title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL includes built-in synchronous replication that ensures that, for each write transaction, the master waits until at least one replica node has written the data to its transaction log. Unlike other database systems, the durability of a transaction (whether it is asynchronous or synchronous) can be specified per-database, per-user, per-session or even per-transaction. This can be useful for workloads that do not require such guarantees, and may not be wanted for all data as it slows down performance due to the requirement of the confirmation of the transaction reaching the synchronous standby.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Standby servers can be synchronous or asynchronous. Synchronous standby servers can be specified in the configuration which determines which servers are candidates for synchronous replication. The first in the list that is actively streaming will be used as the current synchronous server. When this fails, the system fails over to the next in line.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Synchronous multi-master replication is not included in the PostgreSQL core. Postgres-XC which is based on PostgreSQL provides scalable synchronous multi-master replication. It is licensed under the same license as PostgreSQL. A related project is called Postgres-XL. Postgres-R is yet another fork. Bidirectional replication (BDR) is an asynchronous multi-master replication system for PostgreSQL.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Several asynchronous trigger-based replication packages are available. These remain useful even after introduction of the expanded core abilities, for situations where binary replication of a full database cluster is inappropriate:


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL includes built-in support for regular B-tree and hash table indexes, and four index access methods: generalized search trees (GiST), generalized inverted indexes (GIN), Space-Partitioned GiST (SP-GiST) and Block Range Indexes (BRIN). In addition, user-defined index methods can be created, although this is quite an involved process. Indexes in PostgreSQL also support the following features:


title: PostgreSQL

text: In PostgreSQL, a schema holds all objects, except for roles and tablespaces. Schemas effectively act like namespaces, allowing objects of the same name to co-exist in the same database. By default, newly created databases have a schema called "public", but any further schemas can be added, and the public schema isn't mandatory.


title: PostgreSQL

text: A setting determines the order in which PostgreSQL checks schemas for unqualified objects (those without a prefixed schema). By default, it is set to ( refers to the currently connected database user). This default can be set on a database or role level, but as it is a session parameter, it can be freely changed (even multiple times) during a client session, affecting that session only.


title: PostgreSQL

text: New objects are created in whichever valid schema (one that presently exists) appears first in the search_path.


title: PostgreSQL

text: In addition, users can create their own data types which can usually be made fully indexable via PostgreSQL's indexing infrastructures GiST, GIN, SP-GiST. Examples of these include the geographic information system (GIS) data types from the PostGIS project for PostgreSQL.


title: PostgreSQL

text: There is also a data type called a "domain", which is the same as any other data type but with optional constraints defined by the creator of that domain. This means any data entered into a column using the domain will have to conform to whichever constraints were defined as part of the domain.


title: PostgreSQL

text: A data type that represents a range of data can be used which are called range types. These can be discrete ranges (e.g. all integer values 1 to 10) or continuous ranges (e.g., any time between and ). The built-in range types available include ranges of integers, big integers, decimal numbers, time stamps (with and without time zone) and dates.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Custom range types can be created to make new types of ranges available, such as IP address ranges using the inet type as a base, or float ranges using the float data type as a base. Range types support inclusive and exclusive range boundaries using the / and / characters respectively. (e.g., represents all integers starting from and including 4 up to but not including 9.) Range types are also compatible with existing operators used to check for overlap, containment, right of etc.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Tables can be set to inherit their characteristics from a "parent" table. Data in child tables will appear to exist in the parent tables, unless data is selected from the parent table using the ONLY keyword, i.e. . Adding a column in the parent table will cause that column to appear in the child table.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Inheritance can be used to implement table partitioning, using either triggers or rules to direct inserts to the parent table into the proper child tables.


title: PostgreSQL

text: This feature is not fully supported. In particular, table constraints are not currently inheritable. All check constraints and not-null constraints on a parent table are automatically inherited by its children. Other types of constraints (unique, primary key, and foreign key constraints) are not inherited.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Inheritance provides a way to map the features of generalization hierarchies depicted in entity relationship diagrams (ERDs) directly into the PostgreSQL database.


title: PostgreSQL

text: These can take the form of any data source, such as a file system, another relational database management system (RDBMS), or a web service. This means that regular database queries can use these data sources like regular tables, and even join multiple data-sources together.


title: PostgreSQL

text: For connecting to applications, PostgreSQL includes the built-in interfaces libpq (the official C application interface) and ECPG (an embedded C system). Third-party libraries for connecting to PostgreSQL are available for many programming languages, including C++, Java, Julia, Python, Node.js, Go, and Rust.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Procedural languages allow developers to extend the database with custom subroutines (functions), often called "stored procedures". These functions can be used to build database triggers (functions invoked on modification of certain data) and custom data types and aggregate functions. Procedural languages can also be invoked without defining a function, using a DO command at SQL level.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Languages are divided into two groups: Procedures written in "safe" languages are sandboxed and can be safely created and used by any user. Procedures written in "unsafe" languages can only be created by superusers, because they allow bypassing a database's security restrictions, but can also access sources external to the database. Some languages like Perl provide both safe and unsafe versions.


title: PostgreSQL

text: In addition, PostgreSQL allows procedural languages to be loaded into the database through extensions. Three language extensions are included with PostgreSQL to support Perl, Tcl, and Python. For Python, the current is used, and the discontinued is no longer supported as of PostgreSQL 15. Both were supported previously, defaulting to , while old and new versions couldn't be used in the same session. External projects provide support for many other languages, including PL/Java, JavaScript (PL/V8), PL/Julia<ref name="PL/Julia"></ref> PL/R, PL/Ruby, and others.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Triggers are events triggered by the action of SQL data manipulation language (DML) statements. For example, an INSERT statement might activate a trigger that checks if the values of the statement are valid. Most triggers are only activated by either INSERT or UPDATE statements.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Triggers are fully supported and can be attached to tables. Triggers can be per-column and conditional, in that UPDATE triggers can target specific columns of a table, and triggers can be told to execute under a set of conditions as specified in the trigger's WHERE clause. Triggers can be attached to views by using the INSTEAD OF condition. Multiple triggers are fired in alphabetical order. In addition to calling functions written in the native PL/pgSQL, triggers can also invoke functions written in other languages like PL/Python or PL/Perl.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL provides an asynchronous messaging system that is accessed through the NOTIFY, LISTEN and UNLISTEN commands. A session can issue a NOTIFY command, along with the user-specified channel and an optional payload, to mark a particular event occurring. Other sessions are able to detect these events by issuing a LISTEN command, which can listen to a particular channel. This functionality can be used for a wide variety of purposes, such as letting other sessions know when a table has updated or for separate applications to detect when a particular action has been performed. Such a system prevents the need for continuous polling by applications to see if anything has yet changed, and reducing unnecessary overhead. Notifications are fully transactional, in that messages are not sent until the transaction they were sent from is committed. This eliminates the problem of messages being sent for an action being performed which is then rolled back.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Many connectors for PostgreSQL provide support for this notification system (including libpq, JDBC, Npgsql, psycopg and node.js) so it can be used by external applications.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL can act as an effective, persistent "pub/sub" server or job server by combining LISTEN with FOR UPDATE SKIP LOCKED.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Rules allow the "query tree" of an incoming query to be rewritten. "Query Re-Write Rules" are attached to a table/class and "Re-Write" the incoming DML (select, insert, update, and/or delete) into one or more queries that either replace the original DML statement or execute in addition to it. Query Re-Write occurs after DML statement parsing, but before query planning.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL server is process-based (not threaded), and uses one operating system process per database session. Multiple sessions are automatically spread across all available CPUs by the operating system. Many types of queries can also be parallelized across multiple background worker processes, taking advantage of multiple CPUs or cores. Client applications can use threads and create multiple database connections from each thread.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL manages its internal security on a per-role basis. A role is generally regarded to be a user (a role that can log in), or a group (a role of which other roles are members). Permissions can be granted or revoked on any object down to the column level, and can also allow/prevent the creation of new objects at the database, schema or table levels.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL's SECURITY LABEL feature (extension to SQL standards), allows for additional security; with a bundled loadable module that supports label-based mandatory access control (MAC) based on Security-Enhanced Linux (SELinux) security policy.


title: PostgreSQL

text: The GSSAPI, SSPI, Kerberos, peer, ident and certificate methods can also use a specified "map" file that lists which users matched by that authentication system are allowed to connect as a specific database user.


title: PostgreSQL

text: These methods are specified in the cluster's host-based authentication configuration file (pg_hba.conf), which determines what connections are allowed. This allows control over which user can connect to which database, where they can connect from (IP address, IP address range, domain socket), which authentication system will be enforced, and whether the connection must use Transport Layer Security (TLS).


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL claims high, but not complete, conformance with the latest SQL standard (for version 13 "in September 2020, PostgreSQL conforms to at least 170 of the 179 mandatory features for Core conformance", and no other databases fully conformed to it). One exception is the handling of unquoted identifiers like table or column names. In PostgreSQL they are folded, internally, to lower case characters whereas the standard says that unquoted identifiers should be folded to upper case. Thus, should be equivalent to not according to the standard. Other shortcomings concern the absence of temporal tables allowing automatic logging of row versions during transactions with the possibility of browsing in time (FOR SYSTEM TIME predicate).


title: PostgreSQL

text: Many informal performance studies of PostgreSQL have been done. Performance improvements aimed at improving scalability began heavily with version 8.1. Simple benchmarks between version 8.0 and version 8.4 showed that the latter was more than 10 times faster on read-only workloads and at least 7.5 times faster on both read and write workloads.


title: PostgreSQL

text: The first industry-standard and peer-validated benchmark was completed in June 2007, using the Sun Java System Application Server (proprietary version of GlassFish) 9.0 Platform Edition, UltraSPARC T1-based Sun Fire server and PostgreSQL 8.2. This result of 778.14 SPECjAppServer2004 JOPS@Standard compares favourably with the 874 JOPS@Standard with Oracle 10 on an Itanium-based HP-UX system.


title: PostgreSQL

text: In August 2007, Sun submitted an improved benchmark score of 813.73 SPECjAppServer2004 JOPS@Standard. With the system under test at a reduced price, the price/performance improved from $84.98/JOPS to $70.57/JOPS.


