title: Virginia Tech

text: In the center of the Blacksburg campus lies the Drillfield, a large oval field running northeast to southwest, encircled by a one-way street that is known as Drillfield Drive. The Drillfield's name, coined in 1926 after the completion of Virginia Tech's first real stadium, Miles Stadium, stems from its use by the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets to conduct military drills. A waterway, Stroubles Creek, runs beneath the Drillfield on the south side. A three-sided conduit for the creek that retains the natural bed of the creek was installed in 1934, and, in 1971, the first two asphalt walks were added. The urban legend that the Drillfield is sinking at the rate of an inch per year has no basis in fact. In the summer of 2014, three dirt paths were paved as part of the university's master plan to improve the landscaping and pathways, add seating areas, and enhance path entrances around the Drillfield.


title: Virginia Tech

text: On the northwestern side of the Drillfield stand most of the university's academic and administrative buildings, including Burruss and McBryde Halls. On the southeastern side of the Drillfield stand most of the residential buildings, including students' residence halls, dining halls, and War Memorial Gym. Newman Library is on the eastern side of campus and connects to Torgersen Bridge, which spans the main road into campus, Alumni Mall. North of the Drillfield and northwest of Alumni Mall lies the Upper Quad, known to many students as military campus. The Upper Quad is home to the Corps of Cadets' barracks.


title: Virginia Tech

text: On the main campus in Blacksburg, most of the buildings incorporate Hokie Stone as a building material. In the 1990s, a Virginia Tech Board of Visitors committee expressed an intent that henceforth Hokie Stone should be used in all buildings constructed on the central campus. In 2010, the board of visitors passed a resolution making that sentiment official university policy.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Hokie Stone is generally gray, shaded by hues of brown and pink. It is mined from various quarries in Southwest Virginia, Tennessee, and Alabama, one of which has been operated by the university since the 1950s. Most buildings on campus incorporate Hokie Stone into their design, but there are a few notable exceptions. For example, several older buildings on the Upper Quad, including Lane Hall, are constructed of red brick, as are Hillcrest Hall and Donaldson Brown. Also, a number of academic buildings were not constructed using Hokie Stone, as they were built before the institution of the rule mandating its use in all new university buildings.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech's presence in the Washington Metropolitan Area links regional graduate education and outreach programs that are consistent with the university's strategic research areas of excellence: energy materials and environment, social and individual transformation, health, food, and nutrition, and innovative technologies and complex systems.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Supporting the university's missions is the Virginia Tech National Capital Region. The university has established collaborations and partnerships with local and federal agencies, nonprofit research organizations, businesses, and other institutions of higher education. Current locations include Alexandria, Arlington, Fairfax, Falls Church, Leesburg, Manassas, and Middleburg.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Biomedical Technology Development and Management is an executive program in the National Capital Region. The Master of Science in Biomedical Technology Development and Management (BTDM) is a graduate level degree created by Virginia Tech in response to future directions in medical product discovery and development and the emerging needs of industry and regulatory agencies. Curriculum for the degree program integrates science with technology, management, ethics, and public policy, and draws on the strengths of Virginia Tech in science, industrial and systems engineering, business and management, and medical research programs.


title: Virginia Tech

text: In 2014, the university opened a Language and Culture Institute location in Fairfax. The institute offers intensive English language programs for college-age students, professionals, and diplomats.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Located on the eastern tip of the Dominican Republic, the Caribbean Center for Education and Research (CCER) in Punta Cana provides a base for Virginia Tech faculty to conduct research as well as instruct students on biodiversity, environmental and social sustainability, global issues in natural resources, and hotel and tourism management. The center is the product of a partnership between Virginia Tech and the PUNTACANA Ecological Foundation (PCEF) and the PUNTACANA Resort and Club. PCEF maintains a natural forest reserve, of protected coral reef, freshwater lagoons and coastal mangroves.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Renamed the Steger Center for International Scholarship in 2014, the Center for European Studies and Architecture (CESA) is the university's European campus center and base for operations and support of its programs in the region. The center's location in Riva San Vitale, Ticino, the Italian-speaking canton of Switzerland, is also close to major northern Italian cities such as Milan.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech has several agricultural research and extension centers located throughout the Commonwealth dedicated to improving agricultural practices and the quality of life of Virginia citizens. The Virginia Tech Agricultural Research and Extension Centers are: Alson H. Smith, Jr., Eastern Shore, Eastern Virginia, Hampton Roads, Middleburg, Reynolds Homestead, Shenandoah Valley, Southern Piedmont, Southwest Virginia, Tidewater, and Virginia Seafood.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Distinguished by a towering 180-foot-high radial brick smokestack, the university's coal fired Central Steam Power Plant generates an annual steam output greater than 943 billion BTUs and provides campus buildings with a portion of their heat, hot water, and electricity needs. Nearly 90 percent of campus buildings are connected to the plant through an extensive network of tunnels—the main access point is on the Drillfield—and more than of steam lines and piping provide heat to more than 6.8 million square feet of campus buildings. Only personnel with confined-space training are permitted to enter the tunnel system, comprising of inaccessible tunnel and of piping; of direct-bury piping in the ground; and of accessible tunnel and of piping.


title: Virginia Tech

text: There are more than 700 student organizations on campus. Some of these organizations include Bolt at Virginia Tech which builds electric racing motorcycles; PRISM a student-run ad agency; BASIS at Virginia Tech the largest student-run fixed income portfolio group in the nation managing $5 million; the Chocolate Milk Club; and a Young Life Chapter. Over 9,300 Virginia Tech students reside on campus.


title: Virginia Tech

text: The VT campus is home to twenty-eight residence halls housing both undergraduate and graduate students, and several more are either in the planning stages or under construction. The university has on-campus housing for graduate and professional students who are single; the housing may not accommodate families and spouses.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Typically, all freshmen are required to live on-campus. However, for the 2019 application year, first year students had the opportunity to live off-campus. This was the result of an unexpectedly large admission rate. In order to live on-campus, students must fill out the Virginia Tech Housing and Dining Contract, which requires students to purchase a major meal plan.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Until 1923, every able-bodied male was required to participate for four years in the Virginia Tech Corps of Cadets. The requirement was changed to two years until 1964, when participation became voluntary. Members of the ROTC program are required to participate in the Corps of Cadets. Virginia Tech remains one of three public universities in the United States with both an active corps of cadets and regular civilian students on its campus (Texas A&M University and the University of North Georgia are the other two).


title: Virginia Tech

text: More than 1,000 cadets reside on the campus of Virginia Tech. The Corps of Cadets Community is located in the Upper Quad, which features some of the oldest buildings on campus. Cadet dorms are also known as "cadet barracks". Two new dormitories were constructed on the Upper Quad to house all of the cadets. Pearson Hall replaced Rasche Hall in November 2015, and in August 2017, Brodie Hall was replaced by the New Cadet Dorm (a.k.a. "New Brodie"). Former cadet dorms, Thomas Hall and Monteith Hall were demolished in 2017. Their sites are planned to be used as green space for the foreseeable future.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech hosts a number of fraternities and sororities across four governing councils. There are 23 IFC fraternities and 13 National Panhellenic Conference sororities recognized at Virginia Tech. The fraternity and sorority community currently encompasses more than 5,500 students which represents just about 20 percent of the undergraduate population. The Oak Lane Community houses those sororities and fraternities which have houses chartered on campus. A number of fraternities have chartered off-campus housing. There are also numerous other academic and service related sororities and fraternities at the school, as well as various historically Black and cultural interest organizations.


title: Virginia Tech

text: There are also a number of fraternities at Virginia Tech that are not officially recognized by the university. These organizations have continued to operate off campus in Blacksburg despite being suspended for violations of university policies. These fraternities include: Center Club (formerly Sigma Chi), Delta Kappa Epsilon, Kappa Sigma, Lambda Chi Alpha, Gold Club (formerly Pi Kappa Phi), Omicron Alpha Kappa (formerly Kappa Delta Rho), Theta Delta Chi, and Sigma Alpha Epsilon. While several of these chapters are still chartered by their national organization they are not currently recognized by Virginia Tech.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech teams are known as the Hokies. The HokieBird is a turkey-like creature whose form has evolved from the original school mascot of the Fighting Gobbler. While the modern HokieBird still resembles a Fighting Gobbler, the word "Hokie" has all but replaced Fighting Gobbler in terms of colloquial use. The term originated from the "Old Hokie" spirit yell, in which there was no particular meaning indicated for the word.


title: Virginia Tech

text: They compete as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level (Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) sub-level for football), primarily competing in the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) for all sports since the 2004–05 season. The Hokies previously competed in the Big East Conference from 2000–01 to 2003–04 (football program from 1991–92 to 1999–2000); the Atlantic 10 Conference (A-10) from 1995–96 to 1999–2000; and the Metro Conference from 1978–79 to 1994–95.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, football, golf, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and wrestling. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.


title: Virginia Tech

text: The stylized "VT" (the abbreviation for "Virginia Tech") is used primarily by the athletic department as a symbol for Virginia Tech athletic teams. The "athletic VT" symbol is trademarked by the university and appears frequently on licensed merchandise.


title: Virginia Tech

text: During the early years of VPI, a rivalry developed between it and Virginia Military Institute. This long-standing rivalry lasted nine decades, from 1894 to 1984, and developed into the original Military Classic of the South an annual football game between VMI and VPI usually held on Thanksgiving Day at Victory Stadium in Roanoke, Virginia. That series ended after the 1984 season; VMI had elected to play at the Division I-AA level, now Division I FCS, after the NCAA's 1978 divisional split for football, and the schools' wide disparity in size after Virginia Tech's rapid expansion in the 1960s and 70s had led to a similar imbalance in results. Another long-standing and important rivalry is between Virginia Tech and the University of Virginia. The Virginia-Virginia Tech rivalry strengthened in concurrence with both UVA's and Tech's growth during the 1960s and 1970s and this is now the Hokies' primary program-wide athletic rivalry. The two schools compete in football for the Governor's "Commonwealth Cup" each season.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech's fight song, "Tech Triumph", was written in 1919 and remains in use today. The song is played at sporting events by both the Virginia Tech student band, The Marching Virginians, and the regimental Corps of Cadets' band, the Highty Tighties. The "Old Hokie" spirit yell, written in 1896 and used to this day, is familiar to many Virginia Tech fans. This chant is also where the word "Hoki" (since modified to "Hokie") originally appeared.


