title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Henry Standing Bear ("Mato Naji"), an Oglala Lakota chief, and well-known statesman and elder in the Native American community, recruited and commissioned Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski to build the Crazy Horse Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota. In October 1931, Luther Standing Bear, Henry's older brother, wrote to sculptor Gutzon Borglum, who was carving the heads of four American presidents at Mount Rushmore. Luther suggested that it would be "most fitting to have the face of Crazy Horse sculpted there. Crazy Horse is the real patriot of the Sioux tribe and the only one worthy to place by the side of Washington and Lincoln." Borglum never replied. Thereafter, Henry Standing Bear began a campaign to have Borglum carve an image of Crazy Horse on Mount Rushmore. In summer of 1935, Standing Bear, frustrated over the stalled Crazy Horse project, wrote to James H. Cook, a long time friend of Chief Red Cloud's, "I am struggling hopelessly with this because I am without funds, no employment and no assistance from any Indian or White."


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: On November 7, 1939, Henry Standing Bear wrote to the Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziolkowski, who worked on Mount Rushmore under Gutzon Borglum. He informed the sculptor, "My fellow chiefs and I would like the white man to know that the red man has great heroes, too." Standing Bear also wrote a letter to Undersecretary Oscar Chapman of the Department of the Interior, offering all his own fertile 900 acres (365 ha) in exchange for the barren mountain for the purpose of paying honor to Crazy Horse. The government responded positively, and the U.S. Forest Service, responsible for the land, agreed to grant a permit for the use of the land, with a commission to oversee the project. Standing Bear chose not to seek government funds and relied instead upon influential Americans interested in the welfare of the American Indian to privately fund the project.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: In the spring of 1940, Ziolkowski spent three weeks with Standing Bear at Pine Ridge, South Dakota, discussing land ownership issues and learning about Crazy Horse and the Lakota way of life. According to Ziolkowski, "Standing Bear grew very angry when he spoke of the broken Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868). That was the one I'd read about in which the President promised the Black Hills would belong to the Indians forever. I remember how his old eyes flashed out of that dark mahogany face, then he would shake his head and fall silent for a long while."


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: The memorial is a non-profit undertaking, and does not accept federal or state funding. The Memorial Foundation finances the project by charging fees for its visitor centers, earning revenue from its gift shops and receiving private contributions. Ziolkowski reportedly was offered 10 million for the project from the federal government on two occasions, but he turned the offers down. He felt the project was more than just a mountain carving, and he feared that his plans for the broader educational and cultural goals of the memorial would be overturned by federal involvement.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: After Ziolkowski died in 1982 at age 74, his widow Ruth Ziolkowski, took charge of the sculpture, overseeing work on the project as CEO from the 1980s to the 2010s. Ruth Ziolkowski decided to focus on the completion of Crazy Horse's face first, instead of the horse as her husband had originally planned. She believed that Crazy Horse's face, once completed, would increase the sculpture's draw as a tourist attraction, which would provide additional funding. She also oversaw the staff, which included seven of her children.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Sixteen years later, in 1998, both the head and face of Crazy Horse were completed and dedicated; Crazy Horse's eyes are wide, while his head is high. Ruth Ziolkowski and seven of the Ziolkowskis' 10 children carried on work at the memorial. Daughter Monique Ziolkowski, herself a sculptor, modified some of her father's plans to ensure that the weight of the outstretched arm was supported sufficiently. The foundation commissioned reports from two engineering firms in 2009 to help guide completion of the project. Work commenced on the horse after two years of careful planning and measurements. Since the completion of the head and face, much of the monument's sculpting work has been dedicated to the much larger horse portion.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Ruth Ziolkowski died on May 21, 2014, at the age of 87. Monique Ziolkowski became CEO and three of her siblings continue to work on the project, as well as three of the Ziolkowskis' grandsons.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: At the time construction started in 1948, the artist estimated the work would be complete in 30 years. As of 2022, there was no timeline for when the monument would be completed; however, the hand, arm, shoulder, hairline, and top of the horse's head were anticipated to be finished by 2037.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: The memorial is to be the centerpiece of an educational/cultural center, to include a satellite campus of the University of South Dakota, with a classroom building and residence hall, made possible by a 2.5 million donation in 2007 from T. Denny Sanford, a philanthropist from Sioux Falls, South Dakota. It is called the Indian University of North America and the Indian Museum of North America. The current visitor complex will anchor the center. Sanford also donated 5 million to the memorial, to be paid 1 million a year for five years as matching donations were raised, specifically to further work on the horse's head.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Paul and Donna "Muffy" Christen of Huron, South Dakota, in July 2010, announced they were donating 5 million in two installments to an endowment to support the operation of the satellite campus. It holds classes in math, English, and American Indian studies courses for college credit, as well as outreach classes. The memorial foundation has awarded more than 1.2 million in scholarships, with the majority going to Native students within South Dakota.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: The Memorial foundation began its first national fund drive in October 2006. The goal was to raise 16.5 million by 2011. The first planned project was a 1.4 million dormitory to house 40 American Indian students who would work as interns at the memorial.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Crazy Horse resisted being photographed and was deliberately buried where his grave would not be found. Ziolkowski envisioned the monument as a metaphoric tribute to the spirit of Crazy Horse and Native Americans. He reportedly said, "My lands are where my dead lie buried." His extended hand on the monument is to symbolize that statement.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Elaine Quiver, a descendant of one of Crazy Horse's aunts, said in 2003 that the elder Standing Bear should not have independently petitioned Ziolkowski to create the memorial, because Lakota culture dictates consensus from family members for such a decision, which was not obtained before the first rock was dynamited in 1948. She said:


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: They don't respect our culture because we didn't give permission for someone to carve the sacred Black Hills where our burial grounds are. They were there for us to enjoy and they were there for us to pray. But it wasn't meant to be carved into images, which is very wrong for all of us. The more I think about it, the more it's a desecration of our Indian culture. Not just Crazy Horse, but all of us.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Seth Big Crow, whose great-grandmother was an aunt of Crazy Horse's, said he wondered about the millions of dollars which the Ziolkowski family had collected from the visitor center and shops associated with the memorial, and "the amount of money being generated by his ancestor's name". He said:


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Or did it give them free hand to try to take over the name and make money off it as long as they're alive and we're alive? When you start making money rather than to try to complete the project, that's when, to me, it's going off in the wrong direction.


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: Other traditional Lakota oppose the memorial. In his 1972 autobiography, John Fire Lame Deer, a Lakota medicine man, said: "The whole idea of making a beautiful wild mountain into a statue of him is a pollution of the landscape. It is against the spirit of Crazy Horse." In a 2001 interview, Lakota activist Russell Means said: "Imagine going to the holy land in Israel, whether you're a Christian or a Jew or a Muslim, and start carving up the mountain of Zion. It's an insult to our entire being. It's bad enough getting four white faces carved in up there, the shrine of hypocrisy."


title: Crazy Horse Memorial

text: In his 2019 "New Yorker" article, ‘Who Speaks for Crazy Horse?’, author Brooke Jarvis states: “On Pine Ridge and in Rapid City, I heard a number of Lakota say that the memorial has become a tribute not to Crazy Horse but to Ziolkowski and his family”.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) belongs to a group of materials called engineering plastics. It is a transparent thermoplastic. PMMA is also known as acrylic, acrylic glass, as well as by the trade names and brands Crylux, Plexiglas, Acrylite, Astariglas, Lucite, Perclax, and Perspex, among several others (see below). This plastic is often used in sheet form as a lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. It can also be used as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and for many other purposes.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Although not a type of familiar silica-based glass, the substance, like many thermoplastics, is often technically classified as a type of glass, in that it is a non-crystalline vitreous substance—hence its occasional historic designation as "acrylic glass". Chemically, it is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. It was developed in 1928 in several different laboratories by many chemists, such as William Chalmers, Otto Röhm, and Walter Bauer, and first brought to market in 1933 by German "Röhm & Haas AG" (as of January 2019, part of Evonik Industries) and its partner and former U.S. affiliate Rohm and Haas Company under the trademark Plexiglas.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when tensile strength, flexural strength, transparency, polishability, and UV tolerance are more important than impact strength, chemical resistance, and heat resistance. Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate and is a far better choice for laser cutting. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. Non-modified PMMA behaves in a brittle manner when under load, especially under an impact force, and is more prone to scratching than conventional inorganic glass, but modified PMMA is sometimes able to achieve high scratch and impact resistance.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: The first acrylic acid was created in 1843. Methacrylic acid, derived from acrylic acid, was formulated in 1865. The reaction between methacrylic acid and methanol results in the ester methyl methacrylate. Polymethyl methacrylate was discovered in the early 1930s by British chemists Rowland Hill and John Crawford at Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) in the United Kingdom. ICI registered the product under the trademark Perspex. About the same time, chemist and industrialist Otto Röhm of Röhm and Haas AG in Germany attempted to produce safety glass by polymerizing methyl methacrylate between two layers of glass. The polymer separated from the glass as a clear plastic sheet, which Röhm gave the trademarked name Plexiglas in 1933. Both Perspex and Plexiglas were commercialized in the late 1930s. In the United States, E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company (now DuPont Company) subsequently introduced its own product under the trademark Lucite. In 1936 ICI Acrylics (now Lucite International) began the first commercially viable production of acrylic safety glass. During World War II both Allied and Axis forces used acrylic glass for submarine periscopes and aircraft windscreen, canopies, and gun turrets. Aeroplane pilots whose eyes were damaged by flying shards of PMMA fared much better than those injured by standard glass, demonstrating better compatibility between human tissue and PMMA than glass. Civilian applications followed after the war.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Common orthographic stylings include "polymethyl methacrylate" and "polymethylmethacrylate". The full IUPAC chemical name is poly(methyl 2-methylpropenoate). (It is a common mistake to use "an" instead of "en".)


