors did not find mountainous territory easy to conquer, and the lands along Spain's northern coast never became part of Islamic Spain. With the beginning of the Moorish conquest in the 8th century, this region became a refuge for Christian nobles, and in 722, a "de facto" independent kingdom was established, the "Regnum Asturorum", which was to become the cradle of the incipient "Reconquista" (Reconquest).


title: Asturias

text: In the 10th century, the Kingdom of Asturias gave way to the Kingdom of León, and during the Middle Ages the geographic isolation of the territory made historical references scarce. Through the rebellion of Prince Henry (the later Henry II of Castile) in the 14th century, the Principality of Asturias was established. The most famous proponents of independence were Gonzalo Peláez and Queen Urraca, who, while achieving significant victories, were ultimately defeated by Castilian troops. After its integration into the Kingdom of Spain, Asturias provided the Spanish court with high-ranking aristocrats and played an important role in the colonisation of America. Since 1388, the heir to the Castilian (later Spanish) throne has been styled Prince (or Princess) of Asturias. In the 16th century, the population reached 100,000 for the first time, and within another century that number would double due to the arrival of American corn.


title: Asturias

text: In the 18th century, Asturias was one of the centres of the Spanish Enlightenment. The renowned Galician thinker Benito de Feijóo settled in the Benedictine Monastery of San Vicente de Oviedo. Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, a polymath and prominent reformer and politician of the late 18th century, was born in the seaside town of Gijón.


title: Asturias

text: During the Napoleonic Wars, Asturias was the first Spanish province to rise up against the French following the abdication of King Ferdinand VII on 10 May 1808. Riots began in Oviedo and on 25 May the local government formally declared war on Napoleon with 18,000 men called to arms to resist invasion.


title: Asturias

text: The Industrial Revolution came to Asturias after 1830 with the discovery and systematic exploitation of coal mines and iron factories at the mining basins of Nalón and Caudal. At the same time, there was significant migration to the Americas (especially Argentina, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Cuba and Mexico); those who succeeded overseas often returned to their native land much wealthier. These entrepreneurs were known collectively as "Indianos", for having visited and made their fortunes in the West Indies and beyond. The heritage of these wealthy families can still be seen in Asturias today: the region is dotted with many large "modernista" villas, as well as cultural institutions such as free schools and public libraries.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias played an important part in the events that led up to the Spanish Civil War. In October 1934 Asturian miners and other workers staged an armed uprising (see Revolution of Asturias) to oppose the coming to power of the right-wing CEDA party, which had obtained three ministerial posts in the centralist government of the Second Spanish Republic. For a month, a Popular Front Committee exercised control in southern Asturias, while local workers committees sprang up elsewhere in the region. A war committee dominated by anarcho-syndicalist supporters took power in Oviedo. Troops under the command of a then unknown general named Francisco Franco Bahamonde were brought from Spanish Morocco to suppress the revolt. Franco applied tactics normally reserved for overseas colonies, using troops of the Spanish Legion and Moroccan troops: ferocious oppression followed.


title: Asturias

text: As a result, Asturias remained loyal to the republican government during the Spanish Civil War, and was the scene of an extraordinary defence in extreme terrain, the Battle of El Mazuco. With Franco eventually gaining control of all Spain, Asturias — traditionally linked to the Spanish Crown — was known merely as the "Province of Oviedo" from 1939 until Franco's death in 1975. The province's name was restored fully after the return of democracy to Spain, in 1977. In the 50s and 60s the industrial progress of Asturias continued with the constitution of national enterprises like Ensidesa and Hunosa, but the 80s was the decade of a dramatic industrial restructuring.


title: Asturias

text: On 30 December 1981, Asturias became an autonomous community within the decentralised territorial structure established by the Constitution of 1978. Rafael Luis Fernández Álvarez, who had previously served as the President of the Regional Council since 1978, became the first President of the Principality of Asturias, upon the adoption of autonomy. The Asturian regional government holds comprehensive competencies in important areas such as health, education and protection of the environment. The current president, elected in 2019, is Adrián Barbón (PSOE).