title: PostgreSQL

text: The default configuration of PostgreSQL uses only a small amount of dedicated memory for performance-critical purposes such as caching database blocks and sorting. This limitation is primarily because older operating systems required kernel changes to allow allocating large blocks of shared memory. PostgreSQL.org provides advice on basic recommended performance practice in a wiki.


title: PostgreSQL

text: In April 2012, Robert Haas of EnterpriseDB demonstrated PostgreSQL 9.2's linear CPU scalability using a server with 64 cores.


title: PostgreSQL

text: Matloob Khushi performed benchmarking between PostgreSQL 9.0 and MySQL 5.6.15 for their ability to process genomic data. In his performance analysis he found that PostgreSQL extracts overlapping genomic regions eight times faster than MySQL using two datasets of 80,000 each forming random human DNA regions. Insertion and data uploads in PostgreSQL were also better, although general searching ability of both databases was almost equivalent.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL is available for the following operating systems: Linux (all recent distributions), 64-bit x86 installers available and tested for macOS (OS X) version 10.6 and newer Windows (with installers available and tested for 64-bit Windows Server 2019 and 2016; some older PostgreSQL versions are tested back to Windows 2008 R2, while for PostgreSQL version 10 and older a 32-bit installer is available and tested down to 32-bit Windows 2008 R1; compilable by e.g. Visual Studio, version 2013 up to the most recent 2019 version) FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, AIX, HP-UX, Solaris, and UnixWare; and not officially tested: DragonFly BSD, BSD/OS, IRIX, OpenIndiana, OpenSolaris, OpenServer, and Tru64 UNIX . Most other Unix-like systems could also work; most modern do support.


title: PostgreSQL

text: PostgreSQL works on any of the following instruction set architectures: x86 and x86-64 on Windows XP (or later) and other operating systems; these are supported on other than Windows: IA-64 Itanium (external support for HP-UX), PowerPC, PowerPC 64, S/390, S/390x, SPARC, SPARC 64, ARMv8-A (64-bit) and older ARM (32-bit, including older such as ARMv6 in Raspberry Pi), MIPS, MIPSel, and PA-RISC. It was also known to work on some other platforms (while not been tested on for years, i.e. for latest versions).


title: PostgreSQL

text: A number of companies offer proprietary tools for PostgreSQL. They often consist of a universal core that is adapted for various specific database products. These tools mostly share the administration features with the open source tools but offer improvements in data modeling, importing, exporting or reporting.


title: JC Chasez

text: Joshua Scott "JC" Chasez (; born August 8, 1976) is an American singer, songwriter, dancer, record producer, and occasional actor. He started out his career as a cast member on "The Mickey Mouse Club" before rising to stardom with NSYNC, and by writing and producing for music acts such as Girls Aloud, Sugababes, Basement Jaxx, David Archuleta, and Matthew Morrison. He also served as a judge for "America's Best Dance Crew".


title: JC Chasez

text: Chasez was born on August 8, 1976, in Bowie, Maryland. When he was five years old, his biological mother entrusted guardianship of her son to her own former foster parents Roy and Karen Chasez, who worked as a technology company consultant and an editor, respectively. He was adopted by the couple and raised Mennonite along with his younger siblings, Tyler and Heather. Chasez attended the former Robert Goddard Middle School and then Bowie High School.


title: JC Chasez

text: As a child, Chasez was extremely shy but very musical. After a friend bet him $20 to enter a talent contest, he discovered he enjoyed performing and later won a national dance competition at age 13. In 1989 his mother saw auditions for Disney's "The Mickey Mouse Club" advertised in "The Washington Post" and encouraged Chasez to try out. Chasez was cast in the fourth season, going by his initials as there was another cast member named Josh (Ackerman). He stayed on the show until its cancellation in 1994, during which time he befriended future bandmate Justin Timberlake and performed alongside Christina Aguilera, Britney Spears, Tony Lucca, Keri Russell, and Ryan Gosling.


title: JC Chasez

text: Chasez and Justin Timberlake were the two lead singers of what would become the boy band NSYNC. The group was formed in 1995 by Chris Kirkpatrick and began recording and performing the following year in Europe. In 1998, the band released its debut album "*NSYNC" which sold 11 million copies, earning them popularity in the United States. After the band had a series of legal struggles with manager Lou Pearlman, they signed with Jive Records. They released their second studio album "No Strings Attached" in 2000, which became the fastest-selling album of all time, selling 2.4 million copies in the first week. They held this record until 2015 when Adele surpassed the single-week sales record with her third album "25". Singles from the "No Strings Attached" album included "Bye Bye Bye", "This I Promise You", and the No. 1 hit "It's Gonna Be Me". The band produced their third studio album, "Celebrity" in 2001, which sold 1.8 million copies in the first week.


title: JC Chasez

text: After their Celebrity Tour in 2002, NSYNC went on hiatus and though never formally disbanded, members have stated there no plans to reform or record new music. The group performed for the first time together again at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards to mark Timberlake winning the Video Vanguard Award. In April 2019, Chasez and bandmates Lance Bass, Joey Fatone, and Chris Kirkpatrick performed with Ariana Grande as part of headlining set at Coachella.


title: JC Chasez

text: While still a member of NSYNC, Chasez appeared on the remix and album versions of the 1999 single "Bring It All to Me" by the girl group Blaque, though his vocals were credited to NSYNC as a whole. During the band's time Chasez became involved with songwriting and production for his group and other artists, including Wild Orchid.


title: JC Chasez

text: During NSYNC's hiatus, Chasez continued to work as a songwriter and producer. Producer Dallas Austin asked Chasez to record the song "Blowin' Me Up (With Her Love)" for the "Drumline" soundtrack, which was later released as a single. Chasez subsequently began work on a solo album with Jive Records, with tracks written and produced by Austin, Basement Jaxx, Robb Boldt and Riprock 'n' Alex G as well as Chasez. After numerous delays, his debut album "Schizophrenic" was released in February 2004. Promotion for the album was affected by former bandmate Justin Timberlake and Janet Jackson's Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy, after which Chasez was unceremoniously dropped from performing at half-time at the 2004 Pro Bowl. With the NFL unhappy with the lyrics of the single "Some Girls (Dance with Women)" expressing too much sexuality, Chasez agreed to alter his performance but was met with too much resistance from the organizers, who ultimately replaced Chasez's act with Hawaiian hula dancers.


title: JC Chasez

text: At the same time, Chasez sang vocals on the Basement Jaxx track, "Plug It In", which reached number one in the UK Dance Charts. Following the release of "Schizophrenic", Chasez began work on his second album, "The Story of Kate". The album featured production from Chasez's former NSYNC bandmate Timberlake, Timbaland, Dallas Austin, Jimmy Harry, and Emanuel Kiriakou. Timberlake, who produced a few songs for the album, said, "In my opinion, (JC) had the best voice out of all of us...Out of all the boy bands, call 'em what you will, he was the one that could out-sing all of us. And I've known him since I was twelve, so it was fun to sit behind the board and push him."


title: JC Chasez

text: Though originally slated for release in 2006, "The Story of Kate" was delayed to the following year. The two lead singles, "Until Yesterday" and "You Ruined Me" were released online. Chasez performed material from the new album during guests spots on TV shows "Ghost Whisperer", "Las Vegas", and "". After the album's release was further stalled, it was effectively cancelled when Chasez and Jive parted ways through mutual decision in September 2007.


title: JC Chasez

text: Chasez continues to work as a songwriter and producer, with songs written for David Archuleta, Matthew Morrison and Backstreet Boys. He has written for Taemin, Liz, and NU’EST. In 2008 he became a judge on Randy Jackson's "America's Best Dance Crew" on MTV, serving on the panel for the first seven seasons of the show's original run.


title: JC Chasez

text: In November 2010, the song "IF U C Kate" written by Dallas Austin, Taio Cruz, Alan Nglish, and Chasez was featured on the British band McFly's album, "Above the Noise". Chasez wrote and produced two songs on AJ McLean's debut album "Have It All", released in the US in February 2011. In February 2012 Chasez and producer Jimmy Harry held auditions for an all-girl group which was formed in November the same year under the name Girl Radical.


title: JC Chasez

text: In 2014, Chasez was selected to join the North American tour of Andrew Lloyd Webber's rock opera "Jesus Christ Superstar" as Pontius Pilate. Other cast members included "Superstar" winner Ben Forster and other well-known artists, including Incubus' Brandon Boyd, Destiny's Child's Michelle Williams, and Public Image Ltd's John Lydon. However, on May 30, 2014, the entire North American tour was abruptly canceled, with poor projected ticket sales cited as the reason.


title: JC Chasez

text: Along with Miguel and Aloe Blacc, Chasez was featured on a new version of "My Girl" with Smokey Robinson on the album "Smokey & Friends". In 2015, Chasez appeared, along with 3OH!3, on the title track of the Blues Traveler album "Blow Up the Moon", and on the song's accompanying music video. In 2016, Chasez starred in the film "Opening Night", in which he played a dramatized version of himself.


title: George Sand

text: Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin de Francueil (; 1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pen name George Sand (), was a French novelist, memoirist and journalist. One of the most popular writers in Europe in her lifetime, being more renowned than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, Sand is recognised as one of the most notable writers of the European Romantic era, with more than 70 novels to her credit and 50 volumes of various works including novels, tales, plays and political texts.


title: George Sand

text: Like her great-grandmother, Louise Dupin, whom she admired, George Sand stood up for women, advocated passion, castigated marriage and fought against the prejudices of a conservative society.


title: George Sand

text: Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin, the future George Sand, was born on 1 July 1804 in Paris on Meslay Street to Maurice Dupin de Francueil and Sophie-Victoire Delaborde. She was the paternal great-granddaughter of the Marshal of France Maurice de Saxe (1696-1750), and on her mother's side, her grandfather was Antoine Delaborde, master paulmier and master birder. She was raised for much of her childhood by her grandmother Marie-Aurore de Saxe, Madame Amantine Aurore Lucile Dupin de Francueil, at her grandmother's house in the village of Nohant, in the French province of Berry. Sand inherited the house in 1821 when her grandmother died, and used the setting in many of her novels.


title: George Sand

text: Sand was one of many notable 19th-century women who chose to wear male attire in public. In 1800, the police issued an order requiring women to apply for a permit in order to wear male clothing. Some women applied for health, occupational, or recreational reasons (e.g., horseback riding), but many women chose to wear pants and other traditional male attire in public without receiving a permit.


