title: Diana Krall

text: Her 11th studio album, "Glad Rag Doll", produced by T Bone Burnett, was released on October 2, 2012, and covered mainly jazz tunes from the 1920s and 1930s. Her next, "Wallflower", released on February 3, 2015, by Verve Records and produced by David Foster, tackled more recent composers including the Eagles (two songs), Elton John and Bernie Taupin ("Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word"), 10cc ("I'm Not in Love"), Neil Finn ("Don't Dream It's Over"), and Gilbert O'Sullivan ("Alone Again (Naturally)"). The album's title song is from Bob Dylan's "Bootleg Series", and Paul McCartney gave her his blessing to include " I'll Take You Home Tonight", a previously unreleased original song he'd written for his own jazz-flavoured "Kisses on the Bottom" album.


title: Diana Krall

text: On May 5, 2017, Krall released her thirteenth album, "Turn Up the Quiet", produced by Krall and Tommy LiPuma again. The album won a Juno Award as vocal jazz album of the year in 2018.


title: Diana Krall

text: On September 14, 2018, a joint album between Krall and Tony Bennett, "Love Is Here to Stay", was released. The album features the song "Fascinating Rhythm", originally recorded by Bennett in 1949, which earned him a Guinness World Record for the "longest time between the release of an original recording and a re-recording of the same single by the same artist" — 68 years and 342 days.


title: Diana Krall

text: September 2020 brought the release of her sixteenth studio album, "This Dream of You", named after Krall's rendition of the Bob Dylan song from his 2009 album "Together Through Life". The album's dozen tracks were selected from over 30 unused recordings previously laid down by Krall with her longtime producer Tommy LiPuma before his death in 2017. The album was completed in May 2020 with production finished by Krall herself, and included the jazz standard "Autumn in New York" for which a video was created to raise awareness for New York Cares, the largest volunteer organization in New York City founded in 1987.


title: Diana Krall

text: Krall and British musician Elvis Costello were married on December 6, 2003, at Elton John's estate outside London. Their twin sons, Dexter Henry Lorcan and Frank Harlan James, were born December 6, 2006, in New York City.


title: Diana Krall

text: Krall's mother died of multiple myeloma in 2002, within months of the deaths of Krall's mentors Ray Brown and Rosemary Clooney.


title: Halo effect

text: The halo effect (sometimes called the halo error) is the tendency for positive impressions of a person, company, brand, or product in one area to positively influence one's opinion or feelings in other areas. Halo effect is “the name given to the phenomenon whereby evaluators tend to be influenced by their previous judgments of performance or personality.” The halo effect is a cognitive bias which can possibly prevent someone from accepting a person, a product or a brand based on the idea of an unfounded belief on what is good or bad.


title: Halo effect

text: The term was coined by Edward Thorndike. A simplified example of the halo effect is when a person notices that an individual in a photograph is attractive, well groomed, and properly attired, they assume, using a mental heuristic, that the person in the photograph is a good person based upon the rules of their own social concept. This constant error in judgment is reflective of the individual's preferences, prejudices, ideology, aspirations, and social perception.


title: Halo effect

text: The halo effect is a perception distortion (or cognitive bias) that affects the way people interpret the information about someone with whom they have formed a positive gestalt. An example of the halo effect is when a person finds out someone they have formed a positive gestalt with has cheated on his/her taxes. Because of the positive gestalt, the person may dismiss the significance of this behavior. They may even think that the person simply made a mistake. The person would justify the behavior and connect it with your positive gestalt. The halo effect refers to the tendency we have of evaluating an individual high on many traits because of a shared belief.


title: Halo effect

text: It is a type of immediate judgement discrepancy, or cognitive bias, where a person making an initial assessment of another person, place, or thing will assume ambiguous information based upon concrete information. The halo effect is an evaluation by an individual and can affect the perception of a decision, action, idea, business, person, group, entity, or other whenever concrete data is generalized or influences ambiguous information.


title: Halo effect

text: The halo effect can also be explained as the behavior (usually unconscious) of using evaluations based on things unrelated, to make judgments about something or someone. The halo effect specifically refers to when this behavior has a positive correlation, such as viewing someone who is attractive as likely to be successful and popular. When this judgement has a negative connotation, such as someone unattractive being more readily blamed for a crime than someone attractive, it is referred to as the horn effect.


title: Halo effect

text: The term "halo effect" is used in marketing to explain customer bias toward certain products because of favorable experience with other products made by the same company. It is used in the part of brand marketing called "line extensions". One common halo effect is when the perceived positive features of a particular item extend to a broader brand. A notable example is a manner in which the popularity of Apple's iPod generated enthusiasm for the corporation's other products. Advertising often makes use of television shows, movies and those who star in them, to promote products via the halo effect.


title: Halo effect

text: In the automotive industry, exotic, limited production luxury models or low-volume sports cars made by a manufacturer's racing, motorsports, or in-house modification teams, are sometimes referred to as "halo cars" for the effect they are intended to produce on selling other vehicles within the make. To contrast this with the automotive terminology "flagship model", see here.


title: Halo effect

text: A halo effect with regard to health, dubbed a "health halo", is used in food marketing to increase sales of a product; it can result in increased consumption of the product in the halo which may be unhealthy.


title: Halo effect

text: The term "halo effect" has also been applied to human rights organizations that have used their status to move away from their stated goals. Political scientist Gerald Steinberg has claimed that non-governmental organizations (NGOs) take advantage of the halo effect and are "given the status of impartial moral watchdogs" by governments and the news media.


title: Halo effect

text: The Ronald McDonald House, a widely known NGO, openly celebrates the positive outcomes it receives from the halo effect. The web page for the Ronald McDonald House in Durham, North Carolina, states that 95% of survey participants were aware of Ronald McDonald House Charities. This awareness is attributed to the halo effect, as employees, customers, and stakeholders are more likely to be involved in a charity that they recognize and trust, with a name and logo that are familiar.


title: Halo effect

text: A brand's halo effect can protect its reputation in the event of a crisis. An event that is detrimental to a brand that is viewed favorably would not be as threatening or damaging to a brand that consumers view unfavorably.


title: Halo effect

text: Non-psychology/business use of the term "halo effect" describes the monetary value of the spillover effect when an organization's marketing budget is subsequently reduced. This was first demonstrated to students via the 1966 version of a textbook and a software package named "The Marketing Game."


title: Halo effect

text: The halo effect can also be used in the case of institutions as one's favorable perceptions regarding an aspect of an organization could determine a positive view on its entire operations. For example, if a hospital is known for an excellent open heart and cardiac program, then the community would expect it to excel in other areas as well. This can also be demonstrated in the positive perceptions of financial institutions that gained favorable coverage in the media due to meteoric growth but eventually failed afterward.


title: Halo effect

text: The term "halo effect" is also used in metal detecting to denote the enhanced detectability of a metal item or coin when it's been left undisturbed for some period of time in wet soil. The object can leach some metallic properties into the soil, making it more detectable. The area surrounding the object is called its "halo."


title: Halo effect

text: The halo effect was originally identified in 1907 by the American psychologist Frederick L. Wells (1884-1964). However, it was only officially recognized in 1920 with empirical evidence provided by the psychologist Edward Thorndike (1874-1949). Edward Thorndike was the first to say the halo effect is a specific cognitive bias in which one aspect of the person, brand, product, or institution affects one's thoughts or judgment of the entity's other aspects or dimensions. Thorndike, an early behaviorist, was an important contributor to the study of the psychology of learning. He gave the phenomenon its name in his 1920 article "A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings". In "Constant Error", Thorndike set out to replicate the study in hopes of pinning down the bias that he thought was present in these ratings. Subsequent researchers have studied it in relation to attractiveness and its bearing on the judicial and educational systems. Thorndike originally coined the term referring only to people; however, its use has been greatly expanded especially in the area of brand marketing.


title: Halo effect

text: In Thorndike's words, “Ratings were apparently affected by a marked tendency to think of the person in general as rather good or rather inferior and to color the judgments of the qualities by this general feeling.” In "A Constant Error in Psychological Ratings", Thorndike asked two commanding officers to evaluate their soldiers in terms of physical qualities (neatness, voice, physique, bearing, and energy), intellect, leadership skills, and personal qualities (including dependability, loyalty, responsibility, selflessness, and cooperation). In Thorndike's study, attractiveness plays an important role in how people tend to consider a person  such as if a person is friendly or not based on his or her physical appearance. His goal was to see how the ratings of one characteristic affected other characteristics.


title: Halo effect

text: Thorndike's study showed how there was too great a correlation in the commanding officers' responses. In his review he stated: "The correlations are too high and too even. For example, for the three raters next studied[,] the average correlation for physique with intelligence is .31; for physique with leadership, .39; and for physique with character, .28". The ratings of one of the special qualities of an officer often started a trend in the rating results. If an officer had a particular "negative" attribute given off to the commanding officer, it would correlate in the rest of that soldier's results.


title: Halo effect

text: The cognitive bias is a pattern in perception, interpretation, or judgment that consistently leads to the individual misunderstanding something about themselves or their social environment, making a poor choice or acting irrationally. The halo effect is classified as a cognitive bias because the halo effect is a perception error that distorts the way a person sees someone, and cognitive bias is a perception error that distorts the way that people see themselves.