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Although PMMA is often called simply "acrylic", "acrylic" can also refer to other polymers or copolymers containing polyacrylonitrile. Notable trade names and brands include Acrylite, Lucite, PerClax, R-Cast, Plexiglas, Optix, Perspex, Oroglas, Altuglas, Cyrolite, Astariglas, Cho Chen, Sumipex, and Crystallite.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA is routinely produced by emulsion polymerization, solution polymerization, and bulk polymerization. Generally, radical initiation is used (including living polymerization methods), but anionic polymerization of PMMA can also be performed. To produce of PMMA, about of petroleum is needed. PMMA produced by radical polymerization (all commercial PMMA) is atactic and completely amorphous.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: The glass transition temperature ("T") of atactic PMMA is . The "T" values of commercial grades of PMMA range from ; the range is so wide because of the vast number of commercial compositions which are copolymers with co-monomers other than methyl methacrylate. PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature; i.e., it is below its "T". The forming temperature starts at the glass transition temperature and goes up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including injection molding, compression molding, and extrusion. The highest quality PMMA sheets are produced by cell casting, but in this case, the polymerization and molding steps occur concurrently. The strength of the material is higher than molding grades owing to its extremely high molecular mass. Rubber toughening has been used to increase the toughness of PMMA to overcome its brittle behavior in response to applied loads.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA can be joined using cyanoacrylate cement (commonly known as superglue), with heat (welding), or by using chlorinated solvents such as dichloromethane or trichloromethane (chloroform) to dissolve the plastic at the joint, which then fuses and sets, forming an almost invisible weld. Scratches may easily be removed by polishing or by heating the surface of the material.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Laser cutting may be used to form intricate designs from PMMA sheets. PMMA vaporizes to gaseous compounds (including its monomers) upon laser cutting, so a very clean cut is made, and cutting is performed very easily. However, the pulsed lasercutting introduces high internal stresses along the cut edge, which on exposure to solvents produce undesirable "stress-crazing" at the cut edge and several millimetres deep. Even ammonium-based glass-cleaner and almost everything short of soap-and-water produces similar undesirable crazing, sometimes over the entire surface of the cut parts, at great distances from the stressed edge. Annealing the PMMA sheet/parts is therefore an obligatory post-processing step when intending to chemically bond lasercut parts together.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: In the majority of applications, it will not shatter. Rather, it breaks into large dull pieces. Since PMMA is softer and more easily scratched than glass, scratch-resistant coatings are often added to PMMA sheets to protect it (as well as possible other functions).


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Methyl methacrylate "synthetic resin" for casting (simply the bulk liquid chemical) may be used in conjunction with a polymerization catalyst such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP), to produce hardened transparent PMMA in any shape, from a mold. Objects like insects or coins, or even dangerous chemicals in breakable quartz ampules, may be embedded in such "cast" blocks, for display and safe handling.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA is a strong, tough, and lightweight material. It has a density of 1.17–1.20 g/cm, which is less than half that of glass. It also has good impact strength, higher than both glass and polystyrene; however, PMMA's impact strength is still significantly lower than polycarbonate and some engineered polymers. PMMA ignites at and burns, forming carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, and low-molecular-weight compounds, including formaldehyde.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA transmits up to 92% of visible light (3 mm thickness), and gives a reflection of about 4% from each of its surfaces due to its refractive index (1.4905 at 589.3 nm). It filters ultraviolet (UV) light at wavelengths below about 300 nm (similar to ordinary window glass). Some manufacturers add coatings or additives to PMMA to improve absorption in the 300–400 nm range. PMMA passes infrared light of up to 2,800 nm and blocks IR of longer wavelengths up to 25,000 nm. Colored PMMA varieties allow specific IR wavelengths to pass while blocking visible light (for remote control or heat sensor applications, for example).


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA swells and dissolves in many organic solvents; it also has poor resistance to many other chemicals due to its easily hydrolyzed ester groups. Nevertheless, its environmental stability is superior to most other plastics such as polystyrene and polyethylene, and therefore it is often the material of choice for outdoor applications.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: PMMA has a maximum water absorption ratio of 0.3–0.4% by weight. Tensile strength decreases with increased water absorption. Its coefficient of thermal expansion is relatively high at (5–10)×10 °C.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Pure poly(methyl methacrylate) homopolymer is rarely sold as an end product, since it is not optimized for most applications. Rather, modified formulations with varying amounts of other comonomers, additives, and fillers are created for uses where specific properties are required. For example,


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: The polymer of methyl acrylate, PMA or poly(methyl acrylate), is similar to poly(methyl methacrylate), except for the lack of methyl groups on the backbone carbon chain. PMA is a soft white rubbery material that is softer than PMMA because its long polymer chains are thinner and smoother and can more easily slide past each other.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Being transparent and durable, PMMA is a versatile material and has been used in a wide range of fields and applications such as rear-lights and instrument clusters for vehicles, appliances, and lenses for glasses. PMMA in the form of sheets affords to shatter resistant panels for building windows, skylights, bulletproof security barriers, signs & displays, sanitary ware (bathtubs), LCD screens, furniture and many other applications. It is also used for coating polymers based on MMA provides outstanding stability against environmental conditions with reduced emission of VOC. Methacrylate polymers are used extensively in medical and dental applications where purity and stability are critical to performance.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: In particular, acrylic-type contact lenses are useful for cataract surgery in patients that have recurrent ocular inflammation (uveitis), as acrylic material induces less inflammation.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: Due to its aforementioned biocompatibility, poly(methyl methacrylate) is a commonly used material in modern dentistry, particularly in the fabrication of dental prosthetics, artificial teeth, and orthodontic appliances.


title: Poly(methyl methacrylate)

text: The Futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyester plastic, polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methylmethacrylate); one of them was found to be degrading by cyanobacteria and Archaea.


title: Content delivery network

text: A content delivery network, or content distribution network (CDN), is a geographically distributed network of proxy servers and their data centers. The goal is to provide high availability and performance by distributing the service spatially relative to end users. CDNs came into existence in the late 1990s as a means for alleviating the performance bottlenecks of the Internet as the Internet was starting to become a mission-critical medium for people and enterprises. Since then, CDNs have grown to serve a large portion of the Internet content today, including web objects (text, graphics and scripts), downloadable objects (media files, software, documents), applications (e-commerce, portals), live streaming media, on-demand streaming media, and social media sites.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDNs are a layer in the internet ecosystem. Content owners such as media companies and e-commerce vendors pay CDN operators to deliver their content to their end users. In turn, a CDN pays Internet service providers (ISPs), carriers, and network operators for hosting its servers in their data centers.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDN is an umbrella term spanning different types of content delivery services: video streaming, software downloads, web and mobile content acceleration, licensed/managed CDN, transparent caching, and services to measure CDN performance, load balancing, Multi CDN switching and analytics and cloud intelligence. CDN vendors may cross over into other industries like security, DDoS protection and web application firewalls (WAF), and WAN optimization.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDN nodes are usually deployed in multiple locations, often over multiple Internet backbones. Benefits include reducing bandwidth costs, improving page load times, and increasing the global availability of content. The number of nodes and servers making up a CDN varies, depending on the architecture, some reaching thousands of nodes with tens of thousands of servers on many remote points of presence (PoPs). Others build a global network and have a small number of geographical PoPs.


title: Content delivery network

text: Requests for content are typically algorithmically directed to nodes that are optimal in some way. When optimizing for performance, locations that are best for serving content to the user may be chosen. This may be measured by choosing locations that are the fewest hops, the lowest number of network seconds away from the requesting client, or the highest availability in terms of server performance (both current and historical), to optimize delivery across local networks. When optimizing for cost, locations that are least expensive may be chosen instead. In an optimal scenario, these two goals tend to align, as edge servers that are close to the end user at the edge of the network may have an advantage in performance or cost.


title: Content delivery network

text: Most CDN providers will provide their services over a varying, defined, set of PoPs, depending on the coverage desired, such as United States, International or Global, Asia-Pacific, etc. These sets of PoPs can be called "edges", "edge nodes", "edge servers", or "edge networks" as they would be the closest edge of CDN assets to the end user.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDN providers profit either from direct fees paid by content providers using their network, or profit from the user analytics and tracking data collected as their scripts are being loaded onto customers' websites inside their browser origin. As such these services are being pointed out as potential privacy intrusions for the purpose of behavioral targeting and solutions are being created to restore single-origin serving and caching of resources.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDNs serving JavaScript have also been targeted as a way to inject malicious content into pages using them. Subresource Integrity mechanism was created in response to ensure that the page loads a script whose content is known and constrained to a hash referenced by the website author.


title: Content delivery network

text: This principle keeps the core network relatively simple and moves the intelligence as much as possible to the network end-points: the hosts and clients. As a result, the core network is specialized, simplified, and optimized to only forward data packets.


title: Content delivery network

text: Content Delivery Networks augment the end-to-end transport network by distributing on it a variety of intelligent applications employing techniques designed to optimize content delivery. The resulting tightly integrated overlay uses web caching, server-load balancing, request routing, and content services.


title: Content delivery network

text: Web caches store popular content on servers that have the greatest demand for the content requested. These shared network appliances reduce bandwidth requirements, reduce server load, and improve the client response times for content stored in the cache. Web caches are populated based on requests from users (pull caching) or based on preloaded content disseminated from content servers (push caching).