title: George Sand

text: Sand was one of those women who wore men's clothing without a permit, justifying it as being less expensive and far sturdier than the typical dress of a noblewoman at the time. In addition to being comfortable, Sand's male attire enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries and gave her increased access to venues that barred women, even those of her social standing. Also scandalous was Sand's smoking tobacco in public; neither peerage nor gentry had yet sanctioned the free indulgence of women in such a habit, especially in public, although Franz Liszt's paramour Marie d'Agoult affected this as well, smoking large cigars.


title: George Sand

text: While some contemporaries were critical of her comportment, many people accepted her behaviour—until they became shocked with the subversive tone of her novels. Those who found her writing admirable were not bothered by her ambiguous or rebellious public behaviour.


title: George Sand

text: Victor Hugo commented, "George Sand cannot determine whether she is male or female. I entertain a high regard for all my colleagues, but it is not my place to decide whether she is my sister or my brother."


title: George Sand

text: In 1831, at the age of twenty-seven, she chose her pseudonym George Sand, a feminine of the first name Georges unknown until then, and added "Sand", a diminutive of "Sandeau", the name of Jules, her lover at the time. This decision came from a desire to sow confusion about her identity and thus increase her chances of being published in a then resolutely male publishing world.


title: George Sand

text: In 1822, at the age of eighteen, Sand married (François) Casimir Dudevant, an out-of-wedlock son of Baron Jean-François Dudevant. She and Dudevant had two children: Maurice and Solange (1828–1899). In 1825, she had an intense but perhaps platonic affair with the young lawyer Aurélien de Sèze. In early 1831, she left her husband and entered upon a four- or five-year period of "romantic rebellion". In 1835, she was legally separated from Dudevant and took custody of their children.


title: George Sand

text: Sand had romantic affairs with the novelist Jules Sandeau (1831), the writer Prosper Mérimée, the dramatist Alfred de Musset (summer 1833 – March 1835), Louis-Chrysostome Michel, the actor Pierre-François Bocage, the writer Charles Didier, the novelist Félicien Mallefille, the politician Louis Blanc, and the composer Frédéric Chopin (1837–1847). Later in her life, she corresponded with Gustave Flaubert, and despite their differences in temperament and aesthetic preference, they eventually became close friends.


title: George Sand

text: Sand also engaged in an intimate romantic relationship with actress Marie Dorval. The two met in January 1833, after Sand wrote Dorval a letter of appreciation following one of her performances. Sand wrote about Dorval, including many passages where she is described as smitten with Dorval. Only those who know how differently we were made can realize how utterly I was in thrall to her...God had given her the power to express what she felt...She was beautiful, and she was simple. She had never been taught anything, but there was nothing she did not know by instinct. I can find no words with which to describe how cold and incomplete my own nature is. I can express nothing. There must be a sort of paralysis in my brain which prevents what I feel from ever finding a form through which it can achieve communication...When she appeared upon the stage, with her drooping figure, her listless gait, her sad and penetrating glance...I can say only that it was as though I were looking at an embodied spirit.


title: George Sand

text: Theater critic Gustave Planche reportedly warned Sand to stay away from Dorval. Likewise, Count Alfred de Vigny, Dorval's lover from 1831 to 1838, warned the actress to stay away from Sand, whom he referred to as "that damned lesbian". In 1840, Dorval played the lead in a play written by Sand, titled "Cosima", and the two women collaborated on the script. However, the play was not well-received, and was cancelled after only seven showings. Sand and Dorval remained close friends for the remainder of Dorval's lifetime.


title: George Sand

text: Sand spent the winter of 1838–1839 with Chopin in Mallorca at the (formerly abandoned) Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. The trip to Mallorca was described in her "Un hiver à Majorque" ("A Winter in Majorca"), first published in 1841. Chopin was already ill with incipient tuberculosis at the beginning of their relationship, and spending a cold and wet winter in Mallorca where they could not get proper lodgings exacerbated his symptoms.


title: George Sand

text: Sand and Chopin also spent many long summers at Sand's country manor in Nohant from 1839 to 1846, skipping only 1840. There, Chopin wrote many of his most famous works, including the Fantaisie in F minor, Op. 49, Piano Sonata No. 3, Op. 58, and the Ballade No. 3 Op. 47.


title: George Sand

text: In her novel "Lucrezia Floriani", Sand is said to have used Chopin as a model for a sickly Eastern European prince named Karol. He is cared for by a middle-aged actress past her prime, Lucrezia, who suffers greatly through her affection for Karol. Though Sand claimed not to have made a cartoon out of Chopin, the book's publication and widespread readership may have exacerbated their later antipathy towards each other. After Chopin's death, Sand burned much of their correspondence, leaving only four surviving letters between the two. Three of the letters were published in the "Classiques Garnier" series in 1968.


title: George Sand

text: Another breach was caused by Chopin's attitude toward Sand's daughter, Solange. Chopin continued to be cordial to Solange after Solange and her husband Auguste Clésinger fell out with Sand over money. Sand took Chopin's support of Solange to be extremely disloyal, and confirmation that Chopin had always "loved" Solange.


title: George Sand

text: Sand's son Maurice disliked Chopin. Maurice wanted to establish himself as the "man of the estate" and did not wish to have Chopin as a rival. Maurice removed two sentences from a letter Sand wrote to Chopin when he published it because he felt that Sand was too affectionate toward Chopin and Solange.


title: George Sand

text: Chopin and Sand separated two years before his death for a variety of reasons. Chopin was never asked back to Nohant; in 1848, he returned to Paris from a tour of the United Kingdom, to die at the Place Vendôme in 1849. George Sand was notably absent from his funeral.


title: George Sand

text: In December 1849 Maurice invited the engraver Alexandre Manceau to celebrate Christmas in Nohant. George Sand fell passionately in love with Manceau, he became her lover, companion and secretary and they stayed together for fifteen years until his death.


title: George Sand

text: George Sand had no choice but to write for the theater because of financial difficulties. In Nohant, she even exercised the functions of village doctor, having studied anatomy and herbal remedies with a Doctor Deschartres. But she was not confined to Nohant, and travelled in France, and in particular with her great friend at the Château du Petit Coudray, or abroad. In 1864, Sand took residence in Palaiseau together with her beloved Manceau for a couple of months, where she tended him in his decline.


title: George Sand

text: Sand died at Nohant, near Châteauroux, in France's Indre "département" on 8 June 1876, at the age of 71. She was buried in the private graveyard behind the chapel at Nohant-Vic. In 2003, plans that her remains be moved to the Panthéon in Paris resulted in controversy.


title: George Sand

text: Sand's first literary efforts were collaborations with the writer Jules Sandeau. They published several stories together, signing them Jules Sand. Sand's first published novel "Rose et Blanche" (1831) was written in collaboration with Sandeau. She subsequently adopted, for her first independent novel, "Indiana" (1832), the pen name that made her famous – George Sand.


title: George Sand

text: By the age of 27, Sand was Europe's most popular writer of either gender, more popular than both Victor Hugo and Honoré de Balzac in England in the 1830s and 1840s, and she remained immensely popular as a writer throughout her lifetime and long after her death. Early in her career, her work was in high demand; by 1836, the first of several compendia of her writings was published in 24 volumes. In total, four separate editions of her "Complete Works" were published during her lifetime. In 1880, her children sold the rights to her literary estate for 125,000 Francs (equivalent to 36 kg worth of gold, or 1.3 million dollars in 2015 USD).


title: George Sand

text: Drawing from her childhood experiences of the countryside, Sand wrote the pastoral novels "La Mare au Diable" (1846), "François le Champi" (1847–1848), "La Petite Fadette" (1849), and "Les Beaux Messieurs de Bois-Doré" (1857). "A Winter in Majorca" described the period that she and Chopin spent on that island from 1838 to 1839. Her other novels include "Indiana" (1832), "Lélia" (1833), "Mauprat" (1837), "Le Compagnon du Tour de France" (1840), "Consuelo" (1842–1843), and "Le Meunier d'Angibault" (1845).


title: George Sand

text: Theatre pieces and autobiographical pieces include "Histoire de ma vie" (1855), "Elle et Lui" (1859, about her affair with Musset), "Journal Intime" (posthumously published in 1926), and "Correspondence". Sand often performed her theatrical works in her small private theatre at the Nohant estate.


title: George Sand

text: Sand also wrote literary criticism and political texts. In her early life, she sided with the poor and working class as well as championing women's rights. When the 1848 Revolution began, she was an ardent republican. Sand started her own newspaper, published in a workers' co-operative.


title: George Sand

text: Politically, she became very active after 1841 and the leaders of the day often consulted with her and took her advice. She was a member of the provisional government of 1848, issuing a series of fiery manifestos. While many Republicans were imprisoned or went to exile after Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte's coup d’état of December 1851, she remained in France, maintained an ambiguous relationship with the new regime, and negotiated pardons and reduced sentences for her friends.


title: George Sand

text: Sand was known for her implication and writings during the Paris Commune of 1871, where she took a position for the Versailles assembly against the communards, urging them to take violent action against the rebels. She was appalled by the violence of the Paris Commune, writing, "The horrible adventure continues. They ransom, they threaten, they arrest, they judge. They have taken over all the city halls, all the public establishments, they’re pillaging the munitions and the food supplies."


title: George Sand

text: Sand's writing was immensely popular during her lifetime and she was highly respected by the literary and cultural elite in France. Victor Hugo, in the eulogy he gave at her funeral, said "the lyre was within her."


title: George Sand

text: Eugène Delacroix was a close friend and respected her literary gifts. Flaubert was an unabashed admirer. Honoré de Balzac, who knew Sand personally, once said that if someone thought she wrote badly, it was because their own standards of criticism were inadequate. He also noted that her treatment of imagery in her works showed that her writing had an exceptional subtlety, having the ability to "virtually put the image in the word." Alfred de Vigny referred to her as "Sappho".


title: George Sand

text: Not all of her contemporaries admired her or her writing: poet Charles Baudelaire was one contemporary critic of George Sand: "She is stupid, heavy and garrulous. Her ideas on morals have the same depth of judgment and delicacy of feeling as those of janitresses and kept women ... The fact that there are men who could become enamoured of this slut is indeed a proof of the abasement of the men of this generation."