title: Halo effect

text: The term "halo" is used in analogy with the religious concept: a glowing circle crowning the heads of saints in countless medieval and Renaissance paintings, bathing the saint's face in heavenly light. The observer may be subject to overestimating the worth of the observed by the presence of a quality that adds light on the whole like a halo. In other words, observers tend to bend their judgement according to one patent characteristic of the person (the "halo") or a few of his traits, generalizing toward a judgement of that person's character (e.g., in the literal hagiologic case, "entirely good and worthy").


title: Halo effect

text: The effect works in both positive and negative directions (and is hence sometimes called the horns and halo effect). If the observer likes one aspect of something, they will have a positive predisposition toward everything about it. If the observer dislikes one aspect of something, they will have a negative predisposition toward everything about it.


title: Halo effect

text: A person's attractiveness has also been found to produce a halo effect. Attractiveness provides a valuable aspect of the halo effect to consider because of its multifaceted nature; attractiveness may be influenced by several specific traits. These perceptions of attractiveness may affect judgments tied to personality traits. Physical attributes contribute to perceptions of attractiveness (e.g., physique, hair, eye color). For example, someone who is perceived as attractive, due in part to physical traits, may be more likely to be perceived as kind or intelligent. The role of attractiveness in producing the halo effect has been illustrated through a number of studies. Recent research, for example, has revealed that attractiveness may affect perceptions tied to life success and personality. In this study, attractiveness was correlated with weight, indicating that attractiveness itself may be influenced by various specific traits. Included in the personality variables were trustworthiness and friendliness. People perceived as being more attractive were more likely to be perceived as trustworthy and friendly. What this suggests is that perceptions of attractiveness may influence a variety of other traits, which supports the concept of the halo effect.


title: Halo effect

text: People's first impressions of others influence their later decision to either approach or avoid those individuals. When people first encounter someone, the information present about that individual is limited; therefore, people will use the information available to assume other characteristics about that person; for instance, observable behaviors such as eye contact, leaning forward, smiling and positive hand gestures (ex. steepling hands) are linked to positive emotions, while avoiding eye contact, leaning back, avoiding touch, and defensive hand gestures (ex. hands in pockets) or no gestures at all are linked to feelings of detachment. Besides that, another popular example used when referring to the halo effect is the phenomenon called the "attractiveness stereotype" or when encountering individuals who are similar to others in some aspects, like personality or life history like the school they attended. People tend to assume that physically attractive individuals are more likely to be more healthy, successful, courteous, containing higher moral standards, and greater social competence than other people; on the other hand, the attractiveness stereotype can also carry a negative connotation as some people may think of attractive people as less honest and more conceited than others.


title: Halo effect

text: A study by demonstrated the Halo Effect, looking at male judgments of female intelligence and competence on academic tasks. Sixty male undergraduate students rated the quality of essays which included both well- and poorly-written samples. One third were presented with a photo of an attractive female as author, another third with that of an unattractive female as author, and the last third were shown neither. On average, most of the participants gave significantly better writing evaluations for the more attractive author. On a scale of 1 to 9, the well-written essay by the attractive author received an average of 6.7 while the unattractive author received a 5.9 (with a 6.6 as a control). The gap was larger on the poor essay: the attractive author received an average of 5.2, the control a 4.7, and the unattractive author a 2.7, suggesting male readers are generally more willing to give physically attractive females the benefit of the doubt when performance is below standard than those not considered attractive.


title: Halo effect

text: Research conducted by sought residual cues to intelligence in female and male faces while attempting to control for the attractiveness halo effect. Over 300 photographs of Caucasian British college students were rated for perceived intelligence. The photographs that were scored lowest in perceived intelligence were used to create a low-intelligence composite face and those photographs that were scored highest in perceived intelligence were used to create a high-intelligence composite face. Both female and male faces of high- and low-perceived intelligence were created, resulting in four groups of composite faces. Participants for the study were recruited online; 164 female and 92 male heterosexual residents of the UK rated each of the composite faces for intelligence and attractiveness. Of the female composites, attractiveness seemed to be controlled as both the high- and low-perceived intelligence groups were rated as equally attractive. However, of the male face composites, the high-perceived intelligence group was rated as significantly more attractive than the low-perceived intelligence group, suggesting that either the authors could not adequately control for the attractiveness halo effect for the male composite photographs or that intelligence is an integral factor of attractiveness in high-intelligence male faces. The second part of the study found that the composites in the high-perceived intelligence group were rated highest in the factors of "friendly" and "funny" as markers of intelligence in both the female and male groups. While intelligence does not seem to be a factor that contributes to attractiveness in women, with regards to men, attractive faces are perceived to be more intelligent, friendly, and funny by women and men.


title: Halo effect

text: Officeholders who create what "The New York Times" called "a living legacy" benefit from a halo effect when their overall accomplishments are subsequently evaluated.


title: Halo effect

text: Researchers have shown that perceived physical and vocal attractiveness (or their opposite) lead to bias in judgment. A 2010 study found that attractiveness and familiarity are strong predictors of decisions regarding who is put in a position of leadership. Judgments made following one-second exposures to side-by-side photos of two US congressional candidates were reasonably predictive of election outcomes. Similar studies found that even when taking factual knowledge into account, candidates who were rated as more attractive were still perceived as more knowledgeable. Thus, beauty evaluations also emerge as major predictors of electoral success.


title: Halo effect

text: found that some women were influenced by the halo effect on attractiveness only when presented with members of the opposite sex. continued this line of research, going on to demonstrate that jealousy of an attractive individual has a slight effect in evaluation of that person. These works showed these halo effect more prevalent among females than males. Later research by was able to control for attractiveness in composite photographs of females who were perceived to be of high or low intelligence, while showing that the attractiveness halo effect was seen in high intelligent male composite faces by heterosexual residents of the UK. Either the halo effect is negated by feelings of jealousy in women or the halo effect is lessened when women are looking at same sex individuals or the attractiveness halo effect can be controlled for in women.


title: Halo effect

text: Rating error effect, mistakes made by raters when they use a rating scale, reflect the task competence of the rater, as well as the rater's sex, social position, race, religion, and age. Researchers showed that halo effect is one component of this error. Fisicaro and Lance introduced three explanatory models. The first model named the "general impression model" states that global evaluation affects the rating of individual characteristics. The "salient dimension model" states that how people perceive an individual characteristic affects their evaluation of other characteristics. The "inadequate discrimination model" refers to the rater's failure to identify different behaviors of the person being evaluated.


title: Halo effect

text: The reverse halo effect occurs when positive evaluations of an individual cause negative consequences. Rater errors pose special problems for the issues of “reliability and validity”. Furthermore, ratings that differ in time may accurately reflect a change in behavior even though this difference would demonstrate an artificial lack of reliability. A follow up study with both men and women participants supported this, as well as showing that attractive women were expected to be conceited and have a higher socioeconomic status. Eagly et al. (1991) also commented on this phenomenon, showing that more attractive individuals of both sexes were expected to be higher in vanity and possibly egotistic. Applied instances of the reverse halo effect include negative evaluations of criminals who use their attractiveness to their advantage and rating a philosophical essay lower when written by a young female than an old male.


title: Halo effect

text: A negative form of the halo effect, called the horn effect, the devil effect, or the reverse halo effect, allows one a disliked trait or aspect of a person or product to negatively influence globally. Psychologists call it a "bias blind spot:" "Individuals believe (that negative) traits are inter-connected." due to a negative first impression. "The Guardian" wrote of the devil effect in relation to Hugo Chavez: "Some leaders can become so demonized that it's impossible to assess their achievements and failures in a balanced way." For those seen in a negative light, anything they do that is negative is exemplified, while the positive things they do are not seen, or are doubted.


title: Halo effect

text: found the halo effect is also present in the classroom. In this study, both regular and special education elementary school teachers watched videotapes of what they believed to be children in regular 4th-grade classrooms. In reality, the children were actors, depicting behaviors present in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), or standard behavior. The teachers were asked to rate the frequency of hyperactive behaviors observed in the children. Teachers rated hyperactive behaviors accurately for children with ADHD; however, the ratings of hyperactivity were much higher for the children with ODD-like behaviors, showing a horn effect for children who appeared to have ODD.


title: Halo effect

text: "In the classroom, teachers are subject to the halo effect rating error when evaluating their students. For example, a teacher who sees a well-behaved student might tend to assume this student is also bright, diligent, and engaged before that teacher has objectively evaluated the student's capacity in these areas. When these types of halo effects occur, they can affect students' approval ratings in certain areas of functioning and can even affect students' grades."


title: Halo effect

text: "In the work setting, the halo effect is most likely to show up in a supervisor's appraisal of a subordinate's job performance. In fact, the halo effect is probably the most common bias in performance appraisal. Think about what happens when a supervisor evaluates the performance of a subordinate. The supervisor may give prominence to a single characteristic of the employee, such as enthusiasm, and allow the entire evaluation to be colored by how he or she judges the employee on that one characteristic. Even though the employee may lack the requisite knowledge or ability to perform the job successfully, if the employee's work shows enthusiasm, the supervisor may very well give him or her a higher performance rating than is justified by knowledge or ability."


title: Halo effect

text: Often, a person's character is perceived in a more positive light after their death. An example of this is what took place after Michael Jackson died in 2009. Before Jackson's death, he was only a few years removed from accusations of sexual molestation of minors. The public deemed him a "child molester" and "sex offender". However, since his death, discussion of sexual misconduct has subsided and public perception mainly focuses on his success and status as the "King of Pop".