title: Virginia Tech

text: The most prominent athletic facilities are Lane Stadium, Cassell Coliseum, English Field, Thompson Field, Tech Softball Park, Rector Field House, the Beamer-Lawson Indoor Practice Facility, and the Christiansburg Aquatic Center.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Notable current and former faculty at Virginia Tech include Romesh Batra (biomedical engineering), Patricia Dove (geosciences), Marc Edwards (civil and environmental engineering), Roger Ekirch (history), Nikki Giovanni (English), Michael Hochella (geosciences), Liviu Librescu (engineering science and mechanics), Tim Luke (political science), Linsey Marr (civil and environmental engineering), Xiang-Jin Meng (virology), Arun Phadke (electrical engineering), James Robertson (history), Arthur Squires (chemical engineering), James Thorp (electrical engineering), John Tyson (biology), and Gary Wamsley (public administration).


title: Virginia Tech

text: There have been 17 university heads for Virginia Tech since its founding in 1872. The current president is Timothy Sands (previously provost of Purdue University), who has held the post since 2014.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Virginia Tech has over 240,000 alumni internationally and from all 50 states. The Virginia Tech Alumni Association has over 100 chapters and has been consistently regarded as one of the best in the nation.


title: Virginia Tech

text: One of six senior military colleges in the United States, Virginia Tech has produced numerous military leaders, among them 97 generals and admirals, including Carlton D. Everhart II, Commander, Air Mobility Command; Thomas C. Richards, Chief of Staff, Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe; Lance L. Smith, Commander, United States Joint Forces Command; Jody A. Breckenridge, Commander, Coast Guard Pacific Area; William G. Boykin, Deputy Undersecretary of Defense for Intelligence, Commander, John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center; and Wallace H. Robinson, Director, Defense Supply Agency.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Eight alumni have been awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest award bestowed by the United States armed forces: Antoine August Michel Gaujot, Julien Edmund Victor Gaujot, Earle Davis Gregory, Herbert Joseph Thomas, Jimmie W. Monteith, Robert Edward Femoyer, Richard Thomas Shea, Jr., Gary Lee Miller; their names are inscribed on a marble cenotaph at the center of War Memorial Court on the Blacksburg campus.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Many VT alumni have also served in civilian leadership roles: Chet Culver, 41st governor of Iowa; William Dodd, ambassador to Germany; Linda Swartz Taglialatela, ambassador to Barbados; Rob Wittman, member of the House of Representatives; Tony McNulty, member of Parliament for Harrow East; Deborah Hersman, 12th chairperson of the National Transportation Safety Board; Regina Dugan, 19th director, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency; John H. Thompson, Director of the United States Census Bureau; and Lawrence Koontz, Senior Justice of the Supreme Court of Virginia.


title: Virginia Tech

text: Notable Virginia Tech athletes include Nickeil Alexander-Walker, Frank Beamer, Allan Bristow, Kam Chancellor, Bimbo Coles, Dell Curry, Ace Custis, Renee Dennis, Bill Dooley, Jim Druckenmiller, Terrell Edmunds, Tremaine Edmunds, Bud Foster, Kendall Fuller, Kyle Fuller, Chuck Hartman, Sally Miles, Charles Moir, Johnny Oates, Bruce Smith, Tyrod Taylor, DeAngelo Hall, Isaiah Ford, Angela Tincher, and Michael Vick.


title: Boshin War

text: The , sometimes known as the Japanese Revolution or Japanese Civil War, was a civil war in Japan fought from 1868 to 1869 between forces of the ruling Tokugawa shogunate and a clique seeking to seize political power in the name of the Imperial Court.


title: Boshin War

text: The war stemmed from dissatisfaction among many nobles and young samurai with the shogunate's handling of foreigners following the opening of Japan during the prior decade. Increasing Western influence in the economy led to a decline similar to that of other Asian countries at the time. An alliance of western samurai, particularly the domains of Chōshū, Satsuma, and Tosa, and court officials secured control of the Imperial Court and influenced the young Emperor Meiji. Tokugawa Yoshinobu, the sitting "shōgun", realizing the futility of his situation, abdicated and handed over political power to the emperor. Yoshinobu had hoped that by doing this the House of Tokugawa could be preserved and participate in the future government.


title: Boshin War

text: However, military movements by imperial forces, partisan violence in Edo, and an imperial decree promoted by Satsuma and Chōshū abolishing the House of Tokugawa led Yoshinobu to launch a military campaign to seize the emperor's court in Kyoto. The military tide rapidly turned in favour of the smaller but relatively modernized Imperial faction, and, after a series of battles culminating in the surrender of Edo, Yoshinobu personally surrendered. Those loyal to the Tokugawa shōgun retreated to northern Honshū and later to Hokkaidō, where they founded the Republic of Ezo. Defeat at the Battle of Hakodate broke this last holdout and left the Emperor as defacto supreme ruler throughout the whole of Japan, completing the military phase of the Meiji Restoration.


title: Boshin War

text: Around 69,000 men were mobilized during the conflict, and of these about 8,200 were killed. In the end, the victorious Imperial faction abandoned its objective of expelling foreigners from Japan and instead adopted a policy of continued modernization with an eye to eventual renegotiation of the unequal treaties with the Western powers. Due to the persistence of Saigō Takamori, a prominent leader of the Imperial faction, the Tokugawa loyalists were shown clemency, and many former shogunate leaders and samurai were later given positions of responsibility under the new government.


title: Boshin War

text: When the Boshin War began, Japan was already modernizing, following the same course of advancement as that of the industrialized Western nations. Since Western nations, especially the United Kingdom and France, were deeply involved in the country's politics, the installation of Imperial power added more turbulence to the conflict. Over time, the war was romanticized as a "bloodless revolution", as the number of casualties was small relative to the size of Japan's population. However, conflicts soon emerged between the western samurai and the modernists in the Imperial faction, which led to the bloodier Satsuma Rebellion.


title: Boshin War

text: is the designation for the fifth year of a sexagenary cycle in traditional East Asian calendars. The characters can also be read as in Japanese, literally "Elder Brother of Earth-Dragon". In Chinese, it translates as "Yang Earth Dragon", which is associated with that particular year in the sexagenary cycle. The war started in the fourth year of the Keiō era, which also became the first year of the Meiji era in October of that year, and ended in the second year of the Meiji era.


title: Boshin War

text: For the two centuries prior to 1854, Japan had a strict policy of isolationism, restricting all interactions with foreign powers, with the notable exceptions of Korea via Tsushima, Qing China via the Ryukyu Islands, and the Dutch through the trading post of Dejima. In 1854, the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry's expedition opened Japan to global commerce through the implied threat of force, thus initiating rapid development of foreign trade and Westernization. In large part due to the humiliating terms of the unequal treaties, as agreements like those negotiated by Perry are called, the Tokugawa shogunate soon faced internal dissent, which coalesced into a radical movement, the "sonnō jōi" (meaning "revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians").


title: Boshin War

text: Emperor Kōmei agreed with such sentiments and, breaking with centuries of Imperial tradition, began to take an active role in matters of state: as opportunities arose, he vehemently protested against the treaties and attempted to interfere in the shogunal succession. His efforts culminated in March 1863 with his "order to expel barbarians". Although the shogunate had no intention of enforcing it, the order nevertheless inspired attacks against the shogunate itself and against foreigners in Japan: the most famous incident was that of the English trader Charles Lennox Richardson, for whose death the Tokugawa government had to pay an indemnity of one hundred thousand British pounds. Other attacks included the shelling of foreign shipping in the port of Shimonoseki.


title: Boshin War

text: During 1864, these actions were successfully countered by armed retaliations by foreign powers, such as the British bombardment of Kagoshima and the multinational Shimonoseki campaign. At the same time, the forces of Chōshū Domain, together with "rōnin", raised the Hamaguri rebellion trying to seize the city of Kyoto, where the Emperor's court was, but were repelled by shogunate forces under the future "shōgun" Tokugawa Yoshinobu. The shogunate further ordered a punitive expedition against Chōshū, the First Chōshū expedition, and obtained Chōshū's submission without actual fighting. At this point the initial resistance among the leadership in Chōshū and the Imperial Court subsided, but over the next year the Tokugawa proved unable to reassert full control over the country as most "daimyōs" began to ignore orders and questions from the Tokugawa seat of power in Edo.


title: Boshin War

text: The Shogun had sought French assistance for training and weaponry since 1865. Léon Roches, French consul to Japan, supported the Shogunal military reform efforts to promote French influence, hoping to make Japan into a dependent client state. This caused the British to send their own military mission to compete with the French.


title: Boshin War

text: Despite the bombardment of Kagoshima, the Satsuma Domain had become closer to the British and was pursuing the modernization of its army and navy with their support. The Scottish merchant Thomas Blake Glover sold quantities of warships and guns to the southern domains. American and British military experts, usually former officers, may have been directly involved in this military effort. The British ambassador, Harry Smith Parkes, supported the anti-shogunate forces in a drive to establish a legitimate, unified Imperial rule in Japan, and to counter French influence with the shogunate. During that period, southern Japanese leaders such as Saigō Takamori of Satsuma, or Itō Hirobumi and Inoue Kaoru of Chōshū cultivated personal connections with British diplomats, notably Ernest Mason Satow. Satsuma domain received British assistance for their naval modernisation, and they became the second largest purchaser of western ships after the Shogunate itself, of which nearly all were British-built. As Satsuma samurai became dominant in the Imperial navy after the war, the navy frequently sought assistance from the British.


title: Boshin War

text: In preparation for future conflict, the shogunate also modernized its forces. In line with Parkes's strategy, the British, previously the shogunate's primary foreign partner, proved reluctant to provide assistance. The Tokugawa thus came to rely mainly on French expertise, comforted by the military prestige of Napoleon III at that time, acquired through his successes in the Crimean War and the Second Italian War of Independence.