title: Content delivery network

text: Server-load balancing uses one or more techniques including service-based (global load balancing) or hardware-based (i.e. layer 4–7 switches, also known as a web switch, content switch, or multilayer switch) to share traffic among a number of servers or web caches. Here the switch is assigned a single virtual IP address. Traffic arriving at the switch is then directed to one of the real web servers attached to the switch. This has the advantage of balancing load, increasing total capacity, improving scalability, and providing increased reliability by redistributing the load of a failed web server and providing server health checks.


title: Content delivery network

text: A content cluster or service node can be formed using a layer 4–7 switch to balance load across a number of servers or a number of web caches within the network.


title: Content delivery network

text: Request routing directs client requests to the content source best able to serve the request. This may involve directing a client request to the service node that is closest to the client, or to the one with the most capacity. A variety of algorithms are used to route the request. These include Global Server Load Balancing, DNS-based request routing, Dynamic metafile generation, HTML rewriting, and anycasting. Proximity—choosing the closest service node—is estimated using a variety of techniques including reactive probing, proactive probing, and connection monitoring.


title: Content delivery network

text: CDNs use a variety of methods of content delivery including, but not limited to, manual asset copying, active web caches, and global hardware load balancers.


title: Content delivery network

text: Several protocol suites are designed to provide access to a wide variety of content services distributed throughout a content network. The Internet Content Adaptation Protocol (ICAP) was developed in the late 1990s to provide an open standard for connecting application servers. A more recently defined and robust solution is provided by the Open Pluggable Edge Services (OPES) protocol. This architecture defines OPES service applications that can reside on the OPES processor itself or be executed remotely on a Callout Server. Edge Side Includes or ESI is a small markup language for edge-level dynamic web content assembly. It is fairly common for websites to have generated content. It could be because of changing content like catalogs or forums, or because of the personalization. This creates a problem for caching systems. To overcome this problem, a group of companies created ESI.


title: Content delivery network

text: In "peer-to-peer (P2P)" content-delivery networks, clients provide resources as well as use them. This means that, unlike client–server systems, the content-centric networks can actually perform better as more users begin to access the content (especially with protocols such as Bittorrent that require users to share). This property is one of the major advantages of using P2P networks because it makes the setup and running costs very small for the original content distributor.


title: Content delivery network

text: If content owners are not satisfied with the options or costs of a commercial CDN service, they can create their own CDN. This is called a private CDN. A private CDN consists of PoPs (points of presence) that are only serving content for their owner. These PoPs can be caching servers, reverse proxies or application delivery controllers. It can be as simple as two caching servers, or large enough to serve petabytes of content.


title: Content delivery network

text: Large content distribution networks may even build and set up their own private network to distribute copies of content across cache locations. Such private networks are usually used in conjunction with public networks as a backup option in case the capacity of the private network is not enough or there is a failure which leads to capacity reduction. Since the same content has to be distributed across many locations, a variety of multicasting techniques may be used to reduce bandwidth consumption. Over private networks, it has also been proposed to select multicast trees according to network load conditions to more efficiently utilize available network capacity.


title: Content delivery network

text: The rapid growth of streaming video traffic uses large capital expenditures by broadband providers in order to meet this demand and retain subscribers by delivering a sufficiently good quality of experience.


title: Content delivery network

text: To address this, telecommunications service providers (TSPs) have begun to launch their own content delivery networks as a means to lessen the demands on the network backbone and reduce infrastructure investments.


title: Content delivery network

text: Because they own the networks over which video content is transmitted, telco CDNs have advantages over traditional CDNs. They own the last mile and can deliver content closer to the end-user because it can be cached deep in their networks. This deep caching minimizes the distance that video data travels over the general Internet and delivers it more quickly and reliably.


title: Content delivery network

text: Telco CDNs also have a built-in cost advantage since traditional CDNs must lease bandwidth from them and build the operator's margin into their own cost model. In addition, by operating their own content delivery infrastructure, telco operators have better control over the utilization of their resources. Content management operations performed by CDNs are usually applied without (or with very limited) information about the network (e.g., topology, utilization etc.) of the telco-operators with which they interact or have business relationships. These pose a number of challenges for the telco-operators who have a limited sphere of action in face of the impact of these operations on the utilization of their resources.


title: Content delivery network

text: In contrast, the deployment of telco-CDNs allows operators to implement their own content management operations, which enables them to have a better control over the utilization of their resources and, as such, provide better quality of service and experience to their end users.


title: Content delivery network

text: In June 2011, StreamingMedia.com reported that a group of TSPs had founded an Operator Carrier Exchange (OCX) to interconnect their networks and compete more directly against large traditional CDNs like Akamai and Limelight Networks, which have extensive PoPs worldwide. This way, telcos are building a Federated CDN offering, which is more interesting for a content provider willing to deliver its content to the aggregated audience of this federation.


title: Content delivery network

text: It is likely that in a near future, other telco CDN federations will be created. They will grow by enrollment of new telcos joining the federation and bringing network presence and their Internet subscriber bases to the existing ones.


title: Content delivery network

text: The Open Caching specification by Streaming Media Alliance defines a set of APIs that allows a Content Provider to deliver its content using several CDNs in a consistent way, seeing each CDN provider the same way through these APIs.


title: Content delivery network

text: Traditionally, CDNs have used the IP of the client's recursive DNS resolver to geo-locate the client. While this is a sound approach in many situations, this leads to poor client performance if the client uses a non-local recursive DNS resolver that is far away. For instance, a CDN may route requests from a client in India to its edge server in Singapore, if that client uses a public DNS resolver in Singapore, causing poor performance for that client. Indeed, a recent study showed that in many countries where public DNS resolvers are in popular use, the median distance between the clients and their recursive DNS resolvers can be as high as a thousand miles. In August 2011, a global consortium of leading Internet service providers led by Google announced their official implementation of the edns-client-subnet IETF Internet Draft, which is intended to accurately localize DNS resolution responses. The initiative involves a limited number of leading DNS service providers, such as Google Public DNS, and CDN service providers as well. With the edns-client-subnet EDNS0 option, CDNs can now utilize the IP address of the requesting client's subnet when resolving DNS requests. This approach, called end-user mapping, has been adopted by CDNs and it has been shown to drastically reduce the round-trip latencies and improve performance for clients who use public DNS or other non-local resolvers. However, the use of EDNS0 also has drawbacks as it decreases the effectiveness of caching resolutions at the recursive resolvers, increases the total DNS resolution traffic, and raises a privacy concern of exposing the client's subnet.


title: Content delivery network

text: Virtualization technologies are being used to deploy virtual CDNs (vCDNs) with the goal to reduce content provider costs, and at the same time, increase elasticity and decrease service delay. With vCDNs, it is possible to avoid traditional CDN limitations, such as performance, reliability and availability since virtual caches are deployed dynamically (as virtual machines or containers) in physical servers distributed across the provider's geographical coverage. As the virtual cache placement is based on both the content type and server or end-user geographic location, the vCDNs have a significant impact on service delivery and network congestion.


title: Content delivery network

text: In 2017, Addy Osmany of Google started referring to software solutions that could integrate naturally with the Responsive Web Design paradigm (with particular reference to the <picture> element) as Image CDNs. The expression referred to the ability of a web architecture to serve multiple versions of the same image through HTTP, depending on the properties of the browser requesting it, as determined by either the browser or the server-side logic. The purpose of Image CDNs was, in Google's vision, to serve high-quality images (or, better, images perceived as high-quality by the human eye) while preserving download speed, thus contributing to a great User experience (UX).


title: Content delivery network

text: Arguably, the "Image CDN" term was originally a misnomer, as neither Cloudinary nor Imgix (the examples quoted by Google in the 2017 guide by Addy Osmany) were, at the time, a CDN in the classical sense of the term. Shortly afterwards, though, several companies offered solutions that allowed developers to serve different versions of their graphical assets according to several strategies. Many of these solutions were built on top of traditional CDNs, such as Akamai, CloudFront, Fastly, Edgecast and Cloudflare. At the same time, other solutions that already provided an image multi-serving service joined the Image CDN definition by either offering CDN functionality natively (ImageEngine) or integrating with one of the existing CDNs (Cloudinary/Akamai, Imgix/Fastly).


title: Content delivery network

text: While providing a universally agreed-on definition of what an Image CDN is may not be possible, generally speaking, an Image CDN supports the following three components:


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Ice Nine Kills (sometimes stylized in all capital letters or abbreviated to INK, and formerly known as Ice Nine) is an American heavy metal band from Boston, Massachusetts, who are signed to Fearless Records. Best known for its horror-inspired lyrics, Ice Nine Kills formed in its earliest incarnation in 2000 by high school friends Spencer Charnas and Jeremy Schwartz. Charnas is currently the only remaining founding member.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: To date, Ice Nine Kills has released three EPs along with six full-length studio albums: "Last Chance to Make Amends", "Safe Is Just a Shadow", "The Predator Becomes the Prey", "Every Trick in the Book", which peaked at number 122 on the US "Billboard" 200; "The Silver Scream", which peaked at number 29; and their latest, "" which peaked at number 18 on the US "Billboard" 200;. Their band name is derived from the fictional substance ice-nine from the novel "Cat's Cradle" by Kurt Vonnegut.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Ice Nine Kills was founded in 2000 under the name "Ice Nine" by high school friends Spencer Charnas and Jeremy Schwartz, before later recruiting drummer Grant Newsted in 2003 and swapped out their then-bassist (Patrick Morse) for Hobie Boeschenstein in 2004, but changed their name to Ice Nine Kills just before releasing their debut independent album "Last Chance to Make Amends" on April 20, 2006. However, they did record a demo, entitled "The Pop-Punk-Ska Years", in 2002, which would eventually be released in 2009.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: The following year on November 20, 2007, Ice Nine Kills released their EP "The Burning" through Red Blue Records. The band then set out on several national tours in support of the EP, including opening slots on tours with I See Stars and Eyes Set to Kill among others. By 2008, the group had been invited to open for well-known acts such as As I Lay Dying, A Day to Remember, Thursday, Paramore and a one-off performance on the Taste of Chaos 2009 tour. That same year, Ice Nine Kills released 2 acoustic tracks ("The Simple Act of Giving Up" and "Lifetime in a Week") on an EP titled "2 Song Acoustic".


