title: Public administration

text: More recently scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition", because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define". Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a sub-field of political science or a sub-field of administrative science", the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research. Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a sub-field within political science". According to Lalor a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration whereas the absence of either (or "a fortiori" both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is rhetoric, providing for public goods, and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts, producing public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.


title: Public administration

text: The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them". This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature".


title: Public administration

text: From the academic perspective, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States defines the study of public administration as "A program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local, state, and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization and management. Includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration; the management of public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and financial management; administrative law; public personnel management; professional ethics; and research methods."


title: Public administration

text: Such neat and prosperous civilisations as Harappa and Mohenjo-daaro must have had a disciplined, benevolent and uncorrupt cadre of public servants. In support of this, there are many references to Brihaspati's works on laws and governance. An interesting extract from Aaine-Akbari [vol.III, tr. by H. S. Barrett, pp217–218] written by Abul Fazl, the famous historian of Akbar's court, mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's instance. This sounds credible in the context of Akbar's restless desire to find truth, reflected in his launching a new religion called Din-e-elaahi. The account under advisement is given by the well-known historian Vincent Smith, in his article titled "The Jain Teachers of Akbar". Some Charvaka thinkers are said to have participated in the symposium. Under the heading "Naastika" Abul Fazl has referred to the good work, judicious administration and welfare schemes that were emphasised by the Charvaka law-makers. Somadeva has also mentioned the Charvaka method of defeating the enemies of the nation. He has referred to thirteen enemies who remain disguised in the kingdom for their selfish interests. They may contain a few relatives of the king and subsidiary rulers, but they should not be spared. They should be rigorously punished like any other such opponent. Kautilya, as already mentioned, has given a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the garb of friends. The Charvaka stalwart, Brihaspati, is so much more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva. He appears to be contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo-daaro culture.


title: Public administration

text: The central point of traditional religious ritual is to earn ready money for its perpetrators. All unproductive, barren rites designed for various moments in human life starting from several months prior to birth and extending over several years beyond death in the form of the annual sraddha, many of which are current even today, are but channels to feed the priests. They are unreal, imagined and wasteful. While they are unreal, imagined and wasteful; the feeding is real.


title: Public administration

text: This cunning paradox was realised by the Charvaka for its real worth. They wanted financial causes to produce financial results. Imagined causes only produced imagined results not real ones.


title: Public administration

text: Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favouritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "spoils system". Public administrators have long been the "eyes and ears" of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.


title: Public administration

text: The field of management may well be said to have originated in ancient China, including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing. Far in advance of the rest of the world until almost the end of the 18th century, Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century, for example, in Fredrick II's promulgations, characterized as the "birth certificate of modern bureaucracy". Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his "Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China" (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic. Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase". This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy. Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese. French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.


title: Public administration

text: Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual, emphasizing a merit system figures of the Fa-Jia like 4th century BC reformer Shen Buhai (400–337 BC) may have had more influence than any other, and might be considered its founder, if not valuable as a rare pre-modern example of abstract theory of administration. Creel writes that, in Shen Buhai, there are the "seeds of the civil service examination", and that, if one wishes to exaggerate, it would "no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science'", and argue that he was the first political scientist, though Creel does "not care to go this far".


title: Public administration

text: The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective, Classic, Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be called public administration.


title: Public administration

text: Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many preestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.


title: Public administration

text: Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke to Thomas Jefferson.


title: Public administration

text: In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration. He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled "The Study of Administration". The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy". Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts:


title: Public administration

text: The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration.


title: Public administration

text: By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856–1915), another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also published a book entitled "The Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the "one best way" to do things or carrying out an operation. This, according to him could help save cost and time. Taylor's technique was later introduced to private industrialists, and later into the various government organizations (Jeong, 2007).


title: Public administration

text: Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles or Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consisted of main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911):


title: Public administration

text: Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach): "It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone."


title: Public administration

text: The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal Public Administration Review, which was founded in 1940.


title: Public administration

text: Contemporary scholars are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story which includes the contributions of women. This has become known as the “alternative” or “Settlement” model of public administration. During the 19th century upper class women in the United States and Europe organized voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization that plagued their towns and cities. Eventually, these voluntary associations became networks that were able to spearhead changes to policy and administration. These women's civic clubs worked to make cities and work spaces safer (cleaner streets, water and sewage, workplace regulation) and more suited to the needs of their children (playgrounds, libraries, juvenile courts, child labor laws). These were administrative and policy spaces ignored by their fathers and husbands. The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non-profit organizations (Settlement Houses), usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants.


title: Public administration

text: The Settlement movement and its leaders such as Jane Addams, Julia Lathrop, and Florence Kelley were instrumental in crafting the alternative, feminine inspired, model of public administration. This settlement model of public administration, had two interrelated components - municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship. Municipal housekeeping called for cities to be run like a caring home. The city, should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe and children cared for. Clean streets, clean water, playgrounds, educational curricular reform, and juvenile courts, are examples of reforms associated with this movement. Industrial citizenship focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez faire, newly industrialized economy. Reforms which mitigated workplace problems such as child labor, unsanitary workplaces, excessive work schedules, risks of industrial accidents, and old age poverty were the focus of these efforts. Organized settlement women’s reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections. Settlement reformers went on to serve as local, state and federal administrators. Jane Addams was a garbage inspector, Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois, Julia Lathrop was the first director of the Women’s Bureau and Francis Perkins was Secretary of Labor during the F. Roosevelt Administration


title: Public administration

text: Reforms that emerged from the New Deal (e.g., income for the old, unemployment insurance, aid for dependent children and the disabled, child labor prohibitions and limits on hours worked etc.) were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement. Richard Stillman credits Jane Addams, a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration with “conceiving and spawning” the modern welfare state. The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration was ignored in the early literature of public administration. The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published "Bureau Men and Settlement Women" in 2000.


title: Public administration

text: Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform. They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants, women, children, sick, old and impoverished people. Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied a pragmatic, ethic of care informed by feminine experience to policy and administration. While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values (efficiency, effectiveness, etc.) and practices of their male reformist counterparts, they also emphasized social justice and social equity. Jane Addams, for example, was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people (NAACP).


title: Public administration

text: The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".


title: Public administration

text: Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioural, administrative, and organizational scholars including Henri Fayol, Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists.


title: Public administration

text: Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations. The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the centre of criticism.


title: Public administration

text: During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic party headquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behaviour that alienated citizens.


title: Public administration

text: There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization which has provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s.


title: Public administration

text: Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis, thus the study of "administrative policy making and analysis" was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of public administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007). Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book "The Elements of Public Administration" (1946), Paul H. Appleby "Policy and Administration" (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors.


title: Public administration

text: Stimulated by events during the 1960's such as an active civil rights movement, the Vietnam war and war protests, assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders, and an active women’s movement, public administration changed course somewhat. Landmark legislation such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 also gave public administrators new responsibilities. These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement. “Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo, some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine they had received”. These new scholars demanded a more policy-oriented public administrators that incorporated “four themes: relevance, values, equity and change”. All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities.