title: Asturias

text: Asturias is also divided into eight "comarcas", which are not administrative divisions. They are only used as a system to homogenize the statistical data made by the Principality.


title: Asturias

text: The parroquia or parish is the subdivision of the Asturian municipalities. Currently, there are 857 parishes integrating the 78 municipalities in the region, and they usually coincide with the ecclesiastic divisions.


title: Asturias

text: The Cantabrian Mountains ("Cordillera Cantábrica") form Asturias's natural border with the province of León to the south. In the eastern range, the Picos de Europa National Park contains the highest and arguably most spectacular mountains, rising to at the Torrecerredo peak. Other notable features of this predominantly limestone range are the Parque Natural de Redes in the central east, the central Ubiñas south of Oviedo, and the Parque Natural de Somiedo in the west. The Cantabrian mountains offer opportunities for activities such as climbing, walking, skiing and caving, and extend some in total, as far as Galicia province to the west of Asturias and Cantabria province to the east. Similar opportunities are available for the traveler of Asturias interested in Caldoveiro Peak.


title: Asturias

text: The Asturian coastline is extensive, with hundreds of beaches, coves and natural sea caves. Notable examples include the Playa del Silencio ("Beach of Silence") near the fishing village of Cudillero (west of Gijón), as well as the many beaches surrounding the summer resort of Llanes, such as the Barro, Ballota and Torimbia (the latter a predominantly nudist beach). Most of Asturias's beaches are sandy, clean, and bordered by steep cliffs, on top of which it is not unusual to see grazing livestock.


title: Asturias

text: The climate of Asturias is heavily marked by the Gulf Stream. Falling within the Cantabrian belt known as Green Spain it has high precipitations all year round. Summers are mild and, on the coast, winters also have relatively benign temperatures, rarely including frost. The cold is especially felt in the mountains, where snow is present from October till May. Both rain and snow are regular weather features of Asturian winters. In coastal or near-coastal areas, daytime high temperatures generally average around – during winter and – in summer.


title: Asturias

text: This part of Spain is one of the best conserved in the entire country, and full of vegetation and wild spaces. It holds two of the most important natural parks in Spain, and is very renowned for the Picos de Europa and Somiedo areas.


title: Asturias

text: The Gijón area was marked and singled out as one of the pollution hotspots in Western Europe in a 2015 report from the International Institute for Applied Science Systems, where predictions for 2030 conditions were made. Gijón was marked much higher than any other Spanish metro area, in spite of the much larger populations in cities such as Madrid and Barcelona. This was attributed to heavy industrial activities. Since outdoor air pollution is a major cause of premature death in Europe, the excessive pollution is a major concern for Asturias. The majority of Asturias population live within a range from the port of Gijón, so pollution would be likely to heavily affect the population.


title: Asturias

text: A Spanish government study conducted in 2010 regarding life expectancy in relative communities, Asturias was ranked lowest (tied with Andalucia) for male life expectancy with 76.7 years from 2007 readings. However, female life expectancy was 84 years and normal among autonomous communities. However, even the male life expectancy is only just below Western European standards, and exaggerated by the high Spanish life expectancy. Considering that many Asturians live in relatively close proximity to Gijón's heavily industrial areas, these figures (especially for female relative health) still contribute to a position that Gijón is a safe location to live. The numbers for "disability-free" life expectancy has risen significantly both for males and females in the area since 1986, according to the report.


title: Asturias

text: Update: the coal fired electric generating plant, Aboño, completed a Spanish government/EU demand to install equipment to drastically reduce its emissions. Also, the other two major polluters - Arcelor Gijón and Arcelor Avilés - have announced an investment of 100 million euros to do the same. These factories have been a major cause of the area's high airborne pollution.


title: Asturias

text: According to the 2020 census, the region has a population of 1,018,784 which constitutes 2.1% of the population of Spain, with the population density numbering 96 people per square kilometre.


title: Asturias

text: Asturian population has the highest mortality rate in Spain and the lowest total fertility rate (1.03), the lowest in the European Union.