title: George Sand

text: Fyodor Dostoevsky "read widely in the numerous novels of George Sand" and translated her "La dernière Aldini" in 1844, only to learn that it had already been published in Russian. In his mature period, he expressed an ambiguous attitude towards her. For instance, in his novella "Notes from Underground", the narrator refers to sentiments he express as, "I launch off at that point into European, inexplicably lofty subtleties a la George Sand".


title: George Sand

text: The English poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning (1806–61) wrote two poems: "To George Sand: A Desire" (1853) and "To George Sand: A Recognition". The American poet Walt Whitman cited Sand's novel "Consuelo" as a personal favorite, and the sequel to this novel, "La Comtesse de Rudolstadt", contains at least a couple of passages that appear to have had a very direct influence on him.


title: George Sand

text: In addition to her influences on English and Russian literature, Sand's writing and political views informed numerous 19th century authors in Spain and Latin America, including Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda, the Cuban-born writer who also published and lived in Spain. Critics have noted structural and thematic similarities between George Sand's Indiana, published in 1832, and Gómez de Avellaneda's anti-slavery novel Sab, published in 1841.


title: George Sand

text: In the first episode of the "Overture" to "Swann's Way"—the first novel in Marcel Proust's "In Search of Lost Time" sequence—a young, distraught Marcel is calmed by his mother as she reads from "François le Champi", a novel which (it is explained) was part of a gift from his grandmother, which also included "La Mare au Diable", "La Petite Fadette", and "Les Maîtres Sonneurs". As with many episodes involving art in "À la recherche du temps perdu", this reminiscence includes commentary on the work.


title: George Sand

text: Sand is also referred to in Virginia Woolf's book-length essay "A Room of One's Own" along with George Eliot and Charlotte Brontë as "all victims of inner strife as their writings prove, sought ineffectively to veil themselves by using the name of a man."


title: George Sand

text: Frequent literary references to George Sand appear in "" (1990) by A. S. Byatt and in the play "Voyage", the first part of Tom Stoppard's "The Coast of Utopia" trilogy (2002). George Sand makes an appearance in Isabel Allende's "Zorro", going still by her given name, as a young girl in love with Diego de la Vega (Zorro).


title: George Sand

text: Chopin, Sand and her children are the main characters of the theater play by Polish writer Jarosław Iwaszkiewicz "A Summer in Nohant", which premiered in 1930. The play, presenting the final stage of the writer-composer's relationship, was adapted five times by Polish Television: in 1963 (with Antonina Gordon-Górecka as Sand and Gustaw Holoubek as Chopin), in 1972 (with Halina Mikołajska and Leszek Herdegen), in 1980 (with Anna Polony and Michał Pawlicki), in 1999 (with Joanna Szczepkowska, who portrayed Solange in the 1980 version and Piotr Skiba) and in 2021 (with Katarzyna Herman and Marek Kossakowski).


title: George Sand

text: George Sand is portrayed by Merle Oberon in "A Song to Remember", by Patricia Morison in "Song Without End", by Rosemary Harris in "Notorious Woman", by Judy Davis in James Lapine's 1991 British-American film "Impromptu"; and by Juliette Binoche in the 1999 French film "Children of the Century (Les Enfants du siècle)". Also in "George Who?" (French: "George qui?"), a 1973 French biographical film directed by Michèle Rosier and starring Anne Wiazemsky as George Sand, Alain Libolt and Denis Gunsbourg. In the 2002 Polish film "" directed by Jerzy Antczak George Sand is portrayed by Danuta Stenka. In the French film "Flashback (2021 film)" directed by Caroline Vigneaux, George Sand is portrayed by Suzanne Clément.


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at reinstating the dharma, a vital concept in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. In all branches of Buddhism, he is viewed as the direct successor of Gautama Buddha. In some Buddhist literature, such as the "Amitabha Sutra" and the "Lotus Sutra", he is referred to as Ajita. Despite many religious figures and spiritual leaders claiming to be Maitreya throughout history, all Buddhists firmly agree that these were false claims, indicating that Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future, is yet to appear.


title: Maitreya

text: According to Buddhist tradition, Maitreya is a bodhisattva who is prophesied to appear on Earth, achieve complete Enlightenment, and teach the Dharma. According to scriptures, Maitreya's teachings will be similar to those of Gautama Buddha (also known as Śākyamuni Buddha). The arrival of Maitreya is prophesied to occur during an era when the teachings of Gautama Buddha have been forgotten by most of the terrestrial world.


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya, in Buddhist tradition, presently resides in Tushita heaven. Maitreya is the earliest bodhisattva around whom a cult developed and is mentioned in scriptures from the 3rd century CE. Maitreya has also been employed in a millenarian role by many non-Buddhist religions in the past, such as Theosophy, the White Lotus, as well as by modern new religious movements, such as Yiguandao.


title: Maitreya

text: The name "Maitreya" is derived from the Sanskrit word "maitrī" "friendship", which is in turn derived from the noun "mitra" "friend". The Pali form "Metteyya" is mentioned in the "Cakkavatti-Sīhanāda Sutta" (Digha Nikaya 26) of the Pāli Canon, and also in chapter 28 of the Buddhavamsa. Most of the Buddha's sermons are presented as having been presented in answer to a question, or in some other appropriate context, but this sutta has a beginning and ending in which the Buddha is talking to monks about something totally different. This leads scholar Richard Gombrich to conclude that either the whole sutta is apocryphal or that it has at least been tampered with.


title: Maitreya

text: In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, in the first centuries CE in northern India, Maitreya was the most popular figure to be represented along with Gautama Buddha (often called "Śākyamuni" "sage of the Shakya"). In 4th to 6th-century China, "Buddhist artisans used the names Shakyamuni and Maitreya interchangeably... indicating both that the distinction between the two had not yet been drawn and that their respective iconographies had not yet been firmly set". An example is the stone sculpture found in the Qingzhou cache dedicated to Maitreya in 529 CE as recorded in the inscription (currently in the Qingzhou Museum, Shandong). The religious belief of Maitreya apparently developed around the same time as that of Amitābha, as early as the 3rd century CE.


title: Maitreya

text: One mention of the prophecy of Maitreya is in the "". It implies that Maitreya is a teacher of meditative trance sādhanā and states that gods, men and other beings:


title: Maitreya

text: In the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, Maitreya is represented as a northern Indian nobleman, holding a kumbha in his left hand. Sometimes this is a "wisdom urn" (Tibetan: "Bumpa"). He is flanked by his two acolytes, the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu, who founded the Yogacara tradition.


title: Maitreya

text: Asia. The "Maitreyavyakarana" (in Sataka form) in Central Asia and the "Anagatavamsa" of South India also mention him.


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya currently resides in the "" Heaven (Pāli: "Tusita"), said to be reachable through meditation. Gautama Buddha also lived here before he was born into the world as all bodhisattvas live in the Heaven before they descend to the human realm to become Buddhas. Although all bodhisattvas are destined to become Buddhas, the concept of a bodhisattva differs greatly in Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. In Theravada Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who is striving for full enlightenment (Arahantship in Pali), whereas in Mahayana Buddhism, a bodhisattva is one who vows to achieve enlightenment for the purpose of helping all sentient beings (a common misconception being that they delay their enlightenment, which is inaccurate according to the Nalanda tradition).


title: Maitreya

text: In Mahayana Buddhism, Buddhas preside over pure lands, such as Amitābha over Sukhavati. Once Maitreya becomes a buddha, he will rule over the Ketumati pure land, an earthly paradise sometimes associated with the city of Varanasi (also known as Benares) in Uttar Pradesh, India, and in other descriptions, the Shambhala.


title: Maitreya

text: In Theravada Buddhism, Buddhas are born as unenlightened humans, and are not rulers of any paradise or pure land. Maitreya's arising would be no different from the arising of Gautama Buddha, as he achieved full enlightenment as a human being and died, entering parinibbana ("nirvana-after-death").


title: Maitreya

text: In Mahayana schools, Maitreya is traditionally said to have revealed the Five Treatises of Maitreya through Asanga. These texts are the basis of the Yogacara tradition and constitute the majority of the third turning within the Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma.


title: Maitreya

text: According to Buddhist tradition, each kalpa has 1,000 Buddhas. The previous kalpa was the "vyuhakalpa" (Glorious aeon), and the present kalpa is called the "bhadrakalpa" (Auspicious aeon). The Seven Buddhas of Antiquity ("Saptatathāgata") are seven Buddhas which bridge the vyuhakalpa and the bhadrakalpa:


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya will be the fifth and future Buddha of the bhadrakalpa, and his arrival will occur after the teachings of Gautama Buddha are no longer practiced.


title: Maitreya

text: The coming of Maitreya will be characterized by a number of physical events. The oceans are predicted to decrease in size, allowing Maitreya to traverse them freely. Maitreya will then reintroduce true dharma to the world.


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya's arrival will signify the end of the middle time, the time between the fourth Buddha, Gautama Buddha, and the fifth Buddha, Maitreya, which is viewed as a low point of human existence. According to the "Cakkavatti Sutta: The Wheel-turning Emperor", Digha Nikaya 26 of the Sutta Pitaka of the Pāli Canon, Maitreya Buddha will be born in a time when humans will live to an age of eighty thousand years, in the city of Ketumatī (present Varanasi), whose king will be the Cakkavattī Sankha. Sankha will live in the palace where once dwelt King Mahāpanadā, but later he will give the palace away and will himself become a follower of Maitreya Buddha.


title: Maitreya

text: The scriptures say that Maitreya will attain "bodhi" in seven days (which is the minimum period), by virtue of his many lives of preparation for buddhahood similar to those reported in the Jataka tales.


title: Maitreya

text: At this time a notable teaching he will start giving is that of the ten non-virtuous deeds (killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views) and the ten virtuous deeds (the abandonment of: killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, divisive speech, abusive speech, idle speech, covetousness, harmful intent and wrong views).


title: Maitreya

text: The Arya Maitreya Mandala, an order founded by Anagarika Govinda, is based on the idea of the future coming of Maitreya.


title: Maitreya

text: Buddhist texts from several traditions say that beings in Maitreya's time will be much bigger than during the time of Sakyamuni. In one prophecy his disciples are contemptuous of Mahakasyapa, whose head is no larger than an insect to them. Buddha's robe barely covers two fingers making them wonder how tiny Buddha was. Mahākāśyapa is said to be small enough in comparison to cremate in the palm of Maitreya's hand.