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: In mid-2009, Schwartz decided to leave the band after struggling with life on the road, leaving Charnas as the only original member. Charnas then recruited former members of the Rochester NY based post-hardcore band Remember Tomorrow which had recently disbanded and stopped playing rhythm guitar. This shifted Ice Nine Kills' sound into more of an experimental metalcore sound to which Ferret Music took notice and signed the band in the spring of 2009 and after their appearance on Warped Tour 2009 the band began writing and recording their next record.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Ice Nine Kills released their second full-length album "Safe Is Just a Shadow" on July 12, 2010. Vocalist Dave Sieling, who has since left the band, contributed clean vocals along with Spencer Charnas. The album received praise from heavy metal magazine, "Revolver" in the 2010 Hottest Chicks in Rock Issue and subsequently the band was invited to attend the "Revolver" Golden Gods awards in Los Angeles CA on April 20, 2010. The band supported "Safe Is Just a Shadow" with a two-week appearance on Warped Tour 2010, and a supporting slot with Michigan-based nu metal band Taproot. The band performed on a headlining tour in the summer of 2011 as well as a performance at the Darien Lake NY stop of Warped Tour 2011 on the Dzambo Stage. The band released a music video inspired by the film "Inglourious Basterds" for their song "The People Under the Stairs" on June 20, 2011. That same day the band announced their partnership with Outerloop Management who represent We Came as Romans, Refused, and Periphery among others.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On May 12, 2012, it was announced that the band would be the opening act for the 2012 edition of The All Stars Tour featuring Suicide Silence, The Word Alive, Dance Gavin Dance, I See Stars, and Attila. Prior to The All Stars Tour the band supported Like Moths To Flames on their first headlining tour in Canada in early June as well as a small midwest run supporting Norma Jean in July.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: It was announced on August 16, 2012, that the band would be supporting We Came As Romans and Abandon All Ships for a Canadian Tour taking place September 11 through the 17th. The band would close out 2012 by taking part in the "Party with The Devil" tour with Attila, Make Me Famous, Issues and Adestria from October 26 to November 15, followed by a short run with Like Moths To Flames from December 2 to 9.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On November 22, 2012, Ice Nine Kills released an official lyric video for their new single "The Coffin is Moving". On that same date, they launched a Kickstarter campaign to raise money to fund their New EP. On December 22 the band announced that they had raised over $21,000 for their Kickstarter campaign and that their new EP "The Predator" would be released on January 15, 2013. To celebrate this announcement they released a second single from the EP entitled "What I Never Learned In Study Hall" featuring guest vocals from Tyler Carter vocalist of Issues. The acoustic version of the song was released on January 8 on the Take Action compilation volume 11 via Hopeless Records.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On January 9 2013, Ice Nine Kills announced tours throughout February and March in support of I See Stars, For All Those Sleeping, The Color Morale, and more.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: The band's second EP entitled "The Predator" was released on January 15, 2013, and debuted at No. 9 on the "Billboard" Heatseekers chart.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On March 13, 2013, the band announced they would be playing the first 2 weeks of the 2013 Vans Warped Tour on the Ernie Ball stage as well as The All Stars Tour featuring Every Time I Die, Chelsea Grin, Terror, Iwrestledabearonce, and more.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On April 26, 2013, the band released a stand-alone single called "The Product of Hate", the song was released as a fundraising way to help the victims of the Boston Marathon bombing.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On January 8, 2014, the band released the second single from their forthcoming album, "The Power in Belief". Ice Nine Kills released their third studio album "The Predator Becomes the Prey" on January 21 through the newly created Outerloop Records, an imprint of Fearless Records. The album marks the band's first entrance into the Billboard Top 200 charts landing at No. 153. The album also debuted at No. 3 on the top heatseeker's chart, No. 38 on the independent label chart, and No. 13 on the Hard Rock charts.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On February 26, 2014, it was revealed that Ice Nine Kills would be performing on the Monster Energy Stage for the entire Warped Tour 2014.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On February 27, 2014, Ice Nine Kills Released a music video for "Let's Bury the Hatchet... In Your Head". On February 6, 2015, Ice Nine Kills released a music video for "The Fastest Way to a Girl's Heart Is Through Her Ribcage". On February 19, 2015, Ice Nine Kills released a new song called "Me Myself & Hyde" from their new album scheduled for fall of 2015. From April 30 – May 22, Ice Nine Kills Headlined the IX Lives Tour with Get Scared, Upon This Dawning, Chasing Safety, and Brightwell. On June 22, 2015, Ice Nine Kills released a music video for their version of "Animals" by Maroon 5 on Fearless Records for "Punk Goes Pop Vol. 6".


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On September 17, 2015, the band signed to Fearless Records who released their then-upcoming album "Every Trick in the Book". The lead single and music video, "Bloodbath & Beyond" was released on September 25. The second single, "Communion of the Cursed", was released on October 22. The music video was a 'shortened remake' of "The Exorcist". "Every Trick in the Book" was released on December 4, 2015.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Alongside other newly signed Fearless Records artist Wage War and The White Noise, the band headlined on the "Fresh Faces Tour" from October 24 – November 29, 2016.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Ice Nine Kills released a re-recorded version of their 2010 album "Safe Is Just a Shadow" on January 6, 2017. Vocalist Spencer Charnas described the reasoning, stating, "With the evolution of our skills as musicians, and the original producer, Steve Sopchak, having established himself at the top of his craft, we felt this was a perfect time to re-record the album and give it that extra attention that it always deserved."


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: In March 2017, they released a music video for "The Nature of the Beast" inspired by the book Animal Farm. Additionally, the band was featured on the "Fearless" Punk Goes Pop series "Punk Goes Pop 7" covering "I Don't Wanna Live Forever" originally by Zayn and Taylor Swift on July 14, 2017. Afterwards, the band toured with Motionless in White and Chelsea Grin, while working on their upcoming studio album.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On June 14, 2018, drummer Conor Sullivan announced that he was leaving the band to pursue different musical projects. Former Affiance drummer Patrick Galante will serve as a touring member.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On June 20, 2018, Ice Nine Kills released "The American Nightmare", the first single from their upcoming album "The Silver Scream". It was accompanied by a music video inspired by the film "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984). "The Silver Scream" was released on October 5, 2018, and marked the band's highest chart debut to date. The album scanned almost 19,000 copies in its first week, landing the band their first top 10 records on the billboard top album chart. It features thirteen songs inspired by thirteen separate horror films.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: In an interview with Wall of Sound on September 24, 2018, Spencer Charnas revealed the band collaborated with Less Than Jake on the song "It is the End", which is based on the 2017 film adaptation of Stephen King's epic horror novel "It". Less Than Jake provided the brass instrument section of the song to give it a ""sinister, carnival, circus vibe"" The album also features a track called "Rocking the Boat", in which the band namedrops all of their previous releases and former singer Jeremy Schwartz makes a guest appearance.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On January 1, 2019, former bassist Shane Bisnett died at age 31. Frontman Spencer Charnas revealed the news via Instagram sharing a video and anecdotal story about his former bandmate who recorded bass on the band's 2010 album "Safe Is Just a Shadow". Lead guitarist Justin DeBlieck released a tribute song named "Sunrise" under the moniker Fallbrook.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On March 23, their bassist Justin Morrow parted ways with the band, joining Motionless in White. The band wrote "We are excited for Justin and wish him nothing but the best" and announced Joe Occhiuti as a permanent replacement. Justin DeBlieck was also not present on the first two tours of 2019 while he was producing the new Motionless in White album, "Disguise".


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On September 13, 2019, the band released an acoustic rendition of their hit song, "Savages". On September 24, the band released their final music video for the Silver Scream completing the storyline they had started with "The American Nightmare" with the release of a music video for the final track on the album, "IT is the End".


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On October 4, 2019, the band released the acoustic version for their song, "Stabbing in the Dark" featuring Matt Heafy of "Trivium". The band's reissue of "The Silver Scream", dubbed the "Final Cut", was released on October 25. The reissue featured the band covering Michael Jackson's hit song, "Thriller" and a song about the Scream horror series.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On May 9, 2020, the band recorded a parody version of "Stacy's Mom" by Fountains of Wayne entitled "Jason's Mom", inspired by "Friday the 13th" (1980), in celebration for the day of the film's 40th anniversary. The song was released a year later on May 7, 2021.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On June 24, 2020, the band posted on their socials a link to a maze game to "unlock the secret". The landing page of the link states they will be releasing "Undead & Unplugged: Live From the Overlook Hotel" on June 26, 2020.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On October 30, 2020, the band released "I Heard They KILL Live!!", a live album recorded at the Worcester Palladium. The release also had an accompanying "The Silver Stream" livestream. "The Silver Stream" mixed live footage from the 19-track set with a self-produced horror movie framing device, featuring the band members and Bill Moseley. The horror movie aspect of "The Silver Scream" was helmed by Spencer Charnas and director Myles Erfurth of Stained Glass Eye Entertainment.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: The band also announced "Inked in Blood", a tie-in graphic novel to "The Silver Scream" planned for release on April 21, 2021. The graphic novel was written by Steve Foxe and illustrated by Giorga Sposito & Andres Esparza.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: The band released a cover and music video of the Elvis Presley song "Can't Help Falling in Love" on February 9, 2021, to the Fearless Records YouTube channel. The title of the new album was listed in the credits as "The Silver Scream 2: Welcome to Horrorwood." On the ninth of each month leading up to the album's release, a new single and accompanying video was released to promote the album. On July 9, 2021, the band released the lead single from the album "Hip to Be Scared", inspired by "American Psycho". The single features Papa Roach frontman Jacoby Shaddix, and was released along with an accompanying music video. On August 3, 2021, the band released a teaser video featuring the album's track listing, leading fans to predict and speculate the horror/thriller movies that inspired the songs on the album. On August 9, 2021, the band released the second single "Assault & Batteries", inspired by "Child's Play". On September 9, 2021, the band released the third single "Rainy Day", inspired by "Resident Evil". On October 9, 2021, the band released the fourth single "Funeral Derangements", inspired by "Pet Sematary". The album was released on October 15, 2021. Four months after the album had released, the band released the fifth single from the record, "Take Your Pick" featuring George "Corpsegrinder" Fisher, taking cinematic inspiration from "My Bloody Valentine" and being released on February 14, 2022 for Valentine's Day alongside an animated music video.