title: Asturias

text: Immigration is not as high as in other Spanish regions as immigrants only represent, according to the 2017 census, 3.65% of population.


title: Asturias

text: The only official language in Asturias is Spanish. The Asturian language, also known as Bable, is also spoken, and is protected by law ("Ley 1/1998, de 23 de marzo, de uso y promoción del bable/asturiano" — "Law 1/1998, of 23 March, of Use and Promotion of Bable/Asturian"). It is sometimes used by the Asturian civil service. In the western part of Asturias, Eonavian is also spoken, and its promotion also falls under the responsibility of Law 1/1998. Whether Eonavian is a dialect continuum or a variety of Galician language, however, is a subject of debate, and its use in the Asturian Administration is minor compared to the use of the Asturian language. Within Asturias, there is an ongoing process to establish place names in Asturian and Eonavian dialects.


title: Asturias

text: In 2019, the Centre for Sociological Research carried a study showing the population of Asturias was 65.2% Catholic (25.1% practicing), 13.5% agnostic, and 12.8% atheist.


title: Asturias

text: The organisation and political structure of Asturias is governed by the Statute of Autonomy of the Principality of Asturias, in force since 30 January 1982. According to the Statute, the institutional bodies of the Principality of Asturias are three: the Council of Government, the General Junta and President. The form of government of the Principality is Parliament: The General Junta is the legislature to choose, on behalf of the Asturian people, the President of the Principality of Asturias. The President is also the one of the Council of Government, the head of executive power, and politically answerable to the General Junta.


title: Asturias

text: The functions of the General Junta are the approval of budgets, and the direction and control of the action of the Council of Government. It is composed of 45 deputies, elected for four years through the universal suffrage within a system proportional representation that the allocation of deputies is based on D'Hondt method.


title: Asturias

text: For centuries, the backbone of the Asturian economy was agriculture and fishing. Milk production and its derivatives was also traditional, but its big development was a byproduct of the economic expansion of the late 1960s. Nowadays, products from the dairy cooperative Central Lechera Asturiana are being commercialised all over Spain.


title: Asturias

text: The main regional industry in modern times, however, was coal mining and steel production: in the times of Francisco Franco's dictatorship, it was the centre of Spain's steel industry. The then state-owned ENSIDESA steel company is now part of the privatised Aceralia, now part of the ArcelorMittal Group. The industry created many jobs, which resulted in significant migration from other regions in Spain, mainly Extremadura, Andalusia and Castile and León.


title: Asturias

text: The steel industry is now in decline when measured in terms of number of jobs provided, as is the mining. The reasons for the latter are mainly the high costs of production to extract the coal compared to other regions. Regional economic growth is below the broader Spanish rate, though in recent years growth in service industries has helped reduce Asturias's high rate of unemployment. Large out-of-town retail parks have opened near the region's largest cities (Gijón and Oviedo), whilst the ever-present Spanish construction industry appears to continue to thrive.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias has benefited extensively since 1986 from European Union investment in roads and other essential infrastructure, though there has also been some controversy regarding how these funds are spent, for example, on miners' pensions.


title: Asturias

text: The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the autonomous community was 23.3 billion euros in 2018, accounting for 1.9% of Spanish economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 24,400 euros or 81% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 98% of the EU average. This makes the region the 10th richest in Spain, a big decrease from the 1970s/1980s - the heyday of the Spanish mining industry, when Asturias was commonly regarded as one of the most prosperous regions in Southern Europe. Asturias has been growing below the Spanish national average since the decline of the mining industry, and grew just 0.82% in 2008, the lowest of all regions in Spain. On the plus side, unemployment in Asturias is below the average of Spain; it stood at 13.7% in 2017.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias is served by Asturias International Airport (OVD), from Oviedo, near the northwest coast and the industrial town of Avilés.


title: Asturias

text: Eastern Asturias is also easily accessible from Santander Airport. Recent improvements introduced in the road network permit flying into Santander and later driving into Asturias, which can be entered in less than an hour's drive. The Irish airline Ryanair operates flights to Santander Airport from Frankfurt Hahn, Liverpool, Dublin, Edinburgh, London Stansted and Rome Ciampino.