title: Public administration

text: Stimulated by the events of the 60s, the 1970s brought significant change for the American Society for Public Administration. Racial and ethnicity minority and women members organized to seek greater participation. Eventually, the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established.


title: Public administration

text: In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called New Public Management, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book "Reinventing Government". The new model advocated the use of private sector-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the Clinton Administration (1993–2001), Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK and, to a lesser extent, in Canada. The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis, according to Richard Elmore in his 1986 article published in the "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management".


title: Public administration

text: Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models). NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.


title: Public administration

text: Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants which is the hazard of linking an MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model) too closely with the public administration (governmental, public good) sector. Nevertheless, the NPM model (one of four described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government (e.g., municipal, state/province, and federal) and in many OECD nations.


title: Public administration

text: In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM. A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).


title: Public administration

text: One example in the deployment of DEG is openforum.com.au, an Australian non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Another example is Brunei's Information Department in deploying Social Media technology in improving its Digital Governance process. The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance.


title: Public administration

text: Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach which includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.


title: Public administration

text: In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the United States was often represented by terms such as independent living, community integration, inclusion, community participation, deinstitutionalization, and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, inclusive of disability. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right. Behaviorists have also dominated "intervention practice" (generally not the province of public administration) in recent years, believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy (termed ecological systems theory, of the late Urie Bronfenbrenner).


title: Public administration

text: Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of political economy to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts or the persistence of suboptimal outcomes.


title: Public administration

text: In academia, the field of public administration consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":


title: Public administration

text: Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision-making models.


title: Public administration

text: In 1971, Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational choice variation which he called the "budget-maximizing model". He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units (to enhance their stature), thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure. Niskanen served on President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors; his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spending and increased privatization. However, budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reagan administration is evidence of a different reality. A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen's universalist approach. These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest.


title: Public administration

text: The bureau-shaping model, a modification of Niskanen, holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency's operations or give to contractors and interest groups. Groups that are able to organize a "flowback" of benefits to senior officials would, according to this theory, receive increased budgetary attention. For instance, rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of low-income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats' goals. Accordingly, one might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place programming. If we refer back to Reagan once again, Dunleavy's bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the "size" of government while spending did not, in fact, decrease. Domestic entitlement programming was financially deemphasized for military research and personnel.


title: Public administration

text: Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees such as a Bachelor of Science (BS) or Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Public Administration or in Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. Graduate school programs preparing students for advanced upper management careers in public administration typically offer the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree, although at some universities, a Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MS) in Public Administration is awarded for those taking the management tract, while those going for the research tract are offered the Master of Public Policy (MPP), a Master of Arts (MA), or a Master of Science (MS) in Public Policy - some universities combine both management and research tracts into a Master of Public Policy and Administration (MPPA), even though both Public Administration and Public Policy degrees have considerable overlap in both academic content and career prospects barring some differing academic requirements based on desired sub-specialties in their future careers. Doctorate programs in Public Administration, Public Policy, and Political Science with a sub-specialization in Public Policy and Administration are also offered as terminal degrees for those who want to go into academia or teach as at institutions of higher education. These education programs are collectively called public policy degrees and are generally taught at public policy schools, while some are taught within a college of arts and sciences.


title: Public administration

text: Most public policy and administration programs combine elements of political science, economics, statistics, law mostly in the form of public law, administrative law, and Legal management (academic discipline), international relations (including international law), international development, public finance, leadership studies, ethics, sociology, comparative research, global studies, urban planning, urban studies, public policy, and public administration. More recently, public policy schools have applied quantitative analysis, management information systems, data science and analytics, organizational behavior, organization development, knowledge management, project management, political communication, political psychology, criminology and the sociology of law, philosophy (in particular political philosophy), peace and conflict studies, geography and geographic information science, intelligence studies, emergency management, cross-cultural studies, public health, environmental science and environmental studies, business administration, civil engineering, industrial engineering, systems engineering, human resource management, and operations research as part of their public policy and public administration education programs to tackle issue in the public sector, the non-profit sector, or the government relations and regulatory affairs industry in the private sector.


title: Public administration

text: While degrees in Public Policy and Public Administration at most universities are generally taught at the graduate level (master's and PhD), some undergraduate degree program majors, concentrations, and minors either as standalone degrees or as concentrations within a degree in political science or international relations still exist, especially at research universities where research, graduate, and undergraduate faculty overlap and/or have close cooperation within an autonomous public policy school unlike liberal arts colleges (particularly liberal arts colleges in the United States) that focus on the more theoretical and philosophical sides of political science at their college of arts and sciences rather than the applied and administrative side of political science.


title: Public administration

text: In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs (as well as undergraduate Public Administration-Political Science academic majors with an elective interdisciplinary concentration, academic minor, or program membership in Economics) include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. In Europe (notably in Britain and Germany), the divergence of the field from other disciplines can be traced to the 1720s continental university curriculum. Formally, official academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s, respectively.


title: Public administration

text: The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democratic values of improving equality, justice, security, efficiency and effectiveness of public services in a non-profit venue; business administration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with expanding market share, generating revenue and earning profit. For a field built on concepts (accountability, governance, decentralization and clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts.


title: Public administration

text: The more specific term "public management" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management that aims to achieve public good. In some definitions, "public management" refers to private sector, market-driven perspective on the operation of government. This typically involves putting senior executives on performance contracts, rather than tenured positions, instituting pay-for-performance systems for executives, creating revenue-generating agencies and so on. This latter view is often called "new public management" (NPM) by its advocates. New Public Management represents a reform attempt that emphasizes the professional nature of public administration. NPM advocates aim to replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis of traditional public administration with a professional focus. Some theorists advocate a "bright line" differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines like political science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.


title: Public administration

text: One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory". Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science... is struggling to define its role within the discipline". He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".


title: Public administration

text: Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recent years, public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory and postmodern philosophical notions of government, governance, and power. However, many public administration scholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality, public service, bureaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical government.


title: Public administration

text: Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries. There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this sub-field in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this sub-field of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior." CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques. The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations.


title: Public administration

text: Comparative public administration emerged during the post-World War II period in order to seek international developmental strategies which aided in the containment of communism during the Cold War. (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960) The developers of this field expanded on a general theory, a research agenda, and generalized "lessons learned". (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960) A prominent figure of Public Administration, Woodrow Wilson, commented on the study by saying, "Like principles of civil liberty are everywhere fostering like methods of government; and if comparative studies of the ways and means of government should enable us to offer suggestions which will practicably combine openness and vigor in the administration of such governments with ready docility to all serious, well-sustained public criticism, they will have approved themselves worthy to be ranked among the highest and most fruitful of the great departments of political study". As the financial state of the powering countries began to stabilize toward the decline of the Cold War, the field of CPA began to diminish. The resulting decline caused the lack of further expansion of this study making it irrelevant.