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: On March 31, 2022, the band released a new song, "Hunting Season", taken from The Fall Of Troi expansion of the video game, .


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: The group originally pursued a style of ska-punk influenced by alternative rock, ska, and pop punk, but they have since shifted into a style which has been described as metalcore, post-hardcore, heavy metal, melodic hardcore, symphonic metal, and horror punk. Ice Nine Kills has described itself as "theatricore."


title: Ice Nine Kills

text: Ice Nine Kills' songs have also been categorized under a variety of genres outside their primary sound, including hard rock, post-metalcore, emo pop, deathcore, technical death metal, psychobilly, pop punk, hardcore punk, death metal, symphonic death metal, industrial metal, melodic metalcore, and Neue Deutsche Härte.


title: Bob Kane

text: Robert Kane (born Robert Kahn ; October 24, 1915 – November 3, 1998) was an American comic book writer, animator and artist who created Batman and most early related characters for DC comics. He was inducted into the comic book industry's Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1993 and into the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996.


title: Bob Kane

text: Robert Kahn was born in New York City, New York. His parents, Augusta and Herman Kahn, an engraver, were of Ashkenazi Jewish descent. A high school friend of fellow cartoonist and future Spirit creator Will Eisner, Robert Kahn graduated from DeWitt Clinton High School and then legally changed his name to Robert Kane. He studied art at Cooper Union before "joining the Max Fleischer Studio as a trainee animator in the year of 1934".


title: Bob Kane

text: He entered the comics field two years later, in 1936, freelancing original material to editor Jerry Iger's comic book "Wow, What a Magazine!", including his first pencil and ink work on the serial "Hiram Hick". The following year, Kane began to work at Iger's subsequent studio, Eisner & Iger, which was one of the first comic book "packagers" that produced comics on demand for publishers entering the new medium during its late-1930s and 1940s Golden Age. Among his work there was the talking animal feature "Peter Pupp"—which belied its look with overtones of "mystery and menace"—published in the U.K. comic magazine "Wags" and reprinted in Fiction House's "Jumbo Comics". Kane also produced work through Eisner & Iger for two of the companies that would later merge to form DC Comics, including the humor features "Ginger Snap" in "More Fun Comics", "Oscar the Gumshoe" for "Detective Comics", and "Professor Doolittle" for "Adventure Comics". For that last title he went on to do his first adventure strip, "Rusty and his Pals".


title: Bob Kane

text: In early 1939, DC's success with the seminal superhero Superman in "Action Comics" prompted editors to scramble for more such heroes. In response, Bob Kane conceived "the Bat-Man." Kane said his influences for the character included actor Douglas Fairbanks' film portrayal of the swashbuckler Zorro; Leonardo da Vinci's diagram of the ornithopter, a flying machine with huge bat-like wings; and the 1930 film "The Bat Whispers", based on Mary Rinehart's mystery novel "The Circular Staircase" (1908).


title: Bob Kane

text: Bill Finger joined Bob Kane's nascent studio in 1938. An aspiring writer and part-time shoe salesperson, he had met Kane at a party, and Kane later offered him a job ghost writing the strips "Rusty" and "Clip Carson". He recalled that Kane


title: Bob Kane

text: Finger said he offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl and scalloped cape instead of wings; adding gloves; leaving the mask's eyeholes blank to connote mystery; and removing the bright red sections of the original costume, suggesting instead a gray-and-black color scheme. Finger additionally said his suggestions were influenced by Lee Falk's "The Phantom", a syndicated newspaper comic strip character with which Kane was familiar as well. Finger, who said he also devised the character's civilian name, Bruce Wayne, wrote the first Batman story, while Kane provided art. Kane, who had already submitted the proposal for Batman at DC and held a contract, is the only person given an official company credit for Batman's creation. Comics historian Ron Goulart, in "Comic Book Encyclopedia", refers to Batman as the "creation of artist Bob Kane and writer Bill Finger".


title: Bob Kane

text: According to Kane, "Bill Finger was a contributing force on Batman right from the beginning. He wrote most of the great stories and was influential in setting the style and genre other writers would emulate ... I made Batman a superhero-vigilante when I first created him. Bill turned him into a scientific detective.


title: Bob Kane

text: The character debuted in "Detective Comics" #27 (May 1939) and proved a breakout hit. Within a year, Kane hired art assistants Jerry Robinson (initially as an inker) and George Roussos (backgrounds artist and letterer). Though Robinson and Roussos worked out of Kane's art studio in "The New York Times" building, Kane himself did all his drawing at home. Shortly afterward, when DC wanted more Batman stories than Kane's studio could deliver, the company assigned Dick Sprang and other in-house pencilers as "ghost artists", drawing uncredited under Kane's supervision. Future "Justice League" writer Gardner Fox wrote some early scripts, including the two-part story "The Monk" that introduced some of The Batman's first "Bat-" equipment.


title: Bob Kane

text: In 1943, Kane left the Batman comic books to focus on penciling the daily "Batman" newspaper comic strip. DC Comics artists ghosting the comic-book stories now included Jack Burnley and Win Mortimer, with Robinson moving up as penciler and Fred Ray contributing some covers. After the strip finished in 1946, Kane returned to the comic books but, unknown to DC, had hired his own personal ghosts, including Lew Schwartz and Sheldon Moldoff from 1953 to 1967.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane, who had previously created a sidekick for Peter Pupp, proposed adding a boy named Mercury who would have worn a "super-costume". Robinson suggested a normal human, along with the name "Robin", after Robin Hood books he had read during boyhood, and noting in a 2005 interview he had been inspired by one book's N. C. Wyeth illustrations.


title: Bob Kane

text: Batman's nemesis the Joker was introduced near that same time, in "Batman" #1 (Spring 1940). Credit for that character's creation is disputed. Kane's position is that


title: Bob Kane

text: Robinson, whose original Joker playing card was on public display in the exhibition "Masters of American Comics" at the Jewish Museum in New York City, New York, from September 16, 2006 to January 28, 2007, and the William Breman Jewish Heritage Museum in Atlanta, Georgia from October 24, 2004 to August 28, 2005, has countered that:


title: Bob Kane

text: Robinson added, however, "If you read the Batman historian [E. Nelson] Bridwell, he had one interview where he interviewed Bill Finger and he said no, the Joker was created by me—an acknowledgement. He can be credited and Bob himself, we all played a role in it. ... He wrote the script of that, so he really was co-creator, and Bob and I did the visuals, so Bob was also."


title: Bob Kane

text: According to comics historian Les Daniels, "nearly everyone seems to agree that Two-Face was Kane's brainchild exclusively". Catwoman, originally introduced by Kane with no costume as "the Cat", was partially inspired by his cousin, Ruth Steel. Kane, a frequent moviegoer, mentioned that Jean Harlow was a model for the design and added that "I always felt that women were feline". Kane created the Scarecrow and drew his first appearance, which was scripted by Finger. Kane also created the original incarnation of Clayface. According to Kane, he drew the Penguin after being inspired by the then advertising mascot of Kool cigarettes—a penguin with a top hat and cane. Finger, however, claimed that he created the villain as a caricature of the aristocratic type, because "stuffy English gentlemen" reminded him of emperor penguins.


title: Bob Kane

text: In 1966, Kane retired from DC Comics, choosing to focus on fine art. As Kane's comic-book work tapered off in the 1960s, he parlayed his Batman status into minor celebrity. He enjoyed a post-comics career in television animation, creating the characters Courageous Cat and Cool McCool, and as a painter showed his work in art galleries, although some of these paintings were produced by ghost artists. DC Comics named Kane in 1985 as one of the honorees in the company's 50th anniversary publication "Fifty Who Made DC Great". In 1989, Kane published the autobiography "Batman and Me", with an updated edition "Batman and Me: The Saga Continues", in 1996.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane worked as a consultant on the 1989 film "Batman" and its three sequels with directors Tim Burton and Joel Schumacher.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane married his first wife, Beverly, in the 1940s, and the two divorced in 1957. They had a daughter, Deborah. Kane married his second wife, actress Elizabeth Sanders Kane, in 1987.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane died November 3, 1998, at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, at age 83. He is buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, California.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane was a recipient of the Inkpot Award in 1977, was inducted into the Jack Kirby Hall of Fame in 1994 and the Will Eisner Comic Book Hall of Fame in 1996. He was added to the National Comics Awards' Roll of Honour in 1999.