title: Asturias

text: El Musel (the Port of Gijón) is able to receive cruise ships of any size. Companies such as P&O, Swan Hellenic or Hapag Lloyd choose the Port of Gijón every year for their calls in the Atlantic European Coast. The following areas are available for cruise vessels:


title: Asturias

text: These locations allow a high degree of access control, with security guaranteed for both vessels and passengers alike. The city centre is only away and the Port Authority provides dedicated coach connection allowing passengers to take advantage of the cultural, gastronomic and commercial opportunities that Gijón has to offer.


title: Asturias

text: Between 2010 and 2014, the city of Gijón was connected by ferry with the French city of Nantes. This connection was also known as the "sea highway" and it had a frequency of two ferries per day in both directions. The route was cancelled in September 2014.


title: Asturias

text: Spain's national Renfe rail network also serves Asturias well; trains regularly depart to and from the Spanish interior. Major stops are the regional capital, Oviedo, and the main coastal city, Gijón. Meanwhile, the Renfe Feve rail company links the centre of the region with Eastern and Western Asturias. Under the Cantabrian Mountains, the Pajares Base Tunnel, opened in September 2021 only for test trains, is expected to open for commercial servicies sometime in 2023, and will reduce the journey times from Madrid to Asturias from 5 hours to just 3 hours, paving the way for the arrival of AVE trains (high speed trains) in the near future.


title: Asturias

text: There is also a comprehensive bus service run by the ALSA company. It links Avilés, Gijón, Oviedo and Mieres with Madrid and other major towns, several times a day. These include services to Barcelona, Salamanca, León, Valladolid, A Coruña, Bilbao, Seville, San Sebastián, Paris, Brussels and Nice, to name just a few.


title: Asturias

text: Oviedo is the capital city of Asturias and contains Santa María del Naranco and San Miguel de Lillo, a pre-Romanesque church and a palace respectively, which were built by the first Asturian kings on Mount Naranco, to the north of the city (World Heritage Site). In modern architecture, the "Palacio de Congresos de Oviedo" (or "Modoo") was designed by Santiago Calatrava.


title: Asturias

text: Gijón, the biggest city of Asturias, is a coastal city known for cultural and sports events, and a beach tourism centre in northern Spain. It also is known for the traditional Asturian gastronomy and for being an Asturian cider production spot. Museums in the city include the Universidad Laboral de Gijón, including a modern art museum and theatre.


title: Asturias

text: Avilés is the third largest city in Asturias, where "La villa del adelantado" (as locals call it, in reference of Pedro Menéndez de Avilés) is a meeting point. "Saint Nicholas of Bari" or "Capilla de los Alas" in Romanesque and Romanesque-Gothic style, respectively; Palacio de Balsera, in Modernist style or St. Thomas of Canterbury church (dating from the 13th century) are examples which show the historical patrimony to be found in the city. The Centro Niemeyer, designed by the Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer, is an example of contemporary architecture in Asturias.


title: Asturias

text: The Picos de Europa National Park, and other parts of the Asturian mountain range: The Picu Urriellu mountain (2519 m or 8262 ft), also known as "El Naranjo de Bulnes", is a molar-shaped peak which, reputedly, glows orange in the evening sun, hence its name. Weather permitting, it can be viewed from Camarmeña village, near Poncebos, south of Arenas de Cabrales.


title: Asturias

text: The shrine to the Virgin of Covadonga and the mountain lakes ("Los Lagos"), near Cangas de Onís: Legend has it that in the 8th century, the Virgin blessed Asturian Christian forces with a well-timed signal to attack Spain's Moorish conquerors, thereby taking the invaders by surprise in the Battle of Covadonga. The "Reconquista" and eventual unification of all Spain is therefore said to have started in this very location.