title: Public administration

text: Comparative public administration lacks curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field's foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State University has stated "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the sociopolitical context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities." He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated."


title: Public administration

text: Waugh argues that public administration requires an understanding of different administrative structures and a comparison of different public administration models. The literature to build this base of knowledge is scattered and often hard to obtain. The lack or ill-formed use of comparative public administration has been detrimental for many countries, including the United States. Fred Riggs a political scientist, states that "comparisons to the United States also can be problematic, because of the tendency of many American scholars to presume the American organizational structures and processes are models for other nations to emulate, which was a failing of early developmental administrative studies." In this, he claims the misuse and misapplication of comparative public administration has led to it being underdeveloped.


title: Public administration

text: The development and better use comparative public administration could lead to better understanding. In 2002, the National Security Strategy was used in the battle of hearts and minds. They tried to assimilate with an Arab and Islamic audience to push American values and democracy in an attempt to stop terrorism, when in fact the lack of comparison on the public level was ineffective and backfired. The lack of willingness to understand their culture led to more tension in the Middle East. In conclusion of these events there are not enough resources directed to the study of comparative public administration. For a basic understanding of sociopolitical structure of a society or culture is a key component of comparative public administration.


title: Public administration

text: Despite all of its set backs there are examples of the application of well-formed Comparative Public Administration working in the world today. One of which is the comparison on the national level David Clark an author in this field states "In spite of similarities in public management reform rhetoric, it is argued that there is increasing divergence in the philosophy & practice of public service in the two nations, & and these differences reflect regimes that incorporate different ideals of citizenship." This highlights the benefit of proper comparison of public administration. By examining patterns that emerge in international public sectors one can identify similarities and differences in many things including ideals of citizenship on the local level. Although the United States failed use of Comparative Public Administration in the Middle East is noted, they did properly incorporate it domestically. "During the Clinton administration, the focus on residential energy consumption in the United States was elevated to a high level with the inauguration of the Million Solar Roofs initiative, in which the Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored workshops, developed a pool of existing federal lending and financing options, and worked with partners in the solar and building industries to remove market barriers to strengthen grassroots demand for solar technologies".


title: Public administration

text: This grassroots demand may have come from the comparative knowledge that concluded "In the United States, residential and commercial buildings combined now use 71% of all electricity produced and account for 79% of all electricity expenditures. Annual CO emission attributed to electricity consumption in these U.S. buildings constitute 43% of the country's annual total CO emission, which is approximately equivalent to the total CO emission of Japan, France, and the United Kingdom combined. These levels support the claim of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that energy use in buildings offer more potential for reducing carbon emission than any other single sector in the United States and abroad.". This example compares CO emission in the United States to other countries and through the buildings sector; the US could cut down on CO2 emission. The field of comparative public administration is often misunderstood for the definition itself is complex and requires layers of understanding. The field will require many more years of collaborative research before it becomes a widely recognized academic study.


title: Public administration

text: Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees such as a Bachelor of Science (BS) and/or Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with a academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. At a number of universities undergraduate level public administration and nonprofit management education is packaged together (along with international relations and security studies) in a degree in political science.


title: Public administration

text: Some public administration programs have similarities to business administration programs, in cases where the students from both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs take many of the same courses. In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers, who typically aim to maximize profit or share price.


title: Public administration

text: The MPA is related to similar graduate-level government studies programs including Master of Arts (MA) programs in public affairs, public policy, and political science. MPA degrees may be more likely to include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to MA degrees, which tend to focus on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, administrative law, contracting with government, problems of governance and power, and participatory democracy. Some MPA degrees may be more oriented towards training students to undertake public service work tasks, whereas some MA programs may have a more academic, theoretical focus. Some universities offer their Masters in public administration as an MA degree (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada and the University of Kerala in India).


title: Public administration

text: Some universities offer mid-career Master's programs, sometimes called an MC/MPA, that can be taken part-time (often outside of business hours) by public servants and public service managers who are working full-time. Community programs may offer internships or continuing education credits. One example is the Maxwell School's mid-career Masters at Syracuse University, which was launched by Robert Iversen in the 1970s.


title: Public administration

text: There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the Ph.D. in public administration. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects. The DPA requires coursework beyond the Masters level and a thesis, dissertation or other doctoral project. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. can be used. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada, and the University Of Kerala in India). The Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts.


title: Public administration

text: Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.


title: Public administration

text: Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct". Many non-elected public employees such as political appointees and civil servants are considered public administrators. This includes political appointees, upper management-level civil servants (senior executive service), and lower-level civil servants such as heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, human resources (HR) administrators, city managers, census managers, state mental health directors, cabinet members (cabinet secretaries in presidential systems), paralegals, lawyers, legislative assistants, office secretaries, project managers, and many more non-elected positions in government. Public administrators are public employees working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government. Most industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs, as well as nonprofit organizations in the voluntary sector also hire those with public administration and political science degrees.


title: Public administration

text: There are a number of international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) is diverse, as it includes the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top public officials and leading scholars. The oldest organization is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS). Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and good practices to improve the organization and operation of public administration. The IIAS also aims to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group for Public Administration (AGPA). IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS. Another body, the International Committee of the US-based Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.


title: Public administration

text: The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region. The institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere.


title: Public administration

text: NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia. The US public administration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA) and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA). These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration.


title: Public administration

text: Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration (EROPA) is a state-membership based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in the Philippines with centres and membership organized around the Asia Pacific region. EROPA organizes annual conferences, and publishes a journal "Asian Review of Public Administration" (ARPA). It has a number of centres in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members.


title: Public administration

text: "Public management" is an approach to government administration and non-profit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector management and business techniques and approaches. These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., Graham T. Allison and Charles Goodsell) makes it different from the private sector.ref> proposes a positive and negative definitions of public management. The positive approach as: "praxeological ana rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships, competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resorurces". Negative approach as: "Fiction, whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group". Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in developed nations.