title: Halo effect

text: argue: "Since 1980, there have been a large number of studies dealing directly or indirectly with halo error in rating. Taken together, these studies suggest that all seven of the characteristics that have defined halo error for much of its history are problematic and that the assumptions that underlie some of them are demonstrably wrong." Their work claims that the assumption that the halo effect is always detrimental is incorrect, with some halo effects resulting in an increase in the accuracy of the rating, in their opinion. Additionally, they discuss the idea of "true halo"—the actual correlation between, for example, attractiveness and performance as an instructor—and "illusory halo" that refers to cognitive distortions, errors in observation and judgement, and the rating tendencies of the individual rater. They claim that any true differentiation between true and illusory halos is impossible in a real-world setting, because the different ratings are strongly influenced by the specific behaviors of the person observed by the raters.


title: Halo effect

text: A study by states that one's mood can affect the degree of the halo effect's influence. When someone is in a favorable mood, the halo effect is more likely to be influential—this was demonstrated by study participants choosing between pictures of an elderly man with a beard and a young woman, and deciding which subject possessed more philosophical attributes. Additionally, when asked to list the happy, neutral, or negative times in their life, the halo effect was more evident in the perceptions of the participants who chose to write about happy prior experiences. Forgas's study suggests that when one is gauging the extent of the halo effect in a situation, one must consider the emotional state of the person making the judgment.


title: Halo effect

text: A 2013 report on "the link between disease and leader preferences" claimed that "congressional districts with a higher incidence of disease" were more likely to show a halo effect "on electoral outcomes."


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Historians have stressed that there is no evidence for the existence of Jimmu with most scholars agreeing that he is a legendary figure. However, stories of him may reflect actual events.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: The exact spot of Emperor Jimmu's accession to the imperial throne (i.e. the foundation of Japan) was debated for centuries until in 1863 scholars of national studies claimed to have identified an area within Kashihara as the exact location.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Jimmu is recorded as Japan's first ruler in two early chronicles, "Nihon Shoki" (721) and "Kojiki" (712). "Nihon Shoki" gives the dates of his reign as 660–585 BC. In the reign of Emperor Kanmu (737–806), the eighth-century scholar Ōmi no Mifune designated rulers before Emperor Ōjin as , a Japanese pendant to the Chinese imperial title "Tiān-dì" (天帝), and gave several of them including Jimmu their canonical names. Prior to this time, these rulers had been known as "Sumera no mikoto"/"Ōkimi". This practice had begun under Empress Suiko, and took root after the Taika Reforms with the ascendancy of the Nakatomi clan.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: According to the legendary account in the "Nihon Shoki", Emperor Jimmu was born on February 13, 711 BC (the first day of the first month of the Chinese calendar), and died, again according to legend, on April 9, 585 BC (the eleventh day of the third month).


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Both the "Kojiki" and the "Nihon Shoki" give Jimmu's name as or . "Iware" indicates a toponym (an old place name in the Nara region) whose precise purport is unclear.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: The Imperial House of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its putative descent from the sun-goddess Amaterasu via Jimmu's great-grandfather Ninigi.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: The story of Jimmu seems to rework legends associated with the Ōtomo clan (大伴氏), and its function was to establish that clan's links to the ruling family, just as those of Suijin arguably reflect Mononobe tales and the legends in Ōjin's chronicles seem to derive from Soga clan traditions. Jimmu figures as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, Amaterasu via the side of his father, Ugayafukiaezu. Amaterasu had a son called Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto and through him a grandson named Ninigi-no-Mikoto. She sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married Konohana-Sakuya-hime. Among their three sons was Hikohohodemi no Mikoto, also called Yamasachi-hiko, who married Toyotama-hime. She was the daughter of Ryūjin, the Japanese sea god. They had a single son called Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by Tamayori-hime, his mother's younger sister. They eventually married and had four sons. The last of these, Kamu-yamato Iware-biko no mikoto, became Emperor Jimmu.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: According to the chronicles "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki", Jimmu's brothers Hikoitsuse, Inai, and Mikeirino were born in Takachiho, the southern part of Kyūshū in modern-day Miyazaki Prefecture. They moved eastward to find a location more appropriate for administering the entire country. Jimmu's older brother, Itsuse no Mikoto, originally led the migration, and led the clan eastward through the Seto Inland Sea with the assistance of local chieftain "Sao Netsuhiko". As they reached Naniwa (modern-day Osaka), they encountered another local chieftain, "Nagasunehiko" ("the long-legged man"), and Itsuse was killed in the ensuing battle. Jimmu realized that they had been defeated because they battled eastward against the sun, so he decided to land on the east side of Kii Peninsula and to battle westward. They reached Kumano, and, with the guidance of a three-legged crow, "Yatagarasu" ("eight-span crow"), they moved to Yamato. There, they once again battled Nagasunehiko and were victorious. The record in the Nihon Shoki of Emperor Jimmu states that his armed forces defeated a group of before his enthronement. The Emishi were an ethnic group who lived in Honshu, particularly the Tōhoku region.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: In Yamato, , who also claimed descent from the Takamagahara gods, was protected by Nagasunehiko. However, when Nigihayahi met Jimmu, he accepted Jimmu's legitimacy. At this point, Jimmu is said to have ascended to the throne of Japan. Upon scaling a Nara mountain to survey the Seto Inland Sea he now controlled, Jimmu remarked that it was shaped like the "heart" rings made by mating dragonflies, archaically "akitsu" 秋津. A mosquito then tried to steal Jimmu's royal blood but since Jimmu was a god incarnate Emperor, , a dragonfly killed the mosquito. Japan thus received its classical name the Dragonfly Islands, .


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: According to the "Kojiki", Jimmu died when he was 126 years old. The Emperor's posthumous name literally means "divine might" or "god-warrior". It is generally thought that Jimmu's name and character evolved into their present shape just before the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were chronicled in the "Kojiki". There are accounts written earlier than either "Kojiki" and "Nihon Shoki" that present an alternative version of the story. According to these accounts, Jimmu's dynasty was supplanted by that of Ōjin, whose dynasty was supplanted by that of Keitai. The "Kojiki" and the "Nihon Shoki" then combined these three legendary dynasties into one long and continuous genealogy.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Veneration of Jimmu was a central component of the imperial cult that formed following the Meiji Restoration. In 1873, a holiday called "Kigensetsu" was established on February 11. The holiday commemorated the anniversary of Jimmu's ascension to the throne 2,532 years earlier. After World War II, the holiday was criticized as too closely associated with the "emperor system." It was suspended from 1948 to 1966, but later reinstated as National Foundation Day.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Between 1873 and 1945 an imperial envoy sent offerings every year to the supposed site of Jimmu's tomb. In 1890 Kashihara Shrine was established nearby, on the spot where Jimmu was said to have ascended to the throne.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Before and during World War II, expansionist propaganda made frequent use of the phrase "hakkō ichiu", a term coined by Tanaka Chigaku based on a passage in the "Nihon Shoki" discussing Emperor Jimmu. Some media incorrectly attributed the phrase to Emperor Jimmu. For the 1940 "Kigensetsu" celebration, marking the supposed 2,600th anniversary of Jimmu's enthronement, the Peace Tower was constructed in Miyazaki.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: The same year numerous stone monuments relating to key events in Jimmu's life were erected around Japan. The sites at which these monuments were erected are known as Emperor Jimmu Sacred Historical Sites.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: There is no evidence Jimmu existed, except the mention in the Nihon Shoki and Kojiki. The dates of Jimmu reigning from 660 BC to 585 BC are improbable, and most modern scholars agree that the traditional founding of the Yamato dynasty in 660 BC is a myth and that Jimmu along with the first nine emperors are legendary. Also the founding of Japan in the year 660 BC was probably created by the writers of Nihon Shoki to put the date on a kanototori year.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: However events during the mid to late Yayoi period may reflect stories of Jimmu. According to historian Peter Wetzler, Jimmu’s conquest of Osaka and Nara may reflect an actual event. However the dates and much of the details are fictitious. Historian Kenneth G. Henshall stated that Jimmu’s conquest may also reflect a time when the Yayoi people from continental Asia immigrated in masses starting from Kyushu and moving eastward during the Yayoi period.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: The legend of Jimmu is a mixture of myth with some plausible history. For example, the sheer complexity of the lineage and mundanity of the legend argues that it could have some basis in reality. If Jimmu was wholly fictional then it would've been easier to describe him as a direct descendant of a god. The three-legged crow Yatagarasu could be a metaphor. The weapons, tactics and route used by Jimmu are plausible. The Japanese monarchy still uses the three sacred treasures, although the original sword was reportedly lost around 1185 and could be a replica. Emperor Sujin's historicity is considered possible by historians, while Emperor Kinmei is the first verifiable historical figure in the Yamato lineage. It could also be that emperors associated themselves with historic or fictional heroic figures in the past to legitimize their reign.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: Some scholars also argue that there may have been a real person behind the legendary figure. He could have been a local ruler who conquered the area near Kashihara after 62 BCE. If he was ever present in Miyazaki some scholars believe he was there during the first century BCE while others say he was there during the third or fourth century CE.