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya will be born to the Brahmanas, Tubrahmā (father) and Brahmavadi (mother) in Ketumatī, which will be ruled by King Saṅkha, a Chakravarti. Maitreya's spouse will be Princess Sandamukkhī. His son will be Brahmavaṁsa. After the birth of his son, Maitreya will leave to practice asceticism. He will practice for 7 days. After the practice, he will be awakened under a Mesua ferrea tree. The disciples of Maitreya Buddha are:


title: Maitreya

text: Maitreya will be 88 cubits (132 feet, 40 meters) tall and will live for 88,000 years. Like Maṅgala Buddha, his rays will make people hard to distinguish between day and night. His teachings will preserve for the next 180,000 years. According to the commentary of Anāgatavamsa, his teaching will last for 360,000 years.


title: Maitreya

text: According to the Lotus Sutra in Nichiren Buddhism, all people possess the potential to reveal an innate Buddha nature during their own lifetimes, a concept which may appear to contradict the idea of Buddha as savior or messiah.


title: Maitreya

text: Although Maitreya is a significant figure in the Lotus Sutra, the explanation of Nichiren is that Maitreya is a metaphor of stewardship and aid for the Bodhisattvas of the Earth, as written in the Lotus Sutra:


title: Maitreya

text: The following list is just a small selection of those people who claimed or claim to be the incarnation of Maitreya. Many have either used the Maitreya incarnation claim to form a new Buddhist sect or have used the name of Maitreya to form a new religious movement or cult.


title: Maitreya

text: Although a "new Buddha" was mentioned, these rebellions are not considered "Maitreyan" by modern scholars. However, they would be a later influence on the rebel religious leaders that made such claims. Therefore, it is important to mention these rebellions in this context.


title: Maitreya

text: This suggests that the Ming dynasty was named after the White Lotus figures of the "Big and Little Bright Kings".


title: Maitreya

text: Albeit not in the name of Maitreya, both rebellions were perpetrated solely or in part by the White Lotus Society, a rebellious Maitreya sect.


title: Maitreya

text: Some have speculated that inspiration for Maitreya may have come from Mithra, the ancient Indo-Iranian deity. The primary comparison between the two characters appears to be the similarity of their names, while a secondary comparison is that both were expected to come in the future.


title: Maitreya

text: Paul Williams claims that some Zoroastrian ideas like Saoshyant influenced the beliefs about Maitreya, such as "expectations of a heavenly helper, the need to opt for positive righteousness, the future millennium, and universal salvation". Possible objections are that these characteristics are not unique to Zoroastrianism, nor are they necessarily characteristic of the belief in Maitreya.


title: Maitreya

text: It is also possible that Maitreya Buddha originated with the Hindu Kalki, and that its similarities with the Iranian Mithra have to do with their common Indo-Iranian origin.


title: Maitreya

text: In Theosophy, the Maitreya (or Lord Maitreya) has multiple aspects signifying not just the future Buddha, but similar concepts from other religious or spiritual traditions.


title: Maitreya

text: In early 20th century, leading Theosophists became convinced that an appearance of the Maitreya as a "World Teacher" was imminent. A South Indian boy, Jiddu Krishnamurti, was thought to be destined as the "vehicle" of the soon-to-manifest Maitreya; however the manifestation did not happen as predicted, and did not fulfil Theosophists' expectations.


title: Maitreya

text: Since the growth of the theosophical movement in the 19th century, and influenced by theosophy's articulations on the Maitreya, non-Buddhist religious and spiritual movements have adopted and reinterpreted the concept in their doctrines. Share International, which equates Maitreya with the prophesied figures of multiple religious traditions, claims that he is already present in the world, but is preparing to make an open declaration of his presence in the near future. They claim that he is here to inspire mankind to create a new era based on sharing and justice.


title: Maitreya

text: In the beginning of the 1930s, the Ascended Master Teachings placed Maitreya in the "Office of World Teacher" until 1956, when he was described as moving on to the "Office of Planetary Buddha" and "Cosmic Christ" in their concept of a Spiritual Hierarchy.


title: Maitreya

text: In 1911, Rudolf Steiner claimed "Roughly three thousand years after our time the world will experience the Maitreya Buddha incarnation, which will be the last incarnation of Jeshu ben Pandira. This Bodhisattva, who will come as Maitreya Buddha, will also come in a physical body in our century in his reincarnation in the flesh — but not as Buddha — and he will make it his task to give humanity all the true concepts about the Christ Event." Steiner is careful to distinguish Jeshu ben Pandira as somebody entirely distinct from Jesus of Nazareth, as the Maitreya is entirely distinct from the Christ being. The Maitreya does work in support of the Christ being, as does Gautama, the current Buddha.


title: Maitreya

text: The Ahmadiyyas believe Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908) fulfilled expectations regarding the Maitreya Buddha.


title: Maitreya

text: The founder has given the whole account about the truth of forthcoming of Jesus Christ and his travel via Tibet & the transformation of word “Masiha” to “Metteyya” in one of his Prolific writings “Jesus in India” (Maseeh Hindustan Mai).


title: Maitreya

text: Followers of the Baháʼí Faith believe that Bahá'u'lláh is the fulfillment of the prophecy of appearance of Maitreya, the fifth Buddha. Baháʼís believe that the prophecy that Maitreya will usher in a new society of tolerance and love has been fulfilled by Bahá'u'lláh's teachings on world peace.


title: Maitreya

text: Islamic prophet Dhu al-Kifl has been identified with the Buddha based on Surah 95:1 of the Qur'an, which references a fig tree – a symbol that does not feature prominently in the lives of any of the other prophets mentioned in the Qur'an. It has meanwhile been suggested that the name "Al-Kifl" could be a reference to Kapilavastu, the home of Siddartha Gautama as a boy. On the other hand, some of the preachers of Islam cite Buddhist sources to claim that "Maitreya" refers to Islamic Prophet Muhammad. "The Muslim Times" website, for example, cites "The Gospel of Buddha" by Carus with the following quote of Buddha:


title: Maitreya

text: In many East Asian folk religions, including Korean shamanism, a deity by the name of Maitreya appears as an ancient creator god or goddess. A malevolent usurper deity by the name of Shakyamuni (the historical Buddha) claims dominion over Maitreya's world, and the two engage in a flower-growing contest to decide who will rule the world. Maitreya grows the flower while Shakyamuni cannot, but the usurper steals it while the creator sleeps. Shakyamuni thus becomes the ruler of the world and brings suffering and evil to the world.


title: Bra size

text: Bra size (also known as brassiere measurement or bust size) indicates the size characteristics of a bra. While there are a number of bra sizing systems in use around the world, the bra sizes usually consist of a number, indicating the size of the band around the woman's torso, and one or more letters that indicate the breast cup size. Bra cup sizes were invented in 1932 while band sizes became popular in the 1940s. For convenience, because of the impracticality of determining the size dimensions of each breast, the volume of the bra cup, or "cup size", is based on the difference between band length and over-the-bust measurement.


title: Bra size

text: Manufacturers try to design and manufacture bras that correctly fit the majority of women, while individual women try to identify correctly fitting bras among different styles and sizing systems.


title: Bra size

text: The shape, size, position, symmetry, spacing, firmness, and sag of individual women's breasts vary considerably. Manufacturers' bra size labelling systems vary from country to country because no international standards exist. Even within a country, one study found that the bra size label was consistently different from the measured size. As a result of all these factors, about 25% of women have a difficult time finding a properly fitted bra, and some women choose to buy custom-made bras due to the unique shape of their breasts.


title: Bra size

text: On 21 November 1911, Parisienne Madeleine Gabeau received a United States patent for a brassiere with soft cups and a metal band that supported and separated the breasts. To avoid the prevailing fashion that created a single "monobosom", her design provided: "...that the edges of the material "d" may be carried close along the inner and under contours of the breasts, so as to preserve their form, I employ an outlining band of metal "b" which is bent to conform to the lower curves of the breast."


title: Bra size

text: In October 1932, S.H. Camp and Company was the first to use letters of the alphabet (A, B, C and D) to indicate cup size, although the letters represented how pendulous the breasts were and not their volume. Camp's advertising in the February 1933 issue of "Corset and Underwear Review" featured letter-labeled profiles of breasts. Cup sizes A to D were not intended to be used for larger-breasted women.


title: Bra size

text: In 1935, Warner's introduced its alphabet bra with cup sizes only to size D. Their bras incorporated breast volume into its sizing, and continues to be the system in use today. Before long, these cup sizes got nicknames: egg cup, tea cup, coffee cup and challenge cup, respectively. Two other companies, Model and Fay-Miss (renamed in 1935 as the Bali Brassiere Company), followed, offering A, B, C and D cup sizes in the late 1930s. Catalogue companies continued to use the designations Small, Medium and Large through the 1940s. Britain did not adopt the American cups in 1933, and resisted using cup sizes for its products until 1948. The Sears Company finally applied cup sizes to bras in its catalogue in the 1950s.


title: Bra size

text: However, though various manufacturers used the same descriptions of bra sizes (eg., A to D, small large, etc.), there was no standardisation of what these descriptions actually measured, so that each company had its own standards.


title: Bra size

text: Multiple hook and eye closures were introduced in the 1930s that enabled adjustment of bands. Prior to the widespread use of bras, the undergarment of choice for Western women was a corset. To help women meet the perceived ideal female body shape, corset and girdle manufacturers used a calculation called "hip spring", the difference between waist and hip measurement (usually ).


title: Bra size

text: The underwire was first added to a strapless bra in 1937 by André, a custom-bra firm. Patents for underwire-type devices in bras were issued in 1931 and 1932, but were not widely adopted by manufacturers until after World War II when metal shortages eased.


title: Bra size

text: In the 1930s, Dunlop chemists were able to reliably transform rubber latex into elastic thread. After 1940, "whirlpool", or concentric stitching, was used to shape the cup structure of some designs. The synthetic fibres were quickly adopted by the industry because of their easy-care properties. Since a brassiere must be laundered frequently, easy-care fabric was in great demand.