title: Asturias

text: The paleolithic art in the caves of Asturias is a declared World Heritage Site with the Paleolithic Art of Northern Spain.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias also has examples of industrial heritage as a consequence of its industrial activities in the 19th and 20th centuries. It had metallurgical and chemical factories, mines, bridges and railways, including in the towns of Langreo, Mieres and Avilés.


title: Asturias

text: The Asturian coast: especially the beaches in and around the summer resort of Llanes, the Playa del Silencio near Cudillero fishing village, or the "white" village of Luarca (Severo Ochoa hometown).


title: Asturias

text: Asturias has a rich artistic legacy that emphasizes Romanesque ("Asturias Arts") indigenous architecture with monuments like Santa María del Naranco, Santa Cristina de Lena and San Miguel de Lillo. These monuments have a Ramirense Romanesque style (due to Ramiro I) or San Julián de los Prados, known as Santullano (Oviedo) of the Alfonsino pre-Romanesque style (due to Alfonso II), which are all in Oviedo. Other examples of architecture are Villaviciosa's church, San Salvador de Valdediós (commonly known by the Asturians as "Conventín"), and the church of San Salvador de Priesca. Another example is Cabranes' San Julian de Viñón.


title: Asturias

text: The Romanesque style is very present, since all Asturias is crossed by one of the Camino de Santiago routes, which highlights the Monastery of San Pedro de Villanueva (near Cangas de Onis), the churches of San Esteban de Aramil (Siero), San Juan de Amandi (Villaviciosa) and Santa María de Junco (Ribadesella).


title: Asturias

text: The Gothic style is not as abundant, but there are good examples of this style, such as the Cathedral of San Salvador in Oviedo.


title: Asturias

text: The Baroque style is more present by means of palace architecture, with such notable examples as the Palace of Camposagrado and Velarde - the latter seat of Museum of Fine Arts of Asturias. The Baroque style stands out in public civil engineering and bridge tolls (Olloniego); the milestones, the chairs or seats present along the road to Madrid and the resort of Caldas de Priorio (Oviedo) building.


title: Asturias

text: In 1985, the UNESCO declared the pre-Romanesque monuments and the Cathedral of Oviedo as World Heritage Sites.


title: Asturias

text: In popular architecture, the traditional granaries in Asturias, called "hórreos", are known for their demographic extension and their functional evolution, its basic characteristic being its mobility: it can be easily dismounted and transported to another location. The Panera is the evolution of the hórreo, with examples exceeding of area covered. The purpose of the horreo is to store objects and crops. With the arrival of maize and the beans, they were endowed with exterior corridors and railings for drying the harvests.


title: Asturias

text: Asturias is home to the only architectural work in Spain (as well as the largest in Europe) of the Brazilian architect and disciple of Le Corbusier; Oscar Niemeyer: the Oscar Niemeyer International Cultural Centre. The architectural project was donated to the Principality by the architect, who was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts, in the XXV edition of these awards. Niemeyer's project combined several different elements, and projected an open space, a place for education, culture and peace.


title: Asturias

text: In the capital of the Principality stands one of the most representative buildings of modern architecture, the Palace of Congresses of Oviedo, by the Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava, who also awarded the Prince of Asturias of Award for the Arts in 1999.


title: Asturias

text: Special importance has been placed in recent years on the recovery of industrial heritage through various routes and industrial museums, especially in the central area of the region.


title: Asturias

text: Some of the most famous festivals in Asturias take place in the small town of Llanes. These festivals celebrate the important saints and the Virgin Mary adored by the town. The associations that prepare the festivals have a rivalry between them and each year they try to outdo each other with more impressive shows. The three most important are the festival of San Roque (St. Roque) held on the 16th of August, the festival of Nuestra Señora Virgen de La Guia (Our Lady, Virgin Mary, the Guide) held on the 8th of September, and the festival of Santa Maria Magdalena (St. Mary Magdalene) held on the 22nd of July. The Magdalena is well known for its impressive march of logs where boys as young as 3 and men carry logs through the town until they reach the end point and start a large bonfire.


