title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan also wrote verse, considered to be within the genre of literary nonsense. For example: "It's due to pigeons that alight; on Nelson's hat that makes it white." His poetry has been described by comedian Stephen Fry as "absolutely immortal—greatly in the tradition of Lear." One of his poems, "On the Ning Nang Nong", was voted the UK's favourite comic poem in 1998 in a nationwide poll, ahead of other nonsense poets including Lewis Carroll and Edward Lear. This nonsense verse, set to music, became a favourite Australia-wide, performed week after week by the ABC children's programme "Playschool". Milligan included it on his album "No One's Gonna Change Our World" in 1969, to aid the World Wildlife Fund. In December 2007 it was reported that, according to OFSTED, it is among the ten most commonly taught poems in primary schools in the UK.


title: Spike Milligan

text: While depressed, he wrote serious poetry, much of which is compiled in "Open Heart University". He also wrote a novel "Puckoon" and a series of war memoirs, including "" (1971), ""Rommel?" "Gunner Who?": A Confrontation in the Desert" (1974), "" (1976) and "" (1978). Milligan's seven volumes of memoirs cover the years from 1939 to 1950 (his call-up, war service, first breakdown, time spent entertaining in Italy and return to the UK).


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan also wrote comedy songs, including "Purple Aeroplane", which was a parody of the Beatles' song "Yellow Submarine". In addition, he wrote the lyric to saxophonist/composer Duncan Lamont's "English Folk Song," heard on jazz singer Tina May's 2021 album, "52nd Street (and Other Tales)". He was the narrator for Lamont's "Sherlock Holmes Suite", commissioned by the City of London to commemorate the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes in "The Strand" magazine.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Bernard Miles gave Milligan his first straight acting role, as Ben Gunn, in the Mermaid Theatre production of "Treasure Island". Miles described Milligan as:


title: Spike Milligan

text: "Treasure Island" played twice daily through the winter of 1961–62 and was an annual production at the Mermaid Theatre for some years. In the 1968 production, Barry Humphries played the role of Long John Silver, alongside William Rushton as Squire Trelawney and Milligan as Ben Gunn. To Humphries, Milligan's "best performance must surely have been as Ben Gunn ..., Milligan stole the show every night, in a makeup which took at least an hour to apply. His appearance on stage always brought a roar of delight from the kids in the audience and Spike had soon left the text far behind as he went off into a riff of sublime absurdity."


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1961–62, during the long pauses between the matinee and the evening show of "Treasure Island", Milligan began talking to Miles about the idea he and John Antrobus were exploring, of a dramatised post-nuclear world. This became the one-act play "The Bedsitting Room", which Milligan co-wrote with John Antrobus and which premiered at the Marlowe Theatre, Canterbury on 12 February 1962. It was adapted to a longer play and staged by Miles at London's Mermaid Theatre, making its debut on 31 January 1963. It was a critical and commercial success and was revived in 1967 with a provincial tour before opening at London's Saville Theatre on 3 May 1967. Richard Lester later directed a film version, released in 1969.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Tiring of comedic roles, Milligan sought out more serious material. He had read Ivan Goncharov's "Oblomov" and felt a kinship with the title character, who declines to leave his bed to face the world. According to Scudamore's biography:


title: Spike Milligan

text: The novel had been adapted for the stage by Italian writer Riccardo Aragno. Aragno's script for "Oblomov" was bought by Milligan's production company in early 1964. Milligan had long nurtured hopes of transitioning from comedy to serious drama. To this end, Milligan rehearsed for seven weeks with director Frank Dunlop and castmates Joan Greenwood, Bill Owen, and Dyall Valentine at the Lyric Hammersmith.


title: Spike Milligan

text: The first preview was on 6 October 1964. During this performance Milligan was struck by stage fright and forgot nearly all of his lines. He quickly began making up things to say to the cast, turning the drama into an impromptu improv session. Noticing that a drama critic who'd given rave reviews to Milligan's other stage comedies was in the audience, Milligan ended the first performance by shouting "Thank God, Milton Shulman’s in!"


title: Spike Milligan

text: The play was savaged in the theatrical press. However, "Oblomov"'s producers had booked the play into the Lyric for three weeks. Anxious to recoup their investment by any means, they gave Milligan carte-blanche on stage. Milligan's antics included starting the play while sitting with the audience, yelling for his castmates to entertain him. Another night he wore a false arm that fell out of his sleeve when co-star Ian Flintoff, playing Oblomov's doctor, shook Milligan's hand. When Flintoff complained to Bill Kerr, a longtime friend of Milligan, that Spike was making a mockery of their hard work Kerr replied: "We have to put up with all the shit, mate, because it pays the rent."


title: Spike Milligan

text: Joan Greenwood, who played Olga, later recalled that her husband André Morell thought the first performance was so appalling that they should get Greenwood out of her contract. According to Scudamore:


title: Spike Milligan

text: The play continued running as an improv comedy. This decision soon caused it to break all box office records at the Lyric. After five weeks it was rechristened "Son of Oblomov" and moved on 2 December 1964 to the Comedy Theatre in the West End. It would run there for a total of 559 performances. As the play was substantially new each night it drew record numbers of repeat traffic.


title: Spike Milligan

text: On 22 April 1965, Queen Elizabeth and her family attended as part of her 39th birthday celebration. Just after the curtain rose, a group of four latecomers attempted to slink to their seats directly in front of the royal family. Milligan immediately shouted: "Turn up the house lights! Start everything again!" He pointed to the blushing foursome and cried: "That's cost you your knighthood!"


title: Spike Milligan

text: Then, noticing that Peter Sellers was seated between Prince Charles and Princess Margaret, Milligan asked in a loud voice: "Is there a Sellers in the house?" Sellers immediately shouted, "Yes!" Milligan launched into a vaudeville routine about Prince Phillip's suspenders, with Sellers participating from his seat with the royals. This culminated in Milligan giving a high-kick, lobbing one of his bedroom slippers at Sellers, nearly missing Prince Phillip's head. Once back in bed with co-star Joan Greenwood, Milligan spent the rest of the performance poking fun at the Queen for bringing her son to such a racy play. The play ended with Milligan unsheathing a katana on stage and asking the Queen to knight him for his efforts that night. She declined. The performance ran 45 minutes over its scheduled ending. Prince Charles reportedly saw the play five times.


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1959 Ken Russell made a short 35 mm film about and with Milligan entitled "Portrait of a Goon". The making of the film is detailed in Paul Sutton's 2012 authorised biography "Becoming Ken Russell". In 1971 Milligan played a humble village priest in Russell's film "The Devils". The scene was cut from the release print and is considered lost but photographs from the scene, together with Murray Melvin's memory of that day's filming, are included in Sutton's 2014 book "Six English Filmmakers".


title: Spike Milligan

text: As illustrated in the description of his involvement in theatre, Milligan often ad-libbed. He also did this on radio and television. One of his last screen appearances was in the BBC dramatisation of Mervyn Peake's "Gormenghast" and he was (almost inevitably) noted as an ad-libber.


title: Spike Milligan

text: One of Milligan's ad-lib incidents occurred during a visit to Australia in the late 1960s. He was interviewed live on air and remained in the studio for the news broadcast that followed (read by Rod McNeil), during which Milligan constantly interjected, adding his own name to news items. As a result, he was banned from making any further live appearances on the ABC. The ABC also changed its national policy so that guests had to leave the studio after interviews were complete. A tape of the bulletin survives and has been included in an ABC Radio audio compilation, and also on the BBC tribute CD, "Vivat Milligna".


title: Spike Milligan

text: Film and television director Richard Lester recalls that the television series "A Show Called Fred" was broadcast live. "I've seen very few moments of genius in my life but I witnessed one with Spike after the first show. He had brought around a silent cartoon" and asked Lester if his P.A. took shorthand. "She said she did. 'Good, this needs a commentary.' It was a ten-minute cartoon and Spike could have seen it only once, if that. He ad-libbed the commentary for it and it was perfect. I was open-mouthed at the raw comedy creation in front of me."


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan contributed occasional cartoons to the satirical magazine "Private Eye". Most were visualisations of one-line jokes. For example, a young boy sees the Concorde and asks his father "What's that?". The reply is "That's a flying groundnut scheme, son." Milligan was a keen painter.


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1967, applying a satirical angle to a fashion for the inclusion of Superman-inspired characters in British television commercials, Milligan dressed up in a "Bat-Goons" outfit, to appear in a series of television commercials for British Petroleum. A contemporary reporter found the TV commercials "funny and effective". Milligan appeared with Peter Sellers in an advert for Benson & Hedges in 1973. Milligan requested that his fee was paid to ASH: Action on Smoking and Health. When this was refused he gave the money to charity instead. The advert was popular with the public and also won several industry awards. From 1980 to 1982, he advertised for the English Tourist Board, playing a Scotsman on a visit around the different regions of England.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Other advertising appearances included television commercials for Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Commonwealth Bank of Australia, and Planters nuts.


title: Spike Milligan

text: In the 1970s, Charles Allen compiled a series of stories from British people's experiences of life in the British Raj, called "Plain Tales from the Raj", and published in 1975. Milligan was the youngest contributor, describing his life in India when it was under British rule. In it he mentions the imperial parades there:


title: Spike Milligan

text: The most exciting sound for me was the sound of the Irregular Punjabi Regiment playing the "dhol" and "surmai" [a type of drum]—one beat was dum-da-da-dum, dum-da-da-dum, dum-da-da-dum! They wore these great long pantaloons, a gold dome to their turbans, khaki shirts with banded waistcoats, double-cross bandoliers, leather sandals, and they used to march very fast, I remember, bursting in through the dust on the heels of an English regiment. They used to come in with trailed arms and they'd throw their rifles up into the air, catch it with their left hand—always to this dum-da-da-dum, dum-da-da-dum—and then stamp their feet and fire one round, synchronising with the drums. They'd go left, right, left, right, "shabash"! "Hai"! Bang! Dum-da-da-dum—it was sensational!


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1988, whilst visiting his mother in Woy Woy (on the shores of Brisbane Water), Milligan composed and orchestrated a "Grand Waltz for Brisbane Water" and gave it to the symphony orchestra of nearby Gosford. Symphony Central Coast has performed it occasionally since, including a 2020 YouTube video as a COVID-19 isolation project.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan married his first wife, June (Marchinie) Marlow, in 1952; Peter Sellers was best man. They had three children, Laura, Seán and Síle, and divorced in 1960.


title: Spike Milligan

text: He married Patricia Ridgeway (also known as Paddy) in June 1962, with George Martin as best man and the marriage produced one child, Jane Milligan (b. 1966). The marriage ended with Patricia's death from breast cancer in 1978.


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1975 he fathered a son, James (b. June 1976), in an affair with Margaret Maughan. Another child, a daughter Romany, is suspected to have been born at the same time, to a Canadian journalist named Roberta Watt.


title: Spike Milligan

text: His last wife was Shelagh Sinclair, to whom he was married from 1983 until his death on 27 February 2002. Shelagh Milligan died in June 2011.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Upon marrying Shelagh his existing will was automatically revoked by operation of law. His former will had left everything to his children, and instead he made a new will which left his entire estate to Shelagh. The children attempted to overturn the will, to no avail. Four of his children collaborated with documentary makers on a multi-platform programme called "I Told You I Was Ill: The Life and Legacy of Spike Milligan" (2005). In October 2008, an array of Milligan's personal effects was sold at auction by his third wife, Shelagh, who was moving into a smaller home. These included his vast legacy of books and memorabilia and a grand piano salvaged from a demolition and apparently played every morning by Paul McCartney, a neighbour in Rye in East Sussex.


title: Spike Milligan

text: He had bipolar disorder for most of his life, having several serious mental breakdowns, several lasting over a year. He spoke candidly about his condition and its effect on his life:


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan was born in the British Empire to an English mother and felt that he was thus entitled to British citizenship, especially after having served in the British Army for six years. When British law related to Commonwealth-born residents (which had given him a secure place in the UK) changed, he applied for a British passport in 1960. The application was refused, partly because he would not swear an Oath of Allegiance. Through his Irish father, he avoided statelessness by becoming an Irish citizen in 1962 and remained so for the rest of his life; this status gave him almost the same rights as a British subject.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan was agnostic, saying that he "sometimes prayed in moments of desperation on the off chance that somebody might be listening, but he always felt that he was talking to a void". Milligan was raised Catholic and expressed the view that "someone raised a Catholic was always a Catholic", referring to himself as a Catholic throughout his life.


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1974 Milligan was arrested for shooting a trespasser with an air rifle. He defended himself in court and was given a conditional discharge.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Charles III (then the Prince of Wales), was a fan of Milligan. When Milligan received the Lifetime Achievement Award at the British Comedy Awards in 1994, the prince sent a congratulatory message to be read out on live television. The comedian interrupted the message to call the prince a "little grovelling bastard". He later faxed the prince, saying: "I suppose a knighthood is out of the question?"


title: Spike Milligan

text: In reality, he and the prince were very close friends, and Milligan had already been made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1992 (honorary because of his Irish citizenship). He was made an honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE) in 2001.


title: Spike Milligan

text: On 23 July 1981, the Prince of Wales and Lady Diana Spencer were presented with a poem about the forthcoming Royal Wedding, delivered to Buckingham Palace on a 3-foot-9-inch parchment scroll, written under the pen name MacGoonical. A ridiculous verse written in the style of William McGonagall, the ode was commissioned by the Legal and General Assurance society as a "mark of esteem and affection". The verse, titled "Ode to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales on the occasion of his Weeding", begins:


title: Spike Milligan

text: He was a strident campaigner on environmental matters, particularly arguing against unnecessary noise, such as the use of "muzak".


title: Spike Milligan

text: In 1971, Milligan caused controversy by attacking an art exhibition at the Hayward Gallery with a hammer. The artwork included catfish, oysters and shrimp which were to be electrocuted. He was a staunch and outspoken scourge of domestic violence, dedicating one of his books to Erin Pizzey.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Even late in life, Milligan's black humour had not deserted him. After the death of Harry Secombe from cancer, he said, "I'm glad he died before me, because I didn't want him to sing at my funeral." (A recording of Secombe singing was played at Milligan's memorial service.) In 1990, he also wrote his own obituary, in which he stated repeatedly that he "wrote the "Goon Show" and died".


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan died from kidney failure, at the age of 83, on 27 February 2002, at his home near Rye, Sussex. On the day of his funeral, 8 March 2002, his coffin was carried to St Thomas Church in Winchelsea, East Sussex, and was draped in the flag of Ireland. He had once quipped that he wanted his headstone to bear the words "I told you I was ill." He was buried at St Thomas' churchyard but the Chichester diocese refused to allow this epitaph. A compromise was reached with the Gaelic translation of "I told you I was ill", and in English, "Love, light, peace". The additional epitaph can be read as "Great love for you Shelagh".


title: Spike Milligan

text: According to a letter published in the "Rye and Battle Observer" in 2011, Milligan's headstone was removed from St Thomas' churchyard in Winchelsea and moved to be alongside the grave of his wife, but was later returned.


title: Spike Milligan

text: From the 1960s, Milligan was a regular correspondent with Robert Graves. Milligan's letters to Graves usually addressed a question to do with classical studies. The letters form part of Graves's bequest to St John's College, Oxford.


title: Spike Milligan

text: The film of "Puckoon", starring Sean Hughes, including Milligan's daughter, actress Jane Milligan, was released after his death.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan lived for several years in Holden Road, Woodside Park, Finchley, at The Crescent, Barnet, and was a contributing founder and strong supporter of the Finchley Society. His old house in Woodside Park is now demolished but there is a blue plaque in his memory on the block of flats on the site.


title: Spike Milligan

text: A memorial bench featuring a bronze likeness of Milligan sits in his former home of Finchley. Over ten years the Finchley Society led by Barbara Warren raised funds—the Spike Milligan Statue Fund—to commission a statue of him by local sculptor John Somerville and erected on the grounds of Avenue House in East End Road. The memorial was unveiled on 4 September 2014 at a ceremony attended by a number of local dignitaries and showbusiness celebrities including Roy Hudd, Michael Parkinson, Maureen Lipman, Terry Gilliam, Kathy Lette, Denis Norden and Lynsey de Paul.


title: Spike Milligan

text: There is a campaign to erect a statue in the London Borough of Lewisham where he grew up. After coming to the UK from India in the 1930s, he lived at 50 Riseldine Road, Brockley and attended Brownhill Boys' School (later Catford Boys' School, which was demolished in 1994). There is a plaque and bench located at the Wadestown Library, Wellington, New Zealand, in an area called "Spike Milligan Corner".


title: Spike Milligan

text: In a 2005 poll to find the "Comedians' Comedian", he was voted among the top 50 comedy acts, by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. In a BBC poll in August 1999, Milligan was voted the "funniest person of the last 1,000 years".


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan has been portrayed twice in films. In the adaptation of his novel "Adolf Hitler: My Part in His Downfall", he was played by Jim Dale, while Milligan played his father. He was portrayed by Edward Tudor-Pole in "The Life and Death of Peter Sellers" (2004). In a 2008 stage play, "Surviving Spike", Milligan was played by Michael Barrymore.


title: Spike Milligan

text: On 9 June 2006, it was reported that Richard Wiseman had identified Milligan as the writer of the world's funniest joke as decided by the Laughlab project. Wiseman said the joke contained all three elements of what makes a good gag: anxiety, a feeling of superiority and an element of surprise.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Eddie Izzard described Milligan as "The Godfather of Alternative Comedy". "From his unchained mind came forth ideas that just had no boundaries. And he influenced a new generation of comedians who came to be known as 'alternative'."


title: Spike Milligan

text: Members of Monty Python greatly admired him. In one interview, which was widely quoted at the time, John Cleese stated "Milligan is the Great God to all of us". The Pythons gave Milligan a cameo role in their 1979 film "Monty Python's Life of Brian", when Milligan happened to be holidaying in Tunisia, near where the film was being shot; he was re-visiting where he had been stationed during wartime. Graham Chapman gave him a minor part in "Yellowbeard".


title: Spike Milligan

text: After their retirement, Milligan's parents and his younger brother Desmond moved to Australia. His mother lived the rest of her long life in the coastal town of Woy Woy on the New South Wales Central Coast, just north of Sydney. As a result, he became a regular visitor to Australia and made a number of radio and TV programmes there, including "The Idiot Weekly" with Bobby Limb. He also wrote several books including "Puckoon" during a visit to his mother's house in Woy Woy. Milligan named the town "the largest above-ground cemetery in the world" when visiting in the 1960s.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan's mother became an Australian citizen in 1985, partly in protest at the circumstances which led to her son's ineligibility for British citizenship; Milligan himself was reportedly considering applying for Australian citizenship at the time as well. The suspension bridge on the cyclepath from Woy Woy to Gosford was renamed the Spike Milligan Bridge in his memory, and a meeting room in the Woy Woy Public Library is also named after him.


title: Spike Milligan

text: Milligan contributed his recollections of his childhood in India for the acclaimed 1970s BBC audio history series "Plain Tales From The Raj". The series was published in book form in 1975 by André Deutsch, edited by Charles Allen.


title: Spike Milligan

text: The War (and Peace) Memoirs. (The seven memoirs were also recorded as talking books with Milligan reciting them.)


title: Cree

text: The Cree (, , etc.; ) are a North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations.


title: Cree

text: In Canada, over 350,000 people are Cree or have Cree ancestry. The major proportion of Cree in Canada live north and west of Lake Superior, in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta and the Northwest Territories. About 27,000 live in Quebec.


title: Cree

text: In the United States, Cree people historically lived from Lake Superior westward. Today, they live mostly in Montana, where they share the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation with Ojibwe (Chippewa) people.


title: Cree

text: The documented westward migration over time has been strongly associated with their roles as traders and hunters in the North American fur trade.


title: Cree

text: The Cree are generally divided into eight groups based on dialect and region. These divisions do not necessarily represent ethnic sub-divisions within the larger ethnic group:


title: Cree

text: Due to the many dialects of the Cree language, the people have no modern collective autonym. The Plains Cree and Attikamekw refer to themselves using modern forms of the historical , namely and , respectively. Moose Cree, East Cree, Naskapi, and Montagnais all refer to themselves using modern dialectal forms of the historical , meaning 'man.' Moose Cree use the form , coastal East Cree and Naskapi use (variously spelled , , and ), inland East Cree use (variously spelled and ), and Montagnais use and , depending on dialect. The Cree use "Cree," "cri," "Naskapi, or "montagnais" to refer to their people only when speaking French or English.


title: Cree

text: As hunter-gatherers, the basic unit of organization for Cree peoples was the "lodge", a group of perhaps eight or a dozen people, usually the families of two separate but related married couples, who lived together in the same wigwam (domed tent) or tipi (conical tent), and the "band", a group of lodges who moved and hunted together. In the case of disagreement, lodges could leave bands and bands could be formed and dissolved with relative ease. However, as there is safety in numbers, all families would want to be part of some band, and banishment was considered a very serious punishment. Bands would usually have strong ties to their neighbours through intermarriage and would assemble together at different parts of the year to hunt and socialize together. Besides these regional gatherings, there was no higher-level formal structure, and decisions of war and peace were made by consensus with allied bands meeting together in council. People could be identified by their "clan", which is a group of people claiming descent from the same common ancestor; each clan would have a representative and a vote in all important councils held by the band (compare: Anishinaabe clan system).


title: Cree

text: Each band remained independent of each other. However, Cree-speaking bands tended to work together and with their neighbours against outside enemies. Those Cree who moved onto the Great Plains and adopted bison hunting, called the Plains Cree, were allied with the Assiniboine, the Metis Nation, and the Saulteaux in what was known as the "Iron Confederacy", which was a major force in the North American fur trade from the 1730s to the 1870s. The Cree and the Assiniboine were important intermediaries in the Indian trading networks on the northern plains.


title: Cree

text: When a band went to war, they would nominate a temporary military commander, called a . loosely translated as "war chief". This office was different from that of the "peace chief", a leader who had a role more like that of diplomat. In the run-up to the 1885 North-West Rebellion, Big Bear was the leader of his band, but once the fighting started Wandering Spirit became war leader.


title: Cree

text: There have been several attempts to create a national political organization that would represent all Cree peoples, at least as far back as a 1994 gathering at the Opaskwayak Cree First Nation reserve.


title: Cree

text: The name "Cree" is derived from the Algonkian-language exonym , which the Ojibwa used for tribes around Hudson Bay. The French colonists and explorers, who spelled the term , , , , and , used the term for numerous tribes which they encountered north of Lake Superior, in Manitoba, and west of there. The French used these terms to refer to various groups of peoples in Canada, some of which are now better distinguished as Severn Anishinaabe (Ojibwa), who speak dialects different from the Algonquin.


title: Cree

text: Depending on the community, the Cree may call themselves by the following names: the , and ; or , or . These names are derived from the historical autonym (of uncertain meaning) or from the historical autonym (meaning "person"). Cree using the latter autonym tend to be those living in the territories of Quebec and Labrador.


title: Cree

text: The Cree language (also known in the most broad classification as Cree-Montagnais, Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi, to show the groups included within it) is the name for a group of closely related Algonquian languages, the mother tongue (i.e. language first learned and still understood) of approximately 96,000 people, and the language most often spoken at home of about 65,000 people across Canada, from the Northwest Territories to Labrador. It is the most widely spoken aboriginal language in Canada. The only region where Cree has official status is in the Northwest Territories, together with eight other aboriginal languages.


title: Cree

text: The two major groups: Nehiyaw and Innu, speak a mutually intelligible Cree dialect continuum, which can be divided by many criteria. In a dialect continuum, "It is not so much a language, as a chain of dialects, where speakers from one community can very easily understand their neighbours, but a Plains Cree speaker from Alberta would find a Quebec Cree speaker difficult to speak to without practice."


title: Cree

text: One major division between the groups is that the Eastern group palatalizes the sound to either (c) or to (č) when it precedes front vowels. There is also a major difference in grammatical vocabulary (particles) between the groups. Within both groups, another set of variations has arisen around the pronunciation of the Proto-Algonquian phoneme "*l", which can be realized as or (th) by different groups. Yet in other dialects, the distinction between (ē) and (ī) has been lost, merging to the latter. In more western dialects, the distinction between and (š) has been lost, both merging to the former. "Cree is a not a typologically harmonic language. Cree has both prefixes and suffixes, both prepositions and postpositions, and both prenominal and postnominal modifiers (e.g. demonstratives can appear in both positions)."


title: Cree

text: Golla counts Cree dialects as eight of 55 North American languages that have more than 1,000 speakers and which are being actively acquired by children.


title: Cree

text: The Cree are the largest group of First Nations in Canada, with 220,000 members and 135 registered bands. Together, their reserve lands are the largest of any First Nations group in the country. The largest Cree band and the second largest First Nations Band in Canada after the Six Nations Iroquois is the Lac La Ronge Band in northern Saskatchewan.


title: Cree

text: Given the traditional Cree acceptance of mixed marriages, it is acknowledged by academics that all bands are ultimately of mixed heritage and multilingualism and multiculturalism was the norm. In the West, mixed bands of Cree, Saulteaux and Assiniboine, all partners in the Iron Confederacy, are the norm. However, in recent years, as indigenous languages have declined across western Canada where there were once three languages spoken on a given reserve, there may now only be one. This has led to a simplification of identity, and it has become "fashionable" for bands in many parts of Saskatchewan to identify as "Plains Cree" at the expense of a mixed Cree-Salteaux history. There is also a tendency for bands to recategorize themselves as "Plains Cree" instead of Woods Cree or Swampy Cree. Neal McLeod argues this is partly due to the dominant culture's fascination with Plains Indian culture as well as the greater degree of written standardization and prestige Plains Cree enjoys over other Cree dialects.


title: Cree

text: The Métis (from the French, – of mixed ancestry) are people of mixed ancestry, such as Cree (or Anishinaabe) and French, English, or Scottish heritage. According to Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada, the Métis were historically the children of French fur traders and Cree women or, from unions of English or Scottish traders and northern Dene women (Anglo-Métis). The Métis National Council defines a Métis as "a person who self-identifies as Métis, is distinct from other Aboriginal peoples, is of historic Métis Nation Ancestry and who is accepted by the Métis Nation".


title: Cree

text: At one time the Cree lived in northern Minnesota, North Dakota and Montana. Today, American Cree are enrolled in the federally recognized Chippewa Cree tribe, located on the Rocky Boy Indian Reservation, and in minority as "Landless Cree" on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation and as "Landless Cree" and "Rocky Boy Cree" on the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, all in Montana. The Chippewa Cree share the reservation with the Pembina Band of Chippewa Indians, who form the "Chippewa" (Ojibwa) half of the Chippewa Cree tribe. On the other Reservations, the Cree minority share the Reservation with the Assiniboine, Gros Ventre and Sioux tribes. Traditionally, the southern limits of the Cree territory in Montana were the Missouri River and the Milk River.


title: Cree

text: In Manitoba, the Cree were first contacted by Europeans in 1682, at the mouth of the Nelson and Hayes rivers by a Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) party traveling about inland. In the south, contact was later. In 1732 in what is now northwestern Ontario, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye, met with an assembled group of 200 Cree warriors near present-day Fort Frances, as well as with the Monsoni, (a branch of the Ojibwe). Both groups had donned war paint in preparation to an attack on the Dakota and another group of Ojibwe.


title: Cree

text: After acquiring firearms from the HBC, the Cree moved as traders into the plains, acting as middlemen with the HBC.


title: Cree

text: The Naskapi are the Innu First Nations inhabiting a region of northeastern Quebec and Labrador, Canada. The Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the territorial Montagnais, the other segment of Innu. The Naskapi language and culture is quite different from the Montagnais, in which the dialect changes from y to n as in "Iiyuu" versus "Innu". is the Innu dialect spoken by the Naskapi. Today, the Naskapi are settled into two communities: Kawawachikamach Quebec and Natuashish, Newfoundland and Labrador.


title: Cree

text: The Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach is located in the Naskapi village of Kawawachikamach, northeast of Schefferville, Quebec. The village is in the reserve of the same name.


title: Cree

text: The Mushuau Innu First Nation, located in the community of Natuashish, Newfoundland and Labrador, is located in the Natuashish 2 reserve on the coast of Labrador.


title: Cree

text: Innus of Ekuanitshit live on their reserve of Mingan, Quebec, at the mouth of the Mingan River of the Saint Lawrence River in the (north shore) region.


title: Cree

text: Innu Takuaikan Uashat Mak Mani-Utenam based in Sept-Îles, Quebec, in the region on the Saint Lawrence River. They own two reserves: Maliotenam 27A, east of Sept-Îles, and Uashat 27, within Sept-Îles.


title: Cree

text: Innu Nation of Matimekush-Lac John is based out of Schefferville, Quebec. One reserve, Matimekosh, is an enclave of Schefferville. The other, Lac-John, is outside the town.


title: Cree

text: Première Nation des Innus de Nutashkuan is based on their reserve of Natashquan 1 or Nutashkuan. The reserve is located on the north shore of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at the mouth of the Natashquan River.


title: Cree

text: Sheshatshiu Innu First Nation located in the community of Sheshatshiu in Labrador and is located approximately north of Happy Valley-Goose Bay. Sheshatshiu is located adjacent to the Inuit community of North West River. The Sheshatshiu Nation has one reserve, Sheshatshiu 3.


title: Cree

text: Pekuakamiulnuatsh First Nation is located on the reserve of Mashteuiatsh in the Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean region, north of Roberval, Quebec, on the western shore of Lac Saint-Jean.


title: Cree

text: Bande des Innus de Pessamit based in Pessamit, Quebec, is located about southwest of Baie-Comeau along the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River at the mouth of the Betsiamites River. It is across the river directly north of Rimouski, Quebec. Pessamit is northeast of Quebec City.


title: Cree

text: Innue Essipit are based in their reserve of Essipit, adjacent to the village of Les Escoumins, Quebec. The community is on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River at the mouth of the Escoumins River in the region, northeast of Tadoussac and northeast of Québec.


title: Cree

text: Conseil de la Nation Atikamekw, officially named Atikamekw Sipi – Conseil de la Nation Atikamekw, is a tribal council in Quebec, Canada. It is composed of three Atikamekw First Nations. The council is based in La Tuque, Quebec. The Atikamekw are inhabitants of the area they refer to as Nitaskinan ("Our Land"), in the upper Saint-Maurice River valley. The First Nations:


title: Cree

text: Eeyou Istchee is a territory equivalent to a regional county municipality (TE) of Nord-du-Québec represented by the Grand Council of the Crees. On 24 July 2012, the Quebec government signed an accord with the Cree Nation that resulted in the abolition of the neighbouring municipality of Baie-James and the creation of the new Eeyou Istchee James Bay Regional Government, providing for the residents of surrounding Jamésie TE and Eeyou Istchee to jointly govern the territory formerly governed by the municipality of Baie-James. Eeyou Istchee is a territory of eight enclaves within Jamésie plus one enclave (Whapmagoostui) within Kativik TE. Each enclave is a combination of a Cree reserved land (TC) and a Cree village municipality (VC), both with the same name.


title: Cree

text: Constance Lake First Nation is the only Cree member of Matawa First Nations. They are located on their reserves, Constance Lake 92 and English River 66, in the Cochrane District, Ontario.


title: Cree

text: Mushkegowuk Council, based in Moose Factory, Ontario, represents chiefs from seven First Nations across Ontario. Moose Cree members are: Chapleau Cree First Nation, Kashechewan First Nation, Missanabie Cree First Nation, Moose Cree First Nation, and Taykwa Tagamou Nation. The Chapleau Cree First Nation and their two reserves, Chapleau Cree Fox Lake and Chapleau 75, are located outside of Chapleau, Ontario in the Sudbury District. The Kashechewan First Nation community is located on the northern shore of the Albany River on James Bay. The Hudson's Bay Company established a post, Fort Albany, at this location between 1675 and 1679. Kashechewan First Nation is one of two communities that were established from Old Fort Albany, the other being Fort Albany First Nation. The two Nations share the Fort Albany 67 reserve. The Missanabie Cree First Nation signed Treaty 9 in 1906 but did not receive any reserved lands until 2018. The Missanabie reserve is in the Missanabie, Ontario area. The Moose Cree First Nation is based in Moose Factory in the Cochrane District. Moose Factory was founded in 1672–1673 by Charles Bayly, the first overseas governor of the Hudson's Bay Company, and was the company's second post. It was the first English settlement in what is now Ontario. The Nation has two reserves: Factory Island 1 on Moose Factory Island, an island in the Moose River, about from its mouth at James Bay; and Moose Factory 68, a tract of land about upstream on the Moose River. The Taykwa Tagamou Nation has two reserves, New Post 69, and their main reserve, New Post 69A outside Cochrane, Ontario along the Abitibi River.


title: Cree

text: Wabun Tribal Council is a regional chief's council based in Timmins, Ontario representing Ojibway and Cree First Nations in northern Ontario. Moose Cree members are: Brunswick House First Nation and Matachewan First Nation. Brunswick House's reserves are Mountbatten 76A and Duck Lake 76B located in the Sudbury District near Chapleau, Ontario. The Matachewan First Nation is on the Matachewan 72 reserve near Matachewan township in the Timiskaming District.


title: Cree

text: Fort Severn First Nation and their reserve, Fort Severn 89, located on the mouth of the Severn River on Hudson Bay, is the most northern community in Ontario. It is a member of Keewaytinook Okimakanak Council.


title: Cree

text: Mushkegowuk Council, based in Moose Factory, Ontario, represents chiefs from seven First Nations across Ontario. Swampy Cree members are: Fort Albany First Nation and Attawapiskat First Nation. Fort Albany First Nation is located at Fort Albany, Ontario, on the southern shore of the Albany River at James Bay. The reserve, Fort Albany 67, is shared with the Kashechewan First Nation. The Attawapiskat First Nation is located at mouth of the Attawapiskat River on James Bay. The community is on the Attawapiskat 91A reserve. The Attawapiskat 91 reserve is on both shores of the Ekwan River, upstream from the mouth on James Bay.


title: Cree

text: Independent from a Tribal Council is the Weenusk First Nation located in Peawanuck in the Kenora District. The community was located on their reserve of Winisk 90 on the mouth of the Winisk River on James Bay but the community was destroyed in the 1986 Winisk flood and the community had to be relocated to Peawanuck.


title: Cree

text: Keewatin Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based in Thompson, Manitoba that represents eleven First Nations, of which five are Swampy Cree, across northern Manitoba. Fox Lake Cree Nation is based in Gillam, northeast of Thompson via Provincial Road 280 (PR 280), and has several reserves along the Nelson River. Shamattawa First Nation is located on their reserve, Shamattawa 1, on the banks of the Gods River where the Echoing River joins. The community is very remote; only connected via air or via winter ice roads to other First Nation communities. The Tataskweyak Cree Nation is located in the community of Split Lake, Manitoba within the Split Lake 171 reserve, northeast of Thompson on PR 280, on the lake of the same name on the Nelson River system. War Lake First Nation possess several reserves but are located on the Mooseocoot reserve in the community of Ilford, Manitoba, east of York Landing. York Factory First Nation is based on the reserve of York Landing, south of Split Lake via ferry. York Factory was a settlement and Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) trading post, established in 1684, on the shore of Hudson Bay, at the mouth of the Hayes River. In 1956, the trading post was closed and the community was moved inland to the current site.


title: Cree

text: Swampy Cree Tribal Council is, as the name suggests, a Tribal Council of seven Swampy Cree First Nations across northern Manitoba and is based in The Pas. The Chemawawin Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) are based on their reserve Chemawawin 2, adjacent to Easterville, Manitoba, southeast of The Pas. Mathias Colomb First Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located in the community of Pukatawagan on the Pukatawagan 198 reserve. Misipawistik Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located near Grand Rapids, Manitoba, north of Winnipeg at the mouth of the Saskatchewan River as it runs into Lake Winnipeg. Mosakahiken Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) is located around the community of Moose Lake about southeast of The Pas on their main reserve, Moose Lake 31A. Opaskwayak Cree Nation (also Rocky Cree) has several reserves but most of the population lives on the Opaskwayak 21E reserve, immediately north of and across the Saskatchewan River from The Pas. The Sapotaweyak Cree Nation is located in the Shoal River 65A reserve adjacent to the community of Pelican Rapids, about south of The Pas. Wuskwi Sipihk First Nation has several reserves but the main reserve is Swan Lake 65C which contains the settlement of Indian Birch, about south of The Pas.


title: Cree

text: Not affiliated with any Tribal Council: Fisher River Cree Nation, Marcel Colomb First Nation, and Norway House Cree Nation. Fisher River Cree Nation, located approximately north of Winnipeg in Koostatak on Lake Winnipeg, control the Fisher River 44 and 44A reserves. Marcel Colomb First Nation is located outside of Lynn Lake on the Black Sturgeon reserve on Hughes Lake, northwest of Thompson via Provincial Road 391. Norway House Cree Nation is located in Norway House which is located on the Playgreen Lake section of the Nelson River system on the north side of Lake Winnipeg. In 1821, Norway House became the principal inland fur trading depot for the Hudson Bay Company. Norway House was also where Treaty 5 was signed. They control more than 80 reserves from less than to their largest, Norway House 17, at over . The Nation is one of the most populous in Canada with 8,599 people .


title: Cree

text: Prince Albert Grand Council is based in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan and is owned by twelve First Nations of which three are Swampy Cree. Cumberland House Cree Nation is based in Cumberland House, Saskatchewan on the Cumberland House Cree Nation 20 reserve, southwest of Flin Flon, Manitoba. Cumberland House, founded in 1774 by Samuel Hearne, was the site of the HBC's first inland fur-trading post. The Red Earth First Nation is located in the community of Red Earth, on the banks of the Carrot River, on the Carrot River 29A reserve. Close by is the Red Earth 29 reserve, about east of Nipawin. Shoal Lake Cree Nation is located in Pakwaw Lake, on the Shoal Lake 28A reserve, east of Nipawin.


title: Cree

text: The Keewatin Tribal Council, described under Swampy Cree, also represents Rocky Cree First Nations in Manitoba. The Barren Lands First Nation is located on the north shore of Reindeer Lake close to the Saskatchewan border. It has one reserve, Brochet 197, northwest of Thompson, adjoining the village of Brochet. The Bunibonibee Cree Nation is located along the eastern shoreline of Oxford Lake at the headwaters of the Hayes River. The Nation controls several reserves with the main reserve being Oxford House 24 adjacent to the community of Oxford House, Manitoba, southeast of Thompson. God's Lake First Nation is located in the God's Lake Narrows area on the shore of God's Lake. The main reserve is God's Lake 23, southeast of Thompson. The Manto Sipi Cree Nation also live on God's Lake in the community of God's River on the God's River 86A reserve, about northeast of God's Lake Narrows. All of the Rocky Cree communities of Keewatin Tribal Council are remote; only connected via air and ice road during winter months.


title: Cree

text: Five of the Swampy Cree Tribal Council First Nations contain Rocky Cree populations: Chemawawin Cree Nation, Mathias Colomb First Nation, Misipawistik Cree Nation, Mosakahiken Cree Nation, Opaskwayak Cree Nation.


title: Cree

text: In Saskatchewan, the Prince Albert Grand Council, described under Swampy Cree, also has Rocky Cree members. The Lac La Ronge First Nation is one of the most populous First Nations in Canada with a registered population of 11,604 . The Nation is based in La Ronge on the Lac la Ronge 156 reserve but has other communities on other reserves. La Ronge is north of Prince Albert at the north end of Saskatchewan Highway 2. The Montreal Lake First Nation, on their reserves of Montreal Lake 106, is on the southern shore of Montreal Lake, north of Prince Albert. Peter Ballantyne Cree Nation is also a populous First Nation with 11,563 people . The Nation has eight communities and controls a large number of reserves; the administrative center is Pelican Narrows, Saskatchewan, northeast of Flin Flon, Manitoba. The Sturgeon Lake First Nation is located on the Sturgeon Lake 101 reserve on the eastern shore of Sturgeon Lake about northwest of Prince Albert.


title: Cree

text: Not affiliated with any Tribal Council are Cross Lake First Nation, Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation, and O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation. The Cross Lake First Nation is a populous Nation with a registered population of 9,138 people . The Nation is in Cross Lake, Manitoba on the Cross Lake 19 reserve, north of Lake Winnipeg. The Nisichawayasihk Cree Nation is based in Nelson House, Manitoba on the Nelson House 170 reserve located south of Thompson. The O-Pipon-Na-Piwin Cree Nation is located in the settlement of South Indian Lake, northwest of Thompson. Marcel Colomb First Nation, listed under Swampy Cree, also has a Rocky Cree population.


title: Cree

text: The Canoe Lake Cree First Nation is based in Canoe Narrows, Saskatchewan on the Canoe Lake 165 reserve. The Nation is a member of the Meadow Lake Tribal Council.


title: Cree

text: The Bigstone Cree Nation is based in Wabasca, Alberta, about northeast of Slave Lake, on the Wabasca 166A reserve. The Nation is not associated with a Tribal Council. The Bigstone Cree Nation was divided into two bands in 2010, with one group continuing under the former name, and the other becoming the Peerless Trout First Nation.


title: Cree

text: The Fort McMurray First Nation is located on the reserves Gregoire Lake 176 and 176A located about southeast of Fort McMurray near Anzac, Alberta on Gregoire Lake. They are the only Cree member of the Athabasca Tribal Council.


title: Cree

text: Kee Tas Kee Now Tribal Council is based in Atikameg, Alberta with five members: The Loon River First Nation is headquartered in Red Earth Creek with reserves to the immediate west near Loon Lake. The


title: Cree

text: Lubicon Lake Band is based in the settlement of Little Buffalo, approximately east of Peace River. The Peerless Trout First Nation is located in Peerless Lake on the Peerless Trout 238 reserve, about west of Red Earth Creek. Whitefish Lake First Nation is based in Atikameg, on the western shore of Utikuma Lake on the Utikoomak Lake 155 reserve, north of High Prairie. The Woodland Cree First Nation is located in the hamlet of Cadotte Lake on the Woodland Cree 226 reserve, northeast of Peace River.


title: Cree

text: Lesser Slave Lake Indian Regional Council, based out of the town of Slave Lake, Alberta is, as the name suggests, a Tribal Council of First Nations surrounding Lesser Slave Lake. Member Nations include: The Driftpile First Nation, based in Driftpile, on the Drift Pile River 150 reserve, west of Slave Lake.


title: Cree

text: The Kapawe'no First Nation is headquartered at Grouard, which is near High Prairie. They have six reserves, predominately located west of Lesser Slave Lake. The Sawridge First Nation is based in Slave Lake and the two reserves, Sawridge 150G and 150H, are adjacent to the town. The Sucker Creek First Nation is based in Enilda, east of High Prairie, on the Sucker Creek 150A reserve. Finally, the Swan River First Nation, near Kinuso, west of Slave Lake, controls the Swan River 150E and Assineau River 150F reserves.


title: Cree

text: The Little Red River Cree Nation is based out of the settlement of John D'Or Prairie, Alberta, east of Fort Vermilion, on the John D'Or Prairie 215 reserve. They are a member of the North Peace Tribal Council based out of High Level, Alberta.


title: Cree

text: The Mikisew Cree First Nation is based in the community of Fort Chipewyan on the western tip of Lake Athabasca, approximately north of Fort McMurray. They are not a member of a Tribal Council. Fort Chipewyan, one of the oldest European settlements in Alberta, was established in 1788 by the North West Company as a fur trading post.


title: Cree

text: Western Cree Tribal Council is based out of Valleyview, Alberta. Cree member Nations are: Duncan's First Nation is based in Brownvale, adjacent to the reserve Duncan's 151A, southwest of Peace River. The Sturgeon Lake Cree Nation is on the Sturgeon Lake 154 reserve, west of Valleyview.


title: Cree

text: Battlefords Agency Tribal Chiefs is a Tribal Council located in North Battleford, Saskatchewan. Members are: Ahtahkakoop First Nation, Moosomin First Nation, Mosquito-Grizzly Bear's Head-Lean Man, Red Pheasant First Nation, Saulteaux First Nation, and Sweetgrass First Nation.


title: Cree

text: File Hills Qu'Appelle Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based in Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan. Cree member Nations are: Little Black Bear First Nation, Muscowpetung Saulteaux Nation, Nekaneet Cree Nation, Okanese First Nation, Pasqua First Nation, Peepeekisis Cree Nation, Piapot Cree Nation, and Star Blanket Cree Nation


title: Cree

text: Meadow Lake Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based in Meadow Lake, Saskatchewan with nine member First Nations. The members with Plains Cree populations are Flying Dust First Nation, Makwa Sahgaiehcan First Nation, Ministikwan Lake Cree Nation, and Waterhen Lake First Nation


title: Cree

text: Saskatoon Tribal Council is, as the name suggests, a Tribal Council-based out of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Cree member Nations are: Mistawasis Nêhiyawak, Muskeg Lake Cree Nation, Muskoday First Nation, and One Arrow First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Touchwood Agency Tribal Council, based in Punnichy, Saskatchewan, is a Tribal Council of four First Nations, collectively known as the Touchwood Hills Cree (). The Cree Nations are: Day Star First Nation, George Gordon First Nation, Kawacatoose First Nation, and Muskowekwan First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Yorkton Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based in Yorkton, Saskatchewan. Cree members are: Kahkewistahaw First Nation and Ocean Man First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Without affiliation with any Tribal Council: Beardy's and Okemasis' Cree Nation, Cowessess First Nation, Ochapowace Nation, Onion Lake Cree Nation, Pheasant Rump Nakota First Nation, White Bear First Nations.


title: Cree

text: Agency Chiefs Tribal Council is a Tribal Council located in Spiritwood, Saskatchewan representing three First Nations: Pelican Lake First Nation, Big River First Nation, and Witchekan Lake First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Battlefords Tribal Council is based in North Battleford, Saskatchewan, The three member Nations are Lucky Man Cree Nation, Little Pine First Nation, and Poundmaker First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Interlake Reserves Tribal Council is a Tribal Council based in Fairford, Manitoba. The council has six Nations as members but the only Cree member is Peguis First Nation.


title: Cree

text: Tribal Chiefs Ventures is a Tribal council based in Edmonton with the following Cree members: Beaver Lake Cree Nation, Heart Lake First Nation, Frog Lake First Nation, and Kehewin Cree Nation.


title: Cree

text: Maskwacis Cree Tribal Council is based in the unincorporated community of Maskwacis, (formerly Hobbema) Alberta, located south of Edmonton. The members are Ermineskin Cree Nation, Louis Bull Tribe, Montana First Nation, and Samson Cree Nation. All four members have individual reserves that surround the community of Maskwacis: Ermineskin 138, Louis Bull 138B, Montana 139, Samson 137, and Samson 137A. And all four share the reserve of Pigeon Lake 138A, about to the northwest.


title: Cree

text: Yellowhead Tribal Council is based in Morinville, Alberta. Member nations are: Alexander First Nation, Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation, O'Chiese First Nation, and Sunchild First Nation. The Alexander First Nation is located on the reserve of Alexander 134, west of Morinville and northwest of Edmonton. Alexis Nakota Sioux First Nation is based on the Alexis 133 reserve, outside Glenevis, northwest of Edmonton. The O'Chiese First Nation and Sunchild First Nation control the reserves O'Chiese 203 and Sunchild 202 which are adjacent to each other northwest of Rocky Mountain House.


title: Cree

text: Not affiliated with any Tribal Council: Enoch Cree Nation, Paul First Nation, and Saddle Lake Cree Nation Enoch Cree Nation is located on their main reserve, Enoch Cree Nation 135, adjacent to the western boundary of the city of Edmonton. The Paul First Nation is based on the Wabamun 133A reserve, west of Edmonton. Saddle Lake Cree Nation is one of the most populous Nations in Canada with 11,235 people . The Nation is located in Saddle Lake, Alberta on the Saddle Lake 125 reserve, west of St. Paul, Alberta.


title: Cree

text: Papaschase First Nation, removed from land that now makes up southeast Edmonton, were a party to Treaty 6 but are not recognized by the Canadian government.


title: Cree

text: The Cree use the pitch of Abies balsamea for menstrual irregularity, and take an infusion of the bark and sometimes the wood for coughs. They use the pitch and grease used as an ointment for scabies and boils. They apply a poultice of pitch applied to cuts. They also use a decoction of pitch and sturgeon oil used for tuberculosis, and take an infusion of bark for tuberculosis. They also use the boughs to make brush shelters and use the wood to make paddles.


title: Cree

text: The Hudson Bay Cree use a decoction of the leaves of "Kalmia angustifolia" for diarrhea, but they consider the plant to be poisonous.


title: Cree

text: The Woods Cree make use of Ribes glandulosum using a decoction of the stem, either by itself or mixed with wild red raspberry, to prevent clotting after birth, eat the berries as food, and use the stem to make a bitter tea. They make use of Vaccinium myrtilloides, using a decoction of leafy stems used to bring menstruation and prevent pregnancy, to make a person sweat, to slow excessive menstrual bleeding, to bring blood after childbirth, and to prevent miscarriage. They also use the berries to dye porcupine quills, eat the berries raw, make them into jam and eat it with fish and bannock, and boil or pound the sun-dried berries into pemmican. They use the berries of the "minus" subspecies of Vaccinium myrtilloides to colour porcupine quills, and put the firm, ripe berries on a string to wear as a necklace. They also incorporate the berries of the "minus" subspecies of "Vaccinium myrtilloides" into their cuisine. They store the berries by freezing them outside during the winter, mix the berries with boiled fish eggs, livers, air bladders and fat and eat them, eat the berries raw as a snack food, and stew them with fish or meat.


title: Lee Haney

text: Lee Haney (born November 11, 1959) is an American former IFBB professional bodybuilder. Haney shares the all-time record for most Mr. Olympia titles at eight with Ronnie Coleman and is regarded as one of the greatest bodybuilders to ever grace the stage.


title: Lee Haney

text: Haney grew up in Spartanburg, South Carolina. He is a graduate of Spartanburg Methodist College, where he earned a degree in youth counseling. He married Irish model Shirley Draper Haney in 2003 after dating for three years. They had a son, born in 2003, and a daughter in 2005. The family resides in Atlanta, Georgia.


title: Lee Haney

text: President Bill Clinton appointed Haney chairman of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. A devout born again Christian, Haney has his own program on the Trinity Broadcasting Network called "TotaLee Fit with Lee Haney," where he is usually joined by famous Christian sportsmen, and on occasion his wife. On the show he teaches the importance of both physical and spiritual growth. One of his most famous quotes is that we should "train to stimulate, not annihilate."


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia (; (); ; see names in other languages) is now one of the four historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Between 1420 and 1797 most of it was part of Venice.


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of the Adriatic Sea, stretching from the island of Rab in the north to the Bay of Kotor in the south. The Dalmatian Hinterland ranges in width from fifty kilometres in the north, to just a few kilometres in the south; it is mostly covered by the rugged Dinaric Alps. Seventy-nine islands (and about 500 islets) run parallel to the coast, the largest (in Dalmatia) being Brač, Pag, and Hvar. The largest city is Split, followed by Zadar and Šibenik.


title: Dalmatia

text: The name of the region stems from an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae, who lived in the area in classical antiquity. Later it became a Roman province, and as result a Romance culture emerged, along with the now-extinct Dalmatian language, later largely replaced with related Venetian. With the arrival of Croats to the area in the 6th century, who occupied most of the Hinterland, Croatian and Romance elements began to intermix in language and culture.


title: Dalmatia

text: After the medieval Kingdom of Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102, its cities and lands were often conquered by, or switched allegiance to, the kingdoms of the region during the Middle Ages. At one time, most of Dalmatia came under rule of the Republic of Venice, which controlled most of Dalmatia between 1420 and 1797, with the exception of the small but stable Republic of Ragusa (1358–1808) in the south. Between 1815 and 1918, it was a province of the Austrian Empire known as the Kingdom of Dalmatia. After the Austro-Hungarian defeat in World War I, Dalmatia was split between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which controlled most of it, and the Kingdom of Italy, which held several smaller parts. After World War II, the People's Republic of Croatia as a part of Yugoslavia took complete control over the area. During the Croatian War of Independence, the northern hinterland was controlled by the Republic of Serbian Krajina, a self-proclaimed Serb proto-state. Following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Dalmatia became part of the Republic of Croatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: The regional name Dalmatia has the same root as the tribal name Dalmatae and the toponym Delminium. It is considered to be connected to the Albanian "dele" and its variants which include the Gheg form "delmë", meaning "sheep", and to the Albanian term "delmer", "shepherd". According to Vladimir Orel, the Gheg form "delmë" hardly has anything in common with the name of "Dalmatia" because it represents a variant of "dele" with "*-mā", which is ultimately from proto-Albanian "*dailā". The ancient name "Dalmana", derived from the same root, testifies to the advance of the Illyrians into the middle Vardar, between the ancient towns of Bylazora and Stobi. The medieval Slavic toponym Ovče Pole ("plain of sheep" in South Slavic) in the nearby region represents a related later development. In Albania, Delvinë represents a toponym linked to the root "*dele".


title: Dalmatia

text: The form of the regional name "Dalmatia" and the respective tribal name "Dalmatae" are later variants as is already noted by Appian (2nd century AD). His contemporary grammarian Velius Longus highlights in his treatise about orthography that the correct form of "Dalmatia" is "Delmatia", and notes that Marcus Terentius Varro who lived about 2 centuries prior of Appian and Velius Longius, used the form "Delmatia" as it corresponded to the chief settlement of the tribe, "Delminium". The toponym Duvno is a derivation from "Delminium" in Croatian via an intermediate form "*Delminio" in late antiquity. Its Latin form "Dalmatia" gave rise to its current English name. In the Venetian language, once dominant in the area, it is spelled "Dalmàssia", and in modern Italian "Dalmazia". The modern Croatian spelling is "Dalmacija", and the modern Serbian Cyrillic spelling is Далмација ().


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia is referenced in the New Testament at , therefore the name has been translated in many of the world's languages.


title: Dalmatia

text: In antiquity the Roman province of Dalmatia was much larger than the present-day Split-Dalmatia County, stretching from Istria in the north to modern-day Albania in the south. Dalmatia signified not only a geographical unit, but was an entity based on common culture and settlement types, a common narrow eastern Adriatic coastal belt, Mediterranean climate, sclerophyllous vegetation of the Illyrian province, Adriatic carbonate platform, and karst geomorphology.


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia is today a historical region only, not formally instituted in Croatian law. Its exact extent is therefore uncertain and subject to public perception. According to Lena Mirošević and Josip Faričić of the University of Zadar:


title: Dalmatia

text: ...the modern perception of Dalmatia is mainly based on the territorial extent of the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia, with the exception of Rab island, which is geographically related to the Kvarner area and functionally to the Littoral–Gorski Kotar area, and with the exception of the Bay of Kotor, which was annexed to another state (Montenegro) after World War I. Simultaneously, the southern part of Lika and upper Pounje, which were not a part of Austrian Dalmatia, became a part of Zadar County. From the present-day administrative and territorial point of view, Dalmatia comprises the four Croatian littoral counties with seats in Zadar, Šibenik, Split, and Dubrovnik.


title: Dalmatia

text: "Dalmatia" is therefore generally perceived to extend approximately to the borders of the Austrian Kingdom of Dalmatia. However, due to territorial and administrative changes over the past century, the perception can be seen to have altered somewhat with regard to certain areas, and sources conflict as to their being part of the region in modern times:


title: Dalmatia

text: The inhabitants of Dalmatia are culturally subdivided into two groups. The urban families of the coastal cities, commonly known as "Fetivi", are culturally akin to the inhabitants of the Dalmatian islands (known derogatorily as "Boduli"). The two are together distinct, in the Mediterranean aspects of their culture, from the more numerous inhabitants of the Hinterland, such as the Dalmatian Serbs, who formed the majority population of the area. Referred to (sometimes derogatorily) as the "Vlaji", their name originated from the Vlachs with whom they have no ethnic connection.


title: Dalmatia

text: According to the Austrian census, they constituted 18.5% of the population in 1857, which decreased to 17.4% by 1900. They formed 19.9% in the 1830-1850 period. Along with Italian (Venetian) culture, the latter are also influenced by Ottoman culture, acting as a transition between the formerly Venetian-oriented inhabitants of the coast and the formerly Ottoman-oriented Herzegovinian Croats in Herzegovina.


title: Dalmatia

text: The former two groups (inhabitants of the islands and the cities) historically included many Venetian and Italian speakers, many of whom identified as Dalmatian Italians (especially after the Italian unification). Their presence, relative to those identifying as Croats, decreased dramatically over the course of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. The Italian speakers (Italians and italophone Croats) constituted (according to the Italian linguist Matteo Bartoli) nearly one third of Dalmatians in the second half of the 18th century. According to the Austrian census it had decreased to 12.5% in 1865 and 3.1% in 1890. There remains, however, a strong cultural, and, in part, ancestral heritage among the natives of the cities and islands, who today almost exclusively identify as Croats, but retain a sense of regional identity. This same regional identity and heritage is displayed in the Hinterland, where the architectural and cultural legacy remains evident in many villages and towns that have a distinct Mediterranean style.


title: Dalmatia

text: Most of the land area is covered by the Dinaric Alps mountain range running from north-west to south-east. The hills and mountains lie parallel to the coast, which gave rise to the geographic term Dalmatian concordant coastline. On the coasts the climate is Mediterranean, while further inland it is moderate Mediterranean. In the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. To the south winters are milder. Over the centuries many forests have been cut down and replaced with bush and brush. There is evergreen vegetation on the coast. The soils are generally poor, except on the plains where areas with natural grass, fertile soils, and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage. Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers, and poor soils, although olives and grapes flourish. Energy resources are scarce. Electricity is mainly produced by hydropower stations. There is a considerable amount of bauxite.


title: Dalmatia

text: The largest Dalmatian mountains are Dinara, Mosor, Svilaja, Biokovo, Moseć, Veliki Kozjak, and Mali Kozjak. The regional geographical unit of historical Dalmatia–the coastal region between Istria and the Bay of Kotor–includes the Orjen mountains with the highest peak in Montenegro, 1894 m. In present-day Dalmatia, the highest peak is Dinara (1913 m), which is not a coastal mountain, while the highest coastal Dinaric mountains are on Biokovo (Sv. Jure, 1762 m) and Velebit (Vaganski vrh, 1757 m), although the Vaganski vrh itself is located in Lika-Senj County.


title: Dalmatia

text: The largest Dalmatian islands are Brač, Korčula, Dugi Otok, Mljet, Vis, Hvar, Pag and Pašman. The major rivers are Zrmanja, Krka, Cetina, and Neretva.


title: Dalmatia

text: The Adriatic Sea's high water quality, along with the immense number of coves, islands, and channels, makes Dalmatia an attractive place for nautical races, nautical tourism, and tourism in general. Dalmatia also includes several national parks that are tourist attractions: Paklenica karst river, Kornati archipelago, Krka river rapids, and Mljet island.


title: Dalmatia

text: The area of Dalmatia roughly corresponds to Croatia's four southernmost counties, listed here north to south:


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia's name is derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Dalmatae who lived in the area of the eastern Adriatic coast in the 1st millennium BC. It was part of the Illyrian Kingdom between the 4th century BC and the Illyrian Wars (220, 168 BC) when the Roman Republic established its protectorate south of the river Neretva. The name "Dalmatia" was in use probably from the second half of the 2nd century BC and certainly from the first half of the 1st century BC, defining a coastal area of the eastern Adriatic between the Krka and Neretva rivers. It was slowly incorporated into Roman possessions until the Roman province of Illyricum was formally established around 32–27 BC. In 9 AD the Dalmatians raised the last in a series of revolts together with the Pannonians, but it was finally crushed and, in 10 AD, Illyricum was split into two provinces, Pannonia and Dalmatia, which spread into larger area inland to cover all of the Dinaric Alps and most of the eastern Adriatic coast.


title: Dalmatia

text: The historian Theodor Mommsen wrote in his book, "The Provinces of the Roman Empire", that all Dalmatia was fully romanized by the 4th century AD. However, analysis of archaeological material from that period has shown that the process of Romanization was rather selective. While urban centers, both coastal and inland, were almost completely romanized, the situation in the countryside was completely different. Despite the Illyrians being subject to a strong process of acculturation, they continued to speak their native language, worship their own gods and traditions, and follow their own social-political tribal organization which was adapted to Roman administration and political structure only in some necessities.


title: Dalmatia

text: The fall of the Western Roman Empire, with the beginning of the Migration Period, left the region subject to Gothic rulers Odoacer and Theodoric the Great. They ruled Dalmatia from 480 to 535 AD, when it was restored to the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire by Justinian I.


title: Dalmatia

text: The Middle Ages in Dalmatia were a period of intense rivalry among neighboring powers: the waning Byzantine Empire, the Kingdom of Croatia (later in a personal union with Hungary), the Kingdom of Bosnia, and the Republic of Venice. Dalmatia at the time consisted of the coastal cities functioning much like city-states, with extensive autonomy, but in mutual conflict and without control of the rural Hinterland. Ethnically, Dalmatia started out as a Roman region, with a Romance culture that began to develop independently, forming the now-extinct Dalmatian language.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the Early Medieval period, Byzantine Dalmatia was ravaged by an Avar invasion that destroyed its capital, Salona, in 639 AD, an event that allowed for the settlement of the nearby Diocletian's Palace in Spalatum (Split) by Salonitans, greatly increasing the importance of the city. The Avars were followed by the great South Slavic migrations. According to the work "De Administrando Imperio" written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII, the Croats had arrived in Roman province of Dalmatia in the first half of the 7th century. and the Serbs settled in Dalmatia south of the Cetina river, in Pagania, Zahumlje, Travunia and Konavle.


title: Dalmatia

text: The Slavs, loosely allied with the Avars, permanently settled the region in the first half of the 7th century AD and remained its predominant ethnic group ever since. The Croats soon formed their own realm: the Principality of Dalmatian Croatia ruled by native Princes of Guduscan origin. The meaning of the geographical term "Dalmatia" now shrank to the coastal cities and their immediate hinterland. These cities were the Romance-speaking Dalmatian city-states and remained influential as they were well fortified and maintained their connection with the Byzantine Empire. The original name of the cities was "Jadera" (Zadar), "Spalatum" (Split), "Crepsa" (Cres), "Arba" (Rab), "Tragurium" (Trogir), "Vecla" (Krk), "Ragusium" (Dubrovnik) and "Cattarum" (Kotor). The language and the laws were initially Latin, but after a few centuries they developed their own neo-Latin language (the "Dalmatico"), that lasted until the 19th century. The cities were maritime centres with a huge commerce mainly with the Italian peninsula and with the growing Republic of Venice. The two communities were somewhat hostile at first, but as the Croats became Christianized this tension increasingly subsided. A degree of cultural mingling soon took place, in some enclaves stronger, in others weaker, as Slavic influence and culture was more accentuated in Ragusa, Spalatum, and Tragurium.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the first half of the 10th century Croatia was elevated to a kingdom by Duke Tomislav who also extended his influence further southwards to Zachlumia. As an ally of the Byzantine Empire, the King was given the status of Protector of Dalmatia, and became its "de facto" ruler.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the subsequent period, the rulers of Croatia exerted influence over Dalmatian cities and islands, occasionally taking control such as the conquest of Zadar in the mid-11th century. Chronicler Thomas the Archdeacon relates that Stephen Držislav took the title "King of Dalmatia and Croatia", and that all subsequent rulers styled themselves in such manner. Petar Krešimir IV of Croatia expanded his rule to permanently incorporate Dalmatian cities and islands by 1069. Upon the death of King Demetrius Zvonimir of Croatia by the end of 1080s, the state entered a period of anarchy and would result in Hungarians under Coloman of Hungary taking control over former Dalmatian possessions along with the rest of the state by 1102.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the High Medieval period, the Byzantine Empire was no longer able to maintain its power consistently in Dalmatia, and was finally rendered impotent so far west by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The Republic of Venice, on the other hand, was in the ascendant, while the Croatia became increasingly influenced by Hungary to the north, being absorbed into it via personal union in 1102. Thus, these two factions became involved in a struggle in this area, intermittently controlling it as the balance shifted. During the reign of King Emeric, the Dalmatian cities separated from Hungary by a treaty. A consistent period of Hungarian rule in Dalmatia was ended with the Mongol invasion of Hungary in 1241. The Mongols severely impaired the feudal state, so much so that that same year, King Béla IV had to take refuge in Dalmatia, as far south as the Fortress of Klis. The Mongols attacked the Dalmatian cities for the next few years but eventually withdrew without major success.


title: Dalmatia

text: At the beginning of the 14th century and until 1322, the Dalmatian cities were under the control of the Šubić noble family and held them until they were defeated at the Battle of Bliska by a coalition of nobles, Dalmatian cities and royal troops loyal to Charles I of Hungary.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the south, due to its protected location, Kotor became a major city for the salt trade. The area was prosperous during the 14th century under the rule of Emperor of the Serbs Dušan the Mighty, who encouraged law enforcement, which helped the Bay of Kotor to become a safe place for doing business. In 1389, Tvrtko I, the founder of the Kingdom of Bosnia, was able to control the Adriatic littoral between Kotor and Šibenik, and even claimed control over the northern coast up to Rijeka, and his own independent ally, Republic of Ragusa. This was only temporary, as Hungary and the Venetians continued their struggle over Dalmatia after Tvrtko's death in 1391. By this time, the whole Hungarian and Croatian Kingdom was facing increasing internal difficulties, as a 20-year civil war ensued between the Capetian House of Anjou from the Kingdom of Naples, and King Sigismund of the House of Luxembourg. During the war, the losing contender, Ladislaus of Naples, sold his "rights" on Dalmatia to the Republic of Venice for a mere 100,000 ducats. The much more centralized Republic came to control all of Dalmatia by the year 1420, it was to remain under Venetian rule for 377 years (1420–1797).


title: Dalmatia

text: From 1420 to 1797 the Republic of Venice controlled most of Dalmatia, calling it "Esclavonia" in the 15th century with the southern enclave, the Bay of Kotor, being called "Albania Veneta". Venetian was the commercial "lingua franca" in the Mediterranean at that time, and it heavily influenced Dalmatian and to a lesser degree coastal Croatian and Albanian.


title: Dalmatia

text: The southern city of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) became de facto independent in 1358 through the Treaty of Zadar when Venice relinquished its suzerainty over it to Louis I of Hungary. In 1481, Ragusa switched allegiance to the Ottoman Empire. This gave its tradesmen advantages such as access to the Black Sea, and the Republic of Ragusa was the fiercest competitor to Venice's merchants in the 15th and 16th centuries.


title: Dalmatia

text: At the end of the 16th century Slavicized Vlachs, other Vlachs and Serbs fled from Ottoman territory to the Military Frontier and Dalmatia. The Republic of Venice was also one of the powers most hostile to the Ottoman Empire's expansion, and participated in many wars against it. As the Ottomans took control of the Hinterland, many Christians took refuge in the coastal cities of Dalmatia. The border between the Dalmatian Hinterland and the Ottoman Bosnia and Herzegovina greatly fluctuated until the Morean War, when the Venetian capture of Knin and Sinj set much of the borderline at its current position.


title: Dalmatia

text: After the Great Turkish War and the Treaty of Passarowitz, more peaceful times made Dalmatia experience a period of certain economic and cultural growth in the 18th century, with the re-establishment of trade and exchange with the hinterland. This period was abruptly interrupted with the fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797. Napoleon's troops stormed the region and ended the independence of the Republic of Ragusa as well, saving it from occupation by the Russian Empire and Montenegro.


title: Dalmatia

text: In 1805, Napoleon created his Kingdom of Italy around the Adriatic Sea, annexing to it the former Venetian Dalmatia from Istria to Kotor. In 1808, he annexed the just conquered Republic of Ragusa to the Kingdom. A year later, in 1809, he removed the Venetian Dalmatia from his Kingdom of Italy and created the Illyrian Provinces, which were annexed to France, and named Marshal General Jean-de-Dieu Soult the Duke of Dalmatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: Napoleon's rule in Dalmatia was marked with war and high taxation, which caused several rebellions. On the other hand, French rule greatly contributed to Croatian national revival (the first newspaper in Croatian was published then in Zadar, "Il Regio Dalmata – Kraglski Dalmatin"), the legal system and infrastructure were finally modernized somewhat in Dalmatia, and the educational system flourished. French rule brought a lot of improvements in infrastructure; many roads were built or reconstructed. Napoleon himself blamed Marshal of the Empire Auguste de Marmont, the governor of Dalmatia, that too much money was spent. However, in 1813, the Habsburgs once again declared war on France and, by the following year, had restored control over Dalmatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Dalmatia was granted as a province to the Emperor of Austria. It was officially known as the Kingdom of Dalmatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: In 1848, the Croatian Parliament ("Sabor") published the People's Requests, in which they requested among other things the abolition of serfdom and the unification of Dalmatia and Croatia. The Dubrovnik municipality was the most outspoken of all the Dalmatian communes in its support for unification with Croatia. A letter was sent from Dubrovnik to Zagreb with pledges to work for this idea. In 1849, Dubrovnik continued to lead the Dalmatian cities in the struggle for unification. A large-scale campaign was launched in the Dubrovnik paper "L'Avvenire" ("The Future") based on a clearly formulated programme: the federal system for the Habsburg territories, the inclusion of Dalmatia into Croatia and the Slavic brotherhood. The President of the Council of Kingdom of Dalmatia was Baron Vlaho Getaldić.


title: Dalmatia

text: In the same year, the first issue of the Dubrovnik almanac appeared, "Flower of the National Literature" ("Dubrovnik, cvijet narodnog književstva"), in which Petar Preradović published his noted poem "Pjesma Dubrovniku" ("Poem to Dubrovnik"). This and other literary and journalistic texts, which continued to be published, contributed to the awakening of the national consciousness reflected in efforts to introduce the Croatian language into schools and offices, and to promote Croatian books. The Emperor Franz Joseph brought the March Constitution which prohibited the unification of Dalmatia and Croatia and also any further political activity with this end in view. The political struggle of Dubrovnik to be united with Croatia, which was intense throughout 1848–49, did not succeed at that time.


title: Dalmatia

text: Many Dalmatian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after 1866, when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy, Dalmatia remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Dalmatia, who demanded the unification of the Austrian Littoral, Fiume and Dalmatia with Italy. The Italians in Dalmatia supported the Italian Risorgimento: as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Dalmatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence:


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia, especially its maritime cities, once had a substantial local ethnic Italian population (Dalmatian Italians), making up 33% of the total population of Dalmatia in 1803, but this was reduced to 20% in 1816. According to Austrian censuses, the Dalmatian Italians formed 12.5% of the population in 1865, but this was reduced to 2.8% in 1910.


title: Dalmatia

text: While Slavic-speakers made up 80-95% of the Dalmatia populace, only Italian language schools existed until 1848, and due to restrictive voting laws, the Italian-speaking aristocratic minority retained political control of Dalmatia. Only after Austria liberalized elections in 1870, allowing more majority Slavs to vote, did Croatian parties gain control. Croatian finally became an official language in Dalmatia in 1883, along with Italian. Yet minority Italian-speakers continued to wield strong influence, since Austria favored Italians for government work, thus in the Austrian capital of Dalmatia, Zara, the proportion of Italians continued to grow, making it the only Dalmatian city with an Italian majority.


title: Dalmatia

text: In 1861 was the meeting of the first Dalmatian Assembly, with representatives from Dubrovnik. Representatives of Kotor came to Dubrovnik to join the struggle for unification with Croatia. The citizens of Dubrovnik gave them a festive welcome, flying Croatian flags from the ramparts and exhibiting the slogan "Ragusa with Kotor". The Kotorans elected a delegation to go to Vienna; Dubrovnik nominated Niko Pucić, who went to Vienna to demand not only the unification of Dalmatia with Croatia, but also the unification of all Croatian territories under one common "Sabor". During this period, the Habsburgs carried out an aggressive anti-Italian policy through a forced Slavicisation of the region.


title: Dalmatia

text: In 1905, a dispute arose in the Austrian Imperial Council over whether Austria should pay for Dalmatia. It has been argued that in the conclusion of the April Laws is written "given by Banus Count Keglevich of Bužim", which explained the historical affiliation of Dalmatia to Hungary. Two years later Dalmatia elected representatives to the Austrian Imperial Council.


title: Dalmatia

text: Until 1909, both Italian and Croatian were recognized as official languages in Dalmatia. After 1909, Italian lost its official status, thus it could no longer be used in the public and administrative sphere.


title: Dalmatia

text: Dalmatia was a strategic region during World War I that both Italy and Serbia intended to seize from Austria-Hungary. Italy joined the Triple Entente Allies in 1915 upon agreeing to the Treaty of London that guaranteed Italy the right to annex a large portion of Dalmatia in exchange for Italy's participation on the Allied side. From 5–6 November 1918, Italian forces were reported to have reached Vis, Lastovo, Šibenik, and other localities on the Dalmatian coast. By the end of hostilities in November 1918, the Italian military had seized control of the entire portion of Dalmatia that had been guaranteed to Italy by the Treaty of London and by 17 November had seized Rijeka as well. In 1918, Admiral Enrico Millo declared himself Italy's Governor of Dalmatia. Famous Italian nationalist Gabriele D'Annunzio supported the seizure of Dalmatia, and proceeded to Zadar in an Italian warship in December 1918. However, in spite of the guarantees of the Treaty of London to Italy of a large portion of Dalmatia and Italian military occupation of claimed territories of Dalmatia, during the peace settlement negotiations of 1919 to 1920, the Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson that advocated self-determination of nations took precedence, with Italy only being permitted to annex Zadar from Dalmatia, while the rest of Dalmatia was to be part of Yugoslavia.


title: Dalmatia

text: At the end of World War I, the Austrian Empire disintegrated, and Dalmatia was again split between the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia) which controlled most of it, and the Kingdom of Italy which held small portions of northern Dalmatia around Zadar and the islands of Cres, Lošinj, and Lastovo. Italy entered World War I in a territorial gamble, mostly to gain Dalmatia. But Italy got only a small part of its pretensions, so Dalmatia mostly stayed Yugoslav.


title: Dalmatia

text: Despite the fact that there were only a few thousand Italian-speakers in Dalmatia, Italian nationalists continued to lay claim to all of Dalmatia. In 1927 Italy signed an agreement with the Croatian fascist, terrorist Ustaše organization. The Ustaše agreed that once they gained power, they will cede to Italy additional territory in Dalmatia and the Bay of Kotor, while renouncing all Croatian claims to Istria, Rijeka, Zadar and the Adriatic Islands.


title: Dalmatia

text: In 1922, the territory of the former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided into two provinces, the Oblast of Split and the Oblast of Dubrovnik. In 1929, the Littoral Banovina, a province of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was formed. Its capital was Split, and it included most of Dalmatia and parts of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina. The southern parts of Dalmatia were in Zeta Banovina, from the Bay of Kotor to Pelješac peninsula including Dubrovnik. In 1939, Littoral Banovina was joined with Sava Banovina (and with smaller parts of other banovinas) to form a new province named the Banovina of Croatia. The same year, the ethnic Croatian areas of the Zeta Banovina from the Bay of Kotor to Pelješac, including Dubrovnik, were merged with a new Banovina of Croatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: During World War II, in 1941, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Hungary, and Bulgaria occupied Yugoslavia, redrawing their borders to include former parts of the Yugoslavian state. A new Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), was created. With the Treaties of Rome, the NDH agreed to cede to Italy Dalmatian territory, creating the Governatorate of Dalmatia, from north of Zadar to south of Split, with inland areas, plus nearly all the Adriatic islands and Gorski Kotar. Italy then annexed these territories, while all the remainder of southern Croatia, including the entire coast, were placed under Italian occupation. Italy also appointed an Italian, Prince Aimone, Duke of Aosta, as king of Croatia.


title: Dalmatia

text: Italy proceeded to Italianize the annexed areas of Dalmatia. Place names were Italianized, and Italian was made the official language in all schools, churches and government administration. All Croatian cultural societies were banned, while Italians took control of all key mineral, industrial and business establishments. Italian policies prompted resistance by Dalmatians, many joined the Partisans. This led to further Italian repressive measures - shooting of civilian hostages, burning of villages, confiscation of properties. Italians took many civilians to concentration camps - altogether, some 80,000 Dalmatians, 12% of the population, passed through Italian concentration camps.


title: Dalmatia

text: Many Croats moved from the Italian-occupied area and took refuge in the satellite state of Croatia, which became the battleground for a guerrilla war between the Axis and the Yugoslav Partisans. Following the surrender of Italy in 1943, much of Italian-controlled Dalmatia was liberated by the Partisans, then taken over by German forces in a brutal campaign, who then returned control to the puppet Independent State of Croatia. Vis Island remained in Partisan hands, while Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became part of the German "Operationszone Adriatisches Küstenland." The Partisans liberated Dalmatia in 1944, and with that Zadar, Rijeka, Istria, Cres, Lošinj, Lastovo and Palagruža became reunited with Croatia. After 1945, most of the remaining Dalmatian Italians fled the region (350,000 Italians escaped from Istria and Dalmatia in the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus). After World War II, Dalmatia became part of the People's Republic of Croatia, part of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia.


title: Dalmatia

text: The territory of former Kingdom of Dalmatia was divided between two federal republics of Yugoslavia and most of the territory went to Croatia, leaving only the Bay of Kotor to Montenegro. When Yugoslavia dissolved in 1991, those borders were retained and remain in force. During the Croatian War of Independence, most of Dalmatia was a battleground between the Government of Croatia and the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA), which aided the proto-state of Serbian Krajina, with much of the northern part of the region around Knin and the far south around, but not including, Dubrovnik being placed under the control of Serb forces. Croatia did regain the southern territories in 1992 but did not regain the north until Operation Storm in 1995. After the war, a number of towns and municipalities in the region were designated Areas of Special State Concern.


title: Dalmatia

text: Other large towns include Biograd, Kaštela, Sinj, Solin, Omiš, Knin, Metković, Makarska, Trogir, Ploče, and Imotski.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Color Out of Space is a 2019 American science fiction Lovecraftian horror film directed and co-written by Richard Stanley, based on the short story "The Colour Out of Space" by H. P. Lovecraft. It stars Nicolas Cage, Joely Richardson, Elliot Knight, Madeleine Arthur, Brendan Meyer, Q'orianka Kilcher and Tommy Chong. This is Stanley's only feature film since his firing from "The Island of Dr. Moreau" (1996). According to Stanley, it is the first film in a trilogy of Lovecraft adaptations, which he hopes to continue with an adaptation of "The Dunwich Horror".


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: In the wake of his wife Theresa's mastectomy, Nathan Gardner moves his family, including children Lavinia, Benny, and Jack, to his late father's farm. One night, a brilliantly colored meteor crash-lands in their front yard near the well. The next morning, hydrologist Ward Phillips, who is surveying the area for a dam development, along with the mayor and the sheriff of the nearby town of Arkham, arrive to see the meteor. Nathan and Lavinia later witness strange phenomena around the meteor, until it suddenly disappears.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Ward notices that the groundwater has taken on an oily sheen and tests it. When his test strips begin to glow brightly with the color of the meteor, he advises the Gardners not to drink it. The family quickly becomes contaminated: Jack becomes fixated on the property's well, observing strange plant growths and insects, as well as claiming to communicate with a 'friend' inside the well. When Theresa is preparing dinner, she vacantly cuts off two of her fingers. Nathan rushes her to the hospital and Benny goes outside to put the farm's alpacas back in their stables, but does not return until late at night, claiming time had passed instantaneously for him. Meanwhile, Lavinia attempts multiple times to contact Nathan, but they are unable to hear each other through the phone. Upon the parents' return, Nathan lashes out at Benny and Lavinia with uncharacteristic rage. Further stresses place the family in crisis, including all the crops becoming desiccated.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Later, Lavinia tries to perform a ritual using a copy of the Necronomicon and offering her blood to save her family, mutilating herself in the process. Theresa suddenly hears Jack and Benny screaming after entering the alpaca stables and rushes to their aid, as the "Color" begins appearing outside. A bolt of the Color strikes and fuses Theresa and Jack together into a hideous mass. Finding all their electronic devices dead, the family is stranded and Nathan and the children carry Jack and Theresa into the attic to shield them from sunlight, which harms them. Benny reveals that the alpacas were similarly mutated by the Color and Nathan euthanizes them with a shotgun. Beginning to lose his sanity, Nathan also attempts to euthanize Theresa and Jack, but is unable to bring himself to do it.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Lavinia and Benny attempt to leave the farm on horseback, but the horse flees. Benny then insists that he hears the family's dog inside the well, but upon climbing in, he is assimilated by the Color. Nathan displays more uncharacteristic rage and locks Lavinia in the attic with Theresa and Jack, who have turned monstrous, attacking her. Ward and the sheriff return to the farm after a nearby resident discovers a fused mass of animals, and arrive just in time to break into the attic to save Lavinia. Nathan shoots and kills the monster, no longer viewing them as his family.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Ward rushes Lavinia outside as the Color emerges from the well, and Nathan attempts to shoot it, but the sheriff mistakes Nathan's aim for Ward, fatally shooting him. Lavinia insists on staying with Nathan, so Ward and the sheriff leave to evacuate a nearby neighbor, Ezra. At Ezra's house, the pair only find his desiccated corpse and a recording he left behind, where he surmises that the Color is attempting to remake Earth into something akin to wherever it came from. Heading back towards the farmhouse, a mutated tree kills the sheriff.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Ward returns to rescue Lavinia, but finds her fully possessed by the Color, which explodes out of the well and forms a funnel into the sky. Ward is shown a vision of where the Color hails from, a psychedelic exoplanet inhabited by tentacled alien entities, before Lavinia disintegrates. As space and time begin to unravel, Ward enters the farmhouse and is pursued by a murderous apparition of Nathan. He hides in the wine cellar as the Color's distortion of reality destroys the property, leaving Ward the only survivor as he climbs out of the remains of the farmland, now a colorless ashy "blasted heath".


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: In an epilogue, a traumatized Ward stands on top of the finished dam which covers the former property, and narrates that having witnessed the Color's effects, he will never drink the dam's water.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Richard Stanley's mother, Penny Miller, was a fan of H. P. Lovecraft. She read Lovecraft's works to Stanley when he was young. At the age of 12 or 13, he read "The Colour Out of Space", which has "always been a part of [his] psychological makeup". When his mother suffered from cancer, Stanley read Lovecraft's works to her in her declining years.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: Stanley initially announced the project in 2013, showcasing a proof of concept trailer online. In September 2015, it was announced that Spectrevision would be producing the film with a projected start date of early 2016.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: After many delays, it was announced in December 2018 that Nicolas Cage had signed to play the lead role and that filming would begin in early 2019 with co-producers SpectreVision and ACE Pictures. In January 2019, the production announced additional cast members including stars Joely Richardson, Tommy Chong, Elliot Knight, Julian Hilliard and Q'Orianka Kilcher. Filming took place in Portugal in February 2019.


title: Color Out of Space (film)

text: The soundtrack was composed by Colin Stetson. Waxwork Records released the sound track on a single LP in 2020 in collaboration with Milan Records.