title: Public administration

text: Comparative public management, through government performance auditing, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: Martina Michèle Weymouth (born November 22, 1950) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, and a founding member and bassist of the new wave group Talking Heads and its side project Tom Tom Club, which she co-founded with her husband, Talking Heads drummer Chris Frantz. In 2002, Weymouth was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Talking Heads.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: Born in Coronado, California, Weymouth is the daughter of Laura Bouchage and U.S. Navy Vice Admiral Ralph Weymouth (1917-2020). The third of seven children, her siblings include Lani and Laura Weymouth, who are collaborators in Tina's band Tom Tom Club, and architect Yann Weymouth, the designer of the Salvador Dalí Museum. Weymouth is of French heritage on her mother's side (she is the great-granddaughter of Anatole Le Braz, a Breton writer). Her mother was an immigrant from France of Breton descent and her father was American.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: When she was 12, Weymouth joined the Potomac English Hand Bell Ringers, an amateur music group directed by Nancy Tufts, and toured with them. At 14, she started to teach herself the guitar.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: As a student at the Rhode Island School of Design, she met Chris Frantz and David Byrne, who formed a band called the Artistics. She began dating Frantz and served as the band's driver. After graduation, the three of them moved to New York City. Since Byrne and Frantz were unable to find a suitable bass guitar player she joined them at the latter's request, and began learning and playing the instrument.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: As a bass player she combined the minimalist art-punk bass lines of groups such as Wire and Pere Ubu with danceable, funk-inflected riffs to provide the bedrock of Talking Heads' signature sound.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: Full members of the Compass Point All Stars, Weymouth and Frantz formed the Tom Tom Club in 1980, which kept them busy during a fairly long hiatus in Talking Heads activity. When it became obvious that Talking Heads frontman David Byrne had no interest in another Talking Heads album, Weymouth, Frantz, and Jerry Harrison reunited without him for a single album called "No Talking, Just Head" under the name "The Heads" in 1996, featuring a rotating cast of vocalists. Weymouth has been critical of Byrne, describing him as "a man incapable of returning friendship".


title: Tina Weymouth

text: She co-produced the Happy Mondays' 1992 album "Yes Please!" and contributed backing vocals and percussion for the alternative rock virtual band Gorillaz on their track "19-2000".


title: Tina Weymouth

text: Weymouth was a judge for the second annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers. She collaborated with Chicks on Speed on their cover of the Tom Tom Club's "Wordy Rappinghood" for their album "99 Cents" in 2003 along with other female musicians such as Miss Kittin, Kevin Blechdom, Le Tigre, and Adult's Nicola Kuperus. "Wordy Rappinghood" became a moderate dance hit in Europe, peaking at number two in the Dutch Top 40, number five on the Belgian Dance Chart, and at number seven on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Tina Weymouth

text: Weymouth and Chris Frantz have been married since 1977. They live in Fairfield, Connecticut, and have two sons. Her niece, Katharine Weymouth, served as publisher of "The Washington Post".


title: Tina Weymouth

text: In March 2022, Weymouth and Frantz were in a car collision with a drunk driver. Weymouth suffered a fractured sternum and three fractured ribs.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: NXT is a brand of the American professional wrestling promotion WWE that was introduced on February 23, 2010. Brands are divisions of WWE's roster where wrestlers are assigned to perform on a weekly basis when a brand extension is in effect. Wrestlers assigned to NXT primarily appear on the brand's weekly television program, "NXT". The brand serves as a developmental territory for WWE's two main brands, Raw and SmackDown, which are referred to as the main roster. Due to its status as the company's developmental territory, NXT operates regardless if there is a brand extension in effect or not.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: In its original incarnation, "NXT" was a reality-based television show in which rookies competed to become a star in WWE. In 2012, NXT was relaunched as a separate brand and replaced the now-defunct Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) as WWE's developmental territory. Primarily holding its events in the Orlando, Florida area since its relaunch, the brand would be expanded upon over time, having embarked on national and international tours. Wrestling critics and fans came to view NXT as its own distinct entity during this period, with the brand's shows being praised for their high-quality matches and storylines.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: WWE would promote NXT as its third main brand in September 2019, when its eponymous weekly series was expanded to a two-hour format and moved to USA Network. The brand faced direct Nielsen ratings competition from All Elite Wrestling's flagship show, "Dynamite", during this period as part of the "Wednesday Night Wars". In April 2021, NXT's television series moved to Tuesday nights, and the brand would relaunch under the "NXT 2.0" banner later that September, reinstituting its original function as a developmental territory. A year later, the brand would revert to its original "NXT" name.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: In addition to NXT's main television program, the brand's wrestlers also appear on the supplementary show, "Level Up". From 2014 to 2021, the brand held its major events under the NXT TakeOver series, but this event series was discontinued with the rebranding to NXT 2.0. WWE also operated a subsidiary brand under NXT called NXT UK, which was based in and produced for wrestlers in the United Kingdom; the brand is currently on hiatus and will relaunch in 2023 as NXT Europe to include all Pan-European countries. Another subsidiary brand, 205 Live, existed under NXT from 2019 until 2022 when 205 Live was dissolved.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: NXT was formed in 2010, following the dissolution of the ECW brand. Initially, the NXT trademark was disputed between WWE and Scotland's Scottish Wrestling Alliance (SWA), whose developmental division was also called NXT. WWE worked with SWA to secure the NXT trademark for their new series with SWA's developmental branch being renamed "SWA: Source." In February 2010, WWE debuted the "NXT" television program, the program featured rookies from WWE's Tampa, Florida-based developmental territory Florida Championship Wrestling (FCW) competing to become members of WWE's main roster.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: In June 2012, WWE ceased operating FCW, and instead started running all of its developmental events and operations at Full Sail University under the NXT banner. The television show would also be revamped the same month to focus exclusively on developmental talent.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: On February 27, 2014, NXT held a live, two-hour event, NXT Arrival, serving as the first live wrestling event for the newly launched WWE Network service. After the second live event in May 2014, NXT TakeOver, the "TakeOver" name would be used for future live NXT events airing on WWE Network. In March 2015, NXT promoted its first live event outside of Florida with an event in Columbus, Ohio. On August 22, 2015, NXT held its first TakeOver event outside of Full Sail University, with at New York City's Barclays Center—acting as a support event for SummerSlam. In December of the same year, NXT held its first TakeOver event outside of the United States with . By 2016, NXT was running approximately 200 shows per year between the United States and overseas.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: In late February and March 2015, several former NXT trainees previously working within WWE developmental system alleged misconduct by head trainer Bill DeMott, with Judas Devlin and Brandon Traven publicizing complaints which they claimed they had submitted to WWE management about DeMott back in March 2013 when they were still employed with WWE. Meanwhile, other ex trainees like Briley Pierce, Derrick Bateman and independent wrestler Terra Calaway also made allegations in 2015, while previous allegations made in 2013 by Chad Baxter and Chase Donovan were also noted. They accused DeMott of making trainees perform dangerous drills, physically assaulting and bullying trainees, using homophobic and racial slurs amongst other derogatory terms and condoning sexual harassment. WWE released statements regarding some of the claims that came to light in 2013 and 2015, saying that investigations were done and no wrongdoing was found. On March 6, 2015, DeMott denied the allegations, but resigned from WWE.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: On August 20, 2019, it was announced that the "NXT" television series would move to USA Network—the current broadcaster of WWE's flagship "Monday Night Raw"—and expand into a two-hour, live broadcast on Wednesday nights beginning September 18, 2019. The timing of the premiere coincided with "SmackDown"s move to FOX in October. As a result of the move, the show would compete with All Elite Wrestling (AEW)'s weekly show, "", on TNT; marking the beginning of the "Wednesday Night Wars".