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: He may have been a composite of Suijin and Kentai. The Japanese historian Ino Okifu identifies Emperor Jimmu with the Chinese alchemist and explorer Xu Fu (255–195 BC), a hypothesis supported by certain traditions in Japan and regarded as possible by some modern scholars. The Yayoi period (300 BCE–300 CE), during which significant changes in Japanese metallurgy and pottery occurred, started around the time of his supposed arrival. However, the legend of Xu Fu's voyage also has numerous inconsistencies with the linguistic and anthropo


title: Emperor Jimmu

text: In 1940 Japan and built a monument to Hakkō ichiu despite the fact that all historians knew Jimmu was a legendary figure. In 1941 the Japanese government charged the one historian who dared to challenge Jimmu's existence publicly, .


title: Windows 11 version history

text: Windows 11 is a series of operating systems developed by Microsoft that was first released in October 2021. Microsoft described Windows as an "operating system as a service" that would receive ongoing updates to its features and functionality, augmented with the ability for enterprise environments to receive non-critical updates at a slower pace or use long-term support milestones that will only receive critical updates, such as security patches, over their five-year lifespan of mainstream support.


title: Windows 11 version history

text: Windows Insider Preview builds are delivered to Insiders in three different channels. Insiders in the Dev Channel receive updates prior to those in the Beta Channel, but might experience more bugs and other issues. Insiders in the Release Preview Channel do not receive updates until the version is almost available to the public, but are comparatively more stable.


title: Windows 11 version history

text: As with Windows 10 (since version 20H2), mainstream builds of Windows 11 are labeled "YYHX", with YY representing the two-digit year and X representing the half-year of planned release (for example, version 21H2 refers to builds which initially released in the second half of 2021).


title: Windows 11 version history

text: The original version of Windows 11 (also known as version 21H2 and codenamed "Sun Valley") was released in October 2021. It carries the build number 10.0.22000. The first public preview build was made available to Windows Insiders who opted in to the Dev Channel on June 28, 2021.


title: Windows 11 version history

text: The Windows 11 2022 Update (also known as version 22H2 and codenamed "Sun Valley 2") is the first and current major update to Windows 11. It carries the build number 10.0.22621. The first preview was released to Insiders who opted in to the Dev Channel on September 2, 2021. The update began rolling out on September 20, 2022. Notable changes in the 2022 Update include:


title: Windows 11 version history

text: An update to Windows 11 version 22H2, codenamed "Moment 1", was released on October 18, 2022 with build 22621.675 and several further changes:


title: Windows 11 version history

text: On September 2, 2021, Microsoft announced that Windows Insiders in the Dev Channel will receive builds directly from the codice_1 branch, which are not matched to a specific Windows 11 release. The first build released under this strategy, build 22449, was made available to Insiders on the same day.


title: Windows 11 version history

text: On February 3, 2022, Microsoft changed its plans on how they delivered builds for Windows Insiders, with Dev and Beta Channels are "parallel" active development branches, giving an option to switch from Dev to Beta Channel for a limited time. The Dev Channel builds are meant for upcoming and experimental features that may never release to general availability, whereas the Beta Channel builds are the "feature complete" builds that will make its way to the general availability for the specific Windows 11 release.


title: Windows 11 version history

text: The codice_2 branch was available from February 16 to May 11, 2022. Afterward, Insiders in the Dev Channel has been moved back to the codice_1 branch.


title: Cherami Leigh

text: Cherami Leigh (born July 19, 1988) is an American actress. She has provided voices for a number of English-language versions of anime series and video games with Funimation, Bang Zoom! Entertainment, NYAV Post, Studiopolis and Viz Media. Some of her roles include Kazari Uiharu in "A Certain Magical Index" and "A Certain Scientific Railgun" series, Yoshika Miyafuji in "Strike Witches", Eucliwood Hellscythe in "Is This a Zombie", Mutsuki in "KanColle: Kantai Collection", Aisa in "One Piece", Mika Shimotsuki in "Psycho-Pass", Shijima Kurookano in "Nabari no Ou", Hibiki in "Sekirei", Elizabeth Midford in "Black Butler", Road Kamelot in "D.Gray-man", Sae Kashiwagi in "Peach Girl", Tamaki Kawazoe in "Bamboo Blade", Patty Thompson in "Soul Eater", Lucy Heartfilia in "Fairy Tail", Cecily Campbell in "The Sacred Blacksmith", Asuna Yuuki in "Sword Art Online", Sailor Venus in the Viz Media dub of "Sailor Moon", Plutia / Iris Heart in "Hyperdimension Neptunia", Sarada Uchiha in "" and Chloe in "".


title: Cherami Leigh

text: On screen, she played a young LeAnn Rimes in "Holiday in Your Heart" and has appeared on "Bones", "Friday Night Lights", "Longmire" and "Shameless". In video games, she voices Rottytops in the "Shantae" series, Gaige the Mechromancer in the "Borderlands" series, Arianrhod in "", Minerva in "", Rhea in "", Makoto Niijima in "Persona 5" and the Female V in "Cyberpunk 2077" for which she was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Performer in a Leading Role.


title: Cherami Leigh

text: Leigh was born on July 19, 1988. She began acting at the age of six. Leigh studied the Meisner technique with Nancy Chartier from the age of nine. As a child actress, she played Gretchen in "Finding North", Marcia in "Temple Grandin", young LeAnn Rimes in "Holiday in Your Heart", Stacy Anderson in "The President's Man" and appeared on "Walker, Texas Ranger" multiple times. She attended Hebron High School in Carrollton. She studied theater at Collin College in Plano, Texas. She also worked for Radio Disney as a DJ with voice-over promotions and commercials for ABC Radio for 10 years. In 2013, she moved to Los Angeles where she continued voice-work and began taking on live-action roles.


title: Beggin'

text: "Beggin" is a song composed by Bob Gaudio and Peggy Farina and first released as a single by American band the Four Seasons in 1967. Initially charting at number 16 in the US, the song became popular in the Northern soul scene in the United Kingdom in the 1970s. It has been covered multiple times, with versions by covers by Norwegian hip-hop duo Madcon and Italian rock band Måneskin topping music charts in Europe and beyond. The Four Seasons' version was also remixed in 2007 by French DJ Pilooski and re-released as a single, reaching number 32 in the UK and commercially outperforming the Four Seasons' original release there.


title: Beggin'

text: Keyboardist-songwriter Bob Gaudio had not written a Four Seasons single since 1965's "Girl Come Running", although he had written or co-written almost every Four Seasons hit up to then.


title: Beggin'

text: "Beggin, the second single from the Four Seasons' "New Gold Hits" album in 1967, marked Gaudio's "return" as the Seasons' songwriter, with a combination of Frankie Valli's impassioned soul singing and the band's more contemporary instrumentation. It was also the first Seasons single since "Dawn (Go Away)" on which Gaudio collaborated with a lyricist other than producer Bob Crewe, as lyrics were contributed by Peggy Farina (better known as Peggy Santiglia of the Angels, who sang lead on the 1963 hit "My Boyfriend's Back" and was frequently used as a background singer by Crewe).


title: Beggin'

text: The song, backed with "Dody" as a B-side reached number 16 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, continuing the group's string of "Billboard" top-20 hits. However, it was overshadowed by Valli's "solo" recording of "Can't Take My Eyes Off You", a Gaudio-Crewe composition, which rose to number two. It was the last Gaudio composition for the Four Seasons to chart in the top 20 until 1975's "Who Loves You".


title: Beggin'

text: The song is included in Act Two of the Broadway musical about the Four Seasons, "Jersey Boys". It was used as the main theme of an ad campaign for Adidas, celebrating the company's 60th anniversary.


title: Beggin'

text: Retrospectively, the song has been highly regarded by music critics as a strong example of the Four Seasons' vocal and arrangement abilities. Donald A. Guarisco, writing for AllMusic, described the song as "one of their finest entries" in the genre of the soul ballad, and also commended the songs "funky groove" and "Phil Spector-styled production". Chris DeVille, writing for "Stereogum," characterized the song as featuring a "contagiously upbeat drum part", and suggested that its sound was an early predecessor to hip-hop music.


title: Beggin'

text: In 2007, French disc jockey Pilooski re-edited and released his version of the Four Seasons song. This version reached number 32 in the United Kingdom and number one on the UK Dance Chart. It is the first single from the album "Beggin': The Ultimate Collection". The Pilooski re-edit does not include any new instrumentation or vocals but is purely a manipulation and remix of the original Four Seasons recording, using echo and phase-polarisation.


title: Beggin'

text: In 2007, the same year as the Pilooski remix, Norwegian hip-hop duo Madcon released a new version of the song with tweaked lyrics and added rap verses. Madcon's version of the song is a total re-recording, with all instruments were performed by production team 3Elementz (Hitesh Ceon, Kim Ofstad, Jonny Sjo) and all vocals by Madcon. This version reached number one on Norway's VG-lista chart for 12 nonconsecutive weeks and received the "Hit of the Year" Spellemannprisen award.


title: Beggin'

text: The single also became popular throughout Europe; in France, the Netherlands, and the Wallonia region of Belgium, it peaked at number one. It also reached number five in the United Kingdom and number seven in Germany. Overall, "Beggin'" was Europe's 11th-most-successful single of 2008. The music video features Yosef Wolde-Mariam and Tshawe Baqwa in a mix of Blaxploitation-scenes and dozing off while playing "Halo 3" and was directed by Christian Holm-Glad.


title: Beggin'

text: Following the success of Måneskin's cover in 2021, Madcon's version saw a rise in popularity. As a result, the duo teamed up with Canadian DJ Frank Walker for a remix released on July 16, 2021.


title: Beggin'

text: Italian rock band Måneskin performed a cover of the song during the eleventh season of "X Factor Italia". A studio version of the song later appeared on their debut extended play "Chosen", released in 2017. Recording sessions for the "Chosen" EP took place at the Metropolis in Milan, and mostly occurs at night, while the band was still competing on the show, and lasted only a few days. They were held at the recording studio owned by Lucio Fabbri, who served as the track's producer. Fabbri described the recording process for "Beggin'" as the result of a low-budget session. The song was "almost recorded live", in a spontaneous manner which, according to him, helped to preserve the "human component, which disappeared in today's music, often processed and filtered".


title: Beggin'

text: Although it was not released as a single, it peaked at number 39 on the Italian Singles Chart and in 2018 received a gold certification by FIMI in their native country.


title: Beggin'

text: Following the band's Eurovision victory in late May 2021, the song alongside the band's other releases started appearing on music charts across Europe and beyond; viral success for the song on social media platform TikTok soon followed. "Beggin'" has reached number one on the weekly charts in Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, Greece, Lithuania, Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia and Switzerland, the top five in Australia, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland, Malaysia, New Zealand, Norway and Sweden, and the top ten in Canada, Denmark, India, Philippines, Singapore and the United Kingdom.


title: Beggin'

text: On its first charting week on the UK Singles Chart (issue date June 24, 2021), the song debuted at number 73, but in the following "" Top 20, it moved 56 places to number 17. In the second charting week it peaked at number 10, becoming the band's third UK Top 20 hit in less than a month, and as their song "I Wanna Be Your Slave" charted again in the Top 10 it was the first time they simultaneously had two songs in the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart, thus becoming the first Italian act and the first Eurovision-associated act to achieve this. On its third charting week in the UK it peaked at number 7. It debuted on the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 78, later peaking at number 13, and has also reached the top five on the "Billboard" Global 200 and Global Excl. US charts.


title: Beggin'

text: Their cover received a nomination for Favorite Trending Song at the American Music Awards of 2021, where they also performed the song, eventually losing to Megan Thee Stallion's "Body". They also performed the song at "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" and at "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", during the January 22, 2022 episode of "Saturday Night Live", as well as during the twenty-first season of "The Voice USA" and on the final of the fifteenth season of "X Factor Italia", returning as guests four years after their first performance there as contestants.


title: Beggin'

text: The Four Seasons' original version did not chart in the United Kingdom. Instead, psychedelic pop band Timebox had a minor hit with their Michael Aldred production of the song, peaking at number 38 in 1968. In 1967 Italian singer Riki Maiocchi performed his cover, "Prega". In the same year, a Spanish version was released under the title "Ruega" by the band "Duo Inter". French singer and composer Claude François sung the French version "Reste" (lit. meaning "Stay") in 1968. In 1974, Dutch band Shocking Blue included a cover version of the song on their album "Good Times". In June 2009, Dutch singer-songwriter Bertolf recorded a semi-acoustic live for the Dutch radio station 3FM. Since then, Bertolf's version has been released commercially on iTunes, played regularly on said radio station and during live concerts.


title: Beggin'

text: In 2008, British-Irish girl band the Saturdays, inspired by both Pilooski and Madcon, recorded their own version as a B-side for their single "Issues", a single from their debut studio album "Chasing Lights" (2008) and performed a live acoustic version on BBC Radio 1's Live Lounge as well as on their The Work Tour in 2009.


title: Beggin'

text: Turkish türkü singer Ferhat Güzel also covered a parody of the song, dubbed "Begüm (Suçu Kendine At)" - literally "Begüm (Blame Yourself)", for Okan Bayülgen's TV show "Disko Kralı". It was sung by Michael Sarver, Megan Joy, Scott MacIntyre, Lil Rounds, Anoop Desai and Matt Giraud at the end of the first half of the "American Idol" Tour. Turkish band Dolapdere Big Gang recorded a cover of the song on their 2010 album "Art-ist". French singer-guitarist Aymeric Savignat (aka "Tidusko") covered the song on the compilation album "La Musique de Paris Dernière Vol.7" (2009). In 2012, vocal harmony group District3 performed the song as part of a mash-up with Chris Brown's "Turn Up the Music" on "The X Factor UK".


title: Beggin'

text: Swedish singer Magnus Carlson, usually the front man of Weeping Willows, has covered the song twice. First in a version with lyrics translated into Swedish ("Jag Ber Dig") in 2003, and later a version with the original lyrics in 2018.


title: Beggin'

text: In 2009, many remixes similar to the Pilooski remix of the original "Beggin were used in adidas' "House Party" commercial featuring many celebrities past and present who were sponsored by the company, which was promoting 60 years of "outfitting the world in three stripes." Celebrities who make an appearance in the commercial include David Beckham, Missy Elliott, Katy Perry, The Ting Tings, Kevin Garnett, Young Jeezy, Russell Simmons, Estelle, Redman, Method Man and Ilie Năstase, among others. One of these remixes was made by aKido and can be found on his soundcloud page.


title: Beggin'

text: The song was also used as part of the BBC's coverage of the 2009/2010 Formula One Championship, primarily during course run-through. Also in 2009, the Madcon cover of "Beggin was used by HBO as a theme for its summer programming. "Beggin was also on the "NBA Live 2009" video game soundtrack. The song is also used in: a scene in the film "Just Go With It"; in part of the "Bad Teacher" trailer; as the song for the 24th Street part in the Tilt Mode Army "skateboarding" video; in the film "Step Up 3D"; and in the film Macaframa. The Madcon version of "Beggin" was sung by the winning contestant from "American Idol (season 11)", Phillip Phillips in the final three performance night. Logic also used it as a sample in his Young Sinatra mixtape.


title: Beggin'

text: Matthew Fisher has stated that he got the idea for the chord sequence for his composition "Repent Walpurgis" on Procol Harum's first album from the Four Season's "Beggin".


title: Beggin'

text: The song saw a resurgence in 2021 on TikTok thanks to Måneskin's cover, when it was first uploaded as a sound by user tvdposts. Its rise in popularity was particularly boosted through its usage by user Charli D'Amelio.


title: Beggin'

text: The original version by the Four Seasons was used in the episode "Dangling Man" in the third season of the Netflix series "The Crown".


title: Migration Period

text: The migration period was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories by various tribes, and the establishment of the post-Roman kingdoms. The term refers to the important role played by the migration, invasion, and settlement of various tribes, notably the Franks, Goths, Alemanni, Alans, Huns, early Slavs, Pannonian Avars, Magyars, and Bulgars within or into the former Western Empire and Eastern Europe. The period is traditionally taken to have begun in AD 375 (possibly as early as 300) and ended in 568. Various factors contributed to this phenomenon of migration and invasion, and their role and significance are still widely discussed.


title: Migration Period

text: Historians differ as to the dates for the beginning and ending of the Migration Period. The beginning of the period is widely regarded as the invasion of Europe by the Huns from Asia in about 375 and the ending with the conquest of Italy by the Lombards in 568, but a more loosely set period is from as early as 300 to as late as 800. For example, in the 4th century a very large group of Goths was settled as "foederati" within the Roman Balkans, and the Franks were settled south of the Rhine in Roman Gaul. In 406 a particularly large and unexpected crossing of the Rhine was made by a group of Vandals, Alans and Suebi. As central power broke down in the Western Roman Empire, the military became more important but was dominated by men of barbarian origin.


title: Migration Period

text: There are contradictory opinions as to whether the fall of the Western Roman Empire was a result of an increase in migrations, or both the breakdown of central power and the increased importance of non-Romans resulted in internal Roman factors. Migrations, and the use of non-Romans in the military, were known in the periods before and after, and the Eastern Roman Empire adapted and continued to exist until the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, although it involved the establishment of competing barbarian kingdoms, was to some extent managed by the eastern emperors.


title: Migration Period

text: The migrants comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people, but in the course of 100 years they numbered not more than 750,000 in total, compared to an average 40 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. Although immigration was common throughout the time of the Roman Empire, the period in question was, in the 19th century, often defined as running from about the 5th to 8th centuries. The first migrations of peoples were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Sciri and the Franks; they were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars. Later invasions, such as the Vikings, the Normans, the Varangians, the Hungarians, the Moors, the Romani, the Turkics, and the Mongols also had significant effects (especially in North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Anatolia and Central and Eastern Europe).


title: Migration Period

text: Germanic peoples moved out of southern Scandinavia and northern Germany to the adjacent lands between the Elbe and Oder after 1000 BC. The first wave moved westward and southward (pushing the resident Celts west to the Rhine around 200 BC), moving into southern Germany up to the Roman provinces of Gaul and Cisalpine Gaul by 100 BC, where they were stopped by Gaius Marius and later by Julius Caesar. It is this western group which was described by the Roman historian Tacitus (AD 56–117) and Julius Caesar (100–44 BC). A later wave of Germanic tribes migrated eastward and southward from Scandinavia, between 600 and 300 BC, to the opposite coast of the Baltic Sea, moving up the Vistula near the Carpathian Mountains. During Tacitus' era they included lesser-known tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri and Chatti; however, a period of federation and intermarriage resulted in the familiar groups known as the Alemanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Thuringians.


title: Migration Period

text: The first wave of invasions, between AD 300 and 500, is partly documented by Greek and Latin historians but is difficult to verify archaeologically. It puts Germanic peoples in control of most areas of what was then the Western Roman Empire.


title: Migration Period

text: The Tervingi crossed the Danube into Roman territory after a clash with the Huns in 376. Some time later in Marcianopolis, the escort to their leader Fritigern was killed while meeting with Lupicinus. The Tervingi rebelled, and the Visigoths, a group derived either from the Tervingi or from a fusion of mainly Gothic groups, eventually invaded Italy and sacked Rome in 410 before settling in Gaul. Around 460, they founded the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia. They were followed into Roman territory first by a confederation of Herulian, Rugian, and Scirian warriors under Odoacer, that deposed Romulus Augustulus in 476, and later by the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric the Great, who settled in Italy.


title: Migration Period

text: In Gaul, the Franks (a fusion of western Germanic tribes whose leaders had been aligned with Rome since the 3rd century) entered Roman lands gradually during the 5th century, and after consolidating power under Childeric and his son Clovis's decisive victory over Syagrius in 486, established themselves as rulers of northern Roman Gaul. Fending off challenges from the Alemanni, Burgundians, and Visigoths, the Frankish kingdom became the nucleus of what would later become France and Germany.


title: Migration Period

text: The initial Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain occurred during the 5th century, when Roman control of Britain had come to an end. The Burgundians settled in northwestern Italy, Switzerland and Eastern France in the 5th century.


title: Migration Period

text: Between AD 500 and 700, Slavic tribes settled more areas of central Europe and pushed farther into southern and eastern Europe, gradually making the eastern half of Europe predominantly Slavic. Additionally, Turkic tribes such as the Avars and later Ugric Magyars became involved in this second wave. In AD 567, the Avars and the Lombards destroyed much of the Gepid Kingdom. The Lombards, a Germanic people, settled in Italy with their Herulian, Suebian, Gepid, Thuringian, Bulgar, Sarmatian and Saxon allies in the 6th century. They were later followed by the Bavarians and the Franks, who conquered and ruled most of Italy.


title: Migration Period

text: The Bulgars, originally a nomadic group probably from Central Asia, occupied the Pontic steppe north of Caucasus since the 2nd century, but later, pushed by the Khazars, the majority of them migrated west and dominated Byzantine territories along the lower Danube in the 7th century. From that time the demographic picture of the Balkans changed permanently, becoming predominantly Slavic, while pockets of native people survived in the mountains of the Balkans.


title: Migration Period

text: During the early Byzantine–Arab Wars, Arab armies attempted to invade southeast Europe via Asia Minor during the late 7th and early 8th centuries but were defeated at the siege of Constantinople (717–718) by the joint forces of Byzantium and the Bulgars. During the Khazar–Arab Wars, the Khazars stopped the Arab expansion into Europe across the Caucasus (7th and 8th centuries). At the same time, the Moors (consisting of Arabs and Berbers) invaded Europe via Gibraltar (conquering Hispania from the Visigothic Kingdom in 711), before being halted by the Franks at the Battle of Tours in Gaul. These battles broadly demarcated the frontiers between Christendom and Islam for the next millennium. The following centuries saw the Muslims successful in conquering most of Sicily from the Christians by 902.


title: Migration Period

text: The Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin from around AD 895 and the following Hungarian invasions of Europe and the Viking expansion from the late 8th century conventionally mark the last large movements of the period. Christian missionaries gradually converted the non-Islamic newcomers and integrated them into the Christendom.


title: Migration Period

text: Analysis of barbarian identity and how it was created and expressed during the Barbarian Invasions has elicited discussion among scholars. Herwig Wolfram, a historian of the Goths, in discussing the equation of "migratio gentium" with "", observes that Michael Schmidt introduced the equation in his 1778 history of the Germans. Wolfram observed that the significance of "gens" as a biological community was shifting, even during the early Middle Ages and that "to complicate matters, we have no way of devising a terminology that is not derived from the concept of nationhood created during the French Revolution".


title: Migration Period

text: The "primordialistic" paradigm prevailed during the 19th century. Scholars, such as German linguist Johann Gottfried Herder, viewed tribes as coherent biological (racial) entities, using the term to refer to discrete ethnic groups. He also believed that the "Volk" were an organic whole, with a core identity and spirit evident in art, literature and language. These characteristics were seen as intrinsic, unaffected by external influences, even conquest. Language, in particular, was seen as the most important expression of ethnicity. They argued that groups sharing the same (or similar) language possessed a common identity and ancestry. This was the Romantic ideal that there once had been a single German, Celtic or Slavic people who originated from a common homeland and spoke a common tongue, helping to provide a conceptual framework for political movements of the 18th and 19th centuries such as Pan-Germanism and Pan-Slavism.


title: Migration Period

text: From the 1960s, a reinterpretation of archaeological and historical evidence prompted scholars, such as Goffart and Todd, to propose new models for explaining the construction of barbarian identity. They maintained that no sense of shared identity was perceived by the "Germani"; a similar theory having been proposed for Celtic and Slavic groups.


title: Migration Period

text: A theory states that the primordialist mode of thinking was encouraged by a "prima facie" interpretation of Graeco-Roman sources, which grouped together many tribes under such labels as "Germanoi", "Keltoi" or "Sclavenoi", thus encouraging their perception as distinct peoples. Modernists argue that the uniqueness perceived by specific groups was based on common political and economic interests rather than biological or racial distinctions. Indeed, on this basis, some schools of thought in recent scholarship urge that the concept of "Germanic" peoples be jettisoned altogether.


title: Migration Period

text: The role of language in constructing and maintaining group identity can be ephemeral since large-scale language shifts occur commonly in history. Modernists propose the idea of "imagined communities"; the barbarian polities in late antiquity were social constructs rather than unchanging lines of blood kinship. The process of forming tribal units was called "ethnogenesis", a term coined by Soviet scholar Yulian Bromley. The Austrian school (led by Reinhard Wenskus) popularized this idea, which influenced medievalists such as Herwig Wolfram, Walter Pohl and Patrick J. Geary. It argues that the stimulus for forming tribal polities was perpetuated by a small nucleus of people, known as the " ("kernel of tradition"), who were a military or aristocratic elite. This core group formed a standard for larger units, gathering adherents by employing amalgamative metaphors such as kinship and aboriginal commonality and claiming that they perpetuated an ancient, divinely-sanctioned lineage.


title: Migration Period

text: The common, track-filled map of the " may illustrate such [a] course of events, but it misleads. Unfolded over long periods of time, the changes of position that took place were necessarily irregular ... (with) periods of emphatic discontinuity. For decades and possibly centuries, the tradition bearers idled, and the tradition itself hibernated. There was ample time for forgetfulness to do its work.


title: Migration Period

text: Rather than "invasion", German and Slavic scholars speak of "migration" (, , and ), aspiring to the idea of a dynamic and "wandering Indo-Germanic people".


title: Migration Period

text: Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of "barbarians" on the Roman frontier: climate change, weather and crops, population pressure, a "primeval urge" to push into the Mediterranean, the construction of the Great Wall of China causing a "domino effect" of tribes being forced westward, leading to the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them. In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a "Dark Age" that set Europe back a millennium. In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman–Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a "tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization" with a "more virile, martial, Nordic one".


title: Migration Period

text: The scholar Guy Halsall has seen the barbarian movement as the result of the fall of the Roman Empire, not its cause. Archaeological discoveries have confirmed that Germanic and Slavic tribes were settled agriculturalists who were probably merely "drawn into the politics of an empire already falling apart for quite a few other causes". Goffart argues that the process of settlement was connected to "hospitalitas", the Roman practice of quartering soldiers among the civilian population. The Romans, by granting land and the right to levy taxes to allied (Germanic) armies, hoped to reduce the financial burdens of the empire. The Crisis of the Third Century caused significant changes within the Roman Empire in both its western and its eastern portions. In particular, economic fragmentation removed many of the political, cultural and economic forces that had held the empire together.


title: Migration Period

text: The rural population in Roman provinces became distanced from the metropolis, and there was little to differentiate them from other peasants across the Roman frontier. In addition, Rome increasingly used foreign mercenaries to defend itself. That "barbarisation" parallelled changes within Barbaricum. To this end, noted linguist Dennis Howard Green wrote, "the first centuries of our era witness not merely a progressive Romanisation of barbarian society, but also an undeniable barbarisation of the Roman world."


title: Migration Period

text: For example, the Roman Empire played a vital role in building up barbarian groups along its frontier. Propped up with imperial support and gifts, the armies of allied barbarian chieftains served as buffers against other, hostile, barbarian groups. The disintegration of Roman economic power weakened groups that had come to depend on Roman gifts for the maintenance of their own power. The arrival of the Huns helped prompt many groups to invade the provinces for economic reasons.


title: Migration Period

text: The nature of the barbarian takeover of former Roman provinces varied from region to region. For example, in Aquitaine, the provincial administration was largely self-reliant. Halsall has argued that local rulers simply "handed over" military rule to the Ostrogoths, acquiring the identity of the newcomers. In Gaul, the collapse of imperial rule resulted in anarchy: the Franks and Alemanni were pulled into the ensuing "power vacuum", resulting in conflict. In Spain, local aristocrats maintained independent rule for some time, raising their own armies against the Vandals. Meanwhile, the Roman withdrawal from lowland England resulted in conflict between Saxons and the Brittonic chieftains (whose centres of power retreated westward as a result). The Eastern Roman Empire attempted to maintain control of the Balkan provinces despite a thinly-spread imperial army relying mainly on local militias and an extensive effort to refortify the Danubian "limes". The ambitious fortification efforts collapsed, worsening the impoverished conditions of the local populace and resulting in colonization by Slavic warriors and their families.


title: Migration Period

text: Halsall and Noble have argued that such changes stemmed from the breakdown in Roman political control, which exposed the weakness of local Roman rule. Instead of large-scale migrations, there were military takeovers by small groups of warriors and their families, who usually numbered only in the tens of thousands. The process involved active, conscious decision-making by Roman provincial populations.


title: Migration Period

text: The collapse of centralized control severely weakened the sense of Roman identity in the provinces, which may explain why the provinces then underwent dramatic cultural changes even though few barbarians settled in them.


title: Migration Period

text: Ultimately, the Germanic groups in the Western Roman Empire were accommodated without "dispossessing or overturning indigenous society", and they maintained a structured and hierarchical (but attenuated) form of Roman administration.


title: Migration Period

text: Ironically, they lost their unique identity as a result of such an accommodation and were absorbed into Latinhood. In contrast, in the east, Slavic tribes maintained a more "spartan and egalitarian" existence bound to the land "even in times when they took their part in plundering Roman provinces". Their organizational models were not Roman, and their leaders were not normally dependent on Roman gold for success. Thus they arguably had a greater effect on their region than the Goths, the Franks or the Saxons had on theirs.


title: Migration Period

text: Based on the belief that particular types of artifacts, elements of personal adornment generally found in a funerary context, are thought to indicate the ethnicity of the person buried, the "Culture-History" school of archaeology assumed that archaeological cultures represent the "" (homeland) of tribal polities named in historical sources. As a consequence, the shifting extensions of material cultures were interpreted as the expansion of peoples.


title: Migration Period

text: Influenced by constructionism, process-driven archaeologists rejected the culture-historical doctrine and marginalized the discussion of ethnicity altogether and focused on the intragroup dynamics that generated such material remains. Moreover, they argued that adoption of new cultures could occur through trade or internal political developments rather than only military takeovers.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis ( ; ) is the highest mountain in Scotland, the United Kingdom and the British Isles. The summit is above sea level and is the highest land in any direction for . Ben Nevis stands at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Highland region of Lochaber, close to the town of Fort William.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The mountain is a popular destination, attracting an estimated 130,000 ascents a year, around three-quarters of which use the Mountain Track from Glen Nevis.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles and rock climbs of all difficulties for climbers and mountaineers. They are also the principal locations in Scotland for ice climbing.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The summit, which is the collapsed dome of an ancient volcano, features the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904. The meteorological data collected during this period is still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather. C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory.


title: Ben Nevis

text: "Ben Nevis" is the Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic name . Whilst is the common Scottish Gaelic word for 'mountain', the meaning of is unclear.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Alternatively, the Scottish Gaelic word can be translated as 'malice', 'poison' or 'venom' giving 'venomous mountain', possibly describing the storms that envelop the summit.


title: Ben Nevis

text: , can also be the genitive form of a male (god's?) name. This could be the god Lugh whose place of worship was often on mountain tops throughout the Celtic world, thus giving 'god's mountain'.


title: Ben Nevis

text: As is common for many Scottish mountains, it is known both to locals and visitors as simply "the Ben".


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbours to the northeast, , to which it is linked by the Arête; and . All four are Munros and among the eleven mountains in Scotland over (of which nine are currently listed as Munros).


title: Ben Nevis

text: The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise in about above the River Nevis flowing down Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side. To the north, by contrast, cliffs drop some to ().


title: Ben Nevis

text: A descent of 200 metres from this corrie leads to the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut (known as the CIC Hut), a private mountain hut above sea level, owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club and used as a base for the many climbing routes on the mountain's north face. The hut is just above the confluence of and .


title: Ben Nevis

text: In addition to the main summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary "tops" listed in Munro's Tables, both of which are called ("red hill"). The higher of these, at , is to the northwest, and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area. The other () juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain's southwestern side. A lower hill, (), is further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, . The popular tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis's broad western flank.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago. Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite (which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface) lies among dark basaltic lavas (that form only on the surface). The two lying side by side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera (2nd millennium BC) or Krakatoa (1883).


title: Ben Nevis

text: Research has shown igneous rock from the Devonian period (around 400 million years ago) intrudes into the surrounding metamorphic schists; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring dikes. The innermost of these, known as the Inner Granite, constitutes the southern bulk of the mountain above , and also the neighbouring ridge of ; forms part of the Outer Granite, which is redder in colour. The summit dome itself, together with the steep northern cliffs, is composed of andesite and basaltic lavas.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis has a highland (alpine) maritime (oceanic) polar climate ("ET" climate in the Köppen classification). Ben Nevis's elevation, maritime location and topography frequently lead to cool and cloudy weather conditions, which can pose a danger to ill-equipped walkers. According to the observations carried out at the summit observatory from 1883 to 1904, fog was present on the summit for almost 80% of the time between November and January, and 55% of the time in May and June. The average winter temperature was around , and the mean monthly temperature for the year was . In an average year the summit sees 261 gales, and receives of rainfall, compared to only in nearby Fort William, in Inverness and in London. Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer. Snow can be found on the mountain almost all year round, particularly in the gullies of the north face – with the higher reaches of Observatory Gully holding snow until September most years and sometimes until the new snows of the following season.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The following table gives weather records for Aonach Mòr, 3.71 km (2.30 mi) to the northeast of Ben Nevis and about 200 meters (700 feet) lower; subject to similar weather.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on 17 August 1771 by James Robertson, an Edinburgh botanist, who was in the region to collect botanical specimens. Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams, who provided the first account of the mountain's geological structure. John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818, comparing the ascent to "mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase". The following year William MacGillivray, who was later to become a distinguished naturalist, reached the summit only to find "fragments of earthen and glass ware, chicken bones, corks, and bits of paper". It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland, ahead of its rival Ben Macdhui.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The summit observatory was built in the summer of 1883, and would remain in operation for 21 years. The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies, with a maximum gradient of one in five. The opening of the path and the observatory made the ascent of the Ben increasingly popular, all the more so after the arrival of the West Highland Railway in Fort William in 1894. Around this time the first of several proposals was made for a rack railway to the summit, none of which came to fruition.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In 1911, an enterprising Ford dealer named Henry Alexander ascended the mountain in a Model T as a publicity stunt. The ascent was captured on film, and can be seen in the archives of the British Film Institute. A statue of Alexander and the car was unveiled in Fort William in 2018.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In 2000, the Ben Nevis Estate, comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit, was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In 2016, the height of Ben Nevis was officially remeasured to be 1344.527m by Ordnance Survey. The height of Ben Nevis will therefore be shown on new Ordnance Survey maps as instead of the now obsolete value of .


title: Ben Nevis

text: The 1883 Pony Track to the summit (also known as the "Ben Path", the "Mountain Path" or the "Tourist Route") remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent. It begins at Achintee on the east side of Glen Nevis about from Fort William town centre, at around 20 metres above sea level. Bridges from the Visitor Centre and the youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis. The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t-Suidhe (colloquially known as the 'Halfway Lake') at 570 m, then ascends the remaining 700 metres up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig-zags. The path is regularly maintained but running water, uneven rocks and loose scree make it hazardous and slippery in places. Thanks to the zig-zags, the path is not unusually steep apart from in the initial stages, but inexperienced walkers should be aware that the descent is relatively arduous and wearing on the knees.


title: Ben Nevis

text: A route popular with experienced hillwalkers starts at Torlundy, a few miles north-east of Fort William on the A82 road, and follows the path alongside the . It can also be reached from Glen Nevis by following the Pony Track as far as , then descending slightly to the CIC Hut. The route then ascends and continues along the Arête ("CMD Arête") before climbing steeply to the summit of Ben Nevis. This route involves a total of 1,500 metres of ascent and requires modest scrambling ability and a head for heights. In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain, it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face, which are hidden from the Pony Track.


title: Ben Nevis

text: It is also possible to climb Ben Nevis from the Nevis Gorge car park at Steall at the head of the road up Glen Nevis, either by the south-east ridge or via the summit of (south-west). These routes require mild scrambling, are shorter and steeper than the Pony Track, and tend only to be used by experienced hill walkers.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony plateau of about . The highest point is marked with a large, solidly built cairn atop which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point. The summit is the highest ground in any direction for before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The ruined walls of the observatory are a prominent feature on the summit. An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather. Although the base of the tower is slightly lower than the true summit of the mountain, the roof of the shelter overtops the trig point by several feet, making it the highest man-made structure in the UK. A war memorial to the dead of World War II is located next to the observatory.


title: Ben Nevis

text: On 17 May 2006, a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust, which owns much of the mountain. The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The view from the UK's highest point is extensive. Under ideal conditions, it can extend to over , including such mountains as the Torridon Hills, Morven in Caithness, Lochnagar, Ben Lomond, Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim, Northern Ireland.


title: Ben Nevis

text: A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society (SMS) in the late-1870s, at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude. In the summer of 1881, Clement Lindley Wragge climbed the mountain daily to make observations (earning him the nickname "Inclement Rag"), leading to the opening on 17 October 1883 of a permanent observatory run by the SMS. The building was staffed full-time until 1904, when it was closed due to inadequate funding. The twenty years worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In September 1894, C. T. R. Wilson was employed at the observatory for a couple of weeks as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff. During this period, he witnessed a Brocken spectre and glory, caused by the sun casting a shadow on a cloud below the observer. He subsequently tried to reproduce these phenomena in the laboratory, resulting in his invention of the cloud chamber, used to detect ionising radiation.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis's popularity, climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents. In 1999 there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain.It has also been estimated that there are several deaths annually on Ben Nevis.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In two avalanches that occurred on Ben Nevis in 2009 and 2016 two people died on both occasions. In two avalanches that occurred in 1970 and 2019 three people died on both occasions.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Some accidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit, especially in poor visibility. The problem stems from the fact that the summit plateau is roughly kidney-shaped and surrounded by cliffs on three sides; the danger is particularly accentuated when the main path is obscured by snow. Two precise compass bearings taken in succession are necessary to navigate from the summit cairn to the west flank, from where a descent can be made on the Pony Track in relative safety.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In the late 1990s, Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions. These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers, sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions. Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man-made intrusion into the natural landscape, which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers' sense of responsibility for their own safety.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Supporters of navigational aids pointed to the high number of accidents that occurred on the mountain. Between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities, although eight of these were due to falls while rock climbing rather than navigational error. Also there is a long tradition of placing such aids on the summit, and the potentially life-saving role they could play.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In 2016, the John Muir Trust cleared a number of smaller informal cairns which had recently been erected by visitors, many near the top of gullies, which were seen as dangerous as they could confuse walkers using them for navigation. As of 2019, a series of solidly-constructed cairns, each several feet high, marks the upper reaches of the Pony Track and the path across the summit plateau.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The north face of Ben Nevis is riven with buttresses, ridges, towers and pinnacles, and contains many classic scrambles and rock climbs. It is of major importance for British winter climbing, with many of its routes holding snow often until late April. It was one of the first places in Scotland to receive the attention of serious mountaineers; a partial ascent and, the following day, a complete descent of Tower Ridge in early September 1892 is the earliest documented climbing expedition on the Ben. (It was not climbed from bottom to top in entirety for another two years). The Scottish Mountaineering Club's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929. Because of its remote location, it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain. It remains popular with climbers, especially in winter.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Tower Ridge is the longest of the north face's four main ridges, with around 600 metres of ascent. It is not technically demanding (its grade is Difficult), and most pitches can be tackled unroped by competent climbers, but it is committing and very exposed. Castle Ridge (Moderate), the northernmost of the main ridges, is an easier scramble, while Observatory Ridge (Very Difficult), the closest ridge to the summit, is "technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter". Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies; the latter takes its name from the cry of (French for "watch out for the water") formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their waste out of a tenement window into the street. The gully's top wall was the refuse pit for the now-disused summit observatory. The North-east Buttress (Very Difficult) is the southernmost and bulkiest of the four ridges; it is as serious as Observatory Ridge but not as technically demanding, mainly because an "infamous" rock problem, the 'Man-trap', can be avoided on either side.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The north face contains dozens of graded rock climbs along its entire length, with particular concentrations on the Buttress (below the Munro top of NW) and around the North-east Buttress and Observatory Ridge. Classic rock routes include "Rubicon Wall" on Observatory Buttress (Severe) – whose second ascent in 1937, when it was considered the hardest route on the mountain, is described by W. H. Murray in "Mountaineering in Scotland" – and, on , "Centurion" and "The Bullroar" (both HVS), "Torro" (E2), and "Titan's Wall" (E3), these four described in the SMC's guide as among "the best climbs of their class in Scotland".


title: Ben Nevis

text: Many seminal lines were recorded before the First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J. N. Collie, Willie Naismith, Harold Raeburn, and William and Jane Inglis Clark. Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee, Dr James H. B. Bell and others between the Wars; these include Bell's 'Long Climb', at reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland. In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy-four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos, returning in 1944 to add fifteen more new lines, eleven solo, including his eponymous HVS on Gardyloo buttress. Much more recently, an extreme and as yet ungraded climb on Echo Wall was completed by Dave MacLeod in 2008 after two years of preparation.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The north face is also one of Scotland's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing, and holds snow until quite late in the year; in a good year, routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring. Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs, including the four main ridges; Tower Ridge, for example, is grade IV on the Scottish winter grade, having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team, there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season. Probably the most popular ice climb on Ben Nevis is "The Curtain" (IV,5) on the left side of the Buttress. At the top end of the scale, "Centurion" in winter is a grade VIII,8 face climb.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct (V,5 400m); this winter version of Bell's Long Climb was "the climax of a magnificent week's climbing by Smith and Marshall, and the highpoint of the step-cutting era".


title: Ben Nevis

text: The history of hill running on Ben Nevis dates back to 1895. William Swan, a barber from Fort William, made the first recorded timed ascent up the mountain on or around 27 September of that year, when he ran from the old post office in Fort William to the summit and back in 2 hours 41 minutes.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The following years saw several improvements on Swan's record, but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules. Ten competitors ran the course, which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William; the winner was 21-year-old Hugh Kennedy, a gamekeeper at Tor Castle, who finished (coincidentally with Swan's original run) in 2 hours 41 minutes.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Regular races were organised until 1903, when two events were held; these were the last for 24 years, perhaps due to the closure of the summit observatory the following year. The first was from Achintee, at the foot of the Pony Track, and finished at the summit; It was won in just over an hour by Ewen MacKenzie, the observatory roadman. The second race ran from new Fort William post office, and MacKenzie lowered the record to 2 hours 10 minutes, a record he held for 34 years.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The Ben Nevis Race has been run in its current form since 1937. It now takes place on the first Saturday in September every year, with a maximum of 500 competitors taking part. It starts and finishes at the Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William, and is long with of ascent. Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment, entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races, and runners must carry waterproofs, a hat, gloves and a whistle; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back. As of 2018, the record for the men's race has stood unbroken since 1984, when Kenny Stuart of Keswick Athletic Club won with a time of 1:25:34. The record for the women's race of 1:43:01 was set in 2018 by Victoria Wilkinson.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis is becoming popular with ski mountaineers and boarders. The Red Burn () just to the North of the tourist path gives the easiest descent, but most if not all of the easier gullies on the North Face have been skied, as has the slope once adorned by the abseil poles into . No 4 gully is probably the most skied. Although Tower scoop makes it a no-fall zone, Tower Gully is becoming popular, especially in May and June when there is spring snow.


title: Ben Nevis

text: In 2018 Jöttnar pro team member Tim Howell BASE jumped off Ben Nevis which was covered by BBC Scotland.


title: Ben Nevis

text: On 6 May 2019, a team of highliners completed a crossing above the Gardyloo Gully, a new altitude record for the UK.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Also in May 2019, a team of 12, led by Dundee artist Douglas Roulston carried a 5-foot (1.5 metre) tall statue of the DC Thomson character Oor Wullie to the top of the mountain. The statue, which had been painted by Roulston with a 360 degree scene of the view from the summit was later sold at the Oor Wullie Big Bucket Trail charity auction to raise money for a number of Scottish children's charities.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Ben Nevis's popularity and high-profile have led to concerns in recent decades over the impact of humans on the fragile mountain environment within the Ben Nevis and Glen Coe National Scenic Area. These concerns contributed to the creation of The Nevis Landscape Partnership, a five-year programme which aimed to protect, enhance and future-proof Ben Nevis by delivering nineteen ambitious environmental projects between 2014 and 2019. The Nevis Landscape Partnership is supported by five partner organisations (John Muir Trust, Forestry Commission Scotland, The Highland Council, Scottish Natural Heritage and The Nevis Partnership) and was made possible by Heritage Lottery Funding.


title: Ben Nevis

text: With the 5-year programme now finished, there have been significant positive changes implemented by Nevis Landscape Partnership and their projects, most significantly the upgrades to the Ben Nevis Mountain Track. Work to upgrade the mountain track started in November 2015 after two contracts were awarded to McGowan Ltd. and Cairngorm Wilderness Contracts. Between 2015 and 2019, 3.5 km of path has been repaired through eight separate contracts and 3,323 hours of volunteer time.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Volunteers help to maintain the mountain track. Nevis Landscape Partnership and National Trust for Scotland have run Thistle Camp Working Holidays which have focused on maintenance on the first section of the Ben Nevis footpath.


title: Ben Nevis

text: The Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain, near Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William. Founded in 1825 by John McDonald (known as "Long John"), it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland, and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William. The water used to make the whisky comes from the , the stream that flows from Ben Nevis's northern corrie. "Ben Nevis" 80/‒ organic ale is, by contrast, brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling.


title: Ben Nevis

text: "Ben Nevis" was the name of a White Star Line packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas. At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then.


title: Ben Nevis

text: A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis, after the Scottish peak. It is 922 metres high, and is south of the head of Raudfjorden, Albert I Land, in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen.


title: Ben Nevis

text: A comic strip character, Wee Ben Nevis, about a Scottish Highlands boarding school student with superhuman strength and his antics were featured in the British comic "The Beano" from 1974 to 1977, named after the mountain.


title: Ben Nevis

text: Hung Fa Chai, a 489-metre hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was marked as Ben Nevis on historical colonial maps.


title: White Russian (cocktail)

text: A white Russian is a cocktail made with vodka, coffee liqueur (e.g., Kahlúa or Tia Maria) and cream served with ice in an old fashioned glass.


title: White Russian (cocktail)

text: The traditional cocktail known as a black Russian, which first appeared in 1949, becomes a white Russian with the addition of cream. Neither drink has any known Russian origin, but both are so-named due to vodka being the primary ingredient. It is unclear which drink preceded the other.