title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Examining how to establish a new order, Hitler argued that the greatness of powerful organizations was reliant on intolerance of all others, so that the greatness of Christianity arose from the "unrelenting and fanatical proclamation and defence of its own teaching". Hitler rejected a view that Christianity brought civilization to the Germanic peoples, however: "It is therefore outrageously unjust to speak of the pre-Christian Germans as barbarians who had no civilization. They never have been such." Foreshadowing his conflict with the Catholic Church over euthanasia in Nazi Germany, Hitler wrote that the churches should give up missionary work in Africa, and concentrate on convincing Europeans that is more pleasing to God if they adopt orphans rather than "give life to a sickly child that will be a cause of suffering and unhappiness to all". The Christian churches should forget about their own differences and focus on the issue of "racial contamination", he declared.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: When he arrived in Vienna as a young man, Hitler claimed, he was not yet anti-Semitic: "In the Jew I still saw only a man who was of a different religion, and therefore, on grounds of human tolerance, I was against the idea that he should be attacked because he had a different faith." He thought that anti-Semitism based on religious, rather than racial grounds, was a mistake: "The anti-Semitism of the Christian-Socialists was based on religious instead of racial principles." Instead, Hitler argued that Jews should be deplored on the basis of their "race".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In an attempt to justify Nazi aggression, Hitler drew a parallel between militantism and Christianity's rise to power as the Roman Empire's official state religion:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Elsewhere in "Mein Kampf," Hitler speaks of the "creator of the universe" and "eternal Providence". He also states that the Aryan race was created by God, and that it would be a sin to dilute it through racial intermixing:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In Mein Kampf, Hitler saw Jesus as against the Jews rather than one of them: "And the founder of Christianity made no secret indeed of his estimation of the Jewish people. When He found it necessary, He drove those enemies of the human race out of the Temple of God."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Derek Hastings writes that, according to Hitler's personal photographer Heinrich Hoffmann, the strongly anti-Semitic Hieronymite Catholic priest Bernhard Stempfle was a member of Hitler's inner circle in the early 1920s and frequently advised him on religious issues. He helped Hitler in the writing of "Mein Kampf". He was killed by the SS in the 1934 purge.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Article 24 of Hitler's National Socialist Programme of 1920 had endorsed what it termed "positive Christianity", but placed religion below party ideology by adding the caveat that it must not offend "the moral sense of the German race". Nondenominational, the term could be variously interpreted, but allayed fears among Germany's Christian majority as to the oft-expressed anti-Christian convictions of large sections of the Nazi movement. It further proposed a definition of a "positive Christianity" which could combat the "Jewish-materialistic spirit".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1922, a decade before Hitler took power, former prime minister of Bavaria Count von Lerchenfeld-Köfering stated in a speech before the Landtag of Bavaria that his beliefs "as a man and a Christian" prevented him from being an anti-Semite or from pursuing anti-Semitic public policies. Hitler turned Lerchenfeld's perspective of Jesus on its head, telling a crowd in Munich:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In a 1928 speech, he said: "We tolerate no one in our ranks who attacks the ideas of Christianity ... in fact our movement is Christian."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In light of later developments, Rees notes, "The most persuasive explanation of [Hitler's] statements is that Hitler, as a politician, simply recognised the practical reality of the world he inhabited ... Had Hitler distanced himself or his movement too much from Christianity it is all but impossible to see how he could ever have been successful in a free election. Thus his relationship in public to Christianityindeed his relationship to religion in generalwas opportunistic. There is no evidence that Hitler himself, in his personal life, ever expressed any individual belief in the basic tenets of the Christian church". Richard Evans considers that the gap between Hitler's public and private pronouncements was due to a desire not to cause a quarrel with the churches that might undermine national unity.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1932, Hitler came up with the name German Christians ("Deutsche Christen") for a pro-Nazi group within Protestantism. "Hitler saw the relationship in political terms. He was not a practicing Christian, but had somehow succeeded in masking his own religious skepticism from millions of German voters", wrote Overy, who considered that Hitler found the arrangement useful for a time, but ultimately expected Christianity to wilt and die before "the advances of science". In this early period, the "German Christian" movement sought to make the Protestant churches in Germany an instrument of Nazi policy. Adherents promoted notions of racial superiority and race destiny. Hitler backed the formal establishment of the "German Christians" in 1932. It was nationalistic and anti-Semitic and some of its radicals called for repudiation of the Old Testament (the Hebrew Scriptures) and the Pauline epistles of the New Testamentbecause of their Jewish authorship.