title: Asturias

text: While Asturias is especially known for its seafood, the most famous regional dish is "fabada asturiana", a rich stew typically made with large white beans ("fabes"), shoulder of pork ("lacón"), black pudding ("morcilla"), and spicy sausage ("chorizo").


title: Asturias

text: Apple groves foster the production of the region's traditional alcoholic drink, a natural cider ("sidra"). Since it is natural and bottled without gas, it produces a weak carbonation, and when Asturian cider is served, it is poured in a particular way, "el escanciado": the bottle is held above the head allowing for a long vertical pour, causing the cider to be aerated as it splashes into the glass below. After drinking most of the content, it is customary to splash a little out onto the ground, as a way to clean the glass of any lees for the next serving. Traditionally, the same glass is refilled and passed around, with everyone drinking from it in turn.


title: Asturias

text: Asturian cheeses, especially Cabrales, are also eaten throughout Spain and beyond; Asturias is often called "the land of cheeses" ("el país de los quesos").


title: Asturias

text: Asturias has two main football teams: Sporting de Gijón and Real Oviedo, which have played over 35 seasons in La Liga. Other current notable sports teams are Oviedo CB (basketball) and AB Gijón Jovellanos (handball).


title: Asturias

text: Racing driver Fernando Alonso is a two-time Formula One world champion, two-time Le Mans winner and FIA World Endurance winner. He races with Asturias' flag colours on his helmet. Cyclist Samuel Sánchez won a gold at the Olympic games. Football players from Asturias include World Cup winner David Villa as well as Quini, Luis Enrique, Juan Manuel Mata, and Santiago Cazorla, among others.


title: Asturias

text: The music of Asturias is varied. The most characteristic instrument in traditional music is the Asturian bagpipe, or "Gaita asturiana", which has a single drone, in common with the traditional bagpipes of other Celtic nations such as Wales and Ireland. The bagpipe is often accompanied by the hand drum, whistles and accordion.


title: Asturias

text: In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in traditional folk music, and several music ensembles have gained regional and international recognition for their ethnomusicological study and presentation of indigenous Asturian music. Notable examples include traditional pipers such as Xuacu Amieva and Tejedor and fusionist José Ángel Hevia (whose music video provides views of both the gaita and the Asturian landscape), and the groups Llan de Cubel, Xera, Nuberu and Felpeyu. Additionally, numerous rock, ska and heavy metal groups have also found relative success within Asturias, many of which incorporate elements of traditional Asturian music into their sound.


title: Asturias

text: The Asturian anthem Asturias, patria querida (Asturias, beloved fatherland), which was a popular song adopted as the region's anthem and formalised by "Ley 1/1984, de 27 de Abríl".


title: Asturias

text: The Orquesta Sinfónica del Principado de Asturias is the premier orchestra in the Principality of Asturias. It is based in the Auditorio Príncipe Felipe in Oviedo, but also performs in the main concert venues in Gijón and Avilés. Rossen Milanov is the Music Director.


title: Asturias

text: "Asturias" is also the name of the fifth movement of the "Suite Española, Op. 47" by Spanish composer Isaac Albéniz. Nevertheless, the music has little in common with the region's own folklore. Another famous piece of classical music more authentically inspired by the Asturian musical heritage is Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's "Capriccio Espagnol", which prominently features a theme from an "alborada", a dance tune traditionally played to celebrate the rising of the sun.


title: Discovery Channel

text: Discovery Channel (known as The Discovery Channel from 1985 to 1995, and often referred to as simply Discovery) is an American cable channel owned by Warner Bros. Discovery, a publicly traded company run by CEO David Zaslav. , Discovery Channel was the third most widely distributed subscription channel in the United States, behind now-sibling channel TBS and The Weather Channel; it is available in 409 million households worldwide, through its U.S. flagship channel and its various owned or licensed television channels internationally.


title: Discovery Channel

text: It initially provided documentary television programming focused primarily on popular science, technology, and history, but by the 2010s had expanded into reality television and pseudo-scientific entertainment.


title: Discovery Channel

text: , Discovery Channel is available to approximately 88,589,000 pay television households in the United States.