title: Bob Kane

text: On October 21, 2015, for his work in motion pictures, he posthumously received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6764 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Bob Kane

text: Kane's work is housed in collections in New York City's Museum of Modern Art, Whitney Museum of American Art, and St. John's University.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Nelson Dilipkumar, credited in films as Nelson, is an Indian director and screenwriter who predominantly works in Tamil cinema. His films are action thrillers and are known for featuring elements of dark humor.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Nelson won the Best Screenplay Award in Norway Tamil Film Festival for his directorial debut "Kolamaavu Kokila". He was listed among the Promising Directors of 2018 in Times of India article.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Nelson holds a degree in visual communication from New College, Chennai. He started his career as an assistant script-writer in Star Vijay.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Nelson started his work on what was originally intended to have been his directorial debut, "Vettai Mannan", in 2010. The film would have starred Silambarasan, Jai, Hansika Motwani and Deeksha Seth, would have been produced by NIC Arts's S. S. Chakravarthy, and would have featured music by Yuvan Shankar Raja. However, the film was shelved for unknown reasons halfway through production. There was an attempt to revive the project in 2017 with a new crew, such as Anirudh Ravichander replacing Yuvan Shankar Raja as the composer. However, the project failed to take off again.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Anirudh Ravichander helped Nelson make his actual debut feature film as writer-director, the dark comedy "Kolamaavu Kokila", starring Nayanthara in the lead role. The film, produced by Lyca Productions, released on 17 August 2018 and became a commercial success. His next film was "Doctor", starring Sivakarthikeyan in the lead role opposite Priyanka Arul Mohan. The film became one of the biggest Tamil-language blockbusters among films that released theatrically after the pandemic-induced lockdowns.


title: Nelson (director)

text: In November 2020, composer Anirudh Ravichander introduced Nelson to actor Vijay, who was impressed with Nelson's script for "Beast". The film, an action-comedy thriller and Vijay's 65th film, also starring Pooja Hegde, was released on 13 April 2022 as a pan-Indian film dubbed in the Telugu, Hindi, Kannada and Malayalam languages. "Beast" collected 240 crore at the worldwide box office. Nelson's next project is for Rajinikanth’s 169th film which is tentatively titled "Thalaivar 169". On 17 June 2022, the title was announced to be "Jailer". Rajinikanth will be playing the role of an experienced jailer in this film. The film will be released in the month of summer in 2023.


title: Nelson (director)

text: Editor R. Nirmal, Music composer Anirudh Ravichander has worked in four films. Actors Yogi Babu, Redin Kingsley, and Shaji Chen have worked on three movies. Bjorn Surrao, Sunil Reddy, Shiva Aravind, and Arun Alexander acted in two films. D. R. K. Kiran has done the art direction in two films. Stunt director Anbariv have worked in two films. Sivakarthikeyan has written lyrics for 3 out of 4 movies.Vijay Kartik Kannan did cinematography for two movies.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Penelope "Penny" Hofstadter is a fictional character from the American CBS sitcom "The Big Bang Theory", portrayed by actress Kaley Cuoco. She is the primary female character in the series, befriending her neighbors Leonard Hofstadter (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon Cooper (Jim Parsons), two physicists employed at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). Penny's lack of advanced education sets her apart from the group, and her outgoing personality and social aptitude drastically contrast with the personalities of the primary male characters in the series. She is the primary love interest of Leonard, who briefly dates her during the third season. This relationship is later resumed in the fifth season and culminates in their engagement at the end of the seventh season and their wedding at the start of season nine. Kaley Cuoco and Johnny Galecki dated in real life for two years during their time on the show. They remain good friends.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the original, unaired pilot of "The Big Bang Theory", the conception of the female lead was very different. She was called Katie, and was envisioned as "a street-hardened, tough-as-nails woman with a vulnerable interior". Sheldon and Leonard would "approach her with honesty, to draw the real, sensitive Katie out". The role was played by Amanda Walsh. However, the test audiences reacted to the character negatively, seeing her as too mean. Because of this, the character was changed, and the role was recast. Marisa Tomei, Tara Reid, Elizabeth Berkley, and Jodi Lyn O'Keefe were considered.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: She is a Sagittarius, born on December 2. She has full confidence in pseudoscientific concepts such as horoscopes, psychics, and Voodoo, which has led to repeated mocking from both Sheldon and Leonard along with criticisms of their accuracy.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In contrast to the rest of the group, Penny is neither well-educated nor savvy in a specific field and is generally somewhat dim-witted, but she has great social skills and is more streetwise than her neighbors. She is knowledgeable about popular culture. She is messy and disorganized.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Having dropped out of community college prior to the start of the series, she is the only regular character with less education than Howard Wolowitz, who has a master's degree. In season six, she returns to college, taking a history class and hiding it from the rest of the group. She initially performs terribly in her college classes. It is revealed in later seasons that Penny has continued her education, taking both an acting and a psychology class.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: When expressing feelings of anger or upset, other characters have compared her to The Hulk, a "rabid wolverine", and "killer robots".


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Penny's poor driving ability and failure to maintain her vehicle are acknowledged throughout the series. She is known to ignore her check engine light and has left her passenger side wing mirror in a parking lot somewhere in Hollywood after trying to park her car. She has hit a Mercedes in a parking lot and knocked the side-view mirror off of Bernadette's car; not leaving a note in either incident. In season seven, her car engine fails and she receives a new car from Leonard.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the fifth-season episode "The Speckerman Recurrence", Penny is revealed to have unknowingly been a bully while in school. She attempts to make amends with a classmate she tormented, and although she does her best, she sees little success.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Another recurring personality trait is her chronic alcoholism, specifically with wine. In "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition", while spending the evening with Bernadette and Amy, Penny observes that they have finished the bottle of wine, and when Bernadette and Amy point out that they consumed only half a glass and no wine at all, respectively, Penny snaps, "Okay, don't judge me! So, what do you want to do, go to the movies, go dancing, lay down for a little bit?" At the end of that episode, she passes out while the three of them play Twister, and when Bernadette initially fails to revive her, she says "Penny, we're out of wine", which manages to wake Penny. In "The Intimacy Acceleration", Sheldon asks her, "If you could wake up tomorrow having gained any one quality or ability, what would it be?" Penny replies, "Well, not to steal from the Bible, but turning water into wine sounds pretty good." Then, in "The Locomotive Manipulation", Leonard declines Amy's suggestion that the group spends a weekend in Napa Valley, leading to this exchange:


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: A number of episodes depict Penny's assimilation of nerd culture through her time spent with the men, and has quoted some science fiction shows (like "Star Trek") and movies ("Star Wars"). After Sheldon introduces her to the online role-playing game "Age of Conan", Penny becomes addicted to the point of ignoring her friends, hygiene, general appearance and job, pestering Sheldon incessantly for gaming advice. This likely resulted from frustration with her life at that point, believing herself to be a failure in most aspects of her life. She overcomes her addiction when she realizes she has agreed to go on a virtual date within the game with Howard. Penny has also displayed proficiency in playing "Halo 3" and "Fortnite" despite being a complete newbie, annoying Sheldon (and Bernadette).


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In season three, she asks Sheldon to teach her "a little physics" so she could talk to Leonard about his job (like Bernadette does). She manages to recite a brief summary (obviously written by Sheldon for her to memorize) of Leonard's experiment during dinner, which puzzles Leonard, Howard, and Raj.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In episodes such as "The Apology Insufficiency", "The Dead Hooker Juxtaposition", "The Wheaton Recurrence", and "The Love Car Displacement", she makes casual references to "Star Trek". In "The Bakersfield Expedition", Penny, Amy and Bernadette read some of the men's comics, believing there is nothing interesting in them, only to get into a heated argument about whether or not only Thor could wield his enchanted hammer Mjolnir. In season seven's "The Proton Transmogrification", she alarms herself when she realizes that she understands Raj and Howard's corny "Star Wars"-related puns. In "The Werewolf Transformation", although a complete beginner, she has beaten Leonard in chess despite not knowing the names of the chess pieces. Leonard later expressed astonishment that his girlfriend plays like Bobby Fischer.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Penny sometimes references science and technology-related ideas. In "The Codpiece Topology", Penny, having previously learned of Schrödinger's cat in "The Tangerine Factor", is seen explaining that concept to her date. In "The Beta Test Initiation", Penny references beta testing when Leonard uses a software development analogy, to describe their attempt to start a romantic relationship again, although he points out he was technically talking about alpha testing. In "The Veracity Elasticity", she demonstrates fluency in Ubbi dubbi by having a secret conversation with Amy Farrah Fowler in front of Sheldon and Leonard when the guys are having their own secret conversation in Klingon.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: A recurring theme throughout the series is Penny's ongoing financial problems and poverty. This is seen in "The Financial Permeability", when she finds herself behind on her bills, and borrows money from Sheldon, only to later become paranoid into thinking that he is pestering her for repayment, even though he makes no such indications of this – he misinterprets Penny's paranoia and even offers her more money, while Leonard points out that one of the few things about Sheldon that isn't insufferable is that he genuinely doesn't care about how long it will take to repay the money. Other references are seen in the fact that she once attempted to pay for her electric bill using a Starbucks gift card, an apology note and pictures of her in underwear.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: A subset of this trait is addressed by other characters is her freeloading. In the second-season episode "The Financial Permeability", when Penny is short on money, Leonard pays for her share of a group dinner, which causes Raj and Howard to joke that they would get free food too if they wore skintight jeans and a tank top. A recurring gag in the fourth season is Sheldon's frequent change of his and Leonard's Wi-Fi password to address Penny's use of their signal. In "The Thespian Catalyst", he changes the password to "Penny is a freeloader", in "The Roommate Transmogrification" he has changed it to "Penny, get your own Wi-Fi", and in the episode "The Speckerman Recurrence", he has changed it into "Penny already eats our food, she can pay for Wi-Fi". In the seventh season "The Convention Conundrum", when the women go out for drinks and ponder their own maturity, and Penny questions the significance of that trait, Bernadette replies that it would mean that their check would be split three ways.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Penny's financial situation radically improves when she begins working as a sales representative at the pharmaceutical company that employs Bernadette, in the eighth-season episode "The Locomotion Interruption". By "The Expedition Approximation", she is making enough money to be financially self-sufficient, able to sell the automobile Leonard previously gave her, and gives him back the money for it—changing their dynamic and leading to discussions on whether her future financial windfalls may prove difficult for him, given his insecurities. This situation was later exacerbated when it was revealed that Penny was earning significantly more than Leonard.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the ninth-season episode "The Big Bear Precipitation", Penny reveals she hates her job as a representative but sticks with it because she still has large debts to pay and also does not want to go back to waitressing or acting.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Until the seventh season, Penny works mainly as a waitress at her local The Cheesecake Factory, although in the first-season episode "The Grasshopper Experiment" she trained as a bartender. It seemed that she occasionally picked up the bartending shift in the restaurant. In 2010, when actress Kaley Cuoco broke her leg, Penny was shown working as a bartender in several fourth-season episodes to hide the cast on her leg.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Her work at The Cheesecake Factory was initially meant to be a temporary job for her desired profession as an actress, although her expectations are somewhat high and naive at the beginning. She admits in season two that her plan was to be a waitress for six months and then become a movie star, and her backup plan was to become a TV star. She regularly goes to castings but is most often unsuccessful or finds the role to be quite different from what she expected, as when a cat food commercial audition was actually for a pornographic film. In the season one episode "The Loobenfeld Decay", she is cast in a production of "Rent", and in "The Terminator Decoupling" she refers to another of her roles as "Anne Frank in a theater above a bowling alley". Frustrated with her acting career, in the fifth-season premiere, she briefly considers returning to Nebraska until landing a part in a commercial for hemorrhoid cream. In "The Monster Isolation", Penny is seen performing the role of Blanche DuBois in her acting class's production of "A Streetcar Named Desire". In this episode, Sheldon, who attended the show along with Leonard and Amy, is impressed with Penny's ability to memorize lines despite not remembering customers' orders as a waitress. In the seventh-season premiere, she was revealed to have had a topless shower scene in a low-budget horror film named "Serial Apeist" when she first moved to California, which she did not realise had been uploaded to the internet until Sheldon revealed it was available online and that the gang saw it on the day they met her.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the season seven episode "The Hesitation Ramification", Penny believes she found stardom when she lands a brief role in "NCIS". She is devastated when her scene is cut, but later decides it is time to focus solely on acting; she quits her job at The Cheesecake Factory to devote herself to becoming an actress.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Despite usually going to her neighbors for technical assistance when she has problems with her computer, Penny does have some mechanical skills of her own. When she was a child, she rebuilt a tractor engine on the farm where she grew up and competed in a junior rodeo.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: During season eight, Penny abandons acting and takes a job as a salesperson at Bernadette's pharmaceutical company. The following season, Penny admits that she hates flirting with her customers for sales. In season ten, she almost changed her job when her ex-boyfriend Zack (Brian Thomas Smith) offers her a position at his menu company. Leonard reluctantly supports her but when she called Zack to accept the job, Zack informs her that his fiancée does not like the idea of Penny working with Zack (given their history). In season twelve, Bernadette gets Penny to head the sales team to promote her new drug in "The Confirmation Polarization". After a competitor tries to recruit Penny in "The Conference Valuation", Bernadette assures Penny that she is great at her job, elevating Penny's sense of self-worth.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Unlike the rest of the main characters, Penny is an extrovert. She is very outgoing and assertive, and has many sexual relationships over the course of the series. She often dates, and in one way or another all the men have gone to her for dating advice. In the fourth season opener, Sheldon estimates that Penny has dated 193 men, and had sex with 31 of them. Penny strenuously denies it was ever that many. Amy asks Penny in the same conversation if, in light of her sex partners, she considers herself a "slut", Penny responds uncertainly, "No. No. ... No?"


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the series premiere, Penny moves in across the hall from Leonard and Sheldon because of her recent split from her boyfriend, Kurt, after living together for four years.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: She says she still loves him, even though he cheated on her. Kurt makes two more appearances in the series.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: From the beginning, Leonard's infatuation with Penny becomes a major force that drives the series. Howard also shows interest in her (primarily sexual), but he is always rejected abruptly due to his unsettling approaches. Although Penny occasionally teases Raj for his inability to speak to her, she is sympathetic and kind towards him and, as with Sheldon, she almost always overlooks his idiosyncrasies and appreciates that his intentions are good.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the first-season episode "The Fuzzy Boots Corollary", Penny describes her approach after a failed relationship: she picks up an attractive man to have rebound sex with over the course of a 36-hour weekend, then leaves him.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the first-season finale, Penny breaks up with her boyfriend after he posts intimate details about their private life on his blog. This gives Leonard the opportunity to ask her on a first official date. Although the date is successful, Penny becomes worried after she lies to Leonard about graduating from community college (it is mentioned in a later episode, "The Cohabitation Formulation", that she was enrolled in one, but dropped out). When Sheldon asks her why she lied, she indicates that she is self-conscious about their comparative level of education. Leonard eventually learns the truth, but makes matters worse when he tries to encourage Penny to enroll in Pasadena City College, as Penny interprets his suggestion as an insult to her intelligence, and rebuffs him.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Maternal Capacitance", Penny's introduction to Leonard's mother, Dr. Beverly Hofstadter, causes Penny and Leonard to seek comfort in each other. They nearly have sex, but when Leonard comments in bed that she was attracted to him because of a psychological need to be closer to her father, her revulsion at this causes her to rebuff him.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Afterwards, Penny dates Stuart, from the comic book store, but their dates do not lead to a relationship. The first time, Penny and Stuart are interrupted by Sheldon, who argues at length with Stuart over whether Dick Grayson or Jason Todd should be Batman's successor, while Penny falls asleep. Their dating ends in "The Classified Materials Turbulence", when Penny and Stuart are kissing, and Penny mistakenly calls him "Leonard".