title: Bra size

text: For best results, the breasts should be measured twice: once when standing upright, once bending over at the waist with the breasts hanging down. If the difference between these two measurements is more than 10 cm, then the average is chosen for calculating the cup size. A number of reports, surveys and studies in different countries have found that between 80% to 85% of women wear incorrectly fitted bras.


title: Bra size

text: In November 2005, Oprah Winfrey produced a show devoted to bras and bra sizes, during which she talked about research that eight out of ten women wear the wrong size bra.


title: Bra size

text: Studies have revealed that the most common mistake made by women when selecting a bra was to choose too large a back band and too small a cup, for example, 38C instead of 34E, or 34B instead of 30D.


title: Bra size

text: The heavier a person's build, the more difficult it is to obtain accurate measurements, as measuring tape sinks into the flesh more easily.


title: Bra size

text: In a study conducted in the United Kingdom of 103 women seeking mammoplasty, researchers found a strong link between obesity and inaccurate back measurement. They concluded that "obesity, breast hypertrophy, fashion and bra-fitting practices combine to make those women who most need supportive bras the least likely to get accurately fitted bras."


title: Bra size

text: One issue that complicates finding a correctly fitting bra is that band and cup sizes are not standardized, but vary considerably from one manufacturer to another, resulting in sizes that only provide an approximate fit. Women cannot rely on labeled bra sizes to identify a bra that fits properly. Scientific studies show that the current system of bra sizing may be inaccurate.


title: Bra size

text: Manufacturers cut their bras differently, so, for example, two 34B bras from two companies may not fit the same person. Customers should pay attention to which sizing system is used by the manufacturer. The main difference is in how cup sizes increase, by 2 cm or 1 inch (= 2.54 cm, see below). Some French manufacturers also increase cup sizes by 3 cm. Unlike dress sizes, manufacturers do not agree on a single standard.


title: Bra size

text: British bras currently range from A to LL cup size (with Rigby&Peller recently introducing bras by Elila which go up to US-N-Cup), while most Americans can find bras with cup sizes ranging from A to G. Some brands (Goddess, Elila) go as high as N, a size roughly equal to a British JJ-Cup. In continental Europe, Milena Lingerie from Poland produces up to cup R.


title: Bra size

text: Larger sizes are usually harder to find in retail outlets. As the cup size increases, the labeled cup size of different manufacturers' bras tend to vary more widely in actual volume. One study found that the label size was consistently different from the measured size.


title: Bra size

text: Even medical studies have attested to the difficulty of getting a correct fit. Research by plastic surgeons has suggested that bra size is imprecise because breast volume is not calculated accurately:


title: Bra size

text: The use of the cup sizing and band measurement systems has evolved over time and continues to change. Experts recommend that women get fitted by an experienced person at a retailer offering the widest possible selection of bra sizes and brands.


title: Bra size

text: If the straps dig into the shoulder, leaving red marks or causing shoulder or neck pain, the bra band is not offering enough support. If breast tissue overflows the bottom of the bra, under the armpit, or over the top edge of the bra cup, the cup size is too small. Loose fabric in the bra cup indicates the cup size is too big. If the underwires poke the breast under the armpit or if the bra's center panel does not lie flat against the sternum, the cup size is too small. If the band rides up the torso at the back, the band size is too big. If it digs into the flesh, causing the flesh to spill over the edges of the band, the band is too small. If the band feels tight, this may be due to the cups being too small; instead of going up in band size a person should try going up in cup size. Similarly a band might feel too loose if the cup is too big. It is possible to test whether a bra band is too tight or too loose by reversing the bra on her torso so that the cups are at the back and then check for fit and comfort. Generally, if the wearer must continually adjust the bra or experiences general discomfort, the bra is a poor fit and she should get a new fitting.


title: Bra size

text: Bra experts recommend that women, especially those whose cup sizes are D or larger, get a professional bra fitting from the lingerie department of a clothing store or a specialty lingerie store. However, even professional bra fitters in different countries including New Zealand and the United Kingdom produce inconsistent measurements of the same person. There is significant heterogeneity in breast shape, density, and volume. As such, current methods of bra fitting may be insufficient for this range of chest morphology.


title: Bra size

text: A 2004 study by Consumers Reports in New Zealand found that 80% of department store bra fittings resulted in a poor fit. However, because manufacturer's standards widely vary, women cannot rely on their own measurements to obtain a satisfactory fit. Some bra manufacturers and distributors state that trying on and learning to recognize a properly fitting bra is the best way to determine a correct bra size, much like shoes.


title: Bra size

text: One method to confirm that the bra is the best fit has been nicknamed the "Swoop and Scoop". After identifying a well-fitting bra, the woman bends forward (the "swoop"), allowing her breasts to fall into the bra, filling the cup naturally, and then fastening the bra on the outermost set of hooks. When the woman stands up, she uses the opposite hand to place each breast gently into the cup (the "scoop"), and she then runs her index finger along the inside top edge of the bra cup to make sure her breast tissue does not spill over the edges.


title: Bra size

text: Experts suggest that women choose a bra band that fits well on the outermost hooks. This allows the wearer to use the tighter hooks on the bra strap as it stretches during its lifetime of about eight months. The band should be tight enough to support the bust, but the straps should not provide the primary support.


title: Bra size

text: A bra is one of the most complicated articles of clothing to make. A typical bra design has between 20 and 48 parts, including the band, hooks, cups, lining, and straps. Major retailers place orders from manufacturers in batches of 10,000. Orders of this size require a large-scale operation to manage the cutting, sewing and packing required.


title: Bra size

text: Constructing a properly fitting brassiere is difficult. Adelle Kirk, formerly a manager at the global Kurt Salmon management consulting firm that specializes in the apparel and retail businesses, said that making bras is complex:


title: Bra size

text: Obtaining the correct size is complicated by the fact that up to 25% of women's breasts display a persistent, visible breast asymmetry, which is defined as differing in size by at least one cup size. For about 5% to 10% of women, their breasts are severely different, with the left breast being larger in 62% of cases. Minor asymmetry may be resolved by wearing a padded bra, but severe cases of developmental breast deformity — commonly called "Amazon's Syndrome" by physicians — may require corrective surgery due to morphological alterations caused by variations in shape, volume, position of the breasts relative to the inframammary fold, the position of the nipple-areola complex on the chest, or both.


title: Bra size

text: Obtaining the correct size is further complicated by the fact that the size and shape of women's breasts change, if they experience menstrual cycles, during the cycle and can experience unusual or unexpectedly rapid growth in size due to pregnancy, weight gain or loss, or medical conditions. Even breathing can substantially alter the measurements.


title: Bra size

text: In 2010, the most common bra size sold in the UK was 36D. In 2004, market research company Mintel reported that bust sizes in the United Kingdom had increased from 1998 to 2004 in younger as well as older consumers, while a more recent study showed that the most often sold bra size in the US in 2008 was 36D.


title: Bra size

text: Researchers ruled out increases in population weight as the explanation and suggested it was instead likely due to more women wearing the correct, larger size.


title: Bra size

text: Bra retailers recommend several methods for measuring band and cup size. These are based on two primary methods, either under the bust or over the bust, and sometimes both. Calculating the correct bra band size is complicated by a variety of factors. The American National Standards Institute states that while a voluntary consensus of sizes exists, there is much confusion to the 'true' size of clothing. As a result, bra measurement can be considered an art and a science. Online shopping and in-person bra shopping experiences may differ because online recommendations are based on averages and in-person shopping can be completely personalized so the shopper may easily try on band sizes above and below her between measured band size. For the woman with a large cup size and a between band size, they may find their cup size is not available in local stores so may have to shop online where most large cup sizes are readily available on certain sites. Others recommend rounding to the nearest whole number.


title: Bra size

text: A measuring tape is pulled around the torso at the inframammary fold. The tape is then pulled tight while remaining horizontal and parallel to the floor. The measurement in inches is then rounded to the nearest even number for the band size. , Kohl's uses this method for its online fitting guide.


title: Bra size

text: This method begins the same way as the underbust +0 method, where a measuring tape is pulled tight around the torso under the bust while remaining horizontal. If the measurement is even, 4 is added to calculate the band size. If it is odd, 5 is added. Kohl's used this method in 2013. The "war on plus four" was a name given to a campaign (circa 2011) against this method, with underbust +0 supporters claiming that the then-ubiquitous +4 method fails to fit a majority of women. Underbust +4 method generally only applies to the US and UK sizes.


title: Bra size

text: Currently, many large U.S. department stores determine band size by starting with the measurement taken underneath the bust similar to the aforementioned underbust +0 and underbust +4 methods. A sizing chart or calculator then uses this measurement to determine the band size. Band sizes calculated using this method vary between manufacturers.


title: Bra size

text: A measuring tape is pulled around the torso under the armpit and above the bust. Because band sizes are most commonly manufactured in even numbers, the wearer must round to the closest even number.


title: Bra size

text: Bra-wearers can calculate their cup size by finding the difference between their bust size and their band size. The bust size, bust line measure, or over-bust measure is the measurement around the torso over the fullest part of the breasts, with the crest of the breast halfway between the elbow and shoulder, usually over the nipples, ideally while standing straight with arms to the side and wearing a properly fitted bra, because this practice assumes the current bra fits correctly. The measurements are made in the same units as the band size, either inches or centimetres. The cup size is calculated by subtracting the band size from the over-the-bust measurement.


title: Bra size

text: Cup sizes vary from one country to another. For example, a U.S. H-cup does not have the same size as an Australian, even though both are based on measurements in inches. The larger the cup size, the bigger the variation.


title: Bra size

text: Surveys of bra sizes tend to be very dependent on the population studied and how it was obtained. For instance, one U.S. study reported that the most common size was 34B, followed by 34C, that 63% were size 34 and 39% cup size B. However, the survey sample was drawn from 103 Caucasian student volunteers at a Midwest U.S. university aged 18–25, and excluded pregnant and nursing women.


title: Bra size

text: Bra-wearers who have difficulty calculating a correct cup size may be able to find a correct fit using a method adopted by plastic surgeons. Using a flexible tape measure, position the tape at the outside of the chest, under the arm, where the breast tissue begins. Measure across the fullest part of the breast, usually across the nipple, to where the breast tissue stops at the breast bone.