title: Discovery Channel

text: John Hendricks founded the channel and its parent company, Cable Educational Network Inc., in 1982. Several investors (including the BBC, Allen & Company and Venture America) raised $5 million in start-up capital to launch the network.


title: Discovery Channel

text: The Discovery Channel began broadcasting on June 17, 1985. It was initially available to 156,000 households and broadcast for 12 hours each day between 3 p.m. and 3 am. About 75 percent of its program content had never been broadcast on U.S. television before. In its early years, the channel's focus centered on educational programming in the form of cultural and wildlife documentaries, and science and historical specials. It also broadcast some Soviet programming during this time, including the news program "Vremya". The channel also carried two teletext services over its VBI during this time, "Infotext" (offering news from the Associated Press, as well as information about agribusiness and agriculture, including commodity prices from the Chicago Mercantile Exchange on a 15-minute delay), and "Datavizion" (offering trivia, strange news stories, games and a satellite TV guide); both services originated from WHA-TV in Madison, Wisconsin, and were run by the University of Wisconsin-Madison. In 1988, the channel premiered the nightly program "World Monitor" (produced by "The Christian Science Monitor"). Also in 1988, the channel debuted an annual programming stunt called Shark Week; the week-long event gained in popularity during the 1990s and continues to be shown each summer. By 1990, the channel was available in over 50 million households.


title: Discovery Channel

text: The channel began to shift its focus in the early 2000s to attract a broader audience, by incorporating more reality-based series focusing on automotive, occupations, and speculative investigation series; though the refocused programming strategy proved popular, Discovery Channel's ratings began to decline by the middle of the decade. The drop in viewership was widely attributed to an over-reliance on a few hit series, such as "Monster Garage" and "American Chopper". Some critics said such shows strayed from Discovery's intention of providing more educationally based shows aimed at helping viewers learn about the world around them. In 2005, Discovery changed its programming focus to include more popular science and historical themes. The network's ratings eventually recovered in 2006.


title: Discovery Channel

text: On January 4, 2006, Discovery Communications announced anchor Ted Koppel, executive producer Tom Bettag and eight other former staff members from the ABC newsmagazine "Nightline" were joining Discovery Channel. The network was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards that year for shows including "The Flight that Fought Back" (a documentary about the hijacking of United Airlines Flight 93 during the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001) and "Deadliest Catch" (a reality series about a group of seafood fishermen).


title: Discovery Channel

text: In 2007, Discovery Channel's top series included the Emmy Award- and Peabody Award-winning "Planet Earth", "Dirty Jobs", "MythBusters", and "Deadliest Catch". Discovery Channel's 2008 lineup included "Fight Quest" and "Smash Lab".


title: Discovery Channel

text: On September 1, 2010, 43-year-old James Jay Lee entered the Discovery Communications headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, armed with a handgun. Lee fired at least one shot and held several employees hostage; he was later shot dead by police. Lee had published criticisms of the network at Savetheplanetprotest.com.


title: Discovery Channel

text: In December 2015, Discovery Communications launched its TV Everywhere service, Discovery Go, which features live and video-on-demand content from Discovery Channel and eight of its sister networks.


title: Discovery Channel

text: Programming on the flagship Discovery Channel in the U.S. is primarily focused on reality television series, such as speculative investigation (with shows such as "MythBusters", "Unsolved History", and "Best Evidence"), automobiles, and occupations (such as "Dirty Jobs" and "Deadliest Catch"). A popular annual feature on the channel is Shark Week, which airs on Discovery during the summer months.


title: Discovery Channel

text: Discovery has also featured documentaries specifically aimed at families and younger audiences. Other popular programs have included "How It's Made", "Cash Cab", and "Man vs. Wild".


title: Discovery Channel

text: Discovery en Español is an American pay television channel that was launched as the Spanish-language version of the Discovery Channel. It is operated by the Latin American division of Warner Bros. Discovery International in Miami, Florida.


title: Discovery Channel

text: As of February 2015, approximately 6,476,000 American households (5.6% of households with television) receive Discovery en Español.