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler's movement was not united on questions of religion. The consensus among historians is that Nazism as a whole was either unrelated to Christianity or actively opposed to it. Use of the term "positive Christianity" in the Nazi Party Program of the 1920s is generally regarded as a tactical measure, rooted in politics rather than religious conviction. Author Steigmann-Gall has put forward a minority interpretation, that positive Christianity had an "inner logic" and been "more than a political ploy". He believes Hitler saw Jesus as an Aryan opponent of the Jews. Though anti-Christians later fought to "expunge Christian influence from Nazism" and the movement became "increasingly hostile to the churches", Steigmann-Gall wrote that even in the end, it was not "uniformly anti-Christian".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Samuel Koehne, a Research Fellow at the Alfred Deakin Research Institute, working on the official Nazi views on religion, answers the question "Was Hitler a Christian?" thus: "Emphatically not, if we consider Christianity in its traditional or orthodox form: Jesus as the son of God, dying for the redemption of the sins of all humankind. It is nonsense to state that Hitler (or any of the Nazis) adhered to Christianity of this form. ... However, it is equally true that there were leading Nazis who adhered to a form of Christianity that had been 'aryanised.'" and "Was Hitler an atheist? Probably not."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Prior to the Reichstag vote for the Enabling Act of 1933, under which Hitler gained the "temporary" dictatorial powers with which he went on to permanently dismantle the Weimar Republic, Hitler promised the German Parliament that he would not interfere with the rights of the churches. However, with power secured in Germany, Hitler quickly broke this promise.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Through 1933 and into 1934, the Nazi leader required a level of support from groups like the German conservatives and the Catholic Centre Party in the Reichstag, and of the conservative President von Hindenburg, in order to achieve his takeover of power with the "appearance of legality". In a proclamation on February 1, 1933, Hitler stated, "The National Government will regard it as its first and foremost duty to revive in the nation the spirit of unity and co-operation. It will preserve and defend those basic principles on which our nation has been built. It regards Christianity as the foundation of our national morality, and the family as the basis of national life."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: On 21 March 1933, the Reichstag assembled in the Potsdam Garrison Church, to show the "unity" of National Socialism with the old conservative Germany of President von Hindenburg. Two days later, the Nazis secured passage of the Enabling Act, granting Hitler dictatorial powers. Less than three months later all non-Nazi parties and organizations, including the Catholic Centre Party had ceased to exist.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler sought to gain the votes of the Catholic Centre Party and German conservatives for the Enabling Act with a mix of intimidation, negotiation and conciliation. On 23 March 1933, just prior to the vote for the Enabling Act, he described the Christian faiths as "essential elements for safeguarding the soul of the German people" and "We hold the spiritual forces of Christianity to be indispensable elements in the moral uplift of most of the German people." "With an eye to the votes of the Catholic Centre Party", wrote Shirer, he added that he hoped to improve relations with the Holy See.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: The Centre Party asked for guarantees of the rights of the churches. Hitler promised that the institutions of the Weimar Republic and churches would be protected, and said his government saw the churches as "the most important factors for upholding our nationhood". Amid threats and talk of civil war, the Centre Party voted for the Act. Hitler's false promises of protection for the churches and institutions of the republic were never kept.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In January 1934, Hitler angered the churches by appointing the neo-pagan Alfred Rosenberg as official Nazi ideologist. The Fuhrer launched an effort toward coordination of German Protestants under a unified Protestant Reich Church under the "Deutsche Christen" Movement, but the attempt failedresisted by the Confessing Church. In "The Aryan Jesus: Christian Theologians and the Bible in Nazi Germany", Susannah Heschel noted that the "Deutsche Christens" differed from traditional Christians by rejecting the Hebrew origins of Christianity. In public statements made during his rule, Hitler continued to speak positively about a Nazi vision of Christian German culture, and his belief in an Aryan Christ. Hitler added that Saint Paul, as a Jew, had falsified Jesus' messagea theme Hitler repeated in private conversations, including, in October 1941, when he made the decision to murder the Jews.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Ian Kershaw said that Hitler had lost interest in supporting the "Deutsche Christen" from around 1934. However, in a speech 26 June 1934, Hitler stated:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1937, Hans Kerrl, Hitler's Minister for Church Affairs, explained "positive Christianity" as not "dependent upon the Apostle's Creed", nor in "faith in Christ as the son of God", upon which Christianity relied, but rather, as being represented by the Nazi Party: "The Fuehrer is the herald of a new revelation", he said.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: During negotiations leading to the Reichskonkordat with the Vatican, Hitler said, "Secular schools can never be tolerated because such schools have no religious instruction, and a general moral instruction without a religious foundation is built on air; consequently, all character training and religion must be derived from faith." However, as Hitler consolidated his power, schools became a major battleground in the Nazi campaign against the churches. In 1937, the Nazis banned any member of the Hitler Youth from simultaneously belonging to a religious youth movement. Religious education was not permitted in the Hitler Youth and by 1939, clergymen teachers had been removed from virtually all state schools. Hitler sometimes allowed pressure to be placed on German parents to remove children from religious classes to be given ideological instruction in its place, while in elite Nazi schools, Christian prayers were replaced with Teutonic rituals and sun-worship. By 1939 all Catholic denominational schools had been disbanded or converted to public facilities.