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the second-season finale Penny shows strong romantic feelings for Leonard. When she discovers that Leonard, Sheldon, Howard, and Raj will be spending three months at the magnetic North Pole for a scientific experiment, she becomes sad and gives Leonard a Snuggie and a long hug, that Leonard perceives as unusually long. Although Penny dismisses the meaning into which Leonard reads the gift and the hug, she later admits to herself that it meant that she did not want him to leave.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the third-season premiere, after the men returned from the expedition, Penny kisses Leonard immediately upon his return, having missed him immensely. Initially, Leonard and Penny feel uncomfortable with their new relationship, and they agree to remain only friends, but are unable to maintain this resolution and began a stable relationship. Their relationship sours, however, when Leonard tells Penny he loves her for the first time, and an unsure Penny simply replies, "Thank you." The resulting tension eventually leads to Penny tearfully breaking up with Leonard during a bowling match. However, they remain friends and sleep together once after Penny gets drunk following a bad date with Zack Johnson, after she realizes Leonard ruined her ability to tolerate and date unintelligent men.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the fourth season, Penny reveals to her friends Bernadette Rostenkowski and Amy Farrah Fowler during a "Truth or Dare?" game that she has still not moved on from Leonard. This is further implied in "The Justice League Recombination" when she indicates to Leonard that her reunion with Zack, and Zack's decision to have the two of them join the men in dressing up as the Justice League for New Year's Eve costume party at Stuart's comic shop is made difficult by her history with Leonard. In "The Love Car Displacement", Penny and the rest of the cast attend an academic conference in Big Sur. She and Leonard share the same hotel room for the night and they almost have sex until Raj walks in on them. The next day, bored with the conference, Penny accepts a ride back to Los Angeles from Professor Glenn, Bernadette's tall and attractive ex-boyfriend. When Raj's sister, Priya, returns in the episode "The Cohabitation Formulation", Priya and Leonard begin a romantic relationship. Penny appears to be initially accepting of their relationship, but is later discovered by Amy to be heartbroken over it.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the fourth-season finale, Penny reveals to Raj that she made a huge mistake by breaking up with Leonard. However, even though she and Raj both agree to be friends, they get drunk and wake up in bed together, apparently both naked, the next morning. Leonard, Sheldon, and Howard discover Penny leaving the apartment, deducing that they just had sex. In the fifth-season premiere, Raj confides to her that they had not consummated their encounter and instead just fell asleep, prompting Penny to refer to Raj as "Quickdraw" because of that. She spends the rest of the episode with Amy, avoiding the men due to her embarrassment over her encounter with Raj.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Ornithophobia Diffusion" Leonard and Penny go on a platonic date as friends, but after Leonard decides that he does not have to pay for everything or defer to her because they are not a couple, they end up bickering and sabotaging each other's attempts to socialize with members of the opposite sex. Penny realizes that she finds Leonard's more assertive demeanor attractive, but when he regresses to groveling in order to have sex with her, she rebuffs him.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: On the spur of the moment in "The Recombination Hypothesis", Leonard asks Penny out on a date after he imagines what getting back with her might be like. In "The Beta Test Initiation", their date goes well until Leonard asks about the status of their relationship. This causes conflict, due to Penny's subsequent admission that commitment frightens her, but they agree to take their relationship slowly. While having sex in "The Launch Acceleration", however, Leonard accidentally proposes to her, causing Penny great distress. After discussing the matter, Penny declines his proposal, while affirming her feelings for him, and her desire to remain with him. In the sixth-season episode "The Date Night Variable", Leonard wants a reluctant Penny to define their relationship. In "The Decoupling Fluctuation", she wonders if she is really in love with him, but cannot bring herself to discuss it with Leonard. In "The Date Night Variable", Raj shows up unannounced at a private dinner of Penny and Leonard's, and inserts himself into their discussion of where their relationship is headed. When Leonard complains that Penny has yet to say "I love you" to Leonard, Raj attempts to get her to say it, causing Penny to eject him from the apartment.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the "Higgs Boson Observation", Sheldon hires grad student Alex Jensen to review his childhood journals for any potential ideas that might win him a Nobel Prize. After Amy and Penny observes Alex and Leonard in the Caltech cafeteria talking, Penny, although having reservations with her relationship with Leonard, is bothered with the thought of him with another woman. Later that day, Alex comes home with Sheldon to work in his apartment where Leonard and Penny are. Penny introduces herself to Alex (subtly implying that Leonard is hers) and drags Leonard to her apartment to have sex. In "The 43 Peculiarity", Leonard becomes jealous of Penny's classmate, an attractive Englishman. At the end of the episode, Penny and Leonard discuss this, during which Penny casually mentions that she loves him, which Leonard notes is the first time she has said this to him. In "The Egg Salad Equivalency" Penny learns that Sheldon's attractive assistant Alex asked Leonard out to dinner and eventually admits to Leonard her own insecurity about their relationship. After a major argument with Sheldon, Leonard suggests moving in with Penny in "The Spoiler Alert Segmentation", but she indicates that she is not ready for this. In "The Tangible Affection Proof", upon seeing her ex-boyfriend propose to the woman he cheated on her with during a Valentine's Day dinner date, Leonard again tries to propose to Penny, but she expresses that she is not ready for this, and is unnerved by that level of commitment. They resolve that when she is ready to get married, she can propose to him. In "The Bon Voyage Reaction", Penny copes with Leonard leaving for a summer science assignment in Europe, resolving that they are more secure in their relationship.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Hesitation Ramification", Penny, inebriated and frustrated over the state of her acting career, proposes to Leonard, who is hesitant to answer, given the circumstances. Though this further frustrates Penny, she admits in the following episode, "The Occupation Recalibration", that Leonard did the right thing.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: By season five, Penny has formed strong friendships with Doctors Amy Farrah Fowler and Bernadette Rostenkowski, and the three are often seen spending time together. However, Amy and Bernadette occasionally prefer to meet without Penny, and often tease her.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In the seventh-season episode "The Thanksgiving Decoupling", it was revealed that Penny had married Zack in Las Vegas in what they thought as a "fake" wedding. This revelation causes tension between her and Leonard who has repeatedly proposed to Penny but was always rejected. They managed to annul the wedding by getting Zack to sign the annulment papers. In the penultimate episode of season seven, "The Gorilla Dissolution", she and Leonard become engaged, after Penny realizes that it is not fame she wants out of life, but happiness with Leonard. Throughout season eight, a running gag is their reluctance to decide upon a wedding date. In the eighth-season finale, Penny asks Leonard to marry her that night in Las Vegas. Leonard happily accepts, but during the journey, after Penny expresses happiness that they will get married while knowing everything about each other, Leonard confesses to having shared a drunken kiss with another woman while on the boat in Europe, though he adds that the woman started it and he rejected her. Penny becomes hurt by the revelation, and even though she claims to forgive Leonard, there is clearly tension between them, leaving the season ending in a cliffhanger as to whether or not they will go through with the wedding.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: At the beginning of season nine, Leonard and Penny marry, although not without some initial problems. They both reveal that they were subconsciously trying to sabotage their relationship, feeling unworthy of the other. Upon addressing this topic, they both agree to stop being scared of losing the other and embrace their happiness together. After an aborted attempt for Leonard to move into Penny's apartment and live with his wife, Sheldon forces them to spend most of the nights a week in Leonard's old room. Although CBS now refers to the character with the married name Penny Hofstadter, it has not been explicitly indicated in series whether she took Leonard's surname. By the ninth-season finale, Penny and Leonard decide to have a second small, unofficial wedding ceremony for their family and friends to make up for eloping. In season ten, Sheldon moves into Penny's old apartment with Amy, allowing Penny and Leonard to live on their own as husband and wife.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In season eleven, Leonard, Howard and Raj are trying to recover the bitcoin they mined years ago (now worth thousands of dollars). It is revealed that the bitcoin is in Leonard's old laptop which he gave to Penny while they were dating in season three. Penny then said that she gave the laptop to Zack after her breakup with Leonard. After retrieving the laptop, Zack shows the couple a video in the laptop that Penny made after her breakup with Leonard showing a drunk Penny apologizing to Leonard and regrets breaking up with him. Leonard is touched by the video and realizes that Penny genuinely loves him and not just out of desperation or pity.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In season twelve, Penny announces that she does not want to have any children which Leonard somewhat reluctantly supports her decision. Later, Zack and his wife Marissa wants Leonard to be a surrogate father to their kid since Zack is infertile. Penny reluctantly agrees to let Leonard donate his sperm. However, Penny tries to seduce Leonard despite knowing he has to be abstinent for a few days. Her visiting father, Wyatt, points out to Penny that her own actions suggest she is more conflicted over having kids than she lets on, to which she admits she feels bad about letting him and Leonard down if she goes through with never having children. He says that despite her flaws, parenthood is the best thing that ever happened to him and he does not want her to miss out, but he says he will support her no matter what she decides. Leonard finally changes his mind about donating his sperm to Zack, not wanting a child in the world that he cannot raise. In the series finale, Penny reveals to her friends that she is pregnant with Leonard's baby, and changes her mind about not wanting children.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: A staple of the series' humor is Penny's awkward interactions with Sheldon, as they are almost polar opposites in terms of intellect and social aptitude. Throughout the series Sheldon often insults Penny's level of formal education, but appreciates her advice when navigating social situations.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In one episode, Sheldon tries to "improve" Penny, rewarding her with chocolate for what he considers "correct behavior", as in operant conditioning of lab rats. Leonard noticed it and accused Sheldon of training her like Pavlov's dogs. Although the two characters sometimes clash, and Penny is frequently irritated by Sheldon's obstinacy and lack of social awareness, she developed a conspicuous soft spot for him as the series progressed. She and Leonard occasionally talk and behave as if Sheldon were their child (alluded to earlier in the third-season episode "The Spaghetti Catalyst" during the final seven minutes [see next paragraph], and in the eleventh-season episode "The Collaboration Contamination" when Penny actually uses a parenting book of Bernadette's on Sheldon). Penny is delighted whenever Sheldon acts affectionately towards her, recognising that such behaviour is highly unusual for him. Penny often calls Sheldon "sweetie", a term of endearment she frequently uses with other characters (a fact that Sheldon himself points out in one episode), and Penny and Amy are the only principal characters who ever openly demonstrate their genuine fondness for Sheldon.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Evidence of Penny's affection for Sheldon is apparent in various episodes. Penny takes care of Sheldon while he is ill and lets him stay at her apartment when he is locked out of his, has a bad dream or is feeling unsafe; Sheldon lent her money when she needed it and takes care of her when she dislocates her shoulder. Despite not being as well versed as the men in geek culture, Penny has shown attention to what each of her friends likes, although she still remains dismissive of them: during a Christmas episode, Sheldon is overwhelmed when Penny gives him a napkin autographed by Leonard Nimoy. In return, Sheldon gives Penny several baskets of bath products and then a long hug, to both her and Leonard's surprise – Leonard claims it to be "a Saturnalian miracle". When Sheldon's "World of Warcraft" account is hacked and the four men all back down from the much larger hacker who also steals Sheldon's Klingon Bat'leth, Penny kicks the hacker in the groin. Following her breakup with Leonard, Penny takes Sheldon along when she and some friends from work went to Disneyland, for which he is thankful. In the same episode, "The Spaghetti Catalyst", she notes that she takes Sheldon shopping for his linens. (This episode shows Leonard and Penny speaking to each other in the manner of a divorced couple arguing over Sheldon as though he were their child.) She has also helped Sheldon resolve conflicts with Amy, as in "The Shiny Trinket Manoeuvre".


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Panty Pinata Polarization" Penny has a fight with Sheldon as he banishes her from his apartment and using their Wi-Fi as she got "three strikes". She defends herself by refusing to take down his order at the restaurant (later suggesting that she tampered with his food after being forced to take Sheldon's order after he complained to her manager) and then ruins his weekly Saturday laundry night. In response he puts Penny's underwear on the outside telephone wire. After having a heated argument with his mother over his actions he apologises to Penny and they make amends with one another.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: On one occasion, when Penny knocks on the door to Apartment 4A in the same manner as Sheldon as a joke, she admitted to Sheldon that it started to "feel good"; Sheldon swiftly advises her not to do it again as she would be "doing it for the rest of her life".


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: Sheldon has acknowledged that he likes Penny, although claims he was forced to because Leonard "made him", and that Sheldon liking her was a "hard row to hoe", although in "The Intimacy Acceleration" Sheldon has admitted that he considers Penny a sisterly or motherly figure. By the series finale, Penny and Leonard admit to each other that Sheldon was "sort of our practice kid", whereas Sheldon himself calls Penny and Leonard "my two dearest friends in the world" during his Nobel Prize acceptance speech.


title: Penny (The Big Bang Theory)

text: In "The Maternal Capacitance", when first meeting Leonard's Mother, Penny reveals that her father Wyatt (Keith Carradine) tried to raise her like a boy, which is a source of pain for her, leading her to have father issues. When she and Leonard begin dating, Wyatt comes to appreciate that she is dating an accomplished academic, rather than an uneducated hick, so much so that when he visits Penny in the fourth-season episode "The Boyfriend Complexity" following her and Leonard's breakup, it is revealed that she has not revealed the breakup to her father. When she later informs Wyatt of the breakup, Wyatt secretly encourages Leonard to not give up on her.