title: Bra size

text: Note that, in general, countries that employ metric cup sizing (like in § Continental Europe) have their own system of increments that result in cup sizes which differ from those using inches, since does not equal .


title: Bra size

text: These cup measurements are only correct for converting cup sizes for a band to cm using this particular method, because cup size is relative to band size. This principle means that bras of differing band size can have the same volume. For example, the cup volume is the same for 30D, 32C, 34B, and 36A. These related bra sizes of the same cup volume are called "sister sizes". For a list of such sizes, refer to § Calculating cup volume and breast weight.


title: Bra size

text: A 2012 study by White and Scurr University of Portsmouth compared method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method used in many United Kingdom lingerie shops with and compared that to measurements obtained using a professional method. The study relied on the professional bra-fitting method described by McGhee and Steele (2010). The study utilized a five-step approach to obtain the best fitting bra size for an individual. The study measured 45 women using the traditional selection method that adds 4 to the band size over-the-bust method. Women tried bras on until they obtained the best fit based on professional bra fitting criteria. The researchers found that 76% of women overestimated their band and 84% underestimated their cup size. When women wear bras with too big a band, breast support is reduced. Too small a cup size may cause skin irritation. They noted that "ill-fitting bras and insufficient breast support can lead to the development of musculoskeletal pain and inhibit women participating in physical activity.". The study recommended that women should be educated about the criteria for finding a well-fitting bra. They recommended that women measure under their bust to determine their band size rather than the traditional over the bust measurement method.


title: Bra size

text: Bra-labeling systems used around the world are at times misleading and confusing. Cup and band sizes vary around the world. In countries that have adopted the European EN 13402 dress-size standard, the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Bra-fitting experts in the United Kingdom state that many women who buy off the rack without professional assistance wear up to two sizes too small.


title: Bra size

text: Manufacturer Fruit of the Loom attempted to solve the problem of finding a well-fitting bra for asymmetrical breasts by introducing Pick Your Perfect Bra, which allow women to choose a bra with two different cup sizes, although it is only available in A through D cup sizes.


title: Bra size

text: One very prominent discrepancy between the sizing systems is the fact that the US band sizes, based on inches, does not correspond to its centimeter based EU counterpart. E.g. 30in equals 76 cm which would suggest that US band size 30 is equivalent EU band size 75. However, this is not correct. Instead, US band size 30 corresponds to EU band size 65 and UK band size 34. This discrepancy stems from the fact that US band sizes were originally based on above bust and under armpit measurement while EU and UK band sizes are based on under bust measurement. This causes confusion and is what led to the "Underbust +4" measuring method.


title: Bra size

text: Cup size is determined by one of two methods: in the US and UK, increasing cup size every inch method; and in all other systems by increasing cup size for every two centimeters. Since one inch equals 2.54 centimeters, there is considerable discrepancy between the systems, which becomes more exaggerated as cup sizes increase. Many bras are only available in 36 sizes.


title: Bra size

text: The UK and US use the inch system. The difference in chest circumference between the cup sizes is always one inch, or 2.54 cm. The difference between 2 band sizes is 2 inches or 5.08 cm.


title: Bra size

text: Leading brands and manufacturers including Panache, Bestform, Gossard, Freya, Curvy Kate, Bravissimo and Fantasie, which use the British standard band sizes (where underbust measurement equals band size) 28-30-32-34-36-38-40-42-44, and so on. Cup sizes are designated by AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-FF-G-GG-H-HH-J-JJ-K-KK-L.


title: Bra size

text: However, some clothing retailers and mail order companies have their own house brands and use a custom sizing system. Marks and Spencers uses AA-A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-GG-H-J, leaving out FF and HH, in addition to following the US band sizing convention. As a result, their J-Cup is equal to a British standard H-cup. Evans and ASDA sell bras (ASDA as part of their George clothing range) whose sizing runs A-B-C-D-DD-E-F-G-H. Their H-Cup is roughly equal to a British standard G-cup.


title: Bra size

text: Australia and New Zealand cup and band sizes are in metric increases of 2 cm per cup similar to many European brands. Cup labelling methods and sizing schemes are inconsistent and there is great variability between brands. In general, cup sizes AA-DD follow UK labels but thereafter split off from this system and employ European labels (no double letters with cups progressing from F-G-H etc. for every 2 cm increase). However, a great many local manufacturers employ unique labelling systems Australia and New Zealand bra band sizes are labelled in dress size, although they are obtained by under bust measurement whilst dress sizes utilise bust-waist-hip. In practice very few of the leading Australian manufacturers produce sizes F+ and many disseminate sizing misinformation. The Australian demand for DD+ is largely met by various UK, US and European major brands. This has introduced further sizing scheme confusion that is poorly understood even by specialist retailers.


title: Bra size

text: Bra sizing in the United States is very similar to the United Kingdom. Band sizes use the same designation in inches and the cups also increase by 1-inch-steps. However, some manufacturers use conflicting sizing methods. Some label bras beyond a C cup as D-DD-DDD-DDDD-E-EE-EEE-EEEE-F..., some use the variation: D1, D2, D3, D4, D5... but many use the following system: A, B, C, D, DD, DDD, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O. and others label them like the British system D-DD-E-F-FF... Comparing the larger cup sizes between different manufacturers can be difficult.


title: Bra size

text: In 2013, underwear maker Jockey International offered a new way to measure bra and cup size. It introduced a system with ten cup sizes per band size that are numbered and not lettered, designated as 1–36, 2–36 etc. The company developed the system over eight years, during which they scanned and measured the breasts and torsos of 800 women. Researchers also tracked the women's use of their bras at home. To implement the system, women must purchase a set of plastic cups from the company to find their Jockey cup size. Some analysts were critical of the requirement to buy the measurement kit, since women must pay about US$20 to adopt Jockey's proprietary system, in addition to the cost of the bras themselves.


title: Bra size

text: European bra sizes are based on centimeters. They are also known as "International." Abbreviations such as "EU", "Intl" and "Int" are all referring to the same European bra size convention. These sizes are used in most of Europe and large parts of the world.


title: Bra size

text: The underbust measurement is rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65, 70, 75, 80 etc., increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80. The tightness or snugness of the measurement (e.g. a tape measure or similar) depends on the adipose tissue softness. Softer tissue require tightening when measuring, this to ensure that the bra band will fit snugly on the body and stay in place. A loose measurement can, and often does, vary from the tighter measurement. This causes some confusion as a person with a loose measurement of 84 cm would think they have band size 85 but due to a lot of soft tissue the same person might have a snugger and tighter and of 79 cm and should choose the more appropriate band size of 80 or even smaller band size.


title: Bra size

text: The cup labels begin normally with "A" for an 11±1 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference "measurement" measured "loosely" (i.e. not tightly as for bra band size), i.e. the not between bust circumference and band "size" (that normally require some tightening when measured). To clarify the important difference in measuring: Underbust measuring for bra band is done snugly and tight while measuring underbust for determining bra cups is done loosely. For people with much soft adipose tissue these two measurements will not be identical. In this sense the method to determine European sizes differ compared to English systems where the cup sizes are determined by bust measurement compared to bra band "size". European cups increase for every additional 2 cm in difference between bust and underbust measurement, instead of 2.5 cm or 1-inch, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped. In very large cup sizes this causes smaller cups than their English counterparts.


title: Bra size

text: This system has been standardized in the European dress size standard EN 13402 introduced in 2006, but was in use in many European countries before that date.


title: Bra size

text: In South Korea and Japan the torso is measured in centimetres and rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Band sizes run 65-70-75-80..., increasing in steps of 5 cm, similar to the English double inch. A person with a loosely measured underbust circumference of 78–82 cm should wear a band size 80.


title: Bra size

text: The cup labels begin with "AAA" for a 5±1.25 cm difference between bust and underbust circumference, i.e. similar bust circumference and band size as in the English systems. They increase in steps of 2.5 cm, and except for the initial cup size letters are neither doubled nor skipped.


title: Bra size

text: Japanese sizes are the same as Korean ones, but the cup labels begin with "AA" for a 7.5±1.25 cm difference and usually precedes the bust designation, i.e. "B75" instead of "75B".


title: Bra size

text: This system has been standardized in the Korea dress size standard KS K9404 introduced in 1999 and in Japan dress size standard JIS L4006 introduced in 1998.


title: Bra size

text: The French and Spanish system is a permutation of the Continental European sizing system. While cup sizes are the same, band sizes are exactly 15 cm larger than the European band size.


title: Bra size

text: The Italian band size uses small consecutive integers instead of the underbust circumference rounded to the nearest multiple of 5 cm. Since it starts with size 0 for European size 60, the conversion consists of a division by 5 and then a subtraction of 12. The size designations are often given in Roman numerals.


title: Bra size

text: Cup sizes have traditionally used a step size of 2.5 cm, which is close to the English inch of 2.54 cm, and featured some double letters for large cups, but in recent years some Italian manufacturers have switched over to the European 2-cm system.


title: Bra size

text: Manufacturers' marketing and advertising often appeals to fashion and image over fit, comfort, and function. Since about 1994, manufacturers have re-focused their advertising, moving from advertising functional brassieres that emphasize support and foundation, to selling lingerie that emphasize fashion while sacrificing basic fit and function, like linings under scratchy lace.


title: Bra size

text: English mechanical engineer and professor John Tyrer from Loughborough University has devised a solution to problematic bra fit by re-engineering bra design. He started investigating the problem of bra design while on an assignment from the British government after his wife returned disheartened from an unsuccessful shopping trip. His initial research into the extent of fitting problems soon revealed that of women wear the wrong size of bra.. He theorised that this widespread practice of purchasing the wrong size was due to the measurement system recommended by bra manufacturers. This sizing system employs a combination of maximum chest diameter (under bust) and maximum bust diameter (bust) rather than the actual breast volume which is to be accommodated by the bra. According to Tyrer, "to get the most supportive and fitted bra it's infinitely better if you know the volume of the breast and the size of the back.". He says the A, B, C, D cup measurement system is flawed. "It's like measuring a motor car by the diameter of the gas cap." "The whole design is fundamentally flawed. It's an instrument of torture." Tyrer has developed a bra design with crossed straps in the back. These use the weight of one breast to lift the other using counterbalance. Standard designs constrict chest movement during breathing. One of the tools used in the development of Tyrer's design has been a projective differential shape body analyzer for .