title: Boshin War

text: The shogunate took major steps towards the construction of a modern and powerful military: a navy with a core of eight steam warships had been built over several years and was already the strongest in Asia. In 1865, Japan's first modern naval arsenal was built in Yokosuka by the French engineer Léonce Verny. In January 1867, a French military mission arrived to reorganize the shogunate army and create the "Denshūtai" elite force, and an order was placed with the US to buy the French-built ironclad warship CSS "Stonewall", which had been built for the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War. Due to the Western powers' declared neutrality, the US refused to release the ship, but once neutrality was lifted, the imperial faction obtained the vessel and employed it in engagements in Hakodate under the name "Kōtetsu" ("Ironclad").


title: Boshin War

text: Following a coup d'état within Chōshū which returned to power the extremist factions opposed to the shogunate, the shogunate announced its intention to lead a Second Chōshū expedition to punish the renegade domain. This, in turn, prompted Chōshū to form a secret alliance with Satsuma. In the summer of 1866, the shogunate was defeated by Chōshū, leading to a considerable loss of authority. In late 1866, however, first "shōgun" Tokugawa Iemochi and then Emperor Kōmei died, succeeded by Tokugawa Yoshinobu and Emperor Meiji respectively. These events, in the words of historian Marius Jansen, "made a truce inevitable".


title: Boshin War

text: On November 9, 1867, a secret order was created by Satsuma and Chōshū in the name of Emperor Meiji commanding the "slaughtering of the traitorous subject Yoshinobu". Just prior to this, however—and following a proposal from the "daimyō" of the Tosa Domain—Yoshinobu resigned his post and authority to the emperor, agreeing to "be the instrument for carrying out" imperial orders. This ended the Tokugawa shogunate.


title: Boshin War

text: While Yoshinobu's resignation had created a nominal void at the highest level of government, his apparatus of state continued to exist. Moreover, the shogunate government, the Tokugawa family in particular, remained a prominent force in the evolving political order and retained many executive powers. Moreover, Satow speculates that Yoshinobu had agreed to an assembly of "daimyōs" on the hope that such a body would restore him, a prospect hard-liners from Satsuma and Chōshū found intolerable. Events came to a head on January 3, 1868, when these elements seized the imperial palace in Kyoto, and the following day had the fifteen-year-old Emperor Meiji declare his own restoration to full power. Although the majority of the imperial consultative assembly representing all the domains was happy with the formal declaration of direct rule by the imperial court and tended to support a continued collaboration with the Tokugawa (under the concept of ), Saigō Takamori threatened the assembly into abolishing the title ""shōgun"" and ordering the confiscation of Yoshinobu's lands.


title: Boshin War

text: Although he initially agreed to these demands, on January 17, 1868, Yoshinobu declared that he would not be bound by the Restoration proclamation and called for its repeal. On January 24, he decided to prepare an attack on Kyoto, which was occupied by Satsuma and Chōshū forces. This decision was prompted by his learning of a series of arsons in Edo, starting with the burning of the outer works of Edo Castle, the main Tokugawa residence. This was blamed on Satsuma "rōnin", who on that day attacked a government office. The next day shogunate forces responded by attacking the Edo residence of the "daimyō" of Satsuma, where many opponents of the shogunate, under Saigo's direction, had been hiding and creating trouble. The residence was burned down, and many opponents killed or later executed.


title: Boshin War

text: The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were fully modernized with Armstrong Guns, Minié rifles and one Gatling gun. The shogunate forces had been slightly lagging in terms of equipment, although the French military mission had recently trained a core elite force. The "shōgun" also relied on troops supplied by allied domains, which were not necessarily as advanced in terms of military equipment and methods, composing an army that had both modern and outdated elements.


title: Boshin War

text: Numerous types of more or less modern smoothbore muskets and rifles were imported, from countries as varied as France, Germany, the Netherlands, Britain, and the United States, and coexisted with traditional types such as the "tanegashima" matchlock. Most shogunate troops used smoothbore muskets, about 200,000 of which had been imported into Japan over the years since around 1600.


title: Boshin War

text: The first modern firearms were initially imported about 1840 from the Netherlands by the pro-Western reformist Takashima Shūhan. The "daimyō" of Nagaoka Domain, however, an ally of the "shōgun", possessed two Gatling guns and several thousand modern rifles. The shogunate is known to have placed an order for 30,000 modern Dreyse needle guns in 1866. Napoleon III provided Yoshinobu with 2,000 state-of-the-art Chassepot rifles, which he used to equip his personal guard. Antiquated "tanegashima" matchlocks are also known to have been used by the shogunate, however.


title: Boshin War

text: Imperial troops mainly used Minié rifles, which were much more accurate, lethal, and had a much longer range than the imported smoothbore muskets, although, being also muzzle-loading, they were similarly limited to two shots per minute. Improved breech-loading mechanisms, such as the Snider, developing a rate of about ten shots a minute, are known to have been used by Chōshū troops against the shogunate's Shōgitai regiment at the Battle of Ueno in July 1868. In the second half of the conflict, in the northeast theater, Tosa troops are known to have used American-made Spencer repeating rifles. American-made handguns were also popular, such as the 1863 Smith & Wesson Army No 2, which was imported to Japan by Glover and used by Satsuma forces.


title: Boshin War

text: For artillery, wooden cannons, only able to fire 3 or 4 shots before bursting, coexisted with state-of-the-art Armstrong guns using explosive shells. Armstrong guns were efficiently used by Satsuma and Saga troops throughout the war.


title: Boshin War

text: The Shogunate as well as the Imperial side also used native Japanese cannons, with Japan making cannons domestically as far back as 1575.


title: Boshin War

text: In the area of warships also, some of the most recent ironclads such as the "Kōtetsu" coexisted with older types of steamboats and even traditional sailboats. The shogunate initially had the edge in warships, and it had the vision to buy the "Kōtetsu". The ship was blocked from delivery by foreign powers on grounds of neutrality once the conflict had started, and was ultimately delivered to the Imperial faction shortly after the Battle of Toba–Fushimi.


title: Boshin War

text: Uniforms were Western-style for modernized troops (usually dark, with variations in the shape of the helmet: tall conical for Satsuma, flat conical for Chōshū, rounded for the shogunate). Officers of the shogunate often wore French and British uniforms. Traditional troops however retained their samurai clothes. Some of the Imperial troops wore peculiar headgear, involving the use of long, colored, "bear" hair. The wigs indicated officers from Tosa, the wigs officers from Chōshū, and the "black bear" (黒熊, "koguma") wigs officers from Satsuma.


title: Boshin War

text: On January 27, 1868, shogunate forces attacked the forces of Chōshū and Satsuma, clashing near Toba and Fushimi, at the southern entrance to Kyoto in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi. Some parts of the 15,000-strong shogunate forces had been trained by French military advisers. Among their numbers during this battle were the noted "Shinsengumi". The forces of Chōshū and Satsuma were outnumbered 3:1 but fully modernized with Armstrong howitzers, Minié rifles and a few Gatling guns.


title: Boshin War

text: After an inconclusive start, an Imperial banner was presented to the defending troops on the second day, and a relative of the Emperor, Ninnajinomiya Yoshiaki, was named nominal commander in chief, making the forces officially an . Moreover, convinced by courtiers, several local "daimyōs", up to this point faithful to the "shōgun", started to defect to the side of the Imperial Court. These included the "daimyōs" of Yodo and Tsu in February, tilting the military balance in favour of the Imperial side.


title: Boshin War

text: After the defections, Yoshinobu, apparently distressed by the imperial approval given to the actions of Satsuma and Chōshū, fled Osaka aboard the , withdrawing to Edo. Demoralized by his flight and by the betrayal by Yodo and Tsu, shogunate forces retreated, resulting in an Imperial victory, although it is often considered the shogunate forces should have won the encounter. Osaka Castle was soon invested on March 1 (February 8 in the Tenpō calendar), putting an end to the battle.


title: Boshin War

text: The day after the battle of Toba–Fushimi commenced, the naval Battle of Awa took place between the shogunate and elements of the Satsuma navy in Awa Bay near Osaka. This was Japan's second engagement between two modern navies. The battle, although small in scale, ended with a victory for the shogunate.


title: Boshin War

text: On the diplomatic front, the ministers of foreign nations, gathered in the open harbour of Hyōgo (present day Kobe) in early February, issued a declaration according to which the shogunate was still considered the only rightful government in Japan, giving hope to Tokugawa Yoshinobu that foreign nations (especially France) might consider an intervention in his favour. A few days later however an Imperial delegation visited the ministers declaring that the shogunate was abolished, that harbours would be open in accordance with International treaties, and that foreigners would be protected. The ministers finally decided to recognize the new government.


title: Boshin War

text: The rise of anti-foreign sentiment nonetheless led to several attacks on foreigners in the following months. Eleven French sailors from the corvette "Dupleix" were killed by samurai of Tosa in the Sakai incident on March 8, 1868. Fifteen days later, Sir Harry Parkes, the British ambassador, was attacked by a group of samurai in a street of Kyoto.


title: Boshin War

text: Beginning in February, with the help of the French ambassador Léon Roches, a plan was formulated to stop the Imperial Court's advance at Odawara, the last strategic entry point to Edo, but Yoshinobu decided against the plan. Shocked, Léon Roches resigned from his position. In early March, under the influence of the British minister Harry Parkes, foreign nations signed a strict neutrality agreement, according to which they could not intervene or provide military supplies to either side until the resolution of the conflict.


title: Boshin War

text: Saigō Takamori led the victorious imperial forces north and east through Japan, winning the Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma. He eventually surrounded Edo in May 1868, leading to its unconditional defeat after Katsu Kaishū, the "shōgun"s Army Minister, negotiated the surrender. Some groups continued to resist after this surrender but were defeated in the Battle of Ueno on July 4, 1868.


title: Boshin War

text: Meanwhile, the leader of the "shōgun"s navy, Enomoto Takeaki, refused to surrender all his ships. He remitted just four ships, among them the "Fujiyama", but he then escaped north with the remnants of the "shōgun"s navy (eight steam warships: "Kaiten", "Banryū", "Chiyodagata", "Chōgei", "Kaiyō Maru", "Kanrin Maru", "Mikaho" and "Shinsoku"), and 2,000 personnel, in the hope of staging a counter-attack together with the northern "daimyōs". He was accompanied by a handful of French military advisers, notably Jules Brunet, who had formally resigned from the French Army to accompany the rebels.