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: On October 18, 2019, it was announced by Drake Maverick that NXT and the 205 Live brand and NXT would began a talent exchange. In an interview with VultureHound Magazine on September 12, executive producer Paul "Triple H" Levesque would confirm that both the 205 Live and NXT UK brands would essentially be subsidiaries to NXT, with their respective talents and personnel falling under the NXT banner.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: On October 31, 2019, it was announced that NXT would take part in that year's Survivor Series, competing directly against Raw and SmackDown. In 2020, after winning that year's women's Royal Rumble match, Charlotte Flair chose to challenge Rhea Ripley for the NXT Women's Championship at WrestleMania 36, establishing that NXT championships were also options for Rumble winners to choose as they are guaranteed a world championship match of their choice at WrestleMania.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: Despite WWE promoting NXT as one of their top three brands during this time, some independent journalists still referred to NXT as developmental, with Raw and SmackDown viewed as WWE's "main roster". WWE wrestler Matt Riddle called NXT a "small ocean", while "when you get to the main roster you are in the ocean". Reflecting on the Wednesday Night Wars in a 2022 interview, Levesque said, "People put so much pressure on [this] 'competitive war'...it never was that. ... they beat our developmental system, good for them". This effectively retracted the view that NXT was one of their top three brands during that time.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: The Wednesday Night Wars came to an end in April 2021 when "NXT" was moved to Tuesday nights. After 12 NXT wrestlers were released from their contracts that August, Dave Scherer and Mike Johnson of "Pro Wrestling Insider" reported there had been internal talks of major changes to the brand, such as: "a new logo, new lighting, a focus on younger talents and a different format to the TV shows." Dave Meltzer reported that NXT would likely go back to its developmental roots, with "talent that are [sic] younger, bigger and that could someday main event at WrestleMania". WWE President Nick Khan subsequently confirmed that NXT would undergo a "complete revamp" overseen by Levesque. However, Levesque was sidelined throughout the re-branding due to undergoing heart surgery in September, and Shawn Michaels stepped in to oversee the creative aspect of the brand.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: Dubbed "NXT 2.0", the revamp began on the September 14 episode of "NXT". "WWE NXT" and "205 Live" would emanate from a fully redesigned venue at the WWE Performance Center to coincide with the revamp, dropping the "Capitol Wrestling Center" name. The NXT TakeOver series would also be discontinued, with that year's WarGames event being the brand's first PPV to not be held under the "TakeOver" name. Since its revamp, many of the NXT wrestlers were released en masse in November 2021 due to budget cuts and the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic that involved administrative staff, plant and wrestlers. This fractured further in January 2022, several backstage workers were released, most of them known for their work with Levesque, including NXT General Manager William Regal and writer Ryan Katz. On February 15, "PWInsider" reported that WWE was ceasing the production of "205 Live" episodes, replacing the series with a new supplementary show for NXT called "Level Up", which premiered on Peacock and the WWE Network on February 18.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: Briefly in 2022, talents from NXT appeared on "Monday Night Raw" similar to the ECW talent exchange in 2007. Meltzer reported that Raw-NXT crossovers were a way to help boost NXT 2.0 ratings as both programs air on the USA Network.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: At the conclusion of the September 13, 2022 edition of the show, the brand returned to the NXT name, revealing a revised version of the logo featuring white lettering in the 2.0 font outlined in black and gold (a nod to the brand's past history) and removing the 2.0 part.


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: The WWE Network was the main broadcaster of NXT's eponymous television program in the United States from 2014 to 2019. Regular episodes ran for one-hour and aired on tape delay, while live NXT TakeOver events were produced periodically. Beginning on May 17, 2012, WWE began filming "NXT" at Full Sail University in Winter Park, Florida, with the venue being billed on air as "Full Sail Live".


title: NXT (WWE brand)

text: In its original format from 2010 to 2012, the series was a seasonally-broadcast competition series that was filmed in large venues during the "SmackDown" tapings. The series saw "NXT Rookies" paired with "WWE Pros", with the pairs competing in challenges until one sole winner remained. As with WWE's main programming, the series followed scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters that built tension and culminated in a series of matches or challenges. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers, while storylines were produced on the weekly series. Over the course of its five-season run, the winners of each season were Wade Barrett (Season 1), Kaval (Season 2), Kaitlyn (Season 3) and Johnny Curtis (Season 4). After "NXT Redemption", the show's seasonal format was dropped.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The first generation of the BMW 1 Series consists of the BMW E81 (3-door hatchback), BMW E82 (coupe), BMW E87 (5-door hatchback) and BMW E88 (convertible) compact cars. The E81/E82/E87/E88 generation was produced from 2004 until 2013 and is sometimes collectively referred to as the E8x. The E8x replaced the 3 Series Compact as the entry level models of the BMW range.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The chassis has an aluminum multi-link suspension, and a rear-wheel drive layout with a longitudinally-mounted engine giving 50:50 weight balance, which was a rare configuration in the hatchback market segment as cars use front-wheel drive. The engines available were four-cylinder turbo-diesel, four-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol, six-cylinder naturally aspirated petrol and six-cylinder turbocharged petrol (the latter only available on coupe and convertible models).


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The highest performance trim is the 1 Series M Coupé which was powered by the BMW N54 turbocharged inline-six engine mated to a six-speed manual transmission. It was produced in only the coupe body style and is considered the predecessor to the BMW M2.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Following the introduction of the F20/F21 1 Series in 2011, the E81/E87 hatchback models began to be phased out, while the E82/E88 coupes and convertibles remained in production until 2013, when they were replaced by the F22/F23 2 Series models.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Initially, BMW considered adopting the Rover R30 design program into the upcoming 1 Series; however, it was eventually decided to develop the E8x alongside the E90 3 Series. The E8x shares approximately 60% of components with the E90, including front and rear suspension, structure, chassis, engines, drivetrain, hardware and electronic elements.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 1 Series was developed under design director Chris Bangle, At the 2002 Geneva Motor Show, the "CS1 Concept" previewed the 1 Series design. with Christopher Chapman leading the exterior design for the hatchback models.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The first 1 Series production models – in the E87 five-door hatchback body style – were launched at the Paris Motor Show in September 2004.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In May 2005, in a commercial for the 1 Series Hatchback, Kermit the Frog was shown driving a BMW 1 Series around in a desert making figure-eights, showcasing the car's agility.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In 2012, a number of 1 Series vehicles were stolen in the United Kingdom, due to thieves programming a blank key fob to start the car through the on-board diagnostics (OBD) connection. This security flaw was later patched, for both existing vehicles and new cars produced since.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In March 2007, the E87 five-door hatchback received a facelift (also called LCI). Changes included the N43 four-cylinder engine replacing the N45 and N46 engines, various changes to improve fuel economy (marketed as "EfficientDynamics"), electric power steering replacing the traditional hydraulic power steering, revised bumpers and interior changes.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In November 2007, the E82 coupe models were released, followed by the E88 convertible models soon after.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In 2011, the E82 coupé and E88 convertible models received a facelift. Changes included headlights and taillight revisions, new front/rear bumpers and minor revisions to the interior. For the 135i model, the N55 engine replaced the N54. Even though many engines are the same, the facelifted 1 Series fuel consumption is slightly higher in some models such as the 123d, and slightly lower in some models such as the 120i.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Reviews of the 1 Series' exterior styling were mixed, with the unusual proportions of the hatchback model often receiving criticism.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The E87 was produced from 2004 until 2011, with the model range consisting of the 116i, 116d, 118i, 118d, 120i, 120d, 123d and 130i. Kerb Weight: 1340 kg (2954 lbs.).


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: As per the five-door body style, the model range consisted of the 116i, 116d, 118i, 118d, 120i, 120d, 123d and 130i. The overall length is the same as the five-door models, and the kerb weight is lighter.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 1 Series Coupé (E82) was unveiled in 2007 at the Frankfurt Motor Show and went on sale on 24 November 2007.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The model range consisted of the 118d, 118i, 120i, 120d, 123d, 125i, 125se, 128i, 135i, 135is, and the M Coupé. In North America, the E82 went on sale in October 2007 with the 128i and the 135i models. The E82 was produced until August 2013.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The E88 convertible models were produced from 2007 until June 2013. The model range consisted of the 118d, 118i, 120i, 120d, 123d, 125i, 128i, 135i, and 135is.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In most countries, the 135i is the top model of the E82/E88 coupe/convertible range (excluding the limited production 1M Coupe). From 2007 to 2010, the 135i was powered by the N54 twin-turbo 3.0-litre engine with a 6-speed manual or a 6-speed automatic transmission. From 2010, the 135i engine was upgraded to the N55 single-turbo 3.0-litre engine with a 6-speed manual or a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission. The differential fitted to the 135i uses double-helical ball bearings, which operate at a lower temperature and reach operating temperature quicker, due to a reduction of fluid required in the differential. The 135i brakes are 6-piston front calipers and 2-piston rear calipers, with disk sizes of 338 mm and 324 mm respectively.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Another E82/E88 coupe/convertible trim sold only in the United States and Canada was the 128i, which was powered by a version of the 3.0 litre BMW N52 inline-6 engine.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 130i is the top model of the E81/E87 hatchback range and was released in September 2004. It is powered by the N52 3.0-litre naturally aspirated engine and transmission choices were a 6-speed manual or a 6-speed automatic.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In early 2006, the 5-speed manual transmission was phased out in favour of the 6-speed Getrag GS6 gearbox.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Several 6-speed automatic transmissions were used- the ZF 6HP for the 135i, GM 6L50 for the 128i, and GM 6L45 for 116i. A 7-speed Getrag dual-clutch transmission ("DCT") was available for the 135i model from 2010.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The "BMW 1 Series M Coupe" (often referred to as the "1M") is the high-performance model of the E82 coupe range, sold under the BMW M performance sub-brand. While BMW naming convention would have called the car the "M1", an alternate name was chosen to avoid confusion with the 1970s BMW M1 supercar.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: At the 2007 Tokyo Auto Show, BMW unveiled the "1 Series tii Concept", which was thought to be a preview of the M version of the 1 Series. However, the eventual 1M model appeared four years later and with significant differences, such as an engine with six-cylinders instead of four.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 1M was BMW M's second turbocharged engine (after the S63 V8 which debuted in the X6M). The BMW N54 fitted to the 1M was originally being used in the "E89 Z4 sDrive35is" and has rated outputs of at 5,900 rpm and from 1,500 to 4,500 rpm. An additional is produced during overboost taking overall peak torque to . The sole transmission available was a six-speed manual.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The front and rear track widths were widened by and respectively and a limited-slip differential was used. As a result, the overall width is . The curb weight is .


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: Initial plans were to limit production of the 1M Coupe to 2,700 units, but the final production total was 6,309.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 1M Coupe placed third in the "Evo Magazine" 2011 Car of the Year awards. It also featured on "Top Gear" on 26 June 2011 and recorded a time of 1:25.0 around the Top Gear test track under damp conditions and received "Richard Hammond's Car of the Year 2011" award in the "Top Gear" magazine.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The "BMW ActiveE" was an electric car based on the E82 coupe that was produced in small quantities for demonstration and testing purposes. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency rated the range as and the energy consumption as 33 kW·h per . The cars were leased to customers for two years, following which they were taken off the road. A total of 1,100 vehicles were produced, with 700 of these being delivered to U.S. customers beginning in January 2012.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In 2006, a BMW 120d modified with a BMW customer racing kit entered by "Schubert Motors" placed 5th at the Nurburgring 24 Hours in a field of 220 cars.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: In 2019, the UK based 750 Motor Club introduced a one make mini endurance series using the 2004-2006 116i car. Modified from factory production specifications with a coil over suspension kit, reworked motorsport exhaust and re-programmed ECU the cars race in a 90-minute multiple driver format. For 2020, the series attracted regular grids of over 25 cars with more than 50 cars having been built by both privateers and professional teams.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 135is coupe and convertible model was sold only for the 2013 model year in the United States and Canada. In other markets, the next generation F20 1 Series had replaced the E82/E88 by this stage, with the top-of-the-line M135i sharing the same engine as the 135is.


title: BMW 1 Series (E87)

text: The 135is is powered by an upgraded version of the N55 engine which produces and , an additional 20 hp and 17 lb-ft of torque over the 135i. Other upgrades include sports suspension, an M Sport body kit, and 18-inch wheels.


title: Willem Dafoe filmography

text: Willem Dafoe is an American actor known for his work in "To Live and Die in L.A." (1985), "Platoon" (1986), "The Last Temptation of Christ" (1988), "Flight of the Intruder" (1991), "" (1997), "The Boondock Saints" (1999), "Shadow of the Vampire" (2000), "Spider-Man" (2002), "The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou" (2004), "Manderlay" (2005), "Antichrist" (2009), "The Florida Project" (2017), "The Lighthouse" (2019) and "" (2021).


title: Willem Dafoe filmography

text: Dafoe has received multiple awards and nominations, including four Academy Award nominations and has collaborated with filmmakers such as Paul Schrader, Abel Ferrara, Lars von Trier and Wes Anderson.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Genoa Cricket and Football Club, commonly referred to as Genoa (), is a professional football club based in Genoa, Liguria, Italy, that competes in , the second division of the Italian football league system.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Established in 1893, Genoa is Italy's oldest football team, and the oldest Italian football team still active with over 125 years of history. During their long history, Genoa have won the Italian Championship 9 times. Genoa's first title came at the inaugural championship in 1898 and their most recent was in 1923–24. They have also won the Coppa Italia once. Historically, Genoa are the fourth most successful Italian club in terms of championships won. Genoa CFC have played their home games Stadio Luigi Ferraris since 1911.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: This slew of early successes may lie at the origin of the love professed for the team by the godfather of Italian sports journalists Gianni Brera (1919–92), who, despite having been born in Lombardy, always declared himself a supporter of the team. Brera went as far as creating the nickname "Vecchio Balordo" ("Old Fool" or "Cranky Old One") for Genoa.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: In 2011 Genoa was included in the "International Bureau of Cultural Capitals" (a sort of historical sporting heritage of humanity, in line with that of UNESCO) at the request of President Xavier Tudela. In 2013 was also admitted to the "Club of Pioneers", an association that brings together the oldest football clubs in the world which already included Sheffield F.C. and Recreativo de Huelva.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The club was founded on 7 September 1893 as Genoa Cricket & Athletic Club. In its earliest years, it principally competed in athletics and cricket. Association football was only a secondary concern. Since the club was set up to represent England abroad, the original shirts worn by the organisation were white, the same colour as the England national team shirt. At first Italians were not permitted to join as it was a British sporting club abroad. Genoa's activities took place in the north-west of the city in the Campasso area, at the "Piazza d'Armi". The men who initially handled the management of the club were;


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: On 10 April 1897 the footballing section of the club, already existing from 1893, became predominant thanks to James Richardson Spensley. It was among the oldest in Italian football at the time, the only other founded clubs were four in Turin. Italians were allowed to join and found a new ground in the form of "Ponte Carrega".


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The first friendly match took place at home, against a mixed team of Internazionale Torino and F.B.C. Torinese; Genoa lost 1–0. Not long after, Genoa recorded its first victory away against UPS Alessandria winning 2–0. Friendly games also took place against various British sailors such as those from .


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Football in Italy stepped up a level with the creation of the Italian Football Federation and the Italian Football Championship. Genoa competed in the first Italian Championship in 1898 at Velodrome Humbert I in Turin. They defeated Ginnastica Torino 2–1 in their first official game on 8 May, before winning the first championship later that day by beating Internazionale Torino 3–1 after extra-time.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Genoa returned for the following season, this time with a few changes; the name of the club was altered to Genoa Cricket & Football Club, dropping the "Athletic" from its name. A change in shirt colour was also in order, as they changed to white and blue vertical stripes; known in Italy as "biancoblù". Genoa won their second title in a one-day tournament which took place on 16 April 1899, by beating Internazionale Torino 3–1 for the second time. On their way to winning their third consecutive title in 1900 and also beating local rivals Sampierdarenese 7–0; a winning margin which would not be bettered by any team in the league until 1910. The final was secured with a 3–1 win over F.B.C. Torinese.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The club strip was changed again in 1901, Genoa adopted its famous red-navy halves and therefore became known as the "rossoblù"; these are the colours used even to this day as with many other Italian clubs, such as Cagliari, Bologna, Crotone and an endless list of minor clubs. After a season of finishing runners-up to Milan Cricket and Football Club, things were back on track in 1902 with their fourth title. Juventus emerged as serious contenders to Genoa's throne from 1903 onwards, when for two seasons in a row Genoa beat the "Old Lady" in the national final.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Notably Genoa became the first Italian football team to play an international match, when they visited France on 27 April 1903 to play FVC Nice, winning the fixture 3–0. As well as winning the Italian championship in 1904, the year was also notable for Genoa reserves winning the first ever II Categoria league season; a proto-Serie B under the top level. From 1905 onwards when they were runners-up, Genoa lost their foothold on the Italian championship; other clubs such as Juventus, Milan and Pro Vercelli stepped up.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The fall in part during this period can be traced back to 1908 when FIGC agreed to Federal Gymnastics protests forbidding the use of foreign players. Since Genoa's birth they had always had a strong English contingent. They disagreed, as did several other prominent clubs such as Milan, Torino and Firenze; as thus they withdrew from official FIGC competitions that year. The following season the federation reversed the decision and Genoa was rebuilt with players such as Luigi Ferraris and some from Switzerland, such as Daniel Hug who came from FC Basel. The rebuilding of the squad also saw the creation of a new ground in the Marassi area of Genoa, when built it had a capacity of 25,000 and was comparable to British stadiums of the time; it was officially opened on 22 January 1911.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: With the introduction of the Italy national football team, Genoa played an important part, with the likes of Renzo De Vecchi; who was "azzurri" captain for some time, Edoardo Mariani and Enrico Sardi earning call-ups. Englishman William Garbutt was brought in as head coach to help revive the club; Garbutt was the first professional manager in Italy and was renowned for being highly charismatic, and also for constantly smoking his tobacco pipe. He was dubbed "Mister" by the players; since then Italians have referred to coaches in general by the term.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Finally by 1914–15, Genoa had restored themselves as the top club from Northern Italy, winning the final round of the Northern section. However, this particular year, the national final could not be played because of the outbreak of World War I, the finals of the Southern Italian section could not be decided and thus Genoa did not have a team to play. Genoa would be awarded the title in 1919 after the end of the war, it would be their first for eleven seasons. The war took a harsh toll on Genoa as players Luigi Ferraris, Adolfo Gnecco, Carlo Marassi, Alberto Sussone and Claudio Casanova all died while on military duty in Italy; while footballing founder James Richardson Spensley was killed in Germany.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: In the early part of the next decade, Genoa remained strong contenders in the Northern section. Garbutt led Genoa to championship success in 1922–23; beating Lazio 6–1 in the final, over the course of two legs. The following season, Genoa made their way past Bologna in the Northern finals, but not without controversy; after riots in the second leg during the game in Bologna, the game was called off and FIGC awarded Genoa a 2–0 victory. In the national final that season, Genoa beat Savoia 4–1 over the course of two legs; this would be their ninth and to date final Italian championship.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The squad during these two championship victories included; Giovanni De Prà, Ottavio Barbieri, Luigi Burlando and Renzo De Vecchi. With Genoa's championship victory in 1923–24 came the introduction of the "scudetto" patch; which means following the season within which a club wins an Italian league championship, they are allowed to wear a shield shaped patch on their shirt which features the colours of the Italian flag. For the rest of the 1920s, the club's highest finish was in second place: the 1927–28 season when Genoa finished runners-up to Torino, with striker Felice Levratto scoring 20 goals in 27 games.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Due to the strongly British connotations attached to the name, Genoa were forced to change it by the fascist government to Genova 1893 Circolo del Calcio in 1928. The club competed in a proto-European Cup in the form of the Mitropa Cup, where they went out in the quarter-finals after losing heavily to Rapid Vienna. They followed this with a runners-up position back at home in the league, they finished behind Ambrosiana in the 1929–30 season; this would be their last top level championship runners-up spot to date.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The club's league form became highly erratic during the early 1930s, with varying league positions; it was during the 1933–34 season that Genova suffered their first ever relegation to Serie B, the second league of Italian football. Thankfully for the club, they were able to bounce back under the management of Vittorio Faroppa, winning promotion by finishing top of their group ahead of Novara. In 1936, the ambitious Juan Culiolo took over as chairman of the club; in 1936–37 they achieved a 6th-place finish and also won the Coppa Italia by beating Roma 1–0 with a goal from Mario Torti.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: During the following season Genova finished in third place, this was a particularly tight season with winners Ambrosiana-Inter finishing only three points ahead of the club. That summer Italy competed in the 1938 FIFA World Cup and won, three Genova players formed part of the triumphant squad in the form of Sergio Bertoni, Mario Genta and Mario Perazzolo. The club finished the decade on a high, maintaining a top five foothold in the top level of the Italian football league system.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: World War II affected dramatically the entire Italian football movement, but Genova did not recover as well as other clubs. In 1945, the club chose to revert their name to Genoa Cricket and Foot-Ball Club, the one which they had used in the very early days of the Italian championship. In the years just after the war, the club were still popular with the fans, with people previously associated with the club such as Ottavio Barbieri and William Garbutt returning for managerial spells. Genoa also had a new rival in the form of Sampdoria, who were founded by a merger of two other clubs in 1946 and would groundshare at Stadio Luigi Ferraris.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: After the Second World War the ability of Genoa to finish in the upper ranks of Serie A declined in a significant manner; throughout the rest of the 1940s the club were middle-table finishers. The 1948–49 season saw three highly significant results, Genoa beat Inter 4–1, the famous "Grande Torino" side 3–0 and Padova 7–1. The 1950s started in poor fashion for the club, they had bought Argentine Mario Boyé from Boca Juniors but he stayed only one season and the club were relegated after finishing bottom of the table, but after two seasons they achieved their return after winning Serie B, ahead of Legnano. Ragnar Nikolay Larsen was a notable player for the club during this period and they sustained mid-table finishes for the rest of the decade.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Despite suffering a relegation in 1959–60 and then a promotion back up to Serie A in 1961–62, Genoa had a respectable amount of cup success in the first half of the 1960s. The club won the Coppa delle Alpi in 1962; it was the first time the competition had been competed between club teams instead of international ones, the final was played at home while Genoa beat French club Grenoble Foot 38 by 1–0 with a goal from Nizza. Genoa won the same competition again two years later, the final was held at the Wankdorf Stadium in Berne, Switzerland; Genoa defeated Catania 2–0, with both goals from Giampaolo Piaceri to take the trophy.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The celebrations for the club did not last long however, as the year following their last cup success they were relegated down to Serie B again. This time their stay in the second tier of the Italian football league system would be far longer than previous relegations, the club was unstable as it changed manager each season. Genoa even experienced their first relegation to Serie C in 1970, financially the club fell into difficulties and had several ownership changes.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Throughout the 1970s, Genoa would mostly play in the second tier. Under the management of Arturo Silvestri the club made its way back to Serie A for the 1973–74 season, but they were relegated straight back down. For the return of "Il Grifone" to Serie A a couple of seasons later, the squad featured the likes of Roberto Rosato, Bruno Conti and a young Roberto Pruzzo. This time they stuck it out in the top division for two seasons before succumbing to relegation in 1977–78; the relegation was particularly cruel as the side above them Fiorentina survived on goal-difference of just a single goal, the two teams had played each other on the final day of the season ending in a 0–0 draw.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The relegation was bad for the club in more ways than one, they lost some of their top players who could have offered them a swift return; such as Roberto Pruzzo's move to Roma where he would go on to have great success. After a couple of middle-table finishes in Serie B, Genoa earned promotion during the 1980–81 season under manager Luigi Simoni, the club finished as runners-up behind only AC Milan who had been relegated the previous season for their part in the Totonero betting scandal.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Still with Simoni at the helm as manager, Genoa were able to survive in Serie A for their returning season, finishing just one point ahead of the relegated AC Milan. In a dramatic last day of the season, Genoa were trailing 2–1 to Napoli with five minutes left, until on the 85th minute Mario Faccenda scored the goal that secured the point needed by Genoa, starting an owing friendship between the two club's fans.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: A couple of seasons later in 1983–84, Genoa would not be so lucky, despite beating champions Juventus on the final day of the season, the club were relegated even though they finished the season with the same number of points as surviving Lazio; this was because Lazio had recorded better results in matches against Genoa.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The club was purchased by Calabrese entrepreneur Aldo Spinelli in 1985 and despite no longer having Simoni as manager, Genoa were finishing in the top half of Serie B. After a slip in form during 1987–88 (failing to be promoted by a mere point in 1986–87, then having to struggle not to be retroceded the following season, being spared that fate again by a mere point), Genoa refocused their energy and were able to achieve promotion back into Serie A in 1988–89, finishing as champions ahead of Bari. Genoa, with an experienced trainer as Osvaldo Bagnoli who knew how to get the best out of underdog teams (he managed to win a championship at the helm of Hellas Verona in the eighties) and with a team sporting the talents of Carlos Aguilera and Tomáš Skuhravý among others achieved highs during the 1990–91 season where they finished fourth, remaining undefeated at home for the entire campaign, winning games against all the big sides including Juventus, Inter, Milan, Roma, Lazio, Fiorentina, Napoli, as well as their local rivals Sampdoria who won the title that season.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: Subsequently, the club gained entry to the UEFA Cup in the 1991–92 season. Genoa had a good run, making it to the semi-finals before being knocked out by Ajax, that season's winners of the competition; notably Genoa did the double over Liverpool in the quarter-finals, becoming the first Italian side to beat the "Reds" at Anfield. Unfortunately for Genoa, this success was soon followed by a 'Dark Age' following the departure of Osvaldo Bagnoli (who chose to move away from Genoa to spend more time with his daughter, whose health was rapidly declining) and the failure of the management to replace key players as they grew old or were ceded to other teams. Noted Genoa players during this period included Gianluca Signorini, Carlos Aguilera, Stefano Eranio, Roberto Onorati and John van 't Schip.<br>


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: It has to be said that chairman Spinelli had a very different management approach from that of most businessmen turned football club owners.


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: While his colleagues saw football as a marketing and public relation investment and were quite ready to siphon funds out of their main business to keep their teams afloat and replenish their player roster Spinelli saw Genoa as another business whose main aim was that of generating revenue for its owner (namely, himself) and so was more than happy to sell esteemed players for hefty revenues of which just a minimal fraction was then re-invested in the team, often for the acquisition of lesser-valued replacements or virtual unknowns. Thus he proved all-too-eager to sell Uruguayan striker Carlos Aguilera and to replace him with the markedly inferior Kazuyoshi Miura from Japanese side Yomiuri Verdy (a deal that especially pleased him since the Japanese sponsors were actually paying him to let Miura play in Serie A).<br>


title: Genoa C.F.C.

text: The same season as their UEFA Cup run, they finished just one place above the relegation zone; in the seasons following Genoa remained in the lower half of the table.