title: Bra size

text: Breasts weigh up to and not . Tyrer said, "By measuring the diameter of the chest and breasts current measurements are supposed to tell you something about the size and volume of each breast, but in fact it doesn't". Bra companies remain reluctant to manufacture Tyrer's prototype, which is a front closing bra with more vertical orientation and adjustable cups.


title: Bra size

text: The average breast weighs about . Each breast contributes to about 4–5% of the body fat. The density of fatty tissue is more or less equal to


title: Bra size

text: where "a", "b" and "c" are the three semi-axes of the hemi-ellipsoid, and "cw", "cd" and "wl" are respectively the cup width, the cup depth and the length of the wire.


title: Bra size

text: Cups give a hemi-spherical shape to breasts and underwires give shape to cups. So the curvature radius of the underwire is the key parameter to determine volume and weight of the breast. The same underwires are used for the cups of sizes 36A, 34B, 32C, 30D etc. ... so those cups have the same volume. The reference numbers of underwire sizes are based on a B cup bra, for example underwire size 32 is for 32B cup (and 34A, 30C...). An underwire size 30 width has a curvature diameter of and this diameter increases by by size. The table below shows volume calculations for some cups that can be found in a ready-to-wear large size shop.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Ryan Higa (born June 6, 1990), also known as nigahiga ( ), is an American Internet personality. Best known for his comedy videos on YouTube, Higa began making YouTube videos in 2006 and was one of the most popular creators on the platform in its early years. His main YouTube channel, nigahiga, was the most subscribed channel on YouTube for 677 consecutive days from 2009 to 2011, an achievement that has only been surpassed by PewDiePie and T-Series. Higa was the first person to reach the milestones of 2 million and 3 million subscribers on YouTube. Higa launched a podcast in 2018 called "Off the Pill", which has featured YouTubers and celebrities such as KevJumba, Andrew Yang, and Jeremy Lin. In 2020, Higa started streaming on Twitch, where he reacts to his past videos and broadcasts video game content, most notably in "Valorant".


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa has won a Shorty Award, has been named Forbes Top 30 Under 30, and has been nominated for three more Shorty Awards, six Streamy Awards, and five Teen Choice Awards.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Outside of his content on YouTube and Twitch, he has also published a memoir "Ryan Higa's How to Write Good" and appeared in feature films "Tell Me How I Die" (2016) and "Finding 'Ohana" (2021).


title: Ryan Higa

text: Ryan Higa was born in Hilo, Hawaii, on June 6, 1990. He is of Okinawan descent, and has an older brother named Kyle. In his youth, Higa competed in judo and holds a black belt rank. He wrestled at Waiakea High School, from which he graduated in 2008.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa studied nuclear medicine at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, but later dropped out to create online videos.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa and Sean Fujiyoshi began posting YouTube videos of themselves lip syncing to songs in mid-2006 while attending Waiakea High School. They quickly expanded beyond songs, with a variety of other comedic pieces. Occasional guest appearances were made by Tim Enos, Ryan Villaruel, Kyle Chun, and Tarynn Nago.


title: Ryan Higa

text: On Christmas Eve of 2008, Higa and Fujiyoshi's two most popular videos, "How To Be Gangster" and "How To Be Emo", were removed due to copyright violations. On January 21, 2009, the nigahiga account was temporarily suspended and was required to remove more copyrighted videos. Because of this, nigahiga's lip syncing videos were all removed (with the exception of "You're Beautiful", which was audio swapped), along with most of his other videos that included copyrighted music. Since then, Higa started composing the music himself. "How to be Gangster" and "How to be Emo" were put back on nigahiga's channel in late August 2009, only to be removed a few days later, along with "How to be Ninja" and "How to be Nerd". In Spring 2010, "How to be Ninja", "How to be Gangster" and "How to be Emo" were made public once more.


title: Ryan Higa

text: "Ninja Melk", a 26-minute short film about ninjas, was released in August 2009. The plot revolves around a ninja master named Master Ching Ching sending his student Lapchung (played by Bryson Murata) to find a replacement, finding Higa and Fujiyoshi to catch the evil Bokchoy (Tim Enos) and his henchwoman, Gina (Tarynn Nago).


title: Ryan Higa

text: An independent 35-minute film he created with Wong Fu Productions called "Agents of Secret Stuff" was uploaded on the nigahiga channel on November 24, 2010. It features some other popular YouTube users as well as actors such as Aki Aleong. The film follows a teenage A.S.S. (Agent of Secret Stuff) (Higa) who goes undercover as a high school student to protect Taylor (Arden Cho) from the S.I.N.S. (Society Involving Not-So-Good Stuff). It included guest appearances from Ian and Anthony of Smosh, D-Trix, KassemG and Hiimrawn.


title: Ryan Higa

text: When Higa moved to Las Vegas to attend college, most of the nigahiga videos were solo efforts, usually featuring collaborations with other YouTube users. Since 2012, Higa has put together a production company, Ryan Higa Production Company (RHPC), which included Sean Fujiyoshi, that works together to make content for the nigahiga channel. In 2015, Higa's production company was based in a studio in Henderson, Nevada.


title: Ryan Higa

text: In 2016, Higa and other YouTubers and friends created the parody K-pop group Boys Generally Asian. In mid-2018, Fujiyoshi left the group as he was moving out of the area, specifically to Sacramento, California to live with his current girlfriend and to pursue his degree in engineering.


title: Ryan Higa

text: The nigahiga YouTube channel was created on July 20, 2006, by Higa, Fujiyoshi, Enos, and Nago (known collectively as "The Yabo Crew"). By December 21, 2010, it had reached 3 million subscribers, the first channel to do so. Higa had claimed in the past that his channel name was derived from a combination of "Niga" (にが), which he had claimed means "rant" in Japanese, and his Okinawan last name, "Higa". However, he later revealed that his channel name was actually derived from a desire to encourage people to pronounce his surname correctly. He expressed regret that this may have backfired somewhat, but has refused to change the channel name over the years to avoid the implication that it was ever meant to encourage usage of the racial slur it has been likened to.


title: Ryan Higa

text: In 2011, he created a second channel, under the name HigaTV, where he posts video blogs and behind the scenes videos.


title: Ryan Higa

text: In 2012, Higa helped form the YOMYOMF Network, which hosts the online video-making talent competition, "Internet Icon", of which he served alongside Christine Lakin and Timothy DeLaGhetto as main judges.


title: Ryan Higa

text: In 2016, Ryan Higa created a K-pop band with David Choi, Philip Wang, Jun Sung Ahn and Justin Chon. It was called BgA, standing for Boys Generally Asian, deliberately inspired by the all-female band Girls Generation.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Their first song was called "Dong Saya Dae", which currently has over 16 million views on YouTube. The song was conceived as a general parody of all K-pop songs and featured joke lyrics, but unexpectedly peaked at no. 2 on the official iTunes K-pop charts. In 2017, BgA released their second song "Who's It Gonna Be", a more serious song than the first, though with the same basis of being a parody. This song went one better than the first, reaching no. 1 on the K-pop charts.


title: Ryan Higa

text: In 2008, Los Angeles based producer Richard Van Vleet offered to help them create their first feature-length film. The resulting film, "Ryan and Sean's Not So Excellent Adventure", was directed by Richard Van Vleet and released on November 14, 2008. It was shown in sold out theaters in Hawaii and California. The DVD was released on July 14, 2009, in the United States. The film is about a down-on-his-luck movie producer, played by Michael Buckley, who is seeking out famous celebrities in order to make a hit movie in 30 days or risk being fired. He chooses Higa and Fujiyoshi after discovering the popularity of their YouTube videos. He invites them to Hollywood to make a movie. They accept the offer, and run into some amusing situations on the way.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa has also guest-starred on an episode of "Supah Ninjas", playing DJ Elephant Head, a master plotter who uses his hypnotizing electronic music to make people fall asleep to commit robberies.


title: Ryan Higa

text: He appeared in the 2016 horror film "Tell Me How I Die" and in the 2021 Netflix film "Finding 'Ohana".


title: Ryan Higa

text: Victorious Inc. released the "TeeHee" app in April 2015. It was a community hub for fans of Ryan Higa and was monetized through "pre-roll ads, branded content, e-commerce, and in-app purchases." The service was shut down in April 2017.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa co-founded Ninja Melk, LLC in 2016 with Kathleen Hahn and Kyle Schroeder. Their titular energy drink launched in May 2019. The drink took three years to develop and is named after Higa's short film of the same name. Higa uploaded a stop motion short film onto the nigahiga YouTube channel on October 19, 2019, to promote the drink.


title: Ryan Higa

text: Higa endorsed Andrew Yang for the 2020 Democratic nomination for president. He identifies as an agnostic. He is diagnosed with ADHD.


title: Spin-off (media)

text: In media, a spin-off (or spinoff) is a radio program, television program, film, video game or any narrative work, derived from already existing works that focus on more details and different aspects from the original work (e.g. particular topics, characters or events).


title: Spin-off (media)

text: One of the earliest spin-offs of the modern media era, if not the first, happened in 1941 when the supporting character Throckmorton P. Gildersleeve from the old time radio comedy show "Fibber McGee and Molly" became the star of his own program "The Great Gildersleeve" (1941–1957).


title: Spin-off (media)

text: In genre fiction, the term parallels its usage in television; it is usually meant to indicate a substantial "change in narrative viewpoint and activity" from that (previous) storyline based on the activities of the series' principal protagonist and so is a shift to that action and overall narrative thread of some other protagonist, which now becomes the central or main thread (storyline) of the new sub-series. The "new protagonist" generally appears first as a minor or supporting character in the main story line within a given milieu and it is very common for the previous protagonist to have a supporting or cameo role, at the least as a historical mention, in the new sub-series. Spin-offs sometimes generate their own spin-offs, leaving the new show in its own series only vaguely connected to the original series - for example the police procedural franchises of NCIS/JAG and CSI have both spun off multiple shows, including multiple spin-offs from series and spin-offs from spin-offs.