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: The propaganda of the Nazi party actively promoted Hitler as a saviour of Christianity and Nazi propaganda supported the "German Christians" in their formation of a single national church that could be controlled and manipulated.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: According to Bullock, as an adolescent in Vienna, Hitler read widely, including books on occultism, hypnotism, and astrology. However, his interest in these subjects was fleeting, and there is no evidence that he ever subscribed to any of these schools of thought. Bullock found "no evidence to support the once popular belief that Hitler resorted to astrology" and wrote that Hitler ridiculed those like Himmler in his own party who wanted to re-establish pagan mythology, and Hess who believed in Astrology. Albert Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view toward Himmler and Rosenberg's mystical notions. Speer quotes Hitler as having said of Himmler's attempt to mythologize the SS:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In a speech he made in Nuremberg on September 6, 1938, Hitler said that Christian mysticism creates dark forces, that there are no places of worship - but places of national anthem - that there are no cult places, there are national places, besides, he rejected mysticism and occultism:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Corroborating to the Nuremberg speech on September 6, 1938, about Hitler's view on Church's architecture which according to Hitler was inspired from "Christian mysticism", which produced "dark forces", we find a similar thought, Hitler expressed to Goebbels, about the "gloomy Cathedral", where he prefers the ancient Greek and Roman temples which according to Hiler was "light, airy" in contrast to the "gloomy" Gothic Cathedrals. It is also important to note Hitler forbade bombing Athens when Greece was invaded, due to his love for the ancient Greek temples/architecture, while the beautiful Christian cathedral in Coventry, England was specifically targeted by Luftwaffe:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: According to Ron Rosenbaum, some scholars believe the young Hitler was strongly influenced, particularly in his racial views, by an abundance of occult works on the mystical superiority of the Germans, like the occult and anti-Semitic magazine "Ostara", and give credence to the claim of its publisher Lanz von Liebenfels that Hitler visited him in 1909 and praised his work. John Toland wrote that evidence indicates Hitler was a regular reader of "Ostara". Toland also included a poem that Hitler allegedly wrote while serving in the German Army on the Western Front in 1915.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: The seminal work on Ariosophy, "The Occult Roots of Nazism" by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, devotes its last chapter the topic of "Ariosophy and Adolf Hitler". Not at least due to the difficulty of sources, historians disagree about the importance of Ariosophy for Hitler's religious views. As noted in the foreword of "The Occult Roots of Nazism" by Rohan Butler, Goodrick-Clarke is more cautious in assessing the influence of Lanz von Liebenfels on Hitler than Joachim Fest in his biography of Hitler.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Comparing him to Erich Ludendorff, Fest writes: "Hitler had detached himself from such affections, in which he encountered the obscurantism of his early years, Lanz v. Liebenfels and the Thule Society, again, long ago and had, in "Mein Kampf", formulated his scathing contempt for that völkish romanticism, which however his own cosmos of imagination preserved rudimentarily."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: It is not clear if this statement is an attack at anyone specific. It could have been aimed at Karl Harrer or at the Strasser group. According to Goodrick-Clarke, "In any case, the outburst clearly implies Hitler's contempt for conspiratorial circles and occult-racist studies and his preference for direct activism." Hitler also said something similar in public speeches.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Older literature states that Hitler had no intention of instituting worship of the ancient Germanic gods in contrast to the beliefs of some other Nazi officials. In "Hitler's Table Talk" one can find this quote:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Jackson Spielvogel and David Redles in an article published by the Simon Wiesenthal Center assert alleged influences of various portions of the teachings of H.P. Blavatsky, the founder of The Theosophical Society with doctrines as expounded by her book "The Secret Doctrine", and the adaptations of her ideas by her followers, through Ariosophy, the Germanenorden and the Thule Society, constituted a popularly unacknowledged but decisive influence over the developing mind of Hitler. The scholars state that Hitler himself may be responsible for turning historians from investigating his occult influences. While he publicly condemned and even persecuted occultists, Freemasons, and astrologers, his nightly private talks disclosed his belief in the ideas of these competing occult groupsdemonstrated by his discussion of reincarnation, Atlantis, world ice theory, and his belief that esoteric myths and legends of cataclysm and battles between gods and titans were a vague collective memory of monumental early events.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In his childhood, Hitler had admired the pomp of Catholic ritual and the hierarchical organization of the clergy. Later he drew on these elements, organizing his party along hierarchical lines and including liturgical forms into events or using phraseology taken from hymns. