title: Abolitionism

text: In 2014, for the first time in history major Anglican, Catholic, and Orthodox Christian leaders, as well as Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist leaders, met to sign a shared commitment against modern-day slavery; the declaration they signed calls for the elimination of slavery and human trafficking by 2020.


title: Abolitionism

text: The United States Department of State publishes the annual Trafficking in Persons Report, identifying countries as either Tier 1, Tier 2, Tier 2 Watch List or Tier 3, depending upon three factors: "(1) The extent to which the country is a country of origin, transit, or destination for severe forms of trafficking; (2) The extent to which the government of the country does not comply with the TVPA's minimum standards including, in particular, the extent of the government's trafficking-related corruption; and (3) The resources and capabilities of the government to address and eliminate severe forms of trafficking in persons."


title: CAF Champions League

text: The CAF Champions League, known for sponsorship purposes as the TotalEnergies CAF Champions League and formerly the African Cup of Champions Clubs, is an annual football club competition organized by the Confederation of African Football and contested by top-division African clubs, deciding the competition winners through a round robin group stage to qualify for a double-legged knockout stage, and then a single leg final. It is one of the most prestigious football tournaments in the world and the most prestigious club competition in African football.


title: CAF Champions League

text: The winner of the tournament earns a berth for the FIFA Club World Cup, a tournament contested between the champion clubs from all six continental confederations, and also faces the winner of the CAF Confederation Cup in the following season's CAF Super Cup. Clubs that finish as runners-up their national leagues, having not qualified for the Champions League, are eligible for the second-tier CAF Confederation Cup.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Egyptian clubs have the highest number of victories (16 titles), followed by Morocco with 7. Morocco, Egypt, Tunisia and Algeria have the largest number of winning teams, with three clubs from each having won the title. The competition has been won by 26 clubs, 12 of which have won it more than once. Al Ahly is the most successful club in the competition's history, having won the tournament a record 10 times.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Established in 1964 as the African Cup of Champions Clubs, the first team to lift the trophy was Cameroonian team Oryx Douala who beat Stade Malien of Mali 2–1 in a one-off final.


title: CAF Champions League

text: There was no tournament held the following year, but the action resumed again two years later in 1966, when the two-legged 'home and away' final was introduced, which saw another Malian team AS Real Bamako take on Stade d'Abidjan of Ivory Coast. Bamako won the home leg 3–1 but it all came apart for them in the away game in Abidjan as the Ivorians went on to win 4–1 to take the title 5–4 on aggregate.


title: CAF Champions League

text: In 1967 when Asante Kotoko of Ghana met TP Mazembe of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (or the DRC for short), both matches ended in draws (1–1 and 2–2 respectively). CAF arranged a play-off, but Kotoko failed to appear and the title was handed to Mazembe, who went on to win the title again the following year.


title: CAF Champions League

text: However, the Ghanaians got their revenge in 1970, when Kotoko and Mazembe once again met in the final. Once again, the first game ended 1–1, but against expectation the Ghanaians ran out 2–1 winners in their away game to lift the title that had eluded them three years earlier.


title: CAF Champions League

text: The 1970s saw a remarkable rise in the fortunes of Cameroonian club football, which created the platform of success enjoyed by Cameroonian football at international level today.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Between 1971 and 1980 Cameroonian teams won the cup four times, with Canon Yaoundé taking three titles (1971, 1978 and 1980) and US Douala lifting the cup in 1979. In between the Cameroonian victories the honor was shared with another team enjoying a golden age, Guinean side Hafia Conakry, who won it three times during this period (1972, 1975 and 1977).


title: CAF Champions League

text: Apart from the introduction of the away goals rule, very little changed in this competition until 1997, when CAF under Issa Hayatou took the bold step to follow the lead established a few years earlier by UEFA by creating a league/group stage in the tournament and changing the name to the CAF Champions League (in line with UEFA's own Champions League). CAF also introduced prize money for participants for the first time with the initial offering of US$1 million to the winners and US$750,000 to the runners-up, making the rebranded competition the richest African club competition at the time.


title: CAF Champions League

text: In the new format, the league champions of the respective CAF member countries go through a series of qualification rounds until a round of 16 stage. The 8 winners are then drawn into two groups of 4 teams each, with each team playing each other on a home and away basis. At the end of the league stage, the top team in each group met in the final, in two-legged games (home and away).


title: CAF Champions League

text: In the 2001 season, the CAF introduced the semi-finals after group stage, then the top two teams in each group met in the semi-finals, with the winners going through to contest the final.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Beginning with the 2009 season, the prize money increased to $1.5 million for the champions and $1 million for the runner-ups. Since the competition rebranded in 1997, teams from North Africa have come to dominate the competition and its records entirely. Morocco's Raja CA won two of the first three editions, but Al Ahly became the most successful team, winning the tournaments in 2001, 2005, 2006, 2008 and 2012, while Zamalek managed to be champions in 2002. Tunisian teams broke into the championship with the title of Étoile du Sahel, which in 2007 was proclaimed champion after being finalist in 2004 and 2005. For its part, Espérance de Tunis achieved its second continental title in 2011 after having lost in the final in the 1999, 2000, 2010 and 2012 editions.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Despite the clear dominance of North African teams, in 2003 and 2004, Nigerian team Enyimba won their first two championship titles. ASEC Mimosas from Ivory Coast and Accra Hearts of Oak from Ghana added two championships for black Africa. In 2010, TP Mazembe from the DRC became the first club to repeat as champions on two occasions, with the first pair of wins arriving in 1967 and 1968, before repeating the feat again in 2009 and 2010. In 2017, the group phase was expanded from 2 groups of 4 teams to 4 groups of 16, with the addition of an extra knock-out round.


title: CAF Champions League

text: The 2020–21 season was played behind closed doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Africa inline with global football leagues and competitions. Nevertheless, Al Ahly faced bitter rivals Zamalek in an-all Egyptian final (the first time two clubs from the same country compete in any final in CAF competition history), with the former emerging victorious and winning its ninth title. Al Ahly successfully defended their title for a record-extending 10th time the following season by beating Kaizer Chiefs of South Africa, but were unable to secure a 3rd consecutive title in a row and 11th title in 2022 as they were defeated 2–0 by Moroccan club Wydad Casablanca who instead captured their 3rd CAF Champions League title.


title: CAF Champions League

text: With the impending introduction of the Africa Super League in the 2023–24 season, CAF plans to keep the Champions League, but wants to potentially eliminate the group phase and have the competition exclusively made up of two-legged knockout matchups, as per the original format in 1964 to 1996.


title: CAF Champions League

text: The CAF Champions League is open to the winners of all CAF-affiliated national leagues, as well as the title holders from the previous season. From the 2004 season onward, with the merging of the CAF Cup and the African Cup Winners' Cup to create the second-tier CAF Confederation Cup, the runners-up of football leagues of the 12 highest-ranked countries also enter the tournament, making up a total of 64 in-competition teams. The 12 countries would be ranked based on the performance of their clubs in the previous 5 seasons/editions of the competition (the plain definition of the "CAF 5-Year Ranking").


title: CAF Champions League

text: The number of teams that each association enters into the CAF Champions League is determined annually through criteria as set by the CAF Competitions Committee. The higher an association's ranking as determined by the criteria, the more teams represent the association in the Champions League, and the fewer qualification rounds the association's teams must compete in.


title: CAF Champions League

text: The CAF Champions League operates primarily as a knockout competition, with trim-down qualification rounds, a group stage, a two-legged knockout stage and a one-off final. At the start of the competition, the 64 qualified teams enter 2 qualification rounds: the preliminary stage and the first round. After the first qualifying round, the remaining teams are split into four groups of 4, whereas the teams each first-round winner vanquished transfer to the second qualification round of the Confederation Cup for hopes of group stage progression. The winners and runners-up of each group progress to the two-legged knockout stage]] for hopes of progression to a one-off final for a chance to lift the trophy for their member association.


title: CAF Champions League

text: In October 2004, MTN contracted a four-year deal to sponsor CAF's competitions worth US$12.5 million, which at that time was the biggest sponsorship deal in African sporting history.


title: CAF Champions League

text: In 2008, CAF put a value of €100 million for a comprehensive and long-term package of its competitions when it opened tenders for a new sponsor, which was scooped up by French telecommunications giant Orange through the signing of an eight-year deal the following year in July, whose terms were not disclosed.


title: CAF Champions League

text: On 21 July 2016, French oil and gas giant, Total S.A., secured an eight-year sponsorship package from CAF to support its competitions, including its main competition, the Africa Cup of Nations. In 2021, Total rebranded as TotalEnergies, although it remained as the competitions' title sponsors.


title: CAF Champions League

text: Each year, the winning team is presented with the African Champion Clubs' Cup, the current version of which has been awarded since the competition name change in 1997. Forty gold medals are presented to the competition winners and 40 silver medals to the runners-up.


title: CAF Champions League

text: In 1997, CAF introduced prize money for the eight participants in group stage for the first time in an African football club competition. This first trunch lasted until 2008.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Houses of the Holy is the fifth studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin. It was released on 28 March 1973 by Atlantic Records.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The album benefited from two band members installing studios at home, which allowed them to develop more sophisticated songs and arrangements and expand their musical style. Several songs subsequently became fixtures in the group's live set, including "The Song Remains the Same", "The Rain Song" and "No Quarter". Other material recorded at the sessions, including the title track, was shelved and released on the later albums "Physical Graffiti" and "Coda". All instruments and vocals were provided by the band members Robert Plant (vocals), Jimmy Page (guitar), John Paul Jones (bass, keyboards), and John Bonham (drums). The album was produced by Page and mixed by Eddie Kramer.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The cover was the first for the band to be designed by Hipgnosis and was based on a photograph taken at Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Although critical response was mixed, "Houses of the Holy" became a commercial success, later receiving a Diamond (over 10 million albums sold) certification by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 1999. In 2020, the album was ranked at number 278 on "Rolling Stone"s 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: By 1972, Led Zeppelin had achieved sustained commercial and critical success from both their studio albums and live shows. They were keen to record on location using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio as it had been an enjoyable experience for their untitled fourth album, released the previous year. After touring Australia, in April 1972 the group decided to take the mobile studio to Mick Jagger's home, Stargroves, a manor house and country estate in Hampshire. Eddie Kramer returned as recording engineer.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Some songs from the album had initially been tried out in earlier sessions, such as "No Quarter", which was first attempted during a session at Headley Grange Estate, in East Hampshire. Both guitarist and producer Jimmy Page and bassist / keyboardist John Paul Jones had installed home studios, which allowed them to arrive at Stargroves with complete compositions and arrangements.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Page's home studio used some of the equipment from Pye Mobile Studios, which had been used to record The Who's 1970 live album "Live at Leeds". Because of his home studio, he was able to present a complete arrangement of "The Rain Song", including non-standard guitar tunings and a variety of dynamics, and "Over the Hills and Far Away", featuring multiple guitar parts. Meanwhile, Jones had developed a new arrangement of "No Quarter". Once the group were settled in Stargroves, they composed the other songs through jam sessions together. Further recording took place at Olympic Studios in May, and during the band's 1972 North American tour additional recording sessions were conducted at Electric Lady Studios in New York. Some songs which were recorded from these various sessions did not make it onto "Houses of the Holy". Some of them were released on later albums. A series of rock 'n' roll covers, including songs that appeared on Elvis Presley's "Elvis' Golden Records", were recorded at Electric Lady Studios, which remain unreleased.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The album was a stylistic turning point for the band. The composition and production laid foundations for subsequent releases. According to the band's biographer Dave Lewis, "while the barnstorming effect of the early era was now levelling off, and though devoid of the electricity of "Zeppelin I" and "II", the sheer diversity of the third album, and lacking the classic status of the fourth, "Houses of the Holy" nevertheless found its rightful niche." The album largely abandoned their previous music's weighty, dark blues rock distortion in favor of a clean, expansive rock sound—as evinced by Page's sharper, brighter guitar tone. It was also likely the most eclectic musically of their albums, in the opinion of "Consequence of Sound" writer Kristofer Lenz, who observed swing rhythms on "Dancing Days", and experiments with reggae and psychedelic music on "D'Yer Mak'er" and "No Quarter", respectively. Pete Prown and HP Newquist have called it "a diverse collection of rockers, ballads, reggae, funk, and fifties-style rock 'n' roll".


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The album's opening track, "The Song Remains The Same", was originally a Page-composed instrumental called "The Overture". Plant added lyrics that referred to the group's experiences on tour, and it was given a working title of "The Campaign". His lead vocal was sped up slightly in the final mix, while Page played an electric twelve string guitar and a six-string electric. For live performances, he used the Gibson EDS-1275 double-neck guitar that was also used for playing "Stairway to Heaven" in concert.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "The Rain Song" was composed at Page's home studio, including the entire arrangement and the vocal melody. He was inspired to write the song after George Harrison complained that Led Zeppelin "never did any ballads". The opening chords are the same as Harrison's song “Something” from The Beatles' "Abbey Road". The backing track was recorded at Olympic, with a working title of "Slush". Plant added some sensitive lyrics which matched the music, Jones added a string section played on the Mellotron, while Page played acoustic and Danelectro electric guitars in various different tunings. The song was regularly performed live, with Page using the Gibson EDS-1275. Page and Plant revived the track for their 1994–95 tour.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "Over the Hills and Far Away" was written about the hippie lifestyle, including references to the "open road". The song was developed in two halves, with a quiet acoustic section leading into a livelier electric one. The song was one of the first to be introduced into Led Zeppelin's live set, being first played in mid-1972.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "The Crunge" was written by Bonham and developed out of a jam at Stargroves. He decided to create a funk beat that stepped on and off the beat, making it impossible to dance to. Plant improvised a set of lyrics in the manner of James Brown over the music, parodying Brown's "Take it to the Bridge" vocal style towards the end of the track. To further show that the song was a tongue-in-cheek joke, the group considered putting "dance steps" to the song on the cover at one stage. The track was occasionally performed as an impromptu piece in concert, usually in the middle of another song such as the fast guitar solo section in "Dazed and Confused".


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "Dancing Days" was inspired by the enjoyable sessions at Stargroves, and the lyrics show a general optimism to life. Kramer recalled the group dancing around in the garden at Stargroves, listening to the playback of the final mix. A promotional copy of the track was sent out by Atlantic for radio play in March 1973, as a preview for the album.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "D'Yer Mak'er" originated with Bonham trying to combine reggae with 1950s doo-wop by leaving a short off-beat. Jones later disapproved of the track, saying it was treated as a joke and not thought out well, but Plant thought it could be a hit and suggested it should be released as a single. Led Zeppelin's general policy was to not release singles in the UK, and though test and promotional pressings were produced there, the rest of the group vetoed the idea. In the US, it became a top 20 hit.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "No Quarter" was composed by Jones. An early arrangement of the song was attempted for their fourth album, but abandoned. Jones reworked the track to add acoustic and electric piano, and various synthesizers. The track quickly became a live favourite, and was featured at every show from 1973 through 1979, providing Jones with an extended solo showcase in the middle, and a jam session with a variety of different styles. Plant revived the song for his 1990 tour, and it was performed by Page and Plant in 1994. Jones performed a solo instrumental performance on tour in 1999, and Plant performed it solo again in 2005. It was part of the set at the Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert in 2007.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "The Ocean" began with Bonham shouting "We've done four already but now we're steady and then they went, 1, 2, 3, 4", referring to the number of takes already recorded. The title and lyrics refer to the group's fans and their devotion to the band. The middle of the track features an a cappella vocal break sung by Plant, Bonham and Jones, while the ending was another pastiche of the doo-wop style.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The album's title track was recorded at Olympic and mixed at Electric Lady. It was ultimately left off the album, as there were enough tracks to fill two sides of an LP, and was released on the follow-up, "Physical Graffiti" in 1975. That album also included "The Rover" and "Black Country Woman", recorded in the garden at Stargroves for "Houses of the Holy".


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Another track from the Stargroves sessions, "Walter's Walk", was eventually released on "Coda" in 1982.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The cover art for "Houses of the Holy" was inspired by Arthur C. Clarke's novel "Childhood's End". The cover is a collage of several photographs which were taken at the Giant's Causeway, Northern Ireland, by Aubrey Powell of Hipgnosis. This location was chosen ahead of an alternative one in Peru which had also been considered.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: The photo shoot featured two children, Stefan and Samantha Gates. It was a frustrating affair over the course of 10 days. Shooting was done first thing in the morning and at sunset in order to capture the light at dawn and dusk, but the desired effect was never achieved due to constant rain and clouds. The photos of the two children were taken in black and white and were multi-printed to create the effect of 11 individuals that can be seen on the album cover. The results were unsatisfactory, but some accidental tinting effects in post-production created a suitable cover. The inner gatefold photograph was taken at Dunluce Castle nearby the Causeway. In February 2010, Stefan Gates was featured on a BBC Radio 4 documentary about the cover. He said there was something sinister about the image, though his sister disagreed. He also admitted never having heard the album. The programme ended with Gates returning to Giant's Causeway and listening to the album on a portable player, after which he said that a great weight had been lifted from him. Samantha also appeared on the back cover of the band's 1976 album "Presence".


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "Houses of the Holy" was the first album by the group to have an explicit title that was not eponymous, but like the previous one, neither the band's name nor the album title was printed on the sleeve. However, manager Peter Grant did allow Atlantic Records to add a wrap-around paper title band to US copies of the sleeve that had to be broken or slid off to access the record. The first CD release of the album in the 1980s had the title logos printed on the cover itself.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: In 1974, the album was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category of Best Album Package. The cover was rated number 6 on VH1's 50 Greatest Album Covers in 2003.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Page has stated that the album cover was the second version submitted by Hipgnosis. The first, by artist Storm Thorgerson, featured an electric green tennis court with a tennis racket on it. Furious that Thorgerson was implying, by means of a visual pun, that their music sounded like a "racket", the band fired him and hired Powell in his place.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: This was Led Zeppelin's final studio release on Atlantic Records before forming their own label, Swan Song Records, in 1974, which would be distributed by Atlantic. It was also the only Led Zeppelin album that contained complete printed lyrics for each song.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: Although intended for release in January 1973, delays in producing the album cover meant that it was not released until March, when the band was on its 1973 European tour. The album was promoted heavily before the commencement of Led Zeppelin's subsequent North American Tour, ensuring that it had ascended the top of the American chart by the beginning of the tour. Because much of the album had been recorded almost a year previously, many of the songs which are featured on the album had already been played live by Led Zeppelin on their concert tours of North America, Japan, Europe and the UK in 1972–73.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: "Houses of the Holy" originally received mixed reviews, with much criticism from the music press being directed at the off-beat nature of tracks such as "The Crunge" and "D'yer Mak'er". Gordon Fletcher from "Rolling Stone" called the album "one of the dullest and most confusing albums I've heard this year", believing the band had digressed from "the epitome of everything good about rock" to a watered down heavy metal act. However, the album was a commercial success and topped the UK charts and spent 39 weeks on the Billboard 200 albums chart including two weeks at number one (their longest stint since "Led Zeppelin III"). The album was number four on Billboard magazine's top albums of 1973 year end chart.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: In "" (1981), Robert Christgau appraised "Houses of the Holy" favourably. While mocking the solemnity of "No Quarter" and finding some tracks derivative of previous albums, he found side one "solid led" with "sprung rhythm" and a "James Brown tribute/parody/ripoff" in "The Crunge" that complements the second side's "two amazing, well, dance tracks" in "Dancing Dayss "transmogrified shuffle" and the reggae of "D'yer Mak'er". "Throughout the record, the band's playing is excellent," wrote AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine, "making the eclecticism of Page and Robert Plant's songwriting sound coherent and natural."


title: Houses of the Holy

text: In 2003, "Rolling Stone" ranked it at number 149 on the magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time." It was re-ranked at number 148 in a 2012 revised list, and re-ranked at number 278 in 2020.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: A remastered version of "Houses of the Holy" was reissued on 27 October 2014, along with "Led Zeppelin IV". The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition, a deluxe two-CD edition, a standard LP version, a deluxe two-LP version, a super deluxe two-CD plus two-LP version with a hardback book, and as high resolution 24-bit/96k digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material. The reissue was released with an altered-colour version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover.


title: Houses of the Holy

text: At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the reissue received an average score of 98, based on nine reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". "Consequence of Sound" writer Kristofer Lenz said, "The remastering of this album is a blessing to the careful compositions and mannered performances throughout the record." ""Houses of the Holy" might be Zeppelin's most impressive album on a purely sonic level," wrote "Pitchfork"s Mark Richardson, "and this particular remaster reinforces that notion." He was disappointed, however, by the bonus disc of alternate mixes, which merely provide "a chance to hear familiar performances in familiar songs in a way that sounds slightly unfamiliar".


title: Yellow journalism

text: Yellow journalism and yellow press are American terms for journalism and associated newspapers that present little or no legitimate, well-researched news while instead using eye-catching headlines for increased sales. Techniques may include exaggerations of news events, scandal-mongering, or sensationalism. By extension, the term "yellow journalism" is used today as a pejorative to decry any journalism that treats news in an unprofessional or unethical fashion.


title: Yellow journalism

text: In English, the term is chiefly used in the US. In the UK, a roughly equivalent term is "tabloid journalism", meaning journalism characteristic of tabloid newspapers, even if found elsewhere. Other languages, e.g. Russian (), sometimes have terms derived from the American term. A common source of such writing is called checkbook journalism, which is the controversial practice of news reporters paying sources for their information without verifying its truth or accuracy. In some countries it is considered unethical by mainstream media outlets. In contrast, tabloid newspapers and tabloid television shows, which rely more on sensationalism, regularly engage in the practice.


title: Yellow journalism

text: W. Joseph Campbell describes yellow press newspapers as having daily multi-column front-page headlines covering a variety of topics, such as sports and scandal, using bold layouts (with large illustrations and perhaps color), heavy reliance on unnamed sources, and unabashed self-promotion. The term was extensively used to describe certain major New York City newspapers around 1900 as they battled for circulation. One aspect of yellow journalism was a surge in sensationalized crime reporting to boost sales and excite public opinion.


title: Yellow journalism

text: The term was coined in the mid-1890s to characterize the sensational journalism in the circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's "New York World" and William Randolph Hearst's "New York Journal". The battle peaked from 1895 to about 1898, and historical usage often refers specifically to this period. Both papers were accused by critics of sensationalizing the news in order to drive up circulation, although the newspapers did serious reporting as well. An English magazine in 1898 noted, "All American journalism is not 'yellow', though all strictly 'up-to-date' yellow journalism is American!"


title: Yellow journalism

text: The term was coined by Erwin Wardman, the editor of the "New York Press". Wardman was the first to publish the term but there is evidence that expressions such as "yellow journalism" and "school of yellow kid journalism" were already used by newsmen of that time. Wardman never defined the term exactly. Possibly it was a mutation from earlier slander where Wardman twisted "new journalism" into "nude journalism". Wardman had also used the expression "yellow kid journalism" referring to the then-popular comic strip which was published by both Pulitzer and Hearst during a circulation war. In 1898 the paper simply elaborated: "We called them Yellow because they are Yellow."


title: Yellow journalism

text: Joseph Pulitzer purchased the "New York World" in 1883 after making the "St. Louis Post-Dispatch" the dominant daily in that city. Pulitzer strove to make the "New York World" an entertaining read, and filled his paper with pictures, games and contests that drew in new readers. Crime stories filled many of the pages, with headlines like "Was He a Suicide?" and "Screaming for Mercy". In addition, Pulitzer charged readers only two cents per issue but gave readers eight and sometimes 12 pages of information (the only other two-cent paper in the city never exceeded four pages).


title: Yellow journalism

text: While there were many sensational stories in the "New York World", they were by no means the only pieces, or even the dominant ones. Pulitzer believed that newspapers were public institutions with a duty to improve society, and he put the "World" in the service of social reform.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Just two years after Pulitzer took it over, the "World" became the highest-circulation newspaper in New York, aided in part by its strong ties to the Democratic Party. Older publishers, envious of Pulitzer's success, began criticizing the "World", harping on its crime stories and stunts while ignoring its more serious reporting—trends which influenced the popular perception of yellow journalism. Charles Dana, editor of the "New York Sun", attacked "The World" and said Pulitzer was "deficient in judgment and in staying power."


title: Yellow journalism

text: Pulitzer's approach made an impression on William Randolph Hearst, a mining heir who acquired the "San Francisco Examiner" from his father in 1887. Hearst read the "World" while studying at Harvard University and resolved to make the "Examiner" as bright as Pulitzer's paper.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Hearst could be hyperbolic in his crime coverage; one of his early pieces, regarding a "band of murderers", attacked the police for forcing "Examiner" reporters to do their work for them. But while indulging in these stunts, the "Examiner" also increased its space for international news, and sent reporters out to uncover municipal corruption and inefficiency.


title: Yellow journalism

text: In one well remembered story, "Examiner" reporter Winifred Black was admitted into a San Francisco hospital and discovered that indigent women were treated with "gross cruelty". The entire hospital staff was fired the morning the piece appeared.


title: Yellow journalism

text: With the success of the "Examiner" established by the early 1890s, Hearst began looking for a New York newspaper to purchase, and acquired the "New York Journal" in 1895, a penny paper which Pulitzer's brother Albert had sold to a Cincinnati publisher the year before.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Metropolitan newspapers started going after department store advertising in the 1890s, and discovered the larger the circulation base, the better. This drove Hearst; following Pulitzer's earlier strategy, he kept the "Journal"s price at one cent (compared to "The World"s two-cent price) while providing as much information as rival newspapers. The approach worked, and as the "Journal"s circulation jumped to 150,000, Pulitzer cut his price to a penny, hoping to drive his young competitor (who was subsidized by his family's fortune) into bankruptcy.


title: Yellow journalism

text: In a counterattack, Hearst raided the staff of the "World" in 1896. While most sources say that Hearst simply offered more money, Pulitzer—who had grown increasingly abusive to his employees—had become an extremely difficult man to work for, and many "World" employees were willing to jump for the sake of getting away from him.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Although the competition between the "World" and the "Journal" was fierce, the papers were temperamentally alike. Both were Democratic, both were sympathetic to labor and immigrants (a sharp contrast to publishers like the "New-York Tribune"s Whitelaw Reid, who blamed their poverty on moral defects), and both invested enormous resources in their Sunday publications, which functioned like weekly magazines, going beyond the normal scope of daily journalism.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Their Sunday entertainment features included the first color comic strip pages, and some theorize that the term yellow journalism originated there, while as noted above, the "New York Press" left the term it invented undefined. "Hogan's Alley," a comic strip revolving around a bald child in a yellow nightshirt (nicknamed The Yellow Kid), became exceptionally popular when cartoonist Richard F. Outcault began drawing it in the "World" in early 1896. When Hearst predictably hired Outcault away, Pulitzer asked artist George Luks to continue the strip with his characters, giving the city two Yellow Kids. The use of "yellow journalism" as a synonym for over-the-top sensationalism in the U.S. apparently started with more serious newspapers commenting on the excesses of "the Yellow Kid papers".


title: Yellow journalism

text: In 1890, Samuel Warren and Louis Brandeis published "The Right to Privacy", considered the most influential of all law review articles, as a critical response to sensational forms of journalism, which they saw as an unprecedented threat to individual privacy. The article is widely considered to have led to the recognition of new common law privacy rights of action.


title: Yellow journalism

text: Pulitzer and Hearst are often adduced as a primary cause of the United States' entry into the Spanish–American War due to sensationalist stories or exaggerations of the terrible conditions in Cuba. However, the majority of Americans did not live in New York City, and the decision-makers who did live there probably relied more on staid newspapers like the "Times", "The Sun", or the "Post". James Creelman wrote an anecdote in his memoir that artist Frederic Remington telegrammed Hearst to tell him all was quiet in Cuba and "There will be no war." Creelman claimed Hearst responded "Please remain. You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." Hearst denied the veracity of the story, and no one has found any evidence of the telegrams existing. Historian Emily Erickson states:


title: Yellow journalism

text: Hearst became a war hawk after a rebellion broke out in Cuba in 1895. Stories of Cuban virtue and Spanish brutality soon dominated his front page. While the accounts were of dubious accuracy, the newspaper readers of the 19th century did not expect, or necessarily want, his stories to be pure nonfiction. Historian Michael Robertson has said that "Newspaper reporters and readers of the 1890s were much less concerned with distinguishing among fact-based reporting, opinion and literature."


title: Yellow journalism

text: Pulitzer, though lacking Hearst's resources, kept the story on his front page. The yellow press covered the revolution extensively and often inaccurately, but conditions on Cuba were horrific enough. The island was in a terrible economic depression, and Spanish general Valeriano Weyler, sent to crush the rebellion, herded Cuban peasants into concentration camps, leading hundreds of Cubans to their deaths. Having clamored for a fight for two years, Hearst took credit for the conflict when it came: A week after the United States declared war on Spain, he ran "How do you like the "Journal's" war?" on his front page. In fact, President William McKinley never read the "Journal", nor newspapers like the "Tribune" and the "New York Evening Post". Moreover, journalism historians have noted that yellow journalism was largely confined to New York City, and that newspapers in the rest of the country did not follow their lead. The "Journal" and the "World" were pitched to Democrats in New York City and were not among the top ten sources of news in regional papers; they seldom made headlines outside New York City. Piero Gleijeses looked at 41 major newspapers and finds:


title: Yellow journalism

text: War came because public opinion was sickened by the bloodshed, and because leaders like McKinley realized that Spain had lost control of Cuba. These factors weighed more on the president's mind than the melodramas in the "New York Journal." Nick Kapur says that McKinley's actions were based more on his values of arbitrationism, pacifism, humanitarianism, and manly self-restraint, than on external pressures.


title: Yellow journalism

text: When the invasion began, Hearst sailed directly to Cuba as a war correspondent, providing sober and accurate accounts of the fighting. Creelman later praised the work of the reporters for exposing the horrors of Spanish misrule, arguing, "no true history of the war ... can be written without an acknowledgment that whatever of justice and freedom and progress was accomplished by the Spanish–American War was due to the enterprise and tenacity of "yellow journalists," many of whom lie in unremembered graves."


title: Yellow journalism

text: Hearst was a leading Democrat who promoted William Jennings Bryan for president in 1896 and 1900. He later ran for mayor and governor and even sought the presidential nomination, but lost much of his personal prestige when outrage exploded in 1901 after columnist Ambrose Bierce and editor Arthur Brisbane published separate columns months apart that suggested the assassination of William McKinley. When McKinley was shot on September 6, 1901, critics accused Hearst's Yellow Journalism of driving Leon Czolgosz to the deed. It was later presumed that Hearst did not know of Bierce's column, and he claimed to have pulled Brisbane's after it ran in a first edition, but the incident would haunt him for the rest of his life, and all but destroyed his presidential ambitions.


title: Yellow journalism

text: When later asked about Hearst's reaction to the incident, Bierce reportedly said, “I have never mentioned the matter to him, and he never mentioned it to me.”


title: Yellow journalism

text: Pulitzer, haunted by his "yellow sins," returned the "World" to its crusading roots as the new century dawned. By the time of his death in 1911, the "World" was a widely respected publication, and would remain a leading progressive paper until its demise in 1931. Its name lived on in the Scripps-Howard "New York World-Telegram", and then later the "New York World-Telegram and Sun" in 1950, and finally was last used by the "New York World-Journal-Tribune" from September 1966 to May 1967. At that point, only one broadsheet newspaper was left in New York City.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Anthony Paul Pettis (born January 27, 1987) is an American professional mixed martial artist. He is currently signed to the Professional Fighters League. Pettis formerly fought in the Welterweight, Lightweight, and Featherweight divisions of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). He is a former UFC Lightweight Champion. Pettis was also the final WEC Lightweight Champion prior to the promotion being merged into the UFC.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was born on January 27, 1987, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Annette ("née" Garcia) and Eugene Pettis Jr. He grew up in the south side of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, along with his older brother, Reynaldo Pettis and younger brother, Sergio Pettis, who fights in the flyweight division.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis is of Mexican ancestry. His grandfather, Eugenio Pérez, anglicized the family name from Pérez to Pettis to avoid discrimination. Pettis attended Dominican High School.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: He started training in taekwondo and boxing at the age of 5. In college he also started wrestling. When he went to train mixed martial arts at Roufusport at the age of 18, he already had a 3rd degree black belt in taekwondo. He later trained in capoeira.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Anthony Pettis made his professional MMA debut in January 2007. He compiled a record of 8–0 in all fights being held by Adam Sandoval and Duke Roufus before debuting with the World Extreme Cagefighting (WEC), winning the Gladiator Fighting Series Lightweight Championship. His last fight before joining the WEC was a short notice welterweight bout.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis also has a professional kickboxing background. In MMA, Pettis is known for his smooth and technical fighting style, as well as his athletic feats and wide range of techniques.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis is coached by kickboxer and MMA trainer Duke Roufus and is a member of Roufusport where he trains with fighters Alan Belcher, Erik Koch, Ben Rothwell, Ben Askren, and Danny Downes.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was expected to make his promotional debut against Anthony Njokuani on April 5, 2009, at WEC 40. However, Pettis pulled out of the fight with a hand injury and was replaced by Bart Palaszewski.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis made his WEC debut at WEC 41 on June 7, 2009, where he defeated Mike Campbell via first-round triangle choke.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: He was then expected to fight Rob McCullough at WEC 44 on November 18, 2009, but was pulled off the card with an undisclosed injury.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis suffered his first professional loss on December 19, 2009, at WEC 45, dropping a split decision to Bart Palaszewski.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis rebounded from the loss with a head-kick KO victory over Danny Castillo on March 6, 2010, at WEC 47, earning "Knockout of the Night" honors. Training for the fight, as well as Pettis's family life, were both documented on an episode of the MTV show "World of Jenks".


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis suffered almost no damage in the bout with Castillo and made a quick return at WEC 48 on April 24, 2010, against Alex Karalexis, replacing Zack Micklewright on short notice. He won the fight via submission in the second round.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Shane Roller on August 18, 2010, at WEC 50. Pettis surprised many by taking down Roller multiple times and frustrating him with fast-paced scrambles. Pettis displayed diversity in his striking with two Capoeira kicks, the martelo and the aú batido. After several submission attempts, Pettis secured a fight-ending triangle choke in the closing seconds of the fight, earning a "Submission of the Night" bonus.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: His last WEC fight came against Benson Henderson on December 16, 2010, at WEC 53 for the WEC Lightweight Championship. The fight was closely contested throughout, providing back and forth action, both standing and on the ground. In the fifth round Pettis ran up the cage, jumped off the cage, then landed a switch kick while airborne. Sports reporters later named this the Showtime Kick. Pettis won the fight via unanimous decision (48–47, 49–46, 48–47) to become the final WEC Lightweight Champion. The fight was also awarded as "Fight of the Night" which won Henderson and Pettis an extra $10,000.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: In October 2010, World Extreme Cagefighting merged with the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). As part of the merger, a majority of the WEC fighters were transferred to the UFC.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was expected to face the winner of Frankie Edgar and Gray Maynard, which took place at UFC 125. However, the bout was declared a draw, and Edgar–Maynard 3 was scheduled for UFC 130, but both fighters sustained injuries before the fight, which was postponed.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Instead of waiting for the winner of Edgar/Maynard 3, Pettis faced Clay Guida on June 4 at The Ultimate Fighter 13 Finale. He lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis next faced Jeremy Stephens on October 8 at UFC 136. Pettis won the closely contested bout via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Joe Lauzon on February 25 at UFC 144. He won the fight via knockout in round one. His performance earned "Knockout of the Night" honors.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: After spending the majority of 2012 recovering from a litany of injuries, Pettis faced Donald Cerrone on January 26, 2013, at UFC on Fox 6. He won the fight via TKO in round one. The performance also earned Pettis "Knockout of the Night" honors. After the victory, Dana White said he was "sold" on Pettis and admitted that after Benson Henderson against Gilbert Melendez on UFC on Fox 7, Pettis was to be the next to fight for the lightweight title.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: On February 5, it was announced that Pettis would not wait for a title shot at lightweight, and would instead be dropping down to 145 pounds to challenge featherweight champion, José Aldo on August 3 at UFC 163. However, on June 14, Dana White announced that Pettis had pulled out of the Aldo bout with a serious knee injury, and that Aldo would instead defend the title against Chan Sung Jung.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: A few weeks later after a quick recovery, it was announced on July 12 that Pettis would replace TJ Grant in a rematch for the UFC Lightweight Championship against Benson Henderson on August 31 at UFC 164. Pettis defeated Henderson via armbar submission in the first round to claim the UFC Lightweight Title. The win also earned Pettis his first "Submission of the Night" bonus award in the UFC.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was expected to make his first title defense against T. J. Grant on December 14 at UFC on Fox 9. However, Grant revealed in mid-September that he had yet to be medically cleared after suffering a concussion in training and would not be eligible to compete on December 14. Pettis was then expected to face Josh Thomson at the event. However, the bout was canceled in mid-November after Pettis pulled out of the bout citing a knee injury.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was selected to serve as a coach on , opposite Gilbert Melendez and the two would face each other at UFC 181 on December 6, 2014. Pettis won the fight via guillotine choke in the second round, becoming the first man to finish Melendez. He also earned a "Performance of the Night" bonus award.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Rafael dos Anjos on March 14 at UFC 185. He lost the bout and the championship by unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was expected to face Myles Jury on July 25, 2015, at UFC on Fox 16. However, Pettis pulled out of the bout citing another injury and was replaced by Edson Barboza.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Eddie Alvarez on January 17, 2016, at UFC Fight Night 81. He lost the back-and-forth bout via split decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Edson Barboza on April 23, 2016, at UFC 197. Pettis lost the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: On the heels of a three-fight losing streak, Pettis announced in June 2016 his intention to drop to featherweight for his next fight. Pettis fought Charles Oliveira in his featherweight debut on August 27, 2016, at UFC on Fox 21. After another back-and-forth fight which saw Oliveira take his back multiple times, Pettis submitted Oliveira via guillotine choke in the 3rd round.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Max Holloway for the interim UFC Featherweight Championship on December 10, 2016, at UFC 206. At the weigh-ins, Pettis came in at 148 pounds, three pounds over the featherweight limit of 145 lbs. for a championship fight. As a result, in the event that Pettis were to win the fight with Holloway, he would be ineligible for the UFC championship. Pettis was also fined 20% of his purse, which went to Holloway and the bout proceeded at a catchweight. Pettis was the first fighter to miss weight for a UFC championship bout since Travis Lutter at UFC 67 in February 2007. He lost the fight via TKO in the third round.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Jim Miller in a lightweight bout on July 8, 2017, at UFC 213. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Dustin Poirier on November 11, 2017, at UFC Fight Night 120. Pettis lost the fight via TKO after submitting due to a rib injury suffered from a body triangle applied by Poirier. This fight also won him the Fight of the Night bonus award.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was expected to face Michael Chiesa on April 7, 2018, at UFC 223, but the bout was canceled two days before the event after Chiesa was injured in an incident in which Conor McGregor hurled a dolly through the window of the bus Chiesa was in. The shards of the shattered window cut Chiesa, who was deemed unfit to fight by the athletic commission.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: On April 6, 2018, UFC Featherweight Champion Max Holloway was declared medically unfit by the New York State Athletic Commission and was pulled from his main event fight against Khabib Nurmagomedov. Pettis accepted the opportunity to fight Khabib Nurmagomedov at UFC 223 for the lightweight championship on a day's notice with the hope of getting $1,000,000 for the fight. The UFC declined to pay him this much money and the deal fell through.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: The bout with Chiesa was rescheduled to UFC 226. At weight-ins, Chiesa weighed in at 157.5 pounds, 1.5 pounds over the non-title lightweight limit of 156 pounds. As a result, the fight proceeded catchweight bout with Chiesa forfeiting 30% of his purse to Pettis. Pettis won the fight via triangle armbar submission in the second round. This fight earned him the "Performance of the Night" award.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Tony Ferguson on October 6, 2018, at UFC 229. After a back-and-forth fight, Pettis knocked down Ferguson in round two, but subsequently broke his hand in the process, going on to lose by corner stoppage due to his injury before the third round. This fight earned him the Fight of the Night award.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: On January 19, 2019, it was announced that Pettis would be returning to Welterweight for the first time since 2008 to face Stephen Thompson. This fight served as the headliner of UFC on ESPN+ 6 on March 23, 2019. Thompson outstruck Pettis for most of the bout, however Pettis won the fight via knockout late round two, becoming the first man to knockout Thompson in his MMA and kickboxing careers. This win earned him the Performance of the Night award.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Carlos Diego Ferreira in a lightweight bout on January 18, 2020 at UFC 246. He lost the fight via rear-naked choke submission in the second round.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Donald Cerrone in a rematch on May 9, 2020 at UFC 249. He won the fight via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Alex Morono at on December 19, 2020. He won the fight via unanimous decision. With this being the last remaining bout on Pettis' UFC contract, Pettis announced on December 22 that he was choosing not to accept a new offer from the UFC and would be testing the free agent market.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Just one day after announcing he would be testing free agency, Pettis announced on December 23, 2020, that he has signed a multi-fight deal with the Professional Fighters League, and he would be competing as a lightweight in the 2021 season.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis made his PFL debut against Clay Collard on April 23, 2021 at PFL 1. He lost the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was scheduled to face Alexander Martinez at PFL 4 on June 10, 2021. However, Pettis withdrew due to illness and Martinez faced Natan Schulte. Schulte's opponent Raush Manfio, faced Pettis at PFL 6 on June 25, 2021. Pettis lost the close bout via split decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis was scheduled to face Myles Price on April 23, 2022 at PFL 1. It was later announced that the bout would be rescheduled for PFL 3. Pettis submitted Price in the first round via triangle choke.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis faced Stevie Ray on June 24, 2022 at PFL 5. He lost the fight via a modified body triangle submission in the second round.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis rematched Stevie Ray in the semifinals of the Lightweight tournament on August 5, 2022 at PFL 7. Once again, Pettis lost the bout, this time via unanimous decision.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Along with business partners Duke Roufus and Scott Joffe, Pettis owns the Roufusport MMA Academy and the Showtime Sports Bar in Milwaukee.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis along with Jon Jones, Urijah Faber, Joseph Benavidez, Mark Muñoz, Chad Mendes, and Scott Jorgensen starred in a Form Athletics (now owned by K-Swiss) commercial.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: On December 2, 2013, Pettis received a Certificate of Achievement by the Governor of Wisconsin, Scott Walker.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: In the fall of 2014, Pettis was voted to be the first UFC champion to appear on the cover of General Mills' Wheaties box wearing his belt. The box appeared in stores in early 2015. However, when the box came out Anthony Pettis had already lost his belt to dos Anjos.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis has two daughters, Aria (born 2011) from a previous relationship and Itzcali Sol (born 2021) with his current partner.


title: Anthony Pettis

text: Pettis appeared on episode 4 of "World of Jenks", where documentary maker Andrew Jenks lived with Pettis for a week before his fight against Danny Castillo at WEC 47. The episode gave an inside look into Pettis' fight preparations as well as giving insights into his family life.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Indonesian National Revolution, or the Indonesian War of Independence, was an armed conflict and diplomatic struggle between the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch Empire and an internal social revolution during postwar and postcolonial Indonesia. It took place between Indonesia's declaration of independence in 1945 and the Netherlands' transfer of sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia at the end of 1949.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The four-year struggle involved sporadic but bloody armed conflict, internal Indonesian political and communal upheavals, and two major international diplomatic interventions. Dutch military forces (and, for a while, the forces of the World War II allies) were able to control the major towns, cities and industrial assets in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra but could not control the countryside. By 1949, international pressure on the Netherlands, the United States threatening to cut off all economic aid for World War II rebuilding efforts to the Netherlands and the partial military stalemate became such that the Netherlands transferred sovereignty over the Dutch East Indies to the Republic of the United States of Indonesia.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The revolution marked the end of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, except for New Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic castes as well as reducing the power of many of the local rulers ("raja").


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Indonesian independence movement began in May 1908, which is commemorated as the "Day of National Awakening" (). Indonesian nationalism and movements supporting independence from Dutch colonialism, such as Budi Utomo, the Indonesian National Party (PNI), Sarekat Islam and the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), grew rapidly in the first half of the 20th century. Budi Utomo, Sarekat Islam and others pursued strategies of co-operation by joining the Dutch initiated "Volksraad" ("People's Council") in the hope that Indonesia would be granted self-rule. Others chose a non-cooperative strategy demanding the freedom of self-government from the Dutch East Indies colony. The most notable of these leaders were Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta, two students and nationalist leaders who had benefited from the educational reforms of the Dutch Ethical Policy.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The occupation of Indonesia by Japan for 3 years during World War II was a crucial factor in the subsequent revolution. The Netherlands had little ability to defend its colony against the Japanese army, and within only three months of their initial attacks, the Japanese had occupied the Dutch East Indies. In Java, and to a lesser extent in Sumatra (Indonesia's two dominant islands), the Japanese spread and encouraged nationalist sentiment. Although this was done more for Japanese political advantage than from altruistic support of Indonesian independence, this support created new Indonesian institutions (including local neighbourhood organisations) and elevated political leaders such as Sukarno. Just as significantly for the subsequent revolution, the Japanese destroyed and replaced much of the Dutch-created economic, administrative, and political infrastructure.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On 7 September 1944, with the war going badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister Koiso promised independence for Indonesia, but no date was set. For supporters of Sukarno, this announcement was seen as vindication for his collaboration with the Japanese.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Under pressure from radical and politicised "pemuda" ('youth') groups, on 17 August 1945, two days after the Japanese Emperor's surrender in the Pacific, Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian independence. The following day, the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence (PPKI) elected Sukarno as President, and Hatta as Vice-president.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: It was mid-September before news of the declaration of independence spread to the outer islands, and many Indonesians far from the capital Jakarta did not believe it. As the news spread, most Indonesians came to regard themselves as pro-Republican, and a mood of revolution swept across the country. Based on the "Civil Affairs Agreement", signed on 24 August 1945, the British and the Dutch agreed to allow British troops to land in the Dutch East Indies, and for these troops to be assisted by Dutch civilians of the Netherlands Indies Civil Administration. However, it was not until 29 September 1945 that the first British-allied troops arrived. External power had shifted; it would be weeks before Allied Forces shipping entered Indonesia (owing in part to boycotts and strikes, in Australia, on coaling, loading and manning Dutch shipping from Australia, where the Netherlands East Indies Government in exile was based). These strikes were only fully broken in July 1946. The Japanese, on the other hand, were required by the terms of the surrender to both lay down their arms and maintain order; a contradiction that some resolved by handing weapons to Japanese-trained Indonesians.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The resulting power vacuums in the weeks following the Japanese surrender created an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one of opportunity for the Republicans. Many "pemuda" joined pro-Republic struggle groups ("badan perjuangan"). The most disciplined were soldiers from the Japanese-formed but disbanded "Giyūgun" (PETA, volunteer army) and "Heiho" (local soldiers employed by Japanese armed forces) groups. Many groups were undisciplined, due to both the circumstances of their formation and what they perceived as revolutionary spirit. In the first weeks, Japanese troops often withdrew from urban areas to avoid confrontations.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: By September 1945, control of major infrastructure installations, including railway stations and trams in Java's largest cities, had been taken over by Republican "pemuda" who encountered little Japanese resistance. To spread the revolutionary message, "pemuda" set up their own radio stations and newspapers, and graffiti proclaimed the nationalist sentiment. On most islands, struggle committees and militia were set up. Republican newspapers and journals were common in Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and Surakarta, which fostered a generation of writers known as "angkatan 45" ('generation of 45') many of whom believed their work could be part of the revolution.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Republican leaders struggled to come to terms with popular sentiment; some wanted passionate armed struggle; others a more reasoned approach. Some leaders, such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the idea that this was a revolutionary struggle to be led and won by the Indonesian "pemuda". Sukarno and Hatta, by contrast, were more interested in planning government and institutions to achieve independence through diplomacy. Pro-revolution demonstrations took place in large cities, including one in Jakarta on 19 September with over 200,000 people, which Sukarno and Hatta, fearing violence, successfully quelled.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: By September 1945, many of the self-proclaimed "pemuda", who were ready to die for '100% freedom', were getting impatient. It was common for ethnic 'out-groups' – Dutch internees, Eurasian, Ambonese and Chinese – and anyone considered to be a spy, to be subjected to intimidation, kidnapping, robbery, murder and organised massacres. Such attacks would continue throughout the course of the revolution, but were most present during the 1945–46 period, which is known as the Bersiap.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: After the Bersiap in 1947 Dutch authorities attempted to retrieve the bodies of the victims and several survivors of the period provided legal testimony to the Attorney General's office. Due to continued revolutionary warfare few bodies were found and few cases came to court. Around 5,000 graves of Japanese internment, World War 2, and "Bersiap" victims can be found in the "Kembang Kuning" war cemetery in Surabaya and elsewhere.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The "Simpang Society Club Surabaya" was appropriated by the "pemudas" of the "Partai Rakyat Indonesia" (P.R.I.) and made into the headquarters of P.R.I. commander Sutomo, who personally supervised the summary executions of hundreds of civilians. An archived eyewitness testimony of the events of 22 October 1945 states:


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Before each execution Sutomo mockingly asked the crowd what should be done with this "Musuh (enemy) of the people". The crowd yelled "Bunuh!" (kill!) after which the executioner named Rustam decapitated the victim with one stroke of his sword. The victim was then left to the bloodthirst of boys 10, 11 and 12 years old... [who] further mutilated the body." "Women were tied to the tree in the back yard and pierced through the genitals with "bambu runcing" (bamboo spears) until they died.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On Sutomo's orders the decapitated bodies were disposed of in the sea, the women were thrown in the river. The total death toll during the Bersiap period varies from 3,500 to 30,000. But the precise number remains inconclusive, with NIOD concluded a Dutch casualty number of approximately 5,500 with possible higher numbers but not above 10,000. Estimates of the number of Indonesian fighters killed in the lead up to and during the Battle of Surabaya range from 6,300 to 15,000. The Japanese forces lost around 1,000 soldiers and the British forces registered 660 soldiers, mostly British Indians, as killed (with a similar number missing in action). The actual Dutch military was hardly involved, as it started to return to Indonesia only in March and April 1946.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: By the end of August 1946, a central Republican government had been established in Jakarta. It adopted a constitution drafted during the Japanese occupation by the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence. With general elections yet to be held, a Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was appointed to assist the President. Similar committees were established at provincial and regency levels.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Questions of allegiance immediately arose amongst indigenous rulers. Central Javanese principalities, for example, immediately declared themselves Republican, while many "raja" ('rulers') of the outer islands, who had been enriched from their support of the Dutch, were less enthusiastic. Such reluctance among many outer islands was sharpened by the radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes Islamic nature of the Java-centric Republican leadership. Support did, however, come from South Sulawesi (including the King of Bone, who still recalled battles against the Dutch from early in the century), and from Makassarese and Bugis "raja", who supported the Republican Governor of Jakarta, a Menadonese Christian. Many Balinese "raja" accepted Republican authority.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Fearing the Dutch would attempt to re-establish their authority over Indonesia, the new Republican Government and its leaders moved quickly to strengthen the fledgling administration. Within Indonesia, the newly formed government, although enthusiastic, was fragile and focused in Java (where focused at all). It was rarely and loosely in contact with the outer islands, which had more Japanese troops (particularly in Japanese naval areas), less sympathetic Japanese commanders, and fewer Republican leaders and activists. In November 1945, a parliamentary form of government was established and Sjahrir was appointed Prime Minister.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: In the week following the Japanese surrender, the Giyūgun (PETA) and Heiho groups were disbanded by the Japanese. Command structures and membership vital for a national army were consequently dismantled. Thus, rather than being formed from a trained, armed, and organised army, the Republican armed forces began to grow in September from usually younger, less trained groups built around charismatic leaders. Creating a rational military structure that was obedient to central authority from such disorganisation, was one of the major problems of the revolution, a problem that remains through to contemporary times. In the self-created Indonesian army, Japanese-trained Indonesian officers prevailed over those trained by the Dutch. A thirty-year-old former school teacher, Sudirman, was elected 'commander-in-chief' at the first meeting of Division Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12 November 1945.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Dutch accused Sukarno and Hatta of collaborating with the Japanese, and denounced the Republic as a creation of Japanese fascism. The Dutch East Indies administration had just received a ten million dollar loan from the United States to finance its return to Indonesia.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Netherlands, however, was critically weakened from World War II in Europe and did not return as a significant military force until early 1946. The Japanese and members of the Allied forces reluctantly agreed to act as caretakers. As US forces were focusing on the Japanese home islands, the archipelago was put under the jurisdiction of British Admiral Earl Louis Mountbatten, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command. Allied enclaves already existed in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), Morotai (Maluku) and parts of Irian Jaya; Dutch administrators had already returned to these areas. In the Japanese navy areas, the arrival of Allied troops quickly prevented revolutionary activities where Australian troops, followed by Dutch troops and administrators, took the Japanese surrender (except for Bali and Lombok). Due to the lack of strong resistance, two Australian Army divisions succeeded in occupying eastern Indonesia.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The British were charged with restoring order and civilian government in Java. The Dutch took this to mean pre-war colonial administration and continued to claim sovereignty over Indonesia. The British and Indian troops did not, however, land on Java to accept the Japanese surrender until late September 1945. Lord Mountbatten's immediate tasks included the repatriation of some 300,000 Japanese, and freeing prisoners of war. He did not want, nor did he have the resources, to commit his troops to a long struggle to regain Indonesia for the Dutch. The first British troops reached Jakarta in late September 1945, and arrived in the cities of Medan (North Sumatra), Padang (West Sumatra), Palembang (South Sumatra), Semarang (Central Java) and Surabaya (East Java) in October. In an attempt to avoid clashes with Indonesians, the British commander Lieutenant General Sir Philip Christison diverted soldiers of the former Dutch colonial army to eastern Indonesia, where Dutch reoccupation was proceeding smoothly. Tensions mounted as Allied troops entered Java and Sumatra; clashes broke out between Republicans and their perceived enemies, namely Dutch prisoners, Dutch colonial troops (KNIL), Chinese, Indo-Europeans and Japanese.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The first stages of warfare were initiated in October 1945 when, in accordance with the terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they had relinquished to Indonesians in the towns and cities. Japanese military police killed Republican "pemuda" in Pekalongan (Central Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops drove Republican "pemuda" out of Bandung in West Java and handed the city to the British, but the fiercest fighting involving the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14 October, British forces began to occupy the city. Retreating Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners they were holding. Five hundred Japanese and two thousand Indonesians had been killed and the Japanese had almost captured the city six days later when British forces arrived. The Allies repatriated the remaining Japanese troops and civilians to Japan, although about 1,000 elected to remain behind and later assisted Republican forces in fighting for independence.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Battle of Surabaya was the heaviest and bloodiest single battle of the revolution and became a national symbol of Indonesian resistance. "Pemuda" groups in Surabaya, the second largest city in Indonesia, seized arms and ammunition from the Japanese and set up two new organisations; the Indonesia National Committee (KNI) and the People's Security Council (BKR). By the time the Allied forces arrived at the end of October 1945, the "pemuda" foothold in Surabaya city was described as "a strong unified fortress".


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: In September and October 1945 Europeans and pro-Dutch Eurasians were attacked and killed by Indonesian mobs. Ferocious fighting erupted when 6,000 British Indian troops landed in the city. Sukarno and Hatta negotiated a ceasefire between the Republicans and the British forces led by Brigadier Mallaby. Mallaby was killed on 30 October 1945 while he was travelling about Surabaya under a white flag to spread the news about the cease fire agreement and rescue some stranded Mahratta troops, despite being warned of the danger by Force 136 troops. Following the killing of Mallaby on 30 October, the British sent more troops into the city from 10 November under the cover of air attacks. Although the European forces largely captured the city in three days, the poorly armed Republicans fought on until 29 November and thousands died as the population fled to the countryside.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On 1 December 1945, the Allies attempted to create a buffer zone and planted signs inscribed with the message "Fixed Medan Area Boundaries"[a] in the outskirts of Medan. Nine days later, on 10 December 1945, the Allies and the NICA launched a massive attack against Indonesian troops stationed in Medan. The attack caused many casualties on both sides. In April 1946, the Allies succeeded in occupying Medan, and Indonesian forces retreated to Pemantangsiantar.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The British subsequently decided to evacuate the 10,000 Indo-Europeans and European internees in the volatile Central Java interior. British detachments sent to the towns of Ambarawa and Magelang encountered strong Republican resistance and used air attacks against the Indonesians. Sukarno arranged a ceasefire on 2 November, but by late November fighting had resumed and the British withdrew to the coast.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Republican attacks against Allied and alleged pro-Dutch civilians reached a peak in November and December, with 1,200 killed in Bandung as the "pemuda" returned to the offensive. In March 1946, departing Republicans responded to a British ultimatum for them to leave the city of Bandung by deliberately burning down much of the southern half of the city in what is popularly known in Indonesia as the "Bandung Sea of Fire".


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On November 20, 1946, I Gusti Ngurah Rai commanded his troops to commit puputan (last stand) in the battle at Banjar Kelaci, Marga, Bali Province. The battle ended with 400 Dutch soldiers and the entire remaining "Ciung Wanara" battalion (including 'Ngurah Rai') killed in action. NICA was commanded to bring all of the corpses to the Marga Market, but only 86 bodies were taken.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Since Rai's entire force was wiped out, including the military leadership, the Dutch forces were subsequently unopposed and were able to regain control of Bali.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Despite the military defeat suffered by the Republicans and a loss of manpower and weaponry that would severely hamper Republican forces for the rest of the revolution, the battle and defence mounted by the Indonesians galvanised the nation in support of independence and helped garner international attention. For the Dutch, it removed any doubt that the Republic was a well-organised resistance with popular support. It also convinced Britain to lie on the side of neutrality in the revolution, and within a few years, Britain would support the Republican cause in the United Nations.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The last British troops left Indonesia in November 1946, but by this time 55,000 Dutch troops had landed in Java.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: With British assistance, the Dutch landed their Netherlands Indies Civil Administration (NICA) forces in Jakarta and other key centres. Republican sources reported 8,000 deaths up to January 1946 in the defence of Jakarta, but they could not hold the city. The Republican leadership thus established themselves in the city of Yogyakarta with the crucial support of the new sultan, Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX. Yogyakarta went on to play a leading role in the revolution, which would result in the city being granted its own Special Territory status. In Bogor, near Jakarta, and in Balikpapan in Kalimantan, Republican officials were imprisoned. In preparation for the Dutch occupation of Sumatra, its largest cities, Palembang and Medan, were bombed. In December 1946, Special Forces Depot (DST), led by commando and counter-insurgency expert Captain Raymond "Turk" Westerling, were accused of pacifying the southern Sulawesi region using arbitrary terror techniques, which were copied by other anti-Republicans. As many as 3,000 Republican militia and their supporters were killed in a few weeks.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On Java and Sumatra, the Dutch found military success in cities and major towns, but they were unable to subdue the villages and countryside. On the outer islands (including Bali), Republican sentiment was not as strong, at least among the elite. They were consequently occupied by the Dutch with comparative ease, and autonomous states were set up by the Dutch. The largest, the State of East Indonesia (NIT), encompassed most of eastern Indonesia, and was established in December 1946, with its administrative capital in Makassar.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The Linggadjati Agreement, brokered by the British and concluded in November 1946, saw the Netherlands recognise the Republic as the "de facto" authority over Java, Madura, and Sumatra. Both parties agreed to the formation of the United States of Indonesia by 1 January 1949, a semi-autonomous federal state with the monarch of the Netherlands at its head. The Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra would be one of its states, alongside areas that were generally under stronger Dutch influence, including southern Kalimantan, and the "Great East", which consisted of Sulawesi, Maluku, the Lesser Sunda Islands, and Western New Guinea. The Central National Committee of Indonesia (KNIP) did not ratify the agreement until February 1947, and neither the Republic nor the Dutch were satisfied with it. On 25 March 1947 the Lower House of the Dutch parliament ratified a stripped-down version of the treaty, which was not accepted by the Republic. Both sides soon accused the other of violating the agreement.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: At midnight on 20 July 1947, the Dutch launched a major military offensive called "Operatie Product", with the aim of destroying the republic and regaining control of areas with natural resources in Java and Sumatra, thus covering the cost of the 100,000-strong Dutch military presence. Claiming violations of the Linggajati Agreement, the Dutch described the campaign as "politionele acties" ("police actions") to restore law and order. In the offensive, Dutch forces drove Republican troops out of parts of Sumatra, and East and West Java. The Republicans were confined to the Yogyakarta region of Java. The Dutch gained control of lucrative Sumatran plantations, and oil and coal installations, and in Java, control of all deep water ports.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: International reaction to the Dutch actions was negative. Neighbouring Australia and newly independent India were particularly active in supporting the Republic's cause in the UN, as were the Soviet Union and, most significantly, the United States. Dutch ships continued to be boycotted from loading and unloading by Australian waterside workers, a blockade that began in September 1945. The United Nations Security Council became directly involved in the conflict, establishing a Committee of Good Office (CGO, known in Indonesia as Komite Tiga Negara, KTN, but not confused with Unilateral Committee.) to sponsor further negotiations, making the Dutch diplomatic position particularly difficult. A ceasefire, called for by UNSC resolution 27, was ordered by the Dutch and Sukarno on 4 August 1947.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The United Nations Security Council brokered the Renville Agreement in an attempt to rectify the collapsed Linggarjati Agreement. The agreement was ratified in January 1948 and recognised a cease-fire along the so-called 'Van Mook line'; an artificial line which connected the most advanced Dutch positions. Many Republican positions, however, were still held behind the Dutch lines. The agreement also required referendums to be held on the political future of the Dutch held areas. The apparent reasonableness of Republicans garnered much important American goodwill.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Diplomatic efforts between the Netherlands and the Republic continued throughout 1948 and 1949. Political pressures, both domestic and international, hindered Dutch attempts to decide upon objectives. Similarly, Republican leaders faced great difficulty in persuading their people to accept diplomatic concessions. By July 1948 negotiations were in deadlock and the Netherlands pushed unilaterally towards Van Mook's federal Indonesia concept. The new federal states of South Sumatra and East Java were created, although neither had a viable support base. The Netherlands set up the "Bijeenkomst voor Federaal Overleg (BFO)" (or Federal Consultative Assembly), a body comprising the leadership of the federal states, and charged with the formation of a United States of Indonesia and an interim government by the end of 1948. The Dutch plans, however, had no place for the Republic unless it accepted a minor role already defined for it. Later plans included Java and Sumatra but dropped all mention of the Republic. The main sticking point in the negotiations was the balance of power between the Netherlands High Representative and the Republican forces.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Mutual distrust between the Netherlands and the Republic hindered negotiations. The Republic feared a second major Dutch offensive, while the Dutch objected to continued Republican activity on the Dutch side of the Renville line. In February 1948 the Siliwangi Division (35,000 men) of the Republican Army, led by Nasution, marched from West Java to Central Java; the relocation was partly intended to ease internal Republican tensions involving the Division in the Surakarta area and partly intended to semi-honoring a clause in Renville Agreement in which states that "8. That... the committee's military assistants will immediately conduct enquiries to establish whether and where, especially in West Java, elements of the Republican military forces continue to offer resistance behind the present forward positions of the Netherlands forces... these would withdraw as quickly as practicable, and in any case within 21 days, as set out in the following paragraph." and "9. That all forces of each party in any area accepted as a demilitarized zone or in any area on the other party's side of a demilitarized zone, Will, under the observation of military assistants of the Committee and with arms and warlike equipment, move peacefully to the territory on the party's own side of the demilitarized zones. Both parties undertake to facilitate a speedy and peaceful evacuation of the forces concerned." The marching Indonesian forces , however, clashed with Dutch troops while crossing Mount Slamet, and the Dutch believed it was part of a systematic troop movement across the Renville Line. The fear of such incursions actually succeeding, along with apparent Republican undermining of the Dutch-established Pasundan state and negative reports, led to the Dutch leadership increasingly seeing itself as losing control.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Frustrated at negotiations with the Republic and believing it weakened by both the "Darul Islam" and Madiun insurgencies, the Dutch launched a military offensive on 19 December 1948 which it termed 'Operatie Kraai' (Operation Crow). By the following day it had conquered the city of Yogyakarta, the location of the temporary Republican capital. By the end of December, all major Republican held cities in Java and Sumatra were in Dutch hands. The Republican president, vice-president, and all but six Republic of Indonesia ministers were captured by Dutch troops and exiled on Bangka Island off the east coast of Sumatra. In areas surrounding Yogyakarta and Surakarta, Republican forces refused to surrender and continued to wage a guerrilla war under the leadership of Republican military chief of staff General Sudirman, who had escaped the Dutch offensives. An emergency Republican government, the Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia (PDRI), was established in West Sumatra.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Although Dutch forces conquered the towns and cities in Republican heartlands on Java and Sumatra, they could not control villages and the countryside. Republican troops and militia led by Lt. Colonel (later President) Suharto attacked Dutch positions in Yogyakarta at dawn on 1 March 1949. The Dutch were expelled from the city for six hours but reinforcements were brought in from the nearby cities of Ambarawa and Semarang that afternoon. Indonesian fighters retreated at 12:00 pm and the Dutch re-entered the city. The Indonesian attack, later known in Indonesia as "Serangan Oemoem" (new spelling: "Serangan Umum" '1 March General Offensive'), is commemorated by a large monument in Yogyakarta. A large-scale attack against Dutch troops in Surakarta on 10 August the same year resulted in republican forces holding the city for two days.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Once again, international opinion of the Dutch military campaigns was one of outrage, significantly in both the United Nations and the United States. U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall threatened to stop all of the economic aid program to The Netherlands, unless they immediately withdraw from Indonesia and transferred all of the sovereignty to Indonesia. In January 1949, the United Nations Security Council passed a resolution demanding the reinstatement of the Republican government. United States aid specifically earmarked for Dutch Indonesia was immediately cancelled and pressure mounted within the US Congress for all United States aid to be cut off. This included Marshall Plan funds vital for Dutch post-World War II rebuilding that had so far totalled $US 1 billion. The Netherlands Government had spent an amount equivalent to almost half of this funding their campaigns in Indonesia. That United States aid could be used to fund "a senile and ineffectual imperialism" encouraged many key voices in the United States – including those amongst the US Republican Party – and from within American churches and NGOs to speak out in support of Indonesian independence.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: In 2013, the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in 2020. According to a Dutch government inquiry in 2022, the Dutch had resorted to systematic extreme violence, including torture and murder and this conduct had been sanctioned at the highest levels of government.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The so-called 'social revolutions' following the independence proclamation were challenges to the Dutch-established Indonesian social order, and to some extent a result of the resentment against Japanese-imposed policies. Across the country, people rose up against traditional aristocrats and village heads and attempted to exert popular ownership of land and other resources. The majority of the social revolutions ended quickly; in most cases the challenges to the social order were quashed, although in East Sumatra, the sultanates were overthrown and there were mass killings of members of the aristocratic families.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: A culture of violence rooted in the deep conflicts that split the countryside during the revolution would repeatedly erupt throughout the whole second half of the 20th century. The term 'social revolution' has been applied to a range of mostly violent activities of the left that included both altruistic attempts to organise real revolution and simple expressions of revenge, resentment and assertions of power. Violence was one of the many lessons learned during the Japanese occupation, and figures identified as 'feudal', including kings, regents, or simply the wealthy, were often attacked and sometimes beheaded. Rape became a weapon against 'feudal' women. In the coastal sultanates of Sumatra and Kalimantan, for example, sultans and others whose authority had been shored up by the Dutch, were attacked as soon as Japanese authority left. The pro-Dutch aristocratic administrators ("uleëbalangs") secular local lords of Aceh, who had been the foundation of Dutch rule, were executed during local civil war, and its place was taken over by pro-Republican religious leaders. ("ulama").


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Many Indonesians lived in fear and uncertainty,particularly a significant proportion of the population who supported the Dutch or who remained under Dutch control. The popular revolutionary cry 'Freedom or Death' was often interpreted to justify killings under claimed Republican authority. Traders were often in particularly difficult positions. On the one hand, they were pressured by Republicans to boycott all sales to the Dutch; on the other hand, Dutch police could be merciless in their efforts to stamp out smugglers on which the Republican economy depended. In some areas, the term "kedaulatan rakyat" ('exercising the sovereignty of the people') – which is mentioned in the preamble of the Constitution and used by "pemuda" to demand pro-active policies from leaders – came to be used not only in the demanding of free goods, but also to justify extortion and robbery. Chinese merchants, in particular, were often forced to keep their goods at artificially low prices under threat of death.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: On 18 September 1948 an 'Indonesian Soviet Republic' was declared in Madiun, east of Yogyakarta, by members of the PKI and the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI). Judging the time right for a proletarian uprising, they intended it to be a rallying point for revolt against "Sukarno-Hatta, the slaves of the Japanese and America". Madiun however was won back by Republican forces within a few weeks and the insurgency leader, Musso, killed. RM Suryo, the governor of East Java, as well as several police officers and religious leaders, were killed by the rebels. This ended a distraction for the revolution, and it turned vague American sympathies based on anti-colonial sentiments into diplomatic support. Internationally, the Republic was now seen as being staunchly anti-communist and a potential ally in the emerging global Cold War between the American-led 'free world' and the Soviet-led bloc.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Members of the Republican Army who had come from Indonesian Hizbullah felt betrayed by the Indonesian Government for ratifying the Renville Agreement—therefore recognising many areas behind the van Mook Line as "de jure" Dutch. In May 1948, they declared a break-away regime, the "Negara Islam Indonesia" (Indonesian Islamic State), better known as "Darul Islam". Led by an Islamic mystic, Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo, "Darul Islam" sought to establish Indonesia as an Islamic theocracy. At the time, the Republican Government did not respond, as they were focused on the threat from the Dutch. Some leaders of Masjumi sympathised with the rebellion. After the Republic regained all territories in 1950, the government took the "Darul Islam" threat seriously, especially after some provinces declared that they had joined "Darul Islam". The last group of rebels was put down in 1962.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The resilience of Indonesian Republican resistance and active international diplomacy set world opinion against the Dutch efforts to re-establish their colony. The second 'police action' was a diplomatic disaster for the Dutch cause. The newly appointed United States Secretary of State Dean Acheson pushed the Netherlands government into negotiations earlier recommended by the United Nations but until then defied by the Netherlands. The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference was held in The Hague from 23 August 1949 to 2 November 1949 between the Republic, the Netherlands, and the Dutch-created federal states. The Netherlands agreed to recognise Indonesian sovereignty over a new federal state known as the 'United States of Indonesia' (RUSI). It would include all the territory of the former Dutch East Indies with the exception of Dutch New Guinea; sovereignty over which it was agreed would be retained by the Netherlands until further negotiations with Indonesia within a year of the transfer of sovereignty. The other issue on which Indonesia gave concessions was paying the Netherlands East Indies debt which amounted to 4.5 billion guilders. This amount would mean, Indonesia paid for the colonial government expenses of "". Sovereignty was formally transferred on 27 December 1949, and the new state was immediately recognised by the United States of America.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra together formed a single state in the seven-state, nine-territory RUSI federation, but accounted for almost half its population. The other fifteen 'federal' states and territories had been created by the Netherlands since 1945. These entities were dissolved into the Republic over the first half of 1950. An abortive anti-Republic coup in Bandung and Jakarta by Westerling's Legion of Ratu Adil (APRA) on 23 January 1950 resulted in the dissolution of the populous Pasundan state in West Java, thus quickening the dissolution of the federal structure. Colonial soldiers, who were largely Ambonese, clashed with Republican troops in Makassar during the Makassar Uprising in April 1950. The predominantly Christian Ambonese were from one of the few regions with pro-Dutch sentiments and they were suspicious of the Javanese Muslim-dominated Republic, whom they unfavourably regarded as leftists. On 25 April 1950, an independent Republic of South Maluku (RMS) was proclaimed in Ambon but this was suppressed by Republican troops during a campaign from July to November. With the state of East Sumatra now being the only federal state remaining, it too folded and fell in line with the unitary Republic. On 17 August 1950, the fifth anniversary of his declaration of Indonesian independence, Sukarno proclaimed the Republic of Indonesia as a unitary state.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Although there is no accurate account of how many Indonesians died, they died in far greater numbers than the Europeans. Estimates of total Indonesian deaths both from fighting and civilians were around 97,421 and may have been as high as 100,000. A total of 1,200 British soldiers were killed or went missing in Java and Sumatra in 1945 and 1946, most of them Indian soldiers. More than 5,000 Dutch soldiers lost their lives in Indonesia between 1945 and 1949. Many Japanese died; in Bandung alone, 1,057 died, only about half of whom died in actual combat, the rest killed in rampages by Indonesians. Seven million people were displaced on Java and Sumatra.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The revolution had direct effects on economic conditions; shortages were common, particularly food, clothing and fuel. There were in effect two economies – the Dutch and the Republican – both of which had to simultaneously rebuild after World War II and survive the disruptions of the revolution. The Republic had to set up all necessities of life, ranging from 'postage stamps, army badges, and train tickets' whilst subject to Dutch trade blockades. Confusion and ruinous inflationary surges resulted from competing currencies; Japanese, new Dutch money, and Republican currencies were all used, often concurrently. Indonesian government was saddled with significant debt, slowing development, with last remaining payment for Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference was made in the form of annual payment, with 1% annual interest rate since 1973, was made in 2002.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: Indonesian independence was secured through a blend of both diplomacy and force. Despite their ill-discipline raising the prospect of anarchy, without "pemuda" confronting foreign and Indonesian colonial forces, Republican diplomatic efforts would have been futile. The revolution is the turning point of modern Indonesian history, and it has provided the reference point and validation for the country's major political trends that continue to the present day. It gave impetus to communism in the country, to militant nationalism, to Sukarno's 'guided democracy', to political Islam, the origins of the Indonesian army and its role in Indonesian power, the country's constitutional arrangements, and the centralism of power in Indonesia.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: The revolution destroyed a colonial administration ruled from the other side of the world, and dismantled with it the "raja", seen by many as obsolete and powerless. Also, it relaxed the rigid racial and social categorisations of colonial Indonesia. Tremendous energies and aspirations were created amongst Indonesians; a new creative surge was seen in writing and art, as was a great demand for education and modernisation. It did not, however, significantly improve the economic or political fortune of the population's poverty-stricken peasant majority; only a few Indonesians were able to gain a larger role in commerce, and hopes for democracy were dashed within a decade.


title: Indonesian National Revolution

text: In 2016, Dutch Foreign Minister Bert Koenders apologized for a massacre by Dutch troops of 400 Indonesian villagers in 1947.