title: Boshin War

text: After Yoshinobu's surrender, he was placed under house arrest, and stripped of all titles, land and power. He was later released, when he demonstrated no further interest and ambition in national affairs. He retired to Shizuoka, the place to which his ancestor Tokugawa Ieyasu had also retired. Most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, but a core of domains in the North, supporting the Aizu clan, continued the resistance. In May, several northern "daimyōs" formed an Alliance to fight Imperial troops, the coalition of northern domains composed primarily of forces from the domains of Sendai, Yonezawa, Aizu, Shōnai and Nagaoka, with a total of 50,000 troops. Apart from those core domains, most of the northern domains were part of the alliance.


title: Boshin War

text: In May 1868, the "daimyō" of Nagaoka inflicted high losses on the Imperial troops in the Battle of Hokuetsu, but his castle ultimately fell on May 19. Imperial troops continued to progress north, defeating the Shinsengumi at the Battle of Bonari Pass, which opened the way for their attack on the castle of Aizuwakamatsu in the Battle of Aizu in October 1868, thus making the position in Sendai untenable.


title: Boshin War

text: Enomoto's fleet reached Sendai harbour on August 26. Although the Northern Coalition was numerous, it was poorly equipped, and relied on traditional fighting methods. Modern armament was scarce, and last-minute efforts were made to build cannons made of wood and reinforced with roping, firing stone projectiles. Such cannons, installed on defensive structures, could only fire four or five projectiles before bursting. On the other hand, the "daimyō" of Nagaoka managed to procure two of the three Gatling guns in Japan and 2,000 modern French rifles from the German weapons dealer Henry Schnell.


title: Boshin War

text: The coalition crumbled, and on October 12, 1868, the fleet left Sendai for Hokkaidō, after having acquired two more ships ("Oe" and "Hōō", previously borrowed by Sendai from the shogunate), and about 1,000 more troops: remaining shogunate troops under Ōtori Keisuke, Shinsengumi troops under Hijikata Toshizō, the guerilla corps ("yugekitai") under Hitomi Katsutarō, as well as several more French advisers (Fortant, Garde, Marlin, Bouffier).


title: Boshin War

text: On October 26, Edo was renamed Tokyo, and the Meiji period officially started. Aizu was besieged starting that month, leading to the mass suicide of the "Byakkotai" (White Tiger Corps) young warriors. After a protracted month-long battle, Aizu finally admitted defeat on November 6.


title: Boshin War

text: Following defeat on Honshū, Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō with the remnants of the navy and his handful of French advisers. Together they organized a government, with the objective of establishing an independent island nation dedicated to the development of Hokkaidō. They formally established the Republic of Ezo on the American model, Japan's only ever republic, and Enomoto was elected as president, with a large majority. The republic tried to reach out to foreign legations present in Hakodate, such as the Americans, French, and Russians, but was not able to garner any international recognition or support. Enomoto offered to confer the territory to the Tokugawa "shōgun" under Imperial rule, but his proposal was declined by the Imperial Governing Council.


title: Boshin War

text: During the winter, they fortified their defenses around the southern peninsula of Hakodate, with the new fortress of Goryōkaku at the center. The troops were organized under a Franco-Japanese command, the commander-in-chief Ōtori Keisuke being seconded by the French captain Jules Brunet, and divided between four brigades. Each of these was commanded by a French non-commissioned officer (Fortant, Marlin, Cazeneuve, Bouffier), and were themselves divided into eight half-brigades, each under Japanese command.


title: Boshin War

text: The Imperial Navy reached the harbour of Miyako on March 20, but anticipating the arrival of the Imperial ships, the Ezo rebels organized a daring plan to seize the "Kōtetsu". Led by Shinsengumi commander Hijikata Toshizō, three warships were dispatched for a surprise attack, in what is known as the Battle of Miyako Bay. The battle ended in failure for the Tokugawa side, owing to bad weather, engine trouble and the decisive use of a Gatling gun by Imperial troops against samurai boarding parties.


title: Boshin War

text: Imperial forces soon consolidated their hold on mainland Japan, and, in April 1869, dispatched a fleet and an infantry force of 7,000 to Ezo, starting the Battle of Hakodate. The Imperial forces progressed swiftly and won the naval engagement at Hakodate Bay, Japan's first large-scale naval battle between modern navies, and the fortress of Goryōkaku was surrounded. Seeing the situation had become desperate, the French advisers escaped to a French ship stationed in Hakodate Bay"Coëtlogon", under the command of Abel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouarsfrom where they were shipped back to Yokohama and then France. The Japanese requested that the French advisers be given judgement in France; however, due to popular support in France for their actions, the former French advisers were not punished for their actions.


title: Boshin War

text: Invited to surrender, Enomoto at first refused, and sent the Naval Codes he had brought back from Holland to the general of the Imperial troops, Kuroda Kiyotaka, to prevent their loss. Ōtori Keisuke convinced him to surrender, telling him that deciding to live through defeat is the truly courageous way: "Dying is easy; you can do that anytime." Enomoto surrendered on June 27, 1869, accepting Emperor Meiji's rule, and the Ezo Republic ceased to exist.


title: Boshin War

text: Of the approximately 120,000 men mobilized over the course of the conflict, about 8,200 were killed and more than 5,000 were wounded. Following victory, the new government proceeded with unifying the country under a single, legitimate and powerful rule by the Imperial Court. The emperor's residence was effectively transferred from Kyoto to Edo at the end of 1868, and the city renamed to Tokyo. The military and political power of the domains was progressively eliminated, and the domains themselves were transformed in 1871 into prefectures, whose governors were appointed by the emperor.


title: Boshin War

text: A major reform was the effective expropriation and abolition of the samurai class, allowing many samurai to change into administrative or entrepreneurial positions, but forcing many others into poverty. The southern domains of Satsuma, Chōshū and Tosa, having played a decisive role in the victory, occupied most of the key posts in government for several decades following the conflict, a situation sometimes called the "Meiji oligarchy" and formalized with the institution of the genrō. In 1869, the Yasukuni Shrine in Tokyo was built in honor of the victims of the Boshin War.


title: Boshin War

text: Some leading partisans of the former "shōgun" were imprisoned, but narrowly escaped execution. This clemency derives from the insistence of Saigō Takamori and Iwakura Tomomi, although much weight was placed on the advice of Parkes, the British envoy. He had urged Saigō, in the words of Ernest Satow, "that severity towards Keiki [Yoshinobu] or his supporters, especially in the way of personal punishment, would injure the reputation of the new government in the opinion of European Powers". After two or three years of imprisonment, most of them were called to serve the new government, and several pursued brilliant careers. Enomoto Takeaki, for instance, would later serve as an envoy to Russia and China and as the education minister.


title: Boshin War

text: The Imperial side did not pursue its objective of expelling foreign interests from Japan, but instead shifted to a more progressive policy aiming at the continued modernization of the country and the renegotiation of unequal treaties with foreign powers, later under the motto.


title: Boshin War

text: The shift in stance towards foreigners came during the early days of the civil war: on April 8, 1868, new signboards were erected in Kyoto (and later throughout the country) that specifically repudiated violence against foreigners. During the course of the conflict, Emperor Meiji personally received European envoys, first in Kyoto, then later in Osaka and Tokyo. Also unprecedented was Emperor Meiji's reception of Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, in Tokyo, "as his "equal" in point of blood".


title: Boshin War

text: Although the early Meiji era witnessed a warming of relations between the Imperial Court and foreign powers, relations with France temporarily soured due to the initial support by France for the "shōgun". Soon, however, a second military mission was invited to Japan in 1874, and a third one in 1884. A high level of interaction resumed around 1886, when France helped build the Imperial Japanese Navy's first large-scale modern fleet, under the direction of naval engineer Louis-Émile Bertin. The modernization of the country had started during the last years of the shogunate, and the Meiji government ultimately adopted the same policy.


title: Boshin War

text: Upon his coronation, Meiji issued his Charter Oath, calling for deliberative assemblies, promising increased opportunities for the common people, abolishing the "evil customs of the past", and seeking knowledge throughout the world "to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule". The reforms culminated in the 1889 issuance of the Meiji Constitution. However, despite the support given to the Imperial Court by samurai, many of the early Meiji reforms were seen as detrimental to their interests. The creation of a conscript army made of commoners, as well as the loss of hereditary prestige and stipends, antagonized many former samurai. Tensions ran particularly high in the south, leading to the 1874 Saga Rebellion, and a rebellion in Chōshū in 1876. Former samurai in Satsuma, led by Saigō Takamori, who had left government over foreign policy differences, started the Satsuma Rebellion in 1877. Fighting for the maintenance of the samurai class and a more virtuous government, their slogan was . It ended with a heroic but total defeat at the Battle of Shiroyama.


title: Boshin War

text: In modern summaries, the Meiji Restoration is often described as a "bloodless revolution" leading to the sudden modernization of Japan. The facts of the Boshin War, however, clearly show that the conflict was quite violent: about 120,000 troops were mobilized altogether with roughly 3,500 known casualties during open hostilities but much more during terrorist attacks. Although traditional weapons and techniques were used, both sides employed some of the most modern armaments and fighting techniques of the period, including the ironclad warship, Gatling guns, and fighting techniques learned from Western military advisers.


title: Boshin War

text: Such Japanese depictions include numerous dramatizations, spanning many genres. Notably, Jirō Asada wrote a four-volume novel of the account, "Mibu Gishi-den". A film adaptation of Asada's work, directed by Yōjirō Takita, is known as "When the Last Sword Is Drawn". A ten-hour 2002 television "jidaigeki" based on the same novel starred Ken Watanabe. A Japanese Manga Series, Rurouni Kenshin, by Nobuhiro Watsuki, notably sets place in the war, and the aftermath.


title: Boshin War

text: Western interpretations include the 2003 American film "The Last Samurai" directed by Edward Zwick, which combines into a single narrative historical situations belonging both to the Boshin War, the 1877 Satsuma Rebellion, and other similar uprisings of ex-samurai during the early Meiji period. The elements of the movie pertaining to the early modernization of Japan's military forces as well as the direct involvement of foreign (mostly French) forces relate to the Boshin War and the few years leading to it. However, the suicidal stand of traditionalist samurai forces led by Saigō Takamori against the modernized Imperial army relate to the much later Satsuma Rebellion.


title: Boshin War

text: The main campaign in the 2012 expansion to Creative Assembly's game "" depicts the Boshin War. Players can choose from various historical clans, such as the Imperial Satsuma or the shogunate Aizu.


title: Totenkopf

text: Totenkopf (, i.e. "skull", literally "dead person's head") is the German word for the skull and crossbones symbol. The "skull and crossbones" symbol is an old international symbol for death, the defiance of death, danger, or the dead, as well as piracy or toxicity. It consists usually of the human skull with or without the mandible and often includes two crossed long-bones (femurs), most often depicted with the crossbones being "behind" some part of the skull.


title: Totenkopf

text: In English, the term "Totenkopf" is commonly associated with 19th- and 20th-century German military use, particularly in Nazi Germany.


title: Totenkopf

text: In early modern sea warfare, buccaneers used the totenkopf as a pirate flag: a skull or other skeletal parts as a death threat and as a demand to hand over a ship. The symbol continues to be used by modern navies.


title: Totenkopf

text: Use of the "Totenkopf" as a military emblem began under Frederick the Great, who formed a regiment of Hussar cavalry in the Prussian army commanded by Colonel von Ruesch, the Husaren-Regiment Nr. 5 (von Ruesch). It adopted a black uniform with a "Totenkopf" emblazoned on the front of its mirlitons and wore it on the field in the War of Austrian Succession and in the Seven Years' War. The "Totenkopf" remained a part of the uniform when the regiment was reformed into Leib-Husaren Regiments Nr.1 and Nr.2 in 1808.


title: Totenkopf

text: In 1809, during the War of the Fifth Coalition, Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel raised a force of volunteers to fight Napoleon Bonaparte, who had conquered the Duke's lands. The Brunswick corps was provided with black uniforms, giving rise to their nickname, the Black Brunswickers. Both hussar cavalry and infantry in the force wore a "Totenkopf" badge, either in mourning for the duke's father, Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, who had been killed at the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt in 1806, or according to some sources, as a sign of revenge against the French. After fighting their way through Germany, the Black Brunswickers entered British service and fought with them in the Peninsular War and at the Battle of Waterloo. The Brunswick corps was eventually incorporated into the Prussian Army in 1866.


title: Totenkopf

text: The skull continued to be used by the Prussian and Brunswick armed forces until 1918, and some of the stormtroopers that led the last German offensives on the Western Front in 1918 used skull badges. "Luftstreitkräfte" fighter pilots Georg von Hantelmann and Kurt Adolf Monnington are just two of a number of Central Powers military pilots who used the "Totenkopf" as their personal aircraft insignia.


title: Totenkopf

text: The "Totenkopf" was used in Germany throughout the interwar period, most prominently by the "Freikorps". In 1933, it was in use by the regimental staff and the 1st, 5th, and 11th squadrons of the "Reichswehr"s 5th Cavalry Regiment as a continuation of a tradition from the "Kaiserreich".


title: Totenkopf

text: In the early days of the Nazi Party, Julius Schreck, the leader of the "Stabswache" (Adolf Hitler's bodyguard unit), resurrected the use of the "Totenkopf" as the unit's insignia. This unit grew into the "Schutzstaffel" (SS), which continued to use the "Totenkopf" as insignia throughout its history. According to a writing by Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, the "Totenkopf" had the following meaning:


title: Totenkopf

text: The "Skull" is the reminder that you shall always be willing to put your self at stake for the life of the whole community.


title: Totenkopf

text: The "Totenkopf" was also used as the unit insignia of the "Panzer" forces of the German "Heer" (Army), and also by the "Panzer" units of the Luftwaffe, including those of the elite Fallschirm-Panzer Division 1 Hermann Göring.


title: Totenkopf

text: Both the 3rd SS Panzer Division of the Waffen-SS, and the World War II era Luftwaffe's 54th Bomber Wing "Kampfgeschwader 54" were given the unit name ""Totenkopf"", and used a strikingly similar-looking graphic skull-crossbones insignia as the SS units of the same name. The 3rd SS Panzer Division also had skull patches on their uniform collars instead of the SS sieg rune.


title: Totenkopf

text: In the United States, the skull & crossbones symbol has often been used to indicate a poisonous substance.


title: Totenkopf

text: "Toten-Kopf" translates literally to "Dead's Head", meaning exactly "dead person's head". Semantically, it refers to a skull, literally a "Schädel". As a term, "Totenkopf" connotes the human skull as a symbol, typically one with crossed thigh bones as part of a grouping.


title: Totenkopf

text: The common translation of "Totenkopf" as "death's head" is incorrect; it would be "Todeskopf", but no such word is in use -- the English term death squad is called , not "Totenschwadron". It would be a logical fallacy to conclude that usage varies only because of the German naming of the death's-head hawkmoth, which is called "skull hawkmoth" ("Totenkopfschwärmer") in German, in the same way that it would be a fallacy to conclude that the German word for "night candle" (i.e. "Nachtkerze") would mean "willowherb", just because the willowherb hawkmoth ("Proserpinus proserpina") is called "night candle hawkmoth" ("Nachtkerzenschwärmer", "Proserpinus proserpina"


title: Totenkopf

text: Contemporary German language meaning of the word "Totenkopf" has not changed for at least two centuries. For example, the German poet Clemens Brentano (1778–1842) wrote in the story ""Baron Hüpfenstich"": "Lauter Totenbeine und Totenköpfe, die standen oben herum ..." (i.e. "A lot of bones and skulls, they were placed above ...").


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: The Indo-Iranian languages (also Indo-Iranic languages or Aryan languages) constitute the largest and southeasternmost extant branch of the Indo-European language family (with over 400 languages), predominantly spoken in the geographical subregion of Southern Asia. They have more than 1.5 billion speakers, stretching from Europe (Romani), Mesopotamia (Kurdish languages, Zaza–Gorani and Kurmanji Dialect continuum) and the Caucasus (Ossetian, Tat and Talysh) eastward to Xinjiang (Sarikoli) and Assam (Assamese), and south to Sri Lanka (Sinhala) and the Maldives (Maldivian), with branches stretching as far out as Oceania and the Caribbean for Fiji Hindi and Caribbean Hindustani respectively. Furthermore, there are large diaspora communities of Indo-Iranian speakers in northwestern Europe (the United Kingdom), North America (United States, Canada), Australia, South Africa, and the Persian Gulf Region (United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia).


title: Indo-Iranian languages

text: The common ancestor of all of the languages in this family is called Proto-Indo-Iranian—also known as Common Aryan—which was spoken in approximately the late 3rd millennium BC. The three branches of the modern Indo-Iranian languages are Indo-Aryan, Iranian, and Nuristani. A fourth independent branch, Dardic, was previously posited, but recent scholarship in general places Dardic languages as archaic members of the Indo-Aryan branch.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: The White Princess is a historical drama television miniseries developed for Starz. It is based on Philippa Gregory's 2013 novel of the same name and, to a lesser extent, its 2014 sequel "The King's Curse". It is a sequel to the 2013 miniseries "The White Queen", which adapted three of Gregory's previous novels, and begins immediately where "The White Queen" finished.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: In the eight episode series, the marriage of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York effectively ends the Wars of the Roses by uniting the houses of Lancaster and York. However, their mutual enmity and distrust, as well as the political plots of their mothers, threaten to tear both the marriage and the kingdom apart.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: The 10-part 2013 television series "The White Queen" adapted Gregory's previous novels "The White Queen" (2009), "The Red Queen" (2010) and "The Kingmaker's Daughter" (2012). The series was broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom and on Starz in the United States, and features Freya Mavor as a young Elizabeth of York. Despite initial plans for a second series, on 20 August 2013 the BBC announced they were not commissioning one, possibly because of the lukewarm reception the series received.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: However, in October 2013, "The Telegraph" reported that Starz was planning to develop a sequel miniseries called "The White Princess", based on Gregory's novel. Starz CEO Chris Albrecht announced in January 2014 that the network was working with "White Queen" screenwriter Emma Frost on the project. Starz would produce the "White Princess" miniseries without involvement from the BBC. Gregory confirmed that the project was underway in August 2015. On 7 February 2016, Gregory announced on Facebook that the sequel was officially confirmed to be in production, with the scripts being written. The series was confirmed to be eight episodes in May 2016.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: Jamie Payne, who directed three episodes of "The White Queen", directed episodes 1, 2, 3, 7, and 8. Frost was the showrunner and executive producer. Lachlan MacKinnon is served as producer, with Gregory as executive producer. Playground's Colin Callender and Scott Huff also executive produced with Company Pictures' Michele Buck.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: Jodie Comer was cast in the title role of Elizabeth of York in April 2016, with Michelle Fairley added as Margaret Beaufort in May. In June 2016, Starz announced the casting of Essie Davis as Dowager Queen Elizabeth, Jacob Collins-Levy as Henry VII, Suki Waterhouse as Cecily of York, Rebecca Benson as Margaret Plantagenet, and Joanne Whalley as Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy. The remaining cast includes Caroline Goodall as Duchess Cecily, Kenneth Cranham as Bishop Morton, Vincent Regan as Jasper Tudor and Rhys Connah as Teddy Plantagenet.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: Principal photography began in June 2016, with locations including Bradford on Avon, Bristol, Berkeley Castle, Gloucester Cathedral, Lacock, Salisbury Cathedral, and Wells.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: In early January 2017, the producers released a video clip from the series as a teaser trailer. In February 2017, Starz announced that "The White Princess" would premiere on 16 April 2017. In the UK the series began its satellite and terrestrial broadcasts on the Drama channel on 18 November 2017.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: The miniseries received generally favorable reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 76% based on reviews from 17 critics, with an average rating of 6.95/10. The website's critics consensus indicated the series was "well-acted and enlivened by its fresh perspective" and "delivers more than enough intrigue to satisfy fans of period British royal court drama." On Metacritic, the show has a weighted average score of 71 based on reviews from 9 critics.


title: The White Princess (miniseries)

text: On 15 March 2018, Starz announced that it will create a continuation of "The White Queen" and "The White Princess" to be titled "The Spanish Princess", which will be based on Gregory's novels "The Constant Princess" and "The King's Curse" and center on Catherine of Aragon.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Joely Fisher ( born October 29, 1967) is an American actress and singer, the daughter of singer Eddie Fisher and actress Connie Stevens, and half-sister of actress Carrie Fisher. Her breakthrough came in 1994, starring as Paige Clark in the ABC sitcom "Ellen", for which she received a Golden Globe Award nomination. Fisher later starred in the 1999 comedy film "Inspector Gadget" and had leading roles in the Lifetime comedy-drama "Wild Card" (2003-2005), and Fox sitcom "'Til Death" (2006-2010).


title: Joely Fisher

text: The national members of the trade union SAG-AFTRA elected Fisher as secretary-treasurer on September 2, 2021.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Fisher was born on October 29, 1967, in Burbank, California, one of two children born to Edwin "Eddie" Fisher (1928 – 2010) and Connie Stevens (née Concetta Ingoglia; born 1938), both entertainers. Her father was Jewish, whose parents immigrated to the United States from the Russian Empire, whereas her mother was a Catholic and of Ashkenazi Jewish, Irish, and Italian descent. Her parents' second child together, her sister Tricia Leigh Fisher, was born in 1968, and her parents divorced in 1969, after which she and Tricia were raised by Stevens. She also had two older half-siblings, Carrie Fisher and Todd Fisher, from her father's marriage to Debbie Reynolds.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Fisher and her sister toured the world with Stevens, attending different schools and having tutors. Fisher graduated from Beverly Hills High School, then attended Emerson College in Boston, as well as the University of Paris for one semester, and, in the summer of 1987, an acting retreat conducted in Italy by coach Sandra Seacat.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Her first movie role was Averil in the comedy "Pretty Smart" (1987), which starred her sister, Tricia. Joely then played Kris in TV's Schoolbreak Special drama "Dedicated to the One I Love" (1991) opposite Danielle Ferland. Next came the feature "I'll Do Anything" (1994) starring Nick Nolte, which helped her career as bigger roles followed. She also had a variety of guest roles on series such as "Growing Pains", "Blossom", "Caroline in the City", "The Golden Palace", "The Outer Limits", "Grace Under Fire" and "Coach".


title: Joely Fisher

text: In 1994, she was cast as Paige Clark on the sitcom "Ellen". She played the role until the series ended in 1998. That same year, she earned a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film. She also sang the theme song "Who has a perfect smile? Who has a comical style, who likes to hang out with her friends, who who? Ellen!" with Clea Lewis. She followed "Ellen" with the role of Dr. Brenda Bradford in the feature movie "Inspector Gadget" (1999) opposite Matthew Broderick.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Fisher's Broadway debut was as a replacement in the revival of "Grease" (1994). She was also a replacement in the revival of "Cabaret" (1998). Her vocal range is alto.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Joely's career in music not only landed her on Broadway but she was featured in Albums. Her most noted album was "Tradition; a family at Christmas" which she, her mother Connie Stevens all sang various Christmas carols. She sang her own solo "Grown Up Christmas List". Her vocals are also heard singing "One For My Baby" in Harold Arlen's album "STAGE"


title: Joely Fisher

text: From 2003 until 2005, Fisher starred in the Lifetime network's drama series "Wild Card" as insurance investigator Zoe Busiek. After that, she had a recurring role as Lynette's boss Nina on "Desperate Housewives". From 2006 until 2010, Fisher starred opposite actor Brad Garrett as Joy Stark in the Fox TV sitcom "'Til Death".


title: Joely Fisher

text: In 2021, Fisher starred as Irene Cody in the Lifetime film "Girl in the Basement" which was inspired by the Fritzl case.


title: Joely Fisher

text: Fisher married cinematographer Christopher Duddy in 1996. They have three daughters, two who were born in 2001 and 2006, and a third who was adopted in September 2008. She is also stepmother to Duddy's two sons, Cameron, who is the bass guitarist for the country music band Midland, (born c. 1986) and Collin (born circa 1988). As of at least 2004, the family lives in Los Angeles next to Fisher's sister Tricia, with whom she is close.


title: Joely Fisher

text: In late 2008, she became an artist ambassador for Save the Children. She traveled to Xai-Xai, Mozambique, to visit with children that are part of the child sponsorship programs.


title: Minor scale

text: In music theory, the minor scale is three scale patterns – the natural minor scale (or Aeolian mode), the harmonic minor scale, and the melodic minor scale (ascending or descending) – rather than just two as with the major scale, which also has a harmonic form but lacks a melodic form.


title: Minor scale

text: In each of these scales, the first, third, and fifth scale degrees form a minor triad (rather than a major triad, as in a major scale). In some contexts, "minor scale" is used to refer to any heptatonic scale with this property (see Related modes below).


title: Minor scale

text: A natural minor scale (or Aeolian mode) is a diatonic scale that is built by starting on the sixth degree of its relative major scale. For instance, the A natural minor scale can be built by starting on the 6th degree of the C major scale:


title: Minor scale

text: Because of this, the key of A minor is called the "relative minor" of C major. Every major key has a relative minor, which starts on the 6th scale degree or step. For instance, since the 6th degree of F major is D, the relative minor of F major is D minor.


title: Minor scale

text: A natural minor scale can also be constructed by altering a major scale with accidentals. In this way, a natural minor scale is represented by the following notation:


title: Minor scale

text: This notation is based on the major scale, and represents each degree (each note in the scale) by a number, starting with the tonic (the first, lowest note of the scale). By making use of flat symbols () this notation thus represents notes by how they deviate from the notes in the major scale. Because of this, we say that a number without a flat represents a major (or perfect) interval, while a number with a flat represents a minor interval. In this example, the numbers mean:


title: Minor scale

text: Thus, for instance, the A natural minor scale can be built by lowering the third, sixth, and seventh degrees of the A major scale by one semitone:


title: Minor scale

text: Because they share the same tonic note of A, the key of A minor is called the "parallel minor" of A major.


title: Minor scale

text: where "whole" stands for a whole tone (a red u-shaped curve in the figure), and "half" stands for a semitone (a red angled line in the figure).


title: Minor scale

text: The harmonic minor scale (or Aeolian 7 scale) has the same notes as the natural minor scale except that the seventh degree is raised by one semitone, creating an augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees.


title: Minor scale

text: A harmonic minor scale can be built by lowering the 3rd and 6th degrees of the parallel major scale by one semitone.


title: Minor scale

text: Because of this construction, the 7th degree of the harmonic minor scale functions as a leading tone to the tonic because it is a "semitone" lower than the tonic, rather than a "whole tone" lower than the tonic as it is in natural minor scales. The intervals between the notes of a harmonic minor scale follow the sequence below:


title: Minor scale

text: The scale is called the "harmonic" minor scale because it is a common foundation for harmonies (chords) in minor keys. For example, in the key of A minor, the dominant (V) chord (the triad built on the 5th scale degree, E) is a minor triad in the natural minor scale. But when the seventh degree is raised from G to G, the triad becomes a major triad.


title: Minor scale

text: Chords on degrees other than V may also include the raised 7th degree, such as the diminished triad on VII itself (vii), which has a dominant function, as well as an augmented triad on III (III), which is not found in any "natural" harmony (that is, harmony that is derived from harmonizing the seven western modes, which include "major" and "minor"). This augmented fifth chord (5 chord) played a part in the development of modern chromaticism.


title: Minor scale

text: The triads built on each scale degree follow a distinct pattern. The roman numeral analysis is shown below.


title: Minor scale

text: An interesting property of the harmonic minor scale is that it contains two chords that are each generated by just one interval:


title: Minor scale

text: Because they are generated by just one interval, the inversions of augmented triads and diminished seventh chords introduce no new intervals (allowing for enharmonic equivalents) that are absent from its root position. That is, any inversion of an augmented triad (or diminished seventh chord) is enharmonically equivalent to a new augmented triad (or diminished seventh chord) in root position. For example, the triad E–G–B in first inversion is G–B–E, which is enharmonically equivalent to the augmented triad G–B–D. One chord, with various spellings, may therefore have various harmonic functions in various keys.


title: Minor scale

text: The seventh chords built on each scale degree follow a distinct pattern. The roman numeral analysis is shown in parentheses below.


title: Minor scale

text: Harmonic minor contains seven types of seventh chords: a minor major seventh chord (i), a half-diminished seventh chord (ii), an augmented major seventh chord (III), a minor seventh chord (iv), a dominant seventh chord (V), a major seventh chord (VI), and a diminished seventh chord (vii). Natural minor only contains four types of seventh chords: three minor seventh chords (i, iv, and v), a half-diminished seventh chord (ii), two major seventh chords (III and VI), and a dominant seventh chord (VII).


title: Minor scale

text: While it evolved primarily as a basis for chords, the harmonic minor with its augmented second is sometimes used melodically. Instances can be found in Mozart, Beethoven (for example, the finale of his String Quartet No. 14), and Schubert (for example, in the first movement of the "Death and the Maiden Quartet"). In this role, it is used while descending far more often than while ascending. A familiar example of the descending scale is heard in a Ring of bells. A ring of twelve is sometimes augmented with a 5♯ and 6♭ to make a 10 note harmonic minor scale from bell 2 to bell 11 (for example, Worcester Cathedral).


title: Minor scale

text: The harmonic minor is also occasionally referred to as the "Mohammedan scale" as its upper tetrachord corresponds to the Hijaz jins, commonly found in Middle Eastern music. The harmonic minor scale as a whole is called "Nahawand" in Arabic nomenclature, as "Bûselik Hicaz" in Turkish nomenclature, and as an Indian raga, it is called Keeravani/Kirwani.


title: Minor scale

text: The Hungarian minor scale is similar to the harmonic minor scale but with a raised 4th degree. This scale is sometimes also referred to as "Gypsy Run", or alternatively "Egyptian Minor Scale", as mentioned by Miles Davis who describes it in his autobiography as "something that I'd learned at Juilliard".


title: Minor scale

text: In popular music, examples of songs in harmonic minor include Katy B's "Easy Please Me", Bobby Brown's "My Prerogative", and Jazmine Sullivan's "Bust Your Windows". The scale also had a notable influence on heavy metal, spawning a sub-genre known as neoclassical metal, with guitarists such as Chuck Schuldiner, Yngwie Malmsteen, Ritchie Blackmore, and Randy Rhoads employing it in their music.


title: Minor scale

text: Like Ionian (or major) scale, harmonic minor scale has seven modes, but since the character of harmonic minor is quite the same as Aeolian (natural minor), the modes from Ionian will be rearranged to be started from Aeolian.


title: Minor scale

text: The distinctive sound of the harmonic minor scale comes from the augmented second between its sixth and seventh scale degrees. While some composers have used this interval to advantage in melodic composition, others felt it to be an awkward leap, particularly in vocal music, and preferred a whole step between these scale degrees for smooth melody writing. To eliminate the augmented second, these composers either raised the sixth degree by a semitone or lowered the seventh by a semitone.


title: Minor scale

text: The melodic minor scale is formed by using "both" of these solutions. In particular, the raised sixth appears in the ascending form of the scale, while the lowered seventh appears in the descending form of the scale. Traditionally, these two forms are referred to as:


title: Minor scale

text: Using these notations, the two melodic minor scales can be built by altering the parallel major scale.


title: Minor scale

text: Composers have not been consistent in using the two forms of the melodic minor scale. Composers frequently require the lowered 7th degree found in the natural minor in order to avoid the augmented triad (III) that arises in the ascending form of the scale.


title: Minor scale

text: Examples of the use of melodic minor in rock and popular music include Elton John's "Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word", which makes, "a nod to the common practice... by the use of F [the leading tone in G minor] as the penultimate note of the final cadence." The Beatles' "Yesterday" also partly uses the melodic minor scale.


title: Minor scale

text: In modern notation, the key signature for music in a minor key is typically based on the accidentals of the "natural" minor scale, not on those of the harmonic or melodic minor scales. For example, a piece in E minor will have one sharp in its key signature because the E natural minor scale has one sharp (F).


title: Minor scale

text: Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are "relative" to each other. For instance, F major is the relative major of D minor since both have key signatures with one flat. Since the natural minor scale is built on the 6th degree of the major scale, the tonic of the relative minor is a major sixth above the tonic of the major scale. For instance, B minor is the relative minor of D major because the note B is a major sixth above D. As a result, the key signatures of B minor and D major both have two sharps (F and C).


title: Minor scale

text: Sometimes scales whose root, third, and fifth degrees form a minor triad are considered "minor scales". In the Western system, derived from the Greek modes, the principal scale that includes the minor third is the Aeolian mode (the natural minor scale), with the minor third also occurring in the Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode. The Dorian mode is a minor mode with a major sixth, while the Phrygian mode is a minor mode with a minor second. The Locrian mode (which is "very" rarely used) has a minor third but not the perfect fifth, so its root chord is a diminished triad.


title: Minor scale

text: Although various hemitonic pentatonic scales might be called "minor", the term is most commonly applied to the relative minor pentatonic scale, derived as a mode of the major pentatonic scale, using scale tones 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 of the natural minor scale.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, also known as the L-1011 (pronounced "El-ten-eleven") and TriStar, is an American medium-to-long-range, wide-body trijet airliner built by the Lockheed Corporation. It was the third wide-body airliner to enter commercial operations, after the Boeing 747 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10. The airliner has a seating capacity of up to 400 passengers and a range of over . Its trijet configuration has three Rolls-Royce RB211 engines with one engine under each wing, along with a third engine center-mounted with an S-duct air inlet embedded in the tail and the upper fuselage. The aircraft has an autoland capability, an automated descent control system, and available lower deck galley and lounge facilities.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011 TriStar was produced in two fuselage lengths. The original L-1011-1 first flew in November 1970 and entered service with Eastern Air Lines in 1972. The shortened, longer range L-1011-500 first flew in 1978 and entered service with British Airways a year later. The original-length TriStar was also produced as the high gross weight L-1011-100, up-rated engine L-1011-200, and further upgraded L-1011-250. Post-production conversions for the L-1011-1 with increased takeoff weights included the L-1011-50 and L-1011-150.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011 TriStar's sales were hampered by two years of delays due to developmental and financial problems at Rolls-Royce, the sole manufacturer of the aircraft's engines. Between 1968 and 1984, Lockheed manufactured a total of 250 TriStars, assembled at the Lockheed plant located at the Palmdale Regional Airport in southern California north of Los Angeles. After L-1011 production ended, Lockheed withdrew from the commercial aircraft business due to its below-target sales.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: In the 1960s, American Airlines approached Lockheed and competitor Douglas (later McDonnell Douglas) with the need for an airliner which could carry 250 passengers on transcontinental routes. Lockheed had not produced civilian airliners since 1961 with the L-188 Electra. In the 1950s the Electra was designed for turboprop propulsion, which Lockheed had successfully used on the C-130 Hercules military transport. Even after the Electra overcame vibration problems that caused several crashes early in its career, the market for large airliners would soon shift over to jet airliners such as the Boeing 707 and Douglas DC-8. Lockheed won contracts for jet military transports with the C-141 StarLifter, and pioneered very large jet transports with the large C-5 Galaxy with its high-bypass turbofan engines. Boeing lost the military contract, but its private-venture 747 captured what would become a much larger civilian airliner market for wide-body airliners.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Having experienced difficulties with some of its military programs, Lockheed was eager to re-enter the civilian market with a smaller wide-body jet, and its response was the L-1011 TriStar. Douglas Aircraft answered American Airlines with the DC-10, which had a similar three-engine configuration and dimensions. Despite their similarities, the L-1011 and DC-10's engineering approach differed greatly. McDonnell, who had recently taken over Douglas Aircraft, directed DC-10 development on a "very firm budget, and cost overruns were unacceptable even at the expense of safety", and the conservative approach meant reusing Douglas DC-8 technology. By contrast, Lockheed would "take the most advanced technology of the day and when that technology was lacking, Lockheed created it" for the L-1011 in order to give it lower noise emissions, improved reliability, and higher efficiency over first-generation jet airliners. The TriStar name was selected in a Lockheed employee naming contest for the airliner. The advanced technology that went into the TriStar resulted in a high purchase price.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The TriStar's design featured a twin-aisle interior with a maximum of 400 passengers and a three-engine layout. The TriStar was originally conceived as a "jumbo twin", but a three-engine design was ultimately chosen to give the aircraft enough thrust to take off from existing runways. Also, before the establishment of Extended Operations standards by the FAA in the 1980s, commercial jets with only two engines were not allowed to fly more than 30 minutes away from an airport, making trans-oceanic flights impossible. The main visible difference between the TriStar and its similar trijet competitor, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, is the central tail engine configuration: the DC-10's engine is mounted above the fuselage for simplicity of design and more economical construction, while the TriStar's engine is mounted to the rear fuselage and fed through an S-duct (similar to the Boeing 727) for reduced drag and improved stability. Lockheed engineers were able to maintain straight-through engine performance by limiting the curve of the S-duct to less than a quarter of the radius of the engine intake diameter. The S-duct design also reduced the total empty aircraft weight. The research undertaken during the design of the L-1011 indicated that losses of using an S-duct were more than compensated for by the above savings. A further major difference between the L-1011 and the DC-10 was Lockheed's selection of the Rolls-Royce RB211 as the only engine for the L-1011. As originally designed, the RB211 turbofan was an advanced three-spool design with a carbon fiber fan, which would have better efficiency and power-to-weight ratio than any competing engine like the General Electric CF6 that powered the DC-10. In theory, the triple spool would produce the same or more power as existing double spool engines while having a smaller cross section that would reduce drag.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: American Airlines opted for the Douglas DC-10, although it showed considerable interest in the L-1011. American intended to convince Douglas to lower its price for the DC-10, which it did. Without the support of American, the TriStar was launched on orders from TWA and Eastern Air Lines.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Although the TriStar's design schedule closely followed that of its competitor, McDonnell Douglas beat Lockheed to market by a year due to delays in powerplant development. In February 1971, after massive development costs associated with the RB211, Rolls-Royce went into receivership. This halted L-1011 final assembly and Lockheed investigated the possibility of a US engine supplier. However the engineering was finalized at that stage in the TriStar's development and its S-duct, which was designed to fit the smaller cross-section of the triple spool RB-211 engine that would have reduced drag, was too small in diameter to accommodate an existing double spool engine. One option presented was potential outsource of RB-211 production to Canadian manufacturer Orenda Engines.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The British government agreed to approve a large state subsidy to restart Rolls-Royce operations on condition the U.S. government guarantee the bank loans Lockheed needed to complete the L-1011 project. Despite some opposition, not least from the then Governor of California, Ronald Reagan, the U.S. government provided these guarantees. For the rest of the RB211 project, Rolls-Royce remained a government-owned company.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The TriStar's internal Lockheed model number is L-093. The TriStar was manufactured in Lockheed facilities in Burbank and Palmdale, California.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Lockheed discovered fairly early on that the TriStar suffered from higher than estimated structural weight, engine weight, and specific fuel consumption. To rectify this problem and to meet performance guarantees, Lockheed developed a structural kit that allowed maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) to be increased on production aircraft from . However, the weight problems affected the weight and desirability of early production L-1011-1 aircraft, known as Group 1 (serial numbers 1002 through to 1012).


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Group 1 aircraft have an OEW of , about higher than later aircraft, while Group 2 aircraft (serial numbers 1013 through 1051) have an OEW of , some lower. These aircraft, in general, also have different center of gravity envelopes with the forward center of gravity limit on the early aircraft being more restrictive at higher gross weights. Groups 1 and 2 aircraft (serial numbers 1002 to 1051) are upgradeable only to -50 or -150 specifications, although the Group 1 aircraft (up to serial number 1012) still maintain their operating disadvantages. All L-1011-1 aircraft from serial number 1052 onwards are Group 3 aircraft and are fully upgradeable to all variants up to -250 specification.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Costs at Rolls-Royce were controlled and its efforts largely went into the original TriStar engines, which needed considerable modifications between the L-1011's first flight and service entry. The competition, notably General Electric, was very quick to develop its CF6 engine with more thrust, which meant that a heavier "intercontinental" DC-10-30 could be more quickly brought to market. The flexibility afforded to potential customers by a long-range DC-10 put the L-1011 at a serious disadvantage. Rolls-Royce went on to develop the high-thrust RB211-524 for the L-1011-200 and -500, but this took many years.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The resultant delay in Lockheed and Rolls-Royce offering a high gross variant with a longer range, coupled with the TriStar's delayed introduction, meant that only 250 TriStars were sold compared to some 400 DC-10s. Lockheed needed to sell 500 airliners to break even, but in 1981, the company announced production would end with the delivery of the 250th and last L-1011 on order in 1984.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The TriStar's failure to achieve profitability caused Lockheed to withdraw from the civilian aircraft business. The TriStar's rivalry with the DC-10 has been seen as a "case study in what can happen when two manufacturers attempt to split a market that simply could not support both aircraft". Lockheed lacked the resources to follow up with several proposals based on the TriStar wing and airframe, including a wide-body twinjet and a stretched quad-jet (one of the quadjet proposals consisting of two underwing engines and two rear fuselage-mounted engines). McDonnell Douglas was also financially weakened and could only develop the MD-11, a refinement of the DC-10, instead of an all-new design to challenge the next generation of twinjets like the Boeing 777.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The RB211 and its features, despite the delays in its development, provided the L-1011 with then-unmatched fuel economy and noise levels.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: During development the RB211, engines on the L-1011 had "thrust-spoilers" – target-type hot-stream reverse buckets – alongside the cold-bypass reversers. Despite capturing 25% of the total engine thrust, aerodynamic interference with the flaps diminished the braking effect of the flaps, so the thrust-spoilers were removed; instead an 11-degree afterbody was installed, which improved the specific range by 1.5%. Further improvements led to a 15-degree afterbody, enabling the L-1011 "to beat its predicted specific air range at 0.85 Mach by between 3.5 and 5.5 percent, the exact figure depending on cruise weight."


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Instead of the trimmable horizontal stabilizer (THS) found on the jetliners of its day and through the 2010s, the L-1011 incorporated an all-flying tail – a stabilator. The aft portion had a geared (anti-servo) elevator that was linked to and moved with the stabilator, changing the stabilator's camber and improving the overall control surface effectiveness. Lockheed's main drive away from a THS was "[eliminating] mis-trim and runaway trim problems that have contributed to a number of accidents in the past." The fact that the elevators are not moved directly led to the failure in recognizing the jamming (trailing edge up) of the left elevator aboard Delta Air Lines Flight 1080 in 1977.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011-1 has four wing tanks; each inboard tank feeds the respective wing engine, and the two outboard tanks feed the tail engine via a flow equalizer. The additional center tank of the long-range variants, which is two halves, is located between the wing halves. Each center tank half acts as additional capacity to its adjacent inboard wing tank; filling it by way of ejector pumps. When the center tank is filled, it is used to crossfeed all three engines in flight (by way of the ejector pumps and crossfeed valves) until the center tank is empty and the remaining tanks are equalized.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The nose landing gear had two attachment points forward and aft, allowing a short-enough tug to push or pull the plane from directly underneath, a feature to allow operations where there wasn't enough forward space at some airports, which was more common at the time.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The FMS on the L-1011, certified by the FAA in September 1977, offered many features that have since become common. The features were aimed at greatly reducing crew workload and improving fuel efficiency. Of those are a Mach/IAS cruise control, an automatic Rough Air Mode that detects turbulence and adjusts the engine power setting accordingly, and a descent mode that figures out the optimum location to start a descent by "back computing" from a preselected point, allowing "on-altitude and on-speed" arrival.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011 also featured a highly advanced autopilot system and was the first widebody to receive FAA certification for Cat-IIIc autolanding, which approved the TriStar for completely blind landings performed by the aircraft's autopilot in zero-visibility weather. The L-1011 used an inertial navigation system to navigate; this included aligning the navigation system by entering current coordinates of longitude and latitude.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: It also had a unique direct lift control (DLC) system, which allowed for smooth approaches when landing, without having to use significant pitch changes while on the approach path. DLC helps maintain the aircraft on the glideslope during final approach by automatically deploying spoiler panels on the wings. Thus, rather than maintaining the descent by adjusting pitch, DLC helps control the descent while maintaining a more consistent pitch angle, using four redundant hydraulic systems. The production also used a unique "autoclave" system for bonding fuselage panels together; this made the L-1011 extremely resistant to corrosion.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The APU was capable of operating up to 30,000 feet; its two square-shaped inlet doors are situated on the bottom fuselage on the aircraft's centerline towards the rear of the plane.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Compared to the typical three-system of its era, the L-1011 had four independent 3,000-psi hydraulic systems, A through D.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The prototype first flew on November 16, 1970. The crew for that flight was H. B. Dees (pilot), Ralph C. Cokely (copilot), and G.E. Fisher (development engineer). The L-1011 was certified on April 14, 1972, with the first airliner delivered to Eastern Air Lines on April 26, 1972. In 1972, its unit cost was US$20 million. To further publicize the new aircraft, an L-1011 was taken on a world tour during 1972 by famed Lockheed test pilot Tony LeVier. In a demonstration by test pilots LeVier and Charles Hall, 115 crew members, employees, and reporters embarked on the TriStar for a 4-hour, 13-minute flight from Palmdale to Dulles Airport "with the TriStar's AFCS [Automatic Flight Control System] feature engaged from takeoff roll to landing", and Lockheed touted it as "a groundbreaking moment: the first cross-country flight without the need for human hands on the controls".


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: TWA heralded the TriStar as one of the safest aircraft in the world in promotional literature in the 1980s when concern over the safety record of the McDonnell Douglas DC-10, flown by rival airlines, was at its peak. The L-1011 has been involved in five fatal accidents, only one of which was due to a problem with the aircraft.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: Delta Air Lines was the type's largest customer. Delta retired its TriStars in 2001 to replace them with the Boeing 767-400ER. Cathay Pacific eventually became the largest non-U.S. operator of the type by acquiring many of the Eastern Air Lines examples when Eastern went bankrupt, operating as many as 21 aircraft. Cathay Pacific retired its L-1011s in October 1996 and replaced the type with the Airbus A330-300. TWA withdrew its last TriStar from service in 1997.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: To secure the Japanese market, Lockheed secretly bribed several members of the Japanese government to subsidize All Nippon Airways' purchase of L-1011s; this caused a significant scandal when the bribes were uncovered. The discovered scale to what has become known as the Lockheed bribery scandal led to the arrest of Japanese Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka, as well as several other officials. Within Lockheed, board chairman Daniel Haughton and vice chairman and president Carl Kotchian resigned their posts on February 13, 1976. Tanaka was eventually tried and found guilty of violating foreign exchange control laws but was not charged with bribery, a more serious criminal offense. Crucially for Lockheed, the fallout from the scandal included the loss of a contract worth over $1 billion.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The Soviet Union at that time lacked a widebody airliner. Development of its own Ilyushin Il-86 was delayed; consequently, in the mid-1970s, the Soviets started negotiations to buy 30 TriStars and license-produce up to 100 a year. The talks collapsed as US President Jimmy Carter made human rights an important consideration in US foreign policy. The TriStar was also listed by the Coordinating Committee as embodying advanced technology banned from potential enemies and thus a serious obstacle to the export deal.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The last three airlines to operate the L-1011 in "scheduled" service were Brussels Airlines (codeshare with Hewa Bora Airways), Thai Sky Airlines, and Lloyd Aereo Boliviano, with final flights in August 2007, February 2008, and May 2008, respectively. In later years the L-1011 has been used by smaller start-up carriers, particularly in Africa and Asia. These operators mainly do their business in the "ad hoc" charter and wet leasing businesses. ATA Airlines (formerly known as American Trans Air) fleet included over 19 TriStars, but operations dwindled to only three L-1011-500s before the company's shutdown in April 2008.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The TriStar has also been used as a military tanker and passenger/cargo aircraft. The British Royal Air Force had nine aircraft of four variants. The aircraft were six ex-British Airways and three Pan Am L-1011-500s. All of the aircraft served with No. 216 Squadron, and were based at RAF Brize Norton. The TriStar was replaced in RAF service by the Airbus A330 MRTT under the Future Strategic Tanker Aircraft program. 216 Squadron was officially disbanded on March 20, 2014, and flew its last sorties with the TriStar on March 24, 2014.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: In the early 1990s, Orbital Sciences began to use a converted L-1011-100 named "Stargazer" to launch Pegasus rockets into orbit around Earth. This venture effectively rendered the small Scout rocket obsolete. This aircraft was also used in support of the X-34 and X-43 programs. NASA performed aerodynamic research on Orbital Sciences' L-1011 in 1995. In 2014, three L-1011s in the world were airworthy. As of 2019, "Stargazer" is the only active L-1011.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The earlier versions of the L-1011, such as the -1, -100, and -150 can be distinguished from the later models by the design of the middle engine nacelles. The earlier version nacelle has a round intake, whereas the later models have a small vertical fin between the bottom of the middle engine intake and the top of the fuselage.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The two L-1011 aircraft delivered to Pacific Southwest Airlines were configured with internal airstair doors that led into an entry hall in what was normally the forward lower baggage hold. This was to allow operations from airfields that did not have terminal buildings with jet bridges. These two aircraft were later in service with Aeroperú and Worldways Canada.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011-1 (FAA certification L-1011-385-1) was the first production model of the L-1011, designed for short- and medium-range flights. This variant served as the basis for subsequent variants. This type was purchased by Air Canada, ANA, Cathay Pacific, Eastern, and other operators with regional trunk routes requiring a widebody aircraft. Pacific Southwest Airlines purchased two L-1011-1 models with lower deck seating. This variant was also one of the few widebodies to have the option for a full-height built-in airstair.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011-1 was first delivered to Eastern Air Lines on April 5, 1972. A total of 160 L-1011-1 TriStars were built before production ended in 1983, although the majority of these, 119 or 75% of the total, were completed during a four-year period from 1972 to 1975. Most sales of the L-1011-1 were to US operators, with just three airlines, Delta, Eastern, and TWA, taking delivery of 110 combined. A further two aircraft were placed with a fourth US airline, Pacific Southwest Airlines.


title: Lockheed L-1011 TriStar

text: The L-1011-100 (FAA certification L-1011-385-1-14) was the second production model of the L-1011 and first flew in 1975 and featured a new center fuel tank and higher gross weights that increased the aircraft's range by nearly . Launch orders for the L-1011-100 were placed by Saudia and Cathay Pacific, for two each, in May 1974. Deliveries began in June 1975.