title: Hardiness zone

text: There are many other climate parameters that a farmer, gardener, or landscaper may need to take into account as well, such as humidity, precipitation, storms, rainy-dry cycles or monsoons, and site considerations such as soil type, soil drainage and water retention, water table, tilt towards or away from the sun, natural or manmade protection from excessive sun, snow, frost, and wind, etc. The annual extreme minimum temperature is a useful indicator, but ultimately only one factor among many for plant growth and survival.


title: Hardiness zone

text: An alternative means of describing plant hardiness is to use "indicator plants". In this method, common plants with known limits to their range are used.


title: Hardiness zone

text: "Sunset" publishes a series that breaks up climate zones more finely than the USDA zones, identifying 45 distinct zones in the US, incorporating ranges of temperatures in all seasons, precipitation, wind patterns, elevation, and length and structure of the growing season.


title: Hardiness zone

text: In addition, the Köppen climate classification system can be used as a more general guide to growing conditions when considering large areas of the Earth's surface or attempting to make comparisons between different continents. The Trewartha climate classification is often a good "real world" concept of climates and their relation to plants and their average growing conditions.


title: Hardiness zone

text: The Australian National Botanic Gardens have devised another system keeping with Australian conditions. The zones are defined by steps of 5 degrees Celsius, from −15–−10 °C for zone 1 to 15–20 °C for zone 7. They are numerically about 6 lower than the USDA system. For example, Australian zone 3 is roughly equivalent to USDA zone 9. The higher Australian zone numbers had no US equivalents prior to the 2012 addition by USDA of zones 12 and 13.


title: Hardiness zone

text: The spread of weather stations may be insufficient and too many places with different climates are lumped together. Only 738 Australian stations have records of more than ten years (one station per ), though more populated areas have relatively fewer hectares per station. Mount Isa has three climatic stations with more than a ten-year record. One is in zone 4a, one in zone 4b, and the other is in zone 5a. Sydney residents are split between zones 3a and 4b. Different locations in the same city are suitable for different plants.


title: Hardiness zone

text: Climate variables that reflect the capacity and detriments to plant growth are used to develop an index that is mapped to Canada's Plant Hardiness Zones. This index comes from a formula originally developed by Ouellet and Sherk in the mid-1960s.


title: Hardiness zone

text: For practical purposes, Canada has adopted the American hardiness zone classification system. The 1990 version of the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map included Canada and Mexico, but they were removed with the 2012 update to focus on the United States and Puerto Rico. The Canadian government publishes both Canadian and USDA-style zone maps.


title: Hardiness zone

text: USDA zones do not work particularly well in the UK as they are designed for continental climates and subtropical climates. The high latitude, weaker solar intensity, and cooler UK summers must be considered when comparing to US equivalent. New growth may be insufficient or fail to harden off affecting winter survival in the shorter and much cooler UK summers.


title: Hardiness zone

text: Owing to the moderating effect of the North Atlantic Current on the Irish and British temperate maritime climate, Britain, and Ireland even more so, have milder winters than their northerly position would otherwise afford. This means that the USDA hardiness zones relevant to Britain and Ireland are quite high, from 7 to 10, as shown below.


title: Hardiness zone

text: In 2012 the United Kingdom's Royal Horticultural Society introduced new hardiness ratings for plants, not places. These run from H7, the hardiest (tolerant of temperatures below ) to H1a (needing temperatures above ). The RHS hardiness ratings are based on absolute minimum winter temperatures (in °C) rather than the long-term average annual extreme minimum temperatures that define USDA zones.


title: Hardiness zone

text: Scandinavia lies at the same latitude as Alaska or Greenland, but the effect of the warm North Atlantic Current is even more pronounced here than it is in Britain and Ireland. Save for a very small spot near Karasjok, Norway, which is in zone 2, nowhere in the Arctic part of Scandinavia gets below zone 3. The Faroe Islands, at 62–63°N are in zone 8, as are the outer Lofoten Islands at 68°N. Tromsø(, a coastal city in Norway at 70°N, is in zone 7, and even Longyearbyen, the northernmost true city in the world at 78°N, is still in zone 4. All these coastal locations have one thing in common, though, which are cool, damp summers, with temperatures rarely exceeding (or in Longyearbyen). This shows the importance of taking heat zones into account for better understanding of what may or may not grow.


title: Hardiness zone

text: In Sweden and Finland generally, at sea level to , zone 3 is north of the Arctic Circle, including cities like Karesuando and Pajala. Kiruna is the major exception here, which being located on a hill above frost traps, is in zone 5. Zone 4 lies between the Arctic Circle and about 64–66°N, with cities such as Oulu, Rovaniemi and Jokkmokk, zone 5 (south to 61–62°N) contains cities such as Tampere, Umeå, and Östersund. Zone 6 covers the south of mainland Finland, Sweden north of 60°N, and the high plateau of Småland further south. Here one will find cities such as Gävle, Örebro, Sundsvall, and Helsinki. Åland, as well as coastal southern Sweden, and the Stockholm area are in zone 7. The west coast of Sweden (Gothenburg and southwards) enjoys particularly mild winters and lies in zone 7, therefore being friendly to some hardy exotic species (found, for example, in the Gothenburg Botanical Garden), the southeast coast of Sweden has a colder winter due to the absence of the Gulf Stream.


title: Hardiness zone

text: Estonia is divided to warmer West and North coast (Tallinn 6b, Haapsalu 7b, Kärdla 7a, Kuressaare 7a, Paide 6a, Rakvere 6a, Narva 6a, Viljandi 6b) and colder inland (Tartu 5a, Valga 5a, Võru 5a).


title: Hardiness zone

text: Central Europe is a good example of a transition from an oceanic climate to a continental climate, which reflects in the tendency of the hardiness zones to decrease mainly eastwards instead of northwards. Also, the plateaus and low mountain ranges in this region have a significant impact on how cold it might get during winter. Generally speaking, the hardiness zones are high considering the latitude of the region, although not as high as Northern Europe with the Shetland Islands where zone 9 extends to over 60°N. In Central Europe, the relevant zones decrease from zone 8 on the Belgian, Dutch, and German North Sea coast, with the exception of some of the Frisian Islands (notably Vlieland and Terschelling), the island of Helgoland, and some of the islands in the Rhine-Scheldt estuary, which are in zone 9, to zone 5 around Suwałki, Podlachia on the far eastern border between Poland and Lithuania. Some isolated, high elevation areas of the Alps and Carpathians may even go down to zone 3 or 4. An extreme example of a cold sink is Funtensee, Bavaria which is at least in zone 3. Another notable example is Waksmund, a small village in the Polish Carpathians, which regularly reaches during winter on calm nights when cold and heavy airmasses from the surrounding Gorce and Tatra Mountains descend down the slopes to this low-lying valley, creating extremes which can be up to colder than nearby Nowy Targ or Białka Tatrzańska, which are both higher up in elevation. Waksmund is in zone 3b while nearby Kraków, only to the north and lower is in zone 6a. These examples prove that local topography can have a pronounced effect on temperature and thus on what is possible to grow in a specific region.


title: Hardiness zone

text: The southern European marker plant for climate as well as cultural indicator is the olive tree, which cannot withstand long periods below freezing so its cultivation area matches the cool winter zone. The Mediterranean Sea acts as a temperature regulator, so this area is generally warmer than other parts of the continent; except in mountainous areas where the sea effect lowers, it belongs in zones 8–10; however, southern Balkans (mountainous Western and Eastern Serbia, continental Croatia, and Bulgaria) are colder in winter and are in zones 6–7. The Croatian (Dalmatian) coast, Albania, and northern Greece are in zones 8–9, as are central-northern Italy (hills and some spots in Po Valley are however colder) and southern France; Central Iberia is 8–9 (some highland areas are slightly colder). The Spanish and Portuguese Atlantic coast, much of Andalusia and Murcia, coastal and slightly inland southern Valencian Community, a part of coastal Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, southwestern Sardinia, most of Sicily, coastal southern Italy, some areas around Albania, coastal Cyprus and southwestern Greece are in zone 10. In Europe, the zone 11a is limited only to a few spots. In the Iberian Peninsula, it can be found on the southern coast, namely in populated Spanish areas such as the cities of Almería, Adra, Nerja, Málaga, Marbella and in a strip of coastal land between Tarifa and Punta Carnero in the province of Cádiz. In Portugal, zone 11a can be found in the Southwest on a few unpopulated sites around the municipalities of Lagos and Vila do Bispo. In Greece, zone 11a can be found in areas of Crete, Karpathos and Antiparos islands. The Mediterranean islands of Malta, Lampedusa and Linosa belong to zone 11a as well as a few areas on the southernmost coast of Cyprus. The Balkan area is also more prone to cold snaps and episodes of unseasonable warmth. For instance, despite having similar daily means and temperature amplitudes to Nantucket, Massachusetts for each month, Sarajevo has recorded below-freezing temperatures in every month of the year.


title: Hardiness zone

text: Macaronesia consists of four archipelagos: The Azores, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde and Madeira. At lower altitudes and coastal areas, the Portuguese Azores and Madeira belong to zones 11a/11b and 11b/12a respectively. The Azores range from 9a to 11b and Madeira ranges from 9b to 12a, 9a and 9b found inland on the highest altitudes such as the Mount Pico in the Azores or Pico Ruivo in Madeira. The Spanish Canary Islands hardiness zones range from 8a to 12b depending on the location and the altitude. The islands are generally part of zones 11b/12a in lower altitudes and coastal areas, reaching up to 12b in populated coastal parts such as the city of Las Palmas. The lowest hardiness areas are found in Teide National Park being at 8a/8b for its very high altitude. The Teide peak is the highest peak of Macaronesia. The Cape Verde islands, inside the Tropics, have hardiness zones that range from 12 to 13 in the coastal areas, while the lowest hardiness zone is found in the island of Fogo, in the country's highest peak Pico do Fogo.


title: Hardiness zone

text: The criterion is the average number of days per year when the temperature exceeds . The AHS Heat Zone Map for the US is available on the American Horticultural Society website.


title: Hardiness zone

text: The USDA map published in 2012 shows that most of the US has become a half zone () hotter in winter compared to the 1990 release. Research in 2016 suggests that USDA plant hardiness zones will shift even further northward under climate change.


title: Radio frequency

text: Radio frequency (RF) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around to around . This is roughly between the upper limit of audio frequencies and the lower limit of infrared frequencies; these are the frequencies at which energy from an oscillating current can radiate off a conductor into space as radio waves. Different sources specify different upper and lower bounds for the frequency range.


title: Radio frequency

text: Electric currents that oscillate at radio frequencies (RF currents) have special properties not shared by direct current or lower audio frequency alternating current, such as the 50 or 60 Hz current used in electrical power distribution.


title: Radio frequency

text: The radio spectrum of frequencies is divided into bands with conventional names designated by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU):


title: Radio frequency

text: Frequencies of 1 GHz and above are conventionally called microwave, while frequencies of 30 GHz and above are designated millimeter wave.


title: Radio frequency

text: More detailed band designations are given by the standard IEEE letter- band frequency designations and the EU/NATO frequency designations.


title: Radio frequency

text: Radio frequencies are used in communication devices such as transmitters, receivers, computers, televisions, and mobile phones, to name a few. Radio frequencies are also applied in carrier current systems including telephony and control circuits. The MOS integrated circuit is the technology behind the current proliferation of radio frequency wireless telecommunications devices such as cellphones.


title: Radio frequency

text: Medical applications of radio frequency (RF) energy, in the form of electromagnetic waves (radio waves) or electrical currents, have existed for over 125 years, and now include diathermy, hyperthermy treatment of cancer, electrosurgery scalpels used to cut and cauterize in operations, and radiofrequency ablation. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses radio frequency waves to generate images of the human body.


title: Radio frequency

text: Test apparatus for radio frequencies can include standard instruments at the lower end of the range, but at higher frequencies, the test equipment becomes more specialized.


title: Radio frequency

text: While RF usually refers to electrical oscillations, mechanical RF systems are not uncommon: see mechanical filter and RF MEMS.


title: Pastrami

text: Pastrami (Romanian: "pastramă") is a food originating from Romania usually made from beef brisket, lamb, pork, chicken sometimes from turkey. The raw meat is brined, partially dried, seasoned with herbs and spices, then smoked and steamed. Like corned beef, pastrami was originally created as a way to preserve meat before the invention of refrigeration. One of the iconic meats of Romanian cuisine as well as American Jewish cuisine and the New York City cuisine, hot pastrami is typically served at delicatessen restaurants on sandwiches such as the pastrami on rye.


title: Pastrami

text: The name pastrami comes from Romanian "pastramă", which is related to the Turkish "pastırma". It is probably derived from the Turkish verb "bastırmak" meaning "to press". However, it could also be from the Romanian "a păstra" meaning "to keep, preserve". Both of these etymologies are plausible, but mutually exclusive.


title: Pastrami

text: Wind-dried beef had been made in Anatolia for centuries, and Byzantine dried meat is thought by some to be "one of the forerunners of the "pastırma" of modern Turkey."


title: Pastrami

text: Early references in English used the spelling "pastrama", closer to the Romanian "pastramă". Pastrami was introduced to the United States in a wave of Jewish immigration from Bessarabia and Romania in the second half of the 19th century. The modified "pastrami" spelling was probably introduced in imitation of the American English salami. Romanian Jews emigrated to New York as early as 1872. Among Jewish Romanians, goose breasts were commonly made into pastrami because they were available. Beef navel was cheaper than goose meat in America, so the Romanian Jews in America adapted their recipe and began to make the cheaper-alternative beef pastrami.


title: Pastrami

text: New York's Sussman Volk is generally credited with producing the first pastrami sandwich in the United States in 1887. Volk, a kosher butcher and New York immigrant from Lithuania, claimed he got the recipe from a Romanian friend in exchange for storing the friend's luggage while the friend returned to Romania. According to his descendant, Patricia Volk, he prepared pastrami according to the recipe and served it on sandwiches out of his butcher shop. The sandwich was so popular that Volk converted the butcher shop into a restaurant to sell pastrami sandwiches.


title: Pastrami

text: Beef plate is the traditional cut of meat for making pastrami, although it is now common in the United States to see it made from beef brisket, beef round, and turkey. New York pastrami is generally made from beef navel, which is the ventral part of the plate. It is cured in brine, coated with a mix of spices such as garlic, coriander, black pepper, paprika, cloves, allspice, and mustard seed, and then smoked. Finally, the meat is steamed until the connective tissues within the meat break down into gelatin.


title: Pastrami

text: Greek immigrants to Salt Lake City in the early 1960s introduced a cheeseburger topped with pastrami and a special sauce. The pastrami cheeseburger has since remained a staple of local burger chains in Utah.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: The 2021–22 season was the 122nd season in the existence of Futbol Club Barcelona and its 91st consecutive season in the top flight of Spanish football. In addition to the domestic league, Barcelona participated in this season's editions of the Copa del Rey, the Supercopa de España, the UEFA Champions League, and the UEFA Europa League, entering the latter competition for the first time since 2003–04. This was also the first season since 2003–04 and 1999–2000 in general not to feature Lionel Messi, who transferred to Paris Saint-Germain after his contract expired.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: The season was a tumultuous one, as Barcelona's economic problems forced the departure of Messi and Griezmann, in addition to not being able to replace them with quality players. Barcelona finished third in their Champions League group and failed to reach the knockout stages for the first time since 2003, when it competed in the UEFA Cup after a disastrous domestic campaign the previous season. Furthermore, poor domestic form saw Barça drop as low as ninth in the league by late October, which triggered head coach Ronald Koeman's sacking. He was replaced by a club legend Xavi, who managed to reverse the team's fortunes with new winter signings Ferran Torres and Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang. The team's highlight of the season was the 4–0 thrashing of Real Madrid at the Bernabéu, which helped propel them to the second place in the standings, one they never relinquished for the rest of the campaign. However, April saw Barcelona get knocked out of the Europa League by Eintracht Frankfurt. Coupled with several league stumbles in April and May, in addition to earlier defeats in the Supercopa de España and Copa del Rey, Barça ended up trophyless, never managing to catch up with runaway leaders Real Madrid.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: This was final season of Rakuten as Barcelona main sponsor shirt before replaced by Spotify next season.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 June, Barcelona announced the signing of Emerson Royal from Real Betis. Barça had informed Betis that they would exercise their option to bring back Emerson after his two-year long loan spell with the "Verdiblancos".


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 19 June, Barcelona announced the signing of Memphis Depay from Olympique Lyonnais on a free transfer.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 27 June, OGC Nice activated their option to buy Jean-Clair Todibo permanently from his loan spell for €8.5 million plus €7 million in variables.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 29 June, Barcelona and Olympique de Marseille reached an agreement for the transfer of Konrad de la Fuente for €3 million. Barça will also receive a percentage of any future transfer fee. Barça also terminated the contract of Matheus Fernandes.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 1 July, Lionel Messi's contract expired amidst negotiations to sign a new contract, effectively making Messi a free agent.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 4 July, Barcelona and Wolverhampton Wanderers reached an agreement for the loan of Francisco Trincão for the rest of the season with an option to buy for €29 million.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 6 July, Barcelona and Leeds United reached an agreement for the transfer of Junior Firpo for a fee of €15 million.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 7 July, UD Almería triggered Sergio Akieme's buy option for €3.5 million, with Barcelona reserving a right to 10% of any future sale and a right to first refusal.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 9 July, Barcelona and SK Rapid Wien reached an agreement over the loan of Yusuf Demir, with Barça receiving an option to buy for €10 million.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 July, Monchu joined Granada CF on a free deal following the expiration of his contract, with Barça reserving a right to 50% of any future sale, and a right to first refusal with a buyback option.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: Despite reaching an agreement with Messi and having planned to sign a contract on 5 August, the club announced that Messi would not stay at the club due to financial and structural obstacles posed by La Liga regulations. He subsequently joined Paris Saint-Germain on 10 August.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 15 August, Barcelona defeated Real Sociedad 4–2 at home. Goals from Gerard Piqué, Sergi Roberto and a brace from Martin Braithwaite ensured victory in their first La Liga match of the season.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 21 August, Barcelona drew with Athletic Bilbao away at San Mamés in the second match of the season. Iñigo Martínez scored for Athletic Club, and Memphis Depay scored his first official goal for Barça to end the match 1–1.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 29 August, Barcelona defeated Getafe 2–1 at home, thanks to goals from Sergi Roberto and Memphis Depay.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 31 August, Barcelona reached an agreement with RB Leipzig for the transfer of Ilaix Moriba for €16 million with €6 million in add-ons; reached an agreement with Spezia for the loan of Rey Manaj for a fee of €300,000 with an option to buy for €2.7 million at the end of the season; reached an agreement with Tottenham Hotspur for the transfer of Emerson Royal for €25 million; and reached an agreement with Atlético Madrid for the loan of Antoine Griezmann for a reported fee of €10 million with a mandatory buy option of €40 million. Barça also announced the signing of Luuk de Jong from Sevilla on a season long loan with an option to buy.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 September, Barcelona and Beşiktaş reached an agreement for the loan of Miralem Pjanić for the rest of the season.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 September, Barcelona lost 3–0 at home to Bayern Munich in the first UEFA Champions League game of the season. Thomas Müller and Robert Lewandowski (brace) scored for the "Bavarians".


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 September, Barcelona drew 1–1 with Granada at home. Barça conceded early in the match, but a goal from Ronald Araújo in the last minute of the game levelled the score.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 26 September, Barcelona defeated Levante 3–0 at home. Memphis, Luuk de Jong and Ansu Fati were the goalscorers, with the latter making his return after a 10-month absence due to injury. De Jong also scored his first goal for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 29 September, Barcelona lost 3–0 against Benfica away from home on the second matchday of the Champions League.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 October, Barcelona lost 2–0 against Atlético Madrid away from home. Thomas Lemar and former Barça player Luis Suárez scored the goals.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 October, Barcelona and midfielder Pedri reached an agreement to extend the player's contract for a further four seasons through to 2026 with a release clause of €1 billion.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 October, Barcelona defeated Valencia 3–1 at home. Valencia took the lead early in the match, but goals from Fati, Memphis and Philippe Coutinho ensured victory for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 October, Barcelona defeated Dynamo Kyiv 1–0 at home in the Champions league. Piqué scored the only goal in the game. Later that day Barcelona announced that they had reached an agreement with Ansu Fati to extend the player's contract for a further five seasons through to 2027 with a release clause of €1 billion.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 24 October, Barcelona were defeated in El Clásico 2–1 at home, with David Alaba and Lucas Vázquez scoring for Real Madrid. Sergio Agüero scored in the last minute for a late consolation.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 27 October, Barcelona were again defeated, this time by Rayo Vallecano 1–0 away, with Radamel Falcao scoring the winner in the first half. It was Rayo's first league win over Barça in 19 years.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 28 October, Barcelona announced the dismissal of Ronald Koeman as the first team coach, ending his spell at the club after 14 months.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 29 October, Barcelona announced the appointment of Barcelona B head coach Sergi Barjuán as the interim manager of the first team.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 30 October, Barcelona drew 1–1 with Deportivo Alavés at home. Memphis scored first for the "Blaugrana", but Alavés equalised shortly after, courtesy of Luis Rioja.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 November, Barcelona defeated Dynamo Kyiv 1–0 away from home in the Champions league. Ansu Fati scored the only goal in the game.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 6 November, Barcelona announced the appointment of Xavi as the new first team head coach until 2024. Later that day, Barcelona drew 3–3 with Celta Vigo away from home. Barça had a three-goal lead within the first half with goals from Fati, Busquets and Memphis, but a spirited performance from Celta levelled the score in the second half with the equalising goal from Iago Aspas coming in the final minute.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 12 November, Barcelona announced an agreement in principle to sign former right-back Dani Alves on a free transfer.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 November, on Xavi's managerial debut, Barcelona defeated Espanyol 1–0 at home in the derbi barceloní. Memphis scored from the penalty spot.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 27 November, Barcelona defeated Villarreal 3–1 away from home. Frenkie de Jong scored first, but Samuel Chukwueze equalised for the "Yellow Submarine". Memphis and Coutinho scored late to seal the win for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 8 December, Barcelona lost to Bayern 3–0 away from home at an empty Allianz Arena. Müller, Leroy Sané and Jamal Musiala scored for the home side, eliminating Barça from the group stage and making the "Blaugrana" play in the UEFA Europa League for the first time since 2003.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 9 December, Barcelona and Granada reached an agreement for the loan of Álex Collado until the end of the season.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 18 December, Barcelona defeated Elche 3–2 at home. Goals from Ferran Jutglà and Gavi gave an early two goal lead for Barça, But two goals scored by Elche in two minutes made the score level. Nico scored in the late stages of the game to earn victory for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 21 December, Barcelona drew 1–1 with Sevilla at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán, with Papu Gómez opening the account for "Los Rojiblancos" and Araújo equalising in the dying moments of the first–half.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 28 December, Barcelona announced the signing of Ferran Torres, with Torres signing a 5-year contract until 2027, with a buyout clause of €1 billion.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 2 January, Barcelona defeated Real Mallorca 1–0 at the Visit Mallorca Stadium. Luuk de Jong scored the only goal.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 7 January, Barcelona reached an agreement with Aston Villa for the loan of Philippe Coutinho until the end of the season.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 8 January, Barcelona drew 1–1 with Granada away from home. Luuk de Jong took the lead for Barcelona but Granada equalised at the closing stages of the game.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 January, Samuel Umtiti extended his contract until 2026, which allowed Barcelona to register Ferran Torres.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 12 January, the second Clásico of the season was contested, this time at the semi-final stage of the Supercopa de España. Luuk de Jong and Ansu Fati scored equalisers for Barça, but it was not enough as Madrid won 3–2 after extra time.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 January, Barcelona were knocked out of the Copa del Rey round of 16 by Athletic Bilbao 3–2 at San Mamés, with Iker Muniain's late winner cancelling out Ferran Torres and Pedri's goals, with the former scoring his first Barça goal.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 23 January, Barcelona defeated Deportivo Alavés 1–0 away, thanks to a late winner from Frenkie de Jong.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 5 February, Barcelona announced the signing of Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang for free after his contract with Arsenal was terminated.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 6 February, Barcelona defeated Atletico Madrid 4–2 at home. Atletico took an early lead but goals from Jordi Alba, Gavi, Araújo and Dani Alves provided a convincing victory for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 13 February, Barcelona drew 2–2 with Espanyol away from home. Pedri scored an early goal to give lead for Barça, but two goals from the home side almost made them win the match before a late goal from Luuk de Jong which earned a point for Barcelona.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 February, Barcelona opened their Europa league campaign with a 1–1 draw with Napoli at home in the first leg of the round of 32. Napoli scored first and Ferran Torres converted a penalty to level the score.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 February, Barcelona defeated Valencia 4–1 away from home. A goal from Frenkie de Jong and a hat-trick from Aubameyang gained victory over Los Che.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 24 February, Barcelona defeated Napoli 4–2 away from home in the second leg of the Europa League round of 32. Jordi Alba, Frenkie de Jong, Pique and Aubameyang scored for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 27 February, Barcelona defeated Athletic Bilbao 4–0 at home. Aubameyang, Dembélé, Luuk de Jong and Memphis Depay scored for Barcelona to secure three points.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 6 March, Barcelona defeated Elche 2–1 away from home. Elche scored late in the first half, but goals from Torres and Depay turned the game in favour of Barcelona.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 March, Barcelona drew 0–0 with Galatasaray at home in the first leg of the Europa League round of 16.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 13 March, Barcelona defeated Osasuna 4–0 at home. Ferran Torres scored a brace while Aubameyang and Riqui Puig added a goal each.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 17 March, Barcelona defeated Galatasaray 2–1 away from home in the second leg of the Europa League round of 16. Galatasaray scored the first goal of the match but goals from Pedri and Aubameyang cancelled out their lead and secured 2–1 aggregate victory for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 20 March, in the third Clásico of the season, Barcelona defeated Real Madrid 4–0 away from home. A brace from Aubameyang and goals from Araújo and Torres secured a crushing victory at the Bernabeu.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 3 April, Barcelona defeated Sevilla 1–0 at home. Pedri scored the only goal of the match. With this win, Barça climes up to second in the league standings.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 7 April, Barcelona drew 1–1 with Eintracht Frankfurt away from home in the first leg of the Europa League quarter-finals. Ferran Torres scored for Barcelona.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 April, Barcelona defeated Levante 3–2 away from home. Aubameyang and Pedri scored for Barça while having conceded two penalties. Luuk de Jong scored a late goal to earn the victory for Barcelona.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 14 April, Barcelona lost to Eintracht Frankfurt 3–2 at home in the second leg of the Europa League quarter-finals. Frankfurt dominated the game having a three-goal lead until the end of the regulation time. Barcelona's goals came in the stoppage time with Busquets scoring and Depay converting a penalty. With an aggregate score of 4–3, Barcelona were eliminated from the Europa League.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 21 April, Barcelona defeated Real Sociedad 1–0 away from home. Aubameyang scored the only goal in the first half of the match.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 26 April, Barcelona and defender Ronald Araújo reached an agreement to extend the player's contract through to 2026 with a release clause of €1 billion.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 1 May, Barcelona defeated Real Mallorca 2–1 at home. Memphis Depay and Sergio Busquets scored for Barça.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 7 May, Barcelona defeated Real Betis 2–1 away from home. Ansu Fati scored while former Barça player Marc Bartra scored the equaliser for Betis. Jordi Alba scored in the final minutes of the match to earn the victory.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 10 May, Barcelona defeated Celta Vigo 3–1 at home. Memphis scored a goal while Aubameyang added a brace.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 12 May, Aston Villa triggered Philippe Coutinho's option to buy for a fee of €20 million with Barça receiving a 50% sell-on percentange.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: On 22 May, Barcelona lost to Villarreal 2–0 at home in the last game of the season. Barcelona finished their league campaign in the second position, qualifying for the next season's Supercopa de España and UEFA Champions League.


title: 2021–22 FC Barcelona season

text: ! colspan=16 style=background:#dcdcdc; text-align:center| Players who have made an appearance or had a squad number this season but have left the club


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694 to act as the English Government's banker, and still one of the bankers for the Government of the United Kingdom, it is the world's eighth-oldest bank. It was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946 by the Attlee ministry.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank became an independent public organisation in 1998, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with a mandate to support the economic policies of the government of the day, but independence in maintaining price stability.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank is one of eight banks authorised to issue banknotes in the United Kingdom, has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales, and regulates the issue of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank's Monetary Policy Committee has devolved responsibility for managing monetary policy. The Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee "if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances", but Parliament must endorse such orders within 28 days. In addition, the Bank's Financial Policy Committee was set up in 2011 as a macroprudential regulator to oversee the UK's financial sector.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank's headquarters have been in London's main financial district, the City of London, on Threadneedle Street, since 1734. It is sometimes known as "The Old Lady of Threadneedle Street" a name taken from a satirical cartoon by James Gillray in 1797. The road junction outside is known as Bank Junction.


title: Bank of England

text: As a regulator and central bank, the Bank of England has not offered consumer banking services for many years, but it still does manage some public-facing services, such as exchanging superseded bank notes. Until 2016, the bank provided personal banking services as a privilege for employees.


title: Bank of England

text: England's crushing defeat by France, the dominant naval power, in naval engagements culminating in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, became the catalyst for England to rebuild itself as a global power. William III's government wanted to build a naval fleet that would rival that of France; however, the ability to construct this fleet was hampered both by a lack of available public funds and the low credit of the English government in London. This lack of credit made it impossible for the English government to borrow the £1,200,000 (at 8% per annum) that it wanted to construct the fleet.


title: Bank of England

text: To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. The Bank was given exclusive possession of the government's balances and was the only limited-liability corporation allowed to issue bank notes. The lenders would give the government cash (bullion) and issue notes against the government bonds, which could be lent again. The £1.2 million was raised in 12 days; half of this was used to rebuild the navy.


title: Bank of England

text: As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed, including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy, started to transform the economy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful. The power of the navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.


title: Bank of England

text: The establishment of the bank was devised by Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax, in 1694. The plan of 1691, which had been proposed by William Paterson three years before, had not then been acted upon. Fifty-eight years earlier, in 1636, Financier to the king, Philip Burlamachi, had proposed exactly the same idea in a letter addressed to Francis Windebank. He proposed a loan of £1.2 million to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as The Governor and Company of the Bank of England with long-term banking privileges including the issue of notes.


title: Bank of England

text: The royal charter was granted on 27 July through the passage of the Tonnage Act 1694. Public finances were in such dire condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum, and there was also a service charge of £4,000 per annum for the management of the loan. The first governor was John Houblon (who was later depicted on a £50 note).


title: Bank of England

text: The bank initially did not have its own building, first opening on 1 August 1694 in Mercers' Hall on Cheapside. This however was found to be too small and from 31 December 1694 the bank operated from Grocers' Hall, located then on Poultry, where it would remain for almost 40 years.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1700, the Hollow Sword Blade Company was purchased by a group of businessmen who wished to establish a competing English bank (in an action that would today be considered a "back door listing"). The Bank of England's initial monopoly on English banking was due to expire in 1710. However, it was instead renewed, and the Sword Blade company failed to achieve its goal.


title: Bank of England

text: The South Sea Company was established in 1711. In 1720 it became responsible for part of the UK's national debt, becoming a major competitor to the Bank of England. While the "South Sea Bubble" disaster soon ensued, the company continued managing part of the UK national debt until 1853.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank of England moved to its current location in Threadneedle Street in 1734 and thereafter slowly acquired neighbouring land to create the site necessary for erecting the Bank's original home at this location, under the direction of its chief architect John Soane, between 1790 and 1827. (Herbert Baker's rebuilding of the Bank in the first half of the 20th century, demolishing most of Soane's masterpiece, was described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as "the greatest architectural crime, in the City of London, of the twentieth century".)


title: Bank of England

text: The Credit crisis of 1772 has been described as the first modern banking crisis faced by the Bank of England. The whole City of London was in uproar when Alexander Fordyce was declared bankrupt. In August 1773, the Bank of England assisted the EIC with a loan. The strain upon the reserves of the Bank of England was not eased until towards the end of the year.


title: Bank of England

text: When the idea and reality of the national debt came about during the 18th century, this was also largely managed by the Bank.


title: Bank of England

text: During the American War of Independence, business for the Bank was so good that George Washington remained a shareholder throughout the period.


title: Bank of England

text: By the Bank's charter renewal in 1781, it was also the bankers' bank – keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 February 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that – following an invasion scare caused by the Battle of Fishguard days earlier – the government prohibited the Bank from paying out in gold by the passing of the Bank Restriction Act 1797. This prohibition lasted until 1821.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1825–26 the bank was able to avert a liquidity crisis when Nathan Mayer Rothschild succeeded in supplying it with gold.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank Charter Act 1844 tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the Bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes in England. Private banks that had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside London and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued.


title: Bank of England

text: The last private bank in England to issue its own notes was Thomas Fox's Fox, Fowler and Company bank in Wellington, which rapidly expanded until it merged with Lloyds Bank in 1927. They were legal tender until 1964. There are nine notes left in circulation; one is housed at Tone Dale House, Wellington. (Scottish and Northern Irish private banks continue to issue notes regulated by the Bank.)


title: Bank of England

text: Britain was on the gold standard, meaning the value of sterling was fixed by the price of gold, until 1931 when the Bank of England had to take Britain off the gold standard due to the effects of Great Depression spreading to Europe.


title: Bank of England

text: During the governorship of Montagu Norman, from 1920 to 1944, the Bank made deliberate efforts to move away from commercial banking and become a central bank.


title: Bank of England

text: During WWII, over 10% of the face value of circulating Pound Sterling banknotes were forgeries produced by Germany.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1946, shortly after the end of Montagu Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised by the Labour government.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank pursued the multiple goals of Keynesian economics after 1945, especially "easy money" and low-interest rates to support aggregate demand. It tried to keep a fixed exchange rate and attempted to deal with inflation and sterling weakness by credit and exchange controls.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank's "10 bob note" was withdrawn from circulation in 1970 in preparation for Decimal Day in 1971.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1977 the Bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called Bank of England Nominees Limited (BOEN), a now-defunct private limited company, with two of its hundred £1 shares issued. According to its memorandum of association, its objectives were: "To act as Nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others, for any person or persons, partnership, company, corporation, government, state, organisation, sovereign, province, authority, or public body, or any group or association of them". Bank of England Nominees Limited was granted an exemption by Edmund Dell, Secretary of State for Trade, from the disclosure requirements under Section 27(9) of the Companies Act 1976, because "it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders". The Bank of England is also protected by its royal charter status and the Official Secrets Act. BOEN was a vehicle for governments and heads of state to invest in UK companies (subject to approval from the Secretary of State), providing they undertake "not to influence the affairs of the company". In its later years, BOEN was no longer exempt from company law disclosure requirements. Although a dormant company, dormancy does not preclude a company actively operating as a nominee shareholder. BOEN had two shareholders: the Bank of England, and the Secretary of the Bank of England.


title: Bank of England

text: The reserve requirement for banks to hold a minimum fixed proportion of their deposits as reserves at the Bank of England was abolished in 1981: see for more details. The contemporary transition from Keynesian economics to Chicago economics was analysed by Nicholas Kaldor in "The Scourge of Monetarism".


title: Bank of England

text: The handing over of monetary policy to the Bank became a key plank of the Liberal Democrats' economic policy for the 1992 general election. Conservative MP Nicholas Budgen had also proposed this as a private member's bill in 1996, but the bill failed as it had the support of neither the government nor the opposition.


title: Bank of England

text: The UK government left the expensive-to-maintain European Exchange Rate Mechanism in September 1992, in an action that cost HM Treasury over £3 billion. This led to closer communication between the government and the Bank.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1993, the Bank produced its first "Inflation Report" for the government, detailing inflationary trends and pressures. This annually produced report remains one of the bank's major publications. The success of inflation targeting in the United Kingdom has been attributed to the Bank's focus on transparency. The Bank of England has been a leader in producing innovative ways of communicating information to the public, especially through its Inflation Report, which many other central banks have emulated.


title: Bank of England

text: In 1996, the Bank produced its first "Financial Stability Review". This annual publication became known as the "Financial Stability Report" in 2006. Also that year, the bank set up its real-time gross settlement (RTGS) system to improve risk-free settlement between UK banks.


title: Bank of England

text: On 6 May 1997, following the 1997 general election that brought a Labour government to power for the first time since 1979, it was announced by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, that the Bank would be granted operational independence over monetary policy. Under the terms of the Bank of England Act 1998 (which came into force on 1 June 1998) the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's Retail Prices Index (RPI) inflation target of 2.5%. The target has changed to 2% since the Consumer Price Index (CPI) replaced the Retail Prices Index as the Treasury's inflation index. If inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1% the Governor has to write a letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation.


title: Bank of England

text: Independent central banks that adopt an inflation target are known as Friedmanite central banks. This change in Labour's politics was described by Skidelsky in "The Return of the Master" as a mistake and as an adoption of the rational expectations hypothesis as promulgated by Alan Walters. Inflation targets combined with central bank independence have been characterised as a "starve the beast" strategy creating a lack of money in the public sector.


title: Bank of England

text: A terrorist bombing was attempted outside the Bank of England building on 4 April 1913. A bomb was discovered smoking and ready to explode next to railings outside the building. The bomb had been planted as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, in which the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) launched a series of politically-motivated bombing and arson attacks nationwide as part of their campaign for women's suffrage. The bomb was defused before it could detonate, in what was then one of the busiest public streets in the capital, which likely prevented many civilian casualties. The bomb had been planted the day after WSPU leader Emmeline Pankhurst was sentenced to three years' imprisonment for carrying out a bombing on the home of politician David Lloyd George.


title: Bank of England

text: The remains of the bomb, which was built into a milk churn, are now on display at the City of London Police Museum.


title: Bank of England

text: In 2009, a request made to HM Treasury under the Freedom of Information Act sought details about the 3% Bank of England stock owned by unnamed shareholders whose identity the Bank is not at liberty to disclose. In a letter of reply dated 15 October 2009, HM Treasury explained that "Some of the 3% Treasury stock which was used to compensate former owners of Bank stock has not been redeemed. However, interest is paid out twice a year and it is not the case that this has been accumulating and compounding."


title: Bank of England

text: The Financial Services Act 2012 gave the Bank additional functions and bodies, including an independent Financial Policy Committee (FPC), the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA), and more powers to supervise financial market infrastructure providers.


title: Bank of England

text: Canadian Mark Carney assumed the post of Governor of the Bank of England on 1 July 2013. He served an initial five-year term rather than the typical eight. He became the first Governor not to be a United Kingdom citizen but has since been granted citizenship. At Government request, his term was extended to 2019, then again to 2020. , the Bank also had four Deputy Governors.


title: Bank of England

text: Stable prices and confidence in the currency are the two main criteria for monetary stability. Stable prices are maintained by seeking to ensure that price increases meet the Government's inflation target. The Bank aims to meet this target by adjusting the base interest rate, which is decided by the Monetary Policy Committee, and through its communications strategy, such as publishing yield curves.


title: Bank of England

text: Maintaining financial stability involves protecting against threats to the whole financial system. Threats are detected by the Bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions. The threats are then dealt with through financial and other operations, both at home and abroad. In exceptional circumstances, the Bank may act as the lender of last resort by extending credit when no other institution will.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank works together with other institutions to secure both monetary and financial stability, including:


title: Bank of England

text: The 1997 memorandum of understanding describes the terms under which the Bank, the Treasury, and the FSA work toward the common aim of increased financial stability. In 2010, the incoming Chancellor announced his intention to merge the FSA back into the Bank. As of 2012, the current director for financial stability is Andy Haldane.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank acts as the government's banker, and it maintains the government's Consolidated Fund account. It also manages the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves. The Bank also acts as the bankers' bank, especially in its capacity as a lender of last resort.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales. Scottish and Northern Irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one-for-one with deposits at the Bank, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845. The Bank decided to sell its banknote-printing operations to De La Rue in December 2002, under the advice of Close Brothers Corporate Finance Ltd.


title: Bank of England

text: Since 1998 the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) has had the responsibility for setting the official interest rate. However, with the decision to grant the Bank operational independence, responsibility for government debt management was transferred in 1998 to the new Debt Management Office, which also took over government cash management in 2000. Computershare took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (gilt-edged securities or 'gilts') from the Bank at the end of 2004.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries. This responsibility was transferred to the Financial Services Authority in June 1998, but after the financial crises in 2008, new banking legislation transferred the responsibility for regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries back to the Bank.


title: Bank of England

text: In 2011 the interim Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was created as a mirror committee to the MPC to spearhead the Bank's new mandate on financial stability. The FPC is responsible for macro-prudential regulation of all UK banks and insurance companies.


title: Bank of England

text: To help maintain economic stability, the Bank attempts to broaden understanding of its role, both through regular speeches and publications by senior Bank figures, a semiannual Financial Stability Report, and through a wider education strategy aimed at the general public. It currently maintains a free museum and ran the Target Two Point Zero competition for A-level students, closing in 2017.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank has operated, since January 2009, an Asset Purchase Facility (APF) to buy "high-quality assets financed by the issue of Treasury bills and the DMO's cash management operations" and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets. It has, since March 2009, also provided the mechanism by which the Bank's policy of quantitative easing (QE) is achieved, under the auspices of the MPC. Along with managing the QE funds, which were £895 bn at peak, the APF continues to operate its corporate facilities. Both are undertaken by a subsidiary company of the Bank of England, the Bank of England Asset Purchase Facility Fund Limited (BEAPFF).


title: Bank of England

text: QE was primarily designed as an instrument of monetary policy. The mechanism required the Bank of England to purchase government bonds on the secondary market, financed by creating new central bank money. This would have the effect of increasing the asset prices of the bonds purchased, thereby lowering yields and dampening longer-term interest rates. The policy's aim was initially to ease liquidity constraints in the sterling reserves system but evolved into a wider policy to provide economic stimulus.


title: Bank of England

text: QE was enacted in six tranches between 2009 and 2020. At its peak in 2020, the portfolio totalled £895 billion, comprising £875 billion of UK government bonds and £20 billion of high-grade commercial bonds.


title: Bank of England

text: In February 2022, the Bank of England announced its intention to commence winding down the QE portfolio. Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.


title: Bank of England

text: In August 2022, the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind-down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank has issued banknotes since 1694. Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone. Notes were fully printed from 1855. Until 1928 all notes were "White Notes", printed in black and with a blank reverse. In the 18th and 19th centuries, White Notes were issued in £1 and £2 denominations. During the 20th century, White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000.


title: Bank of England

text: Until the mid-19th century, commercial banks were allowed to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process of restricting note issue to the Bank; new banks were prohibited from issuing their own banknotes, and existing note-issuing banks were not permitted to expand their issue. As provincial banking companies merged to form larger banks, they lost their right to issue notes, and the English private banknote eventually disappeared, leaving the Bank with a monopoly of note issues in England and Wales. The last private bank to issue its own banknotes in England and Wales was Fox, Fowler and Company in 1921. However, the limitations of the 1844 Act only affected banks in England and Wales, and today three commercial banks in Scotland and four in Northern Ireland continue to issue their own banknotes, regulated by the Bank.


title: Bank of England

text: At the start of the First World War, the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1914 was passed, which granted temporary powers to HM Treasury for issuing banknotes to the values of £1 and 10/- (ten shillings). Treasury notes had full legal tender status and were not convertible into gold through the Bank; they replaced the gold coin in circulation to prevent a run on sterling and to enable raw material purchases for armament production. These notes featured an image of King George V (Bank of England notes did not begin to display an image of the monarch until 1960). The wording on each note was:


title: Bank of England

text: Treasury notes were issued until 1928 when the Currency and Bank Notes Act 1928 returned note-issuing powers to the banks. The Bank of England issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 November 1928.


title: Bank of England

text: During the Second World War, the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit denominations between £5 and £50, producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943. The original plan was to parachute the money into the UK in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe. Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war, forgeries frequently appeared for years afterward, which led banknote denominations above £5 to be removed from circulation.


title: Bank of England

text: In 2006, over £53 million in banknotes belonging to the Bank was stolen from a depot in Tonbridge, Kent.


title: Bank of England

text: The Bank is custodian to the official gold reserves of the United Kingdom and around 30 other countries. , the bank holds around of gold, worth £141 billion. These estimates suggest that the vault could hold as much as 3% of the 171,300 tonnes of gold mined throughout human history.


title: Bank of England

text: The Court of Directors is a unitary board that is responsible for setting the organisation's strategy and budget and making key decisions on resourcing and appointments. It consists of five executive members from the Bank plus up to 9 non-executive members, all of whom are appointed by the Crown. The Chancellor selects the Chairman of the Court from among the non-executive members. The Court is required to meet at least seven times a year.


title: Bank of England

text: The Governor serves for a period of eight years, the Deputy Governors for five years, and the non-executive members for up to four years.


title: Bank of England

text: Since 2013, the Bank has had a chief operating officer (COO). , the Bank's COO has been Joanna Place.


title: Abolitionism

text: Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the movement to end slavery. In Western Europe and the Americas, abolitionism was a historic movement that sought to end the Atlantic slave trade and liberate the enslaved people.


title: Abolitionism

text: The British abolitionist movement started in the late 18th century when English and American Quakers began to question the morality of slavery. James Oglethorpe was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, banning it in the Province of Georgia on humanitarian grounds, and arguing against it in Parliament, and eventually encouraging his friends Granville Sharp and Hannah More to vigorously pursue the cause. Soon after Oglethorpe's death in 1785, Sharp and More united with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect.


title: Abolitionism

text: The Somersett case in 1772, in which a fugitive slave was freed with the judgement that slavery did not exist under English common law, helped launch the British movement to abolish slavery. Though anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, many colonies and emerging nations continued to use slave labour: Dutch, French, British, Spanish, and Portuguese territories in the West Indies, South America, and the Southern United States. After the American Revolution established the United States, northern states, beginning with Pennsylvania in 1780, passed legislation during the next two decades abolishing slavery, sometimes by gradual emancipation. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal; freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state. Vermont, which existed as an unrecognized state from 1777 to 1791, abolished adult slavery in 1777. In other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans and African Americans. During the following decades, the abolitionist movement grew in northern states, and Congress regulated the expansion of slavery in new states admitted to the union.


title: Abolitionism

text: In 1787, the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was formed in London. Revolutionary France abolished slavery throughout its empire through the Law of 4 February 1794, but Napoleon restored it in 1802 as part of a programme to ensure sovereignty over its colonies. Haiti (then Saint-Domingue) formally declared independence from France in 1804 and became the first sovereign nation in the Western Hemisphere to unconditionally abolish slavery in the modern era. The northern states in the U.S. all abolished slavery by 1804. The United Kingdom (then including Ireland) and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, after which Britain led efforts to block slave ships. Britain abolished slavery throughout its empire by the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 (with the notable exception of India), the French colonies re-abolished it in 1848 and the U.S. abolished slavery in 1865 with the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. In 1888, Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: In Eastern Europe, groups organized to abolish the enslavement of the Roma in Wallachia and Moldavia, and to emancipate the serfs in Russia. Slavery was declared illegal in 1948 under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Mauritania was the last country to abolish slavery, with a presidential decree in 1981. Today, child and adult slavery and forced labour are illegal in almost all countries, as well as being against international law, but human trafficking for labour and for sexual bondage continues to affect tens of millions of adults and children.


title: Abolitionism

text: In 1315, Louis X, king of France, published a decree proclaiming that "France signifies freedom" and that any slave setting foot on French soil should be freed. This prompted subsequent governments to circumscribe slavery in the overseas colonies.


title: Abolitionism

text: Some cases of African slaves freed by setting foot on French soil were recorded such as the example of a Norman slave merchant who tried to sell slaves in Bordeaux in 1571. He was arrested and his slaves were freed according to a declaration of the Parlement of Guyenne which stated that slavery was intolerable in France, although it is a misconception that there were 'no slaves in France'; thousands of African slaves were present in France during the eighteenth century. Born into slavery in Saint Domingue, Thomas-Alexandre Dumas became free when his father brought him to France in 1776.


title: Abolitionism

text: As in other New World colonies, the French relied on the Atlantic slave trade for labour for their sugar cane plantations in their Caribbean colonies; the French West Indies. In addition, French colonists in "Louisiane" in North America held slaves, particularly in the South around New Orleans, where they established sugarcane plantations.


title: Abolitionism

text: Louis XIV's "Code Noir" regulated the slave trade and institution in the colonies. It gave unparalleled rights to slaves. It included the right to marry, gather publicly, or take Sundays off. Although the "Code Noir" authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions, it forbade slave owners to torture them or to separate families. It also demanded enslaved Africans receive instruction in the Catholic faith, implying that Africans were human beings endowed with a soul, a fact French law did not admit until then. It resulted in a far higher percentage of blacks being free in 1830 (13.2% in Louisiana compared to 0.8% in Mississippi). They were on average exceptionally literate, with a significant number of them owning businesses, properties, and even slaves. Other free people of colour, such as Julien Raimond, spoke out against slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: The "Code Noir" also forbade interracial marriages, but it was often ignored in French colonial society and the mulattoes became an intermediate caste between whites and blacks, while in the British colonies mulattoes and blacks were considered equal and discriminated against equally.


title: Abolitionism

text: During the Age of Enlightenment, many philosophers wrote pamphlets against slavery and its moral and economical justifications, including Montesquieu in "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748) and Denis Diderot in the "Encyclopédie". In 1788, Jacques Pierre Brissot founded the Society of the Friends of the Blacks ("Société des Amis des Noirs") to work for the abolition of slavery. After the Revolution, on 4 April 1792, France granted free people of colour full citizenship.


title: Abolitionism

text: The slave revolt, in the largest Caribbean French colony of Saint-Domingue in 1791, was the beginning of what became the Haitian Revolution led by formerly enslaved people like Georges Biassou, Toussaint L'Ouverture, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The rebellion swept through the north of the colony, and with it came freedom to thousands of enslaved blacks, but also violence and death. In 1793, French Civil Commissioners in St. Domingue and abolitionists, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel, issued the first emancipation proclamation of the modern world (Decree of 16 Pluviôse An II). The Convention sent them to safeguard the allegiance of the population to revolutionary France. The proclamation resulted in crucial military strategy as it gradually brought most of the black troops into the French fold and kept the colony under the French flag for most of the conflict. The connection with France lasted until blacks and free people of colour formed L'armée indigène in 1802 to resist Napoleon's Expédition de Saint-Domingue. Victory over the French in the decisive Battle of Vertières finally led to independence and the creation of present Haiti in 1804.


title: Abolitionism

text: The convention, the first elected Assembly of the First Republic (1792–1804), on 4 February 1794, under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, abolished slavery in law in France and its colonies. Abbé Grégoire and the Society of the Friends of the Blacks were part of the abolitionist movement, which had laid important groundwork in building anti-slavery sentiment in the metropole. The first article of the law stated that "Slavery was abolished" in the French colonies, while the second article stated that "slave-owners would be indemnified" with financial compensation for the value of their slaves. The French constitution passed in 1795 included in the declaration of the Rights of Man that slavery was abolished.


title: Abolitionism

text: During the French Revolutionary Wars, French slave-owners joined the counter-revolution en masse and, through the Whitehall Accord, they threatened to move the French Caribbean colonies under British control, as Great Britain still allowed slavery. Fearing secession from these islands, successfully lobbied by planters and concerned about revenues from the West Indies, and influenced by the slaveholder family of his wife, Napoleon Bonaparte decided to re-establish slavery after becoming First Consul. He promulgated the law of 20 May 1802 and sent military governors and troops to the colonies to impose it.


title: Abolitionism

text: On 10 May 1802, Colonel Delgrès launched a rebellion in Guadeloupe against Napoleon's representative, General Richepanse. The rebellion was repressed, and slavery was re-established.


title: Abolitionism

text: The news of the Law of 4 February 1794 that abolished slavery in France and its colonies and the revolution led by Colonel Delgrès sparked another wave of rebellion in Saint-Domingue. Although from 1802 Napoleon sent more than 20,000 troops to the island, two-thirds died mostly due to yellow fever. He withdrew the remaining 7,000 troops and the black population achieved an independent republic they called Haïti in 1804, which became the first country in the Americas to abolish slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: Seeing the failure of the Saint-Domingue expedition, in 1803 Napoleon decided to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States.


title: Abolitionism

text: The French governments initially refused to recognize Haïti. It forced the nation to pay a substantial amount of reparations (which it could ill afford) for losses during the revolution and did not recognize its government until 1825.


title: Abolitionism

text: France was a signatory to the first multilateral treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, the Treaty for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade (1841), but the king, Louis Philippe I, declined to ratify it.


title: Abolitionism

text: On 27 April 1848, under the Second Republic (1848–1852), the decree-law written by Victor Schœlcher abolished slavery in the remaining colonies. The state bought the slaves from the "colons" (white colonists; "Békés" in Creole), and then freed them.


title: Abolitionism

text: At about the same time, France started colonizing Africa and gained possession of much of West Africa by 1900. In 1905, the French abolished slavery in most of French West Africa. The French also attempted to abolish Tuareg slavery following the Kaocen Revolt. In the region of the Sahel, slavery has however long persisted.


title: Abolitionism

text: Passed on 10 May 2001, the Taubira law officially acknowledges slavery and the Atlantic slave trade as a crime against humanity. 10 May was chosen as the day dedicated to recognition of the crime of slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: The last known form of enforced servitude of adults (villeinage) had disappeared in England by the beginning of the 17th century. In 1569 a court considered the case of Cartwright, who had bought a slave from Russia. The court ruled English law could not recognize slavery, as it was never established officially. This ruling was overshadowed by later developments; It was upheld in 1700 by the Lord Chief Justice John Holt when he ruled that a slave became free as soon as he arrived in England. During the English Civil Wars of the mid-seventeenth century, sectarian radicals challenged slavery and other threats to personal freedom. Their ideas influenced many antislavery thinkers in the eighteenth century.


title: Abolitionism

text: In addition to English colonists importing slaves to the North American colonies, by the 18th century, traders began to import slaves from Africa, India and East Asia (where they were trading) to London and Edinburgh to work as personal servants. Men who migrated to the North American colonies often took their East Indian slaves or servants with them, as East Indians have been documented in colonial records.


title: Abolitionism

text: Some of the first freedom suits, court cases in the British Isles to challenge the legality of slavery, took place in Scotland in 1755 and 1769. The cases were "Montgomery v. Sheddan" (1755) and "Spens v. Dalrymple" (1769). Each of the slaves had been baptized in Scotland and challenged the legality of slavery. They set the precedent of legal procedure in British courts that would later lead to successful outcomes for the plaintiffs. In these cases, deaths of the plaintiff and defendant, respectively, brought an end before court decisions.


title: Abolitionism

text: African slaves were not bought or sold in London but were brought by masters from other areas. Together with people from other nations, especially non-Christian, Africans were considered foreigners, not able to be English subjects. At the time, England had no naturalization procedure. The African slaves' legal status was unclear until 1772 and Somersett's Case, when the fugitive slave James Somersett forced a decision by the courts. Somersett had escaped, and his master, Charles Steuart, had him captured and imprisoned on board a ship, intending to ship him to Jamaica to be resold into slavery. While in London, Somersett had been baptized; three godparents issued a writ of "habeas corpus". As a result, Lord Mansfield, Chief Justice of the Court of the King's Bench, had to judge whether Somersett's abduction was lawful or not under English Common Law. No legislation had ever been passed to establish slavery in England. The case received national attention, and five advocates supported the action on behalf of Somersett.


title: Abolitionism

text: The state of slavery is of such a nature that it is incapable of being introduced on any reasons, moral or political, but only by positive law, which preserves its force long after the reasons, occasions, and time itself from whence it was created, is erased from memory. It is so odious, that nothing can be suffered to support it, but positive law. Whatever inconveniences, therefore, may follow from a decision, I cannot say this case is allowed or approved by the law of England; and therefore the black must be discharged.


title: Abolitionism

text: Although the exact legal implications of the judgement are unclear when analysed by lawyers, the judgement was generally taken at the time to have determined that slavery did not exist under English common law and was thus prohibited in England. The decision did not apply to the British overseas territories; by then, for example, the American colonies had established slavery by positive laws. Somersett's case became a significant part of the common law of slavery in the English-speaking world and it helped launch the movement to abolish slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: After reading about Somersett's Case, Joseph Knight, an enslaved African who had been purchased by his master John Wedderburn in Jamaica and brought to Scotland, left him. Married and with a child, he filed a freedom suit, on the grounds that he could not be held as a slave in Great Britain. In the case of "Knight v. Wedderburn" (1778), Wedderburn said that Knight owed him "perpetual servitude". The Court of Session of Scotland ruled against him, saying that chattel slavery was not recognized under the law of Scotland, and slaves could seek court protection to leave a master or avoid being forcibly removed from Scotland to be returned to slavery in the colonies.


title: Abolitionism

text: But at the same time, legally mandated, hereditary slavery of Scots persons in Scotland had existed from 1606 and continued until 1799, when colliers and salters were emancipated by an act of the Parliament of Great Britain (39 Geo.III. c. 56). Skilled workers, they were restricted to a place and could be sold with the works. A prior law enacted in 1775 (15 Geo. III. c. 28) was intended to end what the act referred to as "a state of slavery and bondage," but that was ineffective, necessitating the 1799 act.


title: Abolitionism

text: In the 1776 book "The Wealth of Nations", Adam Smith argued for the abolition of slavery on economic grounds. Smith pointed out that slavery incurred security, housing, and food costs that the use of free labour would not, and opined that free workers would be more productive because they would have personal economic incentives to work harder. The death rate (and thus repurchase cost) of slaves was also high, and people are less productive when not allowed to choose the type of work they prefer, are illiterate, and are forced to live and work in miserable and unhealthy conditions. The free labour markets and international free trade that Smith preferred would also result in different prices and allocations that Smith believed would be more efficient and productive for consumers.


title: Abolitionism

text: Prior to the American Revolution, there were few significant initiatives in the American colonies that led to the abolitionist movement. Some Quakers were active. Benjamin Kent was the lawyer who took on most of the cases of slaves suing their masters for personal illegal enslavement. He was the first lawyer to successfully establish a slave's freedom. In addition, Brigadier General Samuel Birch created the Book of Negroes, to establish which slaves were free after the war.


title: Abolitionism

text: In 1783, an anti-slavery movement began among the British public to end slavery throughout the British Empire.


title: Abolitionism

text: After the formation of the Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1787, William Wilberforce led the cause of abolition through the parliamentary campaign. Thomas Clarkson became the group's most prominent researcher, gathering vast amounts of data on the trade. One aspect of abolitionism during this period was the effective use of images such as the famous Josiah Wedgwood "Am I Not A Man and a Brother?" anti-slavery medallion of 1787. Clarkson described the medallion as "promoting the cause of justice, humanity and freedom". The 1792 Slave Trade Bill passed the House of Commons mangled and mutilated by the modifications and amendments of Pitt, it lay for years, in the House of Lords. Biographer William Hague considers the unfinished abolition of the slave trade to be Pitt's greatest failure. The Slave Trade Act was passed by the British Parliament on 25 March 1807, making the slave trade illegal throughout the British Empire. Britain used its influence to coerce other countries to agree to treaties to end their slave trade and allow the Royal Navy to seize their slave ships. Britain enforced the abolition of the trade because the act made trading slaves within British territories illegal. However, the act repealed the Amelioration Act 1798 which attempted to improve conditions for slaves. The end of the slave trade did not end slavery as a whole. Slavery was still a common practice.


title: Abolitionism

text: In the 1820s, the abolitionist movement revived to campaign against the institution of slavery itself. In 1823 the first Anti-Slavery Society, the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions, was founded. Many of its members had previously campaigned against the slave trade. On 28 August 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act was passed. It purchased the slaves from their masters and paved the way for the abolition of slavery throughout the British Empire by 1838, after which the first Anti-Slavery Society was wound up.


title: Abolitionism

text: In 1839, the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society was formed by Joseph Sturge, which attempted to outlaw slavery worldwide and also to pressure the government to help enforce the suppression of the slave trade by declaring slave traders to be pirates. The world's oldest international human rights organization, it continues today as Anti-Slavery International. Thomas Clarkson was the key speaker at the World Anti-Slavery Convention it held in London in 1840.


title: Abolitionism

text: In the principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, the government held slavery of the Roma (often referred to as Gypsies) as legal at the beginning of the 19th century. The progressive pro-European and anti-Ottoman movement, which gradually gained power in the two principalities, also worked to abolish that slavery. Between 1843 and 1855, the principalities emancipated all of the 250,000 enslaved Roma people.


title: Abolitionism

text: Bartolomé de las Casas was a 16th-century Spanish Dominican priest, the first resident Bishop of Chiapas (Central America, today Mexico). As a settler in the New World he witnessed and opposed the poor treatment and virtual slavery of the Native Americans by the Spanish colonists, under the encomienda system. He advocated before King Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor on behalf of rights for the natives.


title: Abolitionism

text: Las Casas for 20 years worked to get African slaves imported to replace natives; African slavery was everywhere and no one talked of ridding the New World of it, though France had abolished slavery in France itself and there was talk in other countries about doing the same. In fact, from a purely economic point of view Africans were better slaves, stronger and healthier, because the "Middle Passage" had selected for these traits. However, Las Casas had a late change of heart, and became an advocate for the Africans in the colonies.


title: Abolitionism

text: His book, "A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies", contributed to Spanish passage of colonial legislation known as the New Laws of 1542, which abolished native slavery for the first time in European colonial history. It ultimately led to the Valladolid debate, the first European debate about the rights of colonized people.


title: Abolitionism

text: During the early 19th century, slavery expanded rapidly in Brazil, Cuba, and the United States, while at the same time the new republics of mainland Spanish America became committed to the gradual abolition of slavery. During the Spanish American wars for independence (1810–1826), slavery was abolished in most of Latin America, though it continued until 1873 in Puerto Rico, 1886 in Cuba, and 1888 in Brazil (where it was abolished by the "Lei Áurea", the "Golden Law"). Chile declared freedom of wombs in 1811, followed by the United Provinces of the River Plate in 1813, Colombia and Venezuela in 1821, but without abolishing slavery completely. While Chile abolished slavery in 1823, Argentina did so with the signing of the Argentine Constitution of 1853. Peru abolished slavery in 1854. Colombia abolished slavery in 1851. Slavery was abolished in Uruguay during the "Guerra Grande", by both the government of Fructuoso Rivera and the government in exile of Manuel Oribe.


title: Abolitionism

text: Throughout the growth of slavery in the American South, Nova Scotia became a destination for black refugees leaving Southern Colonies and United States. While many blacks who arrived in Nova Scotia during the American Revolution were free, others were not. Black slaves also arrived in Nova Scotia as the property of White American Loyalists. In 1772, prior to the American Revolution, Britain determined that slavery could not exist in the British Isles followed by the Knight v. Wedderburn decision in Scotland in 1778. This decision, in turn, influenced the colony of Nova Scotia. In 1788, abolitionist James Drummond MacGregor from Pictou published the first anti-slavery literature in Canada and began purchasing slaves' freedom and chastising his colleagues in the Presbyterian church who owned slaves. In 1790 John Burbidge freed his slaves. Led by Richard John Uniacke, in 1787, 1789 and again on 11 January 1808, the Nova Scotian legislature refused to legalize slavery. Two chief justices, Thomas Andrew Lumisden Strange (1790–1796) and Sampson Salter Blowers (1797–1832) were instrumental in freeing slaves from their owners in Nova Scotia. They were held in high regard in the colony. By the end of the War of 1812 and the arrival of the Black Refugees, there were few slaves left in Nova Scotia. The Slave Trade Act outlawed the slave trade in the British Empire in 1807 and the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833 outlawed slavery altogether.


title: Abolitionism

text: With slaves escaping to New York and New England, legislation for gradual emancipation was passed in Upper Canada (1793) and Lower Canada (1803). In Upper Canada, the Act Against Slavery of 1793 was passed by the Assembly under the auspices of John Graves Simcoe. It was the first legislation against slavery in the British Empire. Under its provisions no new slaves could be imported, slaves already in the province would remain enslaved until death, and children born to female slaves would be slaves but must be freed at the age of 25. The last slaves in Canada gained their freedom when slavery was abolished in the entire British Empire by the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833.


title: Abolitionism

text: In his book "The Struggle For Equality", historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist "as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional, and total abolition of slavery in the United States". He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln or the Republican Party, which called for the gradual ending of slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: Benjamin Franklin, a slaveholder for much of his life, became a leading member of the Pennsylvania Society for the Abolition of Slavery, the first recognized organization for abolitionists in the United States. Following the American Revolutionary War, Northern states abolished slavery, beginning with the 1777 Constitution of Vermont, followed by Pennsylvania's gradual emancipation act in 1780. Other states with more of an economic interest in slaves, such as New York and New Jersey, also passed gradual emancipation laws, and by 1804, all the Northern states had abolished it, although this did not mean that already enslaved people were freed. Some had to work without wages as "indentured servants" for two more decades, although they could no longer be sold.


title: Abolitionism

text: Also in the post-Revolutionary years, individual slaveholders, especially in the Upper South, manumitted slaves, sometimes in their wills. (In the Deep South manumission was made difficult; in South Carolina every manumission required legislative approval, and the freed slaves had to leave the state immediately.) Many noted that they had been moved by the revolutionary ideals of the equality of men. The number of free black people as a proportion of the black population increased from less than one percent to nearly ten percent from 1790 to 1810 in the Upper South as a result of these actions.


title: Abolitionism

text: In the 1850s in the fifteen states constituting the American South, slavery was legally established. While it was fading away in the cities as well as in the border states, it remained strong in plantation areas that grew cotton for export, or sugar, tobacco, or hemp. According to the 1860 United States Census, the slave population in the United States had grown to four million. American abolitionism was based in the North, although there were anti-abolitionist riots in several cities. In the South abolitionism was illegal, and abolitionist publications, like The Liberator, could not be sent to Southern post offices. Amos Dresser, a white alumnus of Lane Theological Seminary, was publicly whipped in Nashville, Tennessee for possessing abolitionist publications.


title: Abolitionism

text: Abolitionism in the United States became a popular expression of moralism, operating in tandem with other social reform efforts, such as the temperance movement, and much more problematically, the women's suffrage movement.


title: Abolitionism

text: The white abolitionist movement in the North was led by social reformers, especially William Lloyd Garrison (founder of the American Anti-Slavery Society) and writers Wendell Phillips, John Greenleaf Whittier, and Harriet Beecher Stowe. Black activists included former slaves such as Frederick Douglass; and free blacks such as the brothers Charles Henry Langston and John Mercer Langston, who helped found the Ohio Anti-Slavery Society. Some abolitionists said that slavery was criminal and a sin; they also criticized slave owners of using black women as concubines and taking sexual advantage of them.


title: Abolitionism

text: The Republican Party wanted to achieve the gradual extinction of slavery by market forces, because its members believed that free labour was superior to slave labour. White southern leaders said that the Republican policy of blocking the expansion of slavery into the West made them second-class citizens, and they also said it challenged their autonomy. With the 1860 presidential victory of Abraham Lincoln, seven Deep South states whose economy was based on cotton and the labour of enslaved people decided to secede and form a new nation. The American Civil War broke out in April 1861 with the firing on Fort Sumter in South Carolina. When Lincoln called for troops to suppress the rebellion, four more slave states seceded. Meanwhile, four slave states (Maryland, Missouri, Delaware, and Kentucky) chose to remain in the Union.


title: Abolitionism

text: On 16 April 1862, Abraham Lincoln signed the District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, abolishing slavery in Washington D. C. Meanwhile, the Union suddenly found itself dealing with a steady stream of escaped slaves from the South rushing to Union lines. In response, Congress passed the Confiscation Acts, which essentially declared escaped slaves from the South to be confiscated war property, called contrabands, so that they would not be returned to their masters in the Confederacy. Although the initial act did not mention emancipation, the second Confiscation Act, passed on 17 July 1862, stated that escaped or liberated slaves belonging to anyone who participated in or supported the rebellion "shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves." Later on, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order of the U.S. government issued on 1 January 1863, changing the legal status of 3 million slaves in the Confederacy from "slave" to "forever free". Slaves were legally freed by the Proclamation and became actually free by escaping to federal lines, or by advances of federal troops. Many served the federal army as teamsters, cooks, laundresses, and labourers, as well as scouts, spies, and guides. Confederate General Robert Lee once said "The chief source of information to the enemy is through our negroes." Plantation owners sometimes moved the Blacks they claimed to own as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By "Juneteenth" (19 June 1865, in Texas), the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and liberated all its slaves. The owners were never compensated; nor were freed slaves compensated by former owners.


title: Abolitionism

text: The border states were exempt from the Emancipation Proclamation, but they too (except Delaware) began their own emancipation programmes. When the Union Army entered Confederate areas, thousands of slaves escaped to freedom behind Union Army lines, and in 1863 many men started serving as the United States Colored Troops.


title: Abolitionism

text: As the war dragged on, both the federal government and Union states continued to take measures against slavery. In June 1864, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, which required free states to aid in returning escaped slaves to slave states, was repealed. The state of Maryland abolished slavery on 13 October 1864. Missouri abolished slavery on 11 January 1865. West Virginia, which had been admitted to the Union in 1863 as a slave state, but on the condition of gradual emancipation, fully abolished slavery on 3 February 1865. The 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution took effect in December 1865, seven months after the end of the war, and finally ended slavery throughout the United States. It also abolished slavery among the Indian tribes, including the Alaska tribes that became part of the U.S. in 1867.


title: Abolitionism

text: White and Black opponents of slavery, who played a considerable role in the movement. This list includes some escaped slaves, who were traditionally called abolitionists.


title: Abolitionism

text: In societies with large proportions of the population working in conditions of slavery or serfdom, stroke-of-the-pen laws declaring abolition can have thorough-going social, economic and political consequences. Issues of compensation/redemption, land-redistribution and citizenship can prove intractable. For example:


title: Abolitionism

text: People in modern times have commemorated abolitionist movements and the abolition of slavery in different ways around the world. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2004 the International Year to Commemorate the Struggle against Slavery and its Abolition. This proclamation marked the bicentenary of the proclamation of the first modern slavery-free state, Haiti. Numerous exhibitions, events and research programmes became associated with the initiative.


title: Abolitionism

text: 2007 witnessed major exhibitions in British museums and galleries to mark the anniversary of the 1807 abolition act – 1807 Commemorated 2008 marked the 201st anniversary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade in the British Empire. It also marked the 175th anniversary of the abolition of slavery in the British Empire.


title: Abolitionism

text: The Faculty of Law at the University of Ottawa held a major international conference entitled, "Routes to Freedom: Reflections on the Bicentenary of the Abolition of the Slave Trade", from 14 to 16 March 2008.


title: Abolitionism

text: On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 4 states:


title: Abolitionism

text: No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.


title: Abolitionism

text: Although outlawed in most countries, slavery is nonetheless practised secretly in many parts of the world. Enslavement still takes place in the United States, Europe, and Latin America, as well as parts of Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. There are an estimated 27 million victims of slavery worldwide. In Mauritania alone, estimates are that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are enslaved. Many of them are used as bonded labour.


title: Abolitionism

text: Modern-day abolitionists have emerged over the last several years, as awareness of slavery around the world has grown, with groups such as Anti-Slavery International, the American Anti-Slavery Group, International Justice Mission, and Free the Slaves working to rid the world of slavery.


title: Abolitionism

text: In the United States, The Action Group to End Human Trafficking and Modern-Day Slavery is a coalition of NGOs, foundations and corporations working to develop a policy agenda for abolishing slavery and human trafficking. Since 1997, the United States Department of Justice has, through work with the Coalition of Immokalee Workers, prosecuted six individuals in Florida on charges of slavery in the agricultural industry. These prosecutions have led to freedom for over 1000 enslaved workers in the tomato and orange fields of South Florida. This is only one example of the contemporary fight against slavery worldwide. Slavery exists most widely in agricultural labour, apparel and sex industries, and service jobs in some regions.


title: Abolitionism

text: In 2000, the United States passed the Victims of Trafficking and Violence Protection Act (TVPA) "to combat trafficking in persons, especially into the sex trade, slavery, and involuntary servitude." The TVPA also "created new law enforcement tools to strengthen the prosecution and punishment of traffickers, making human trafficking a Federal crime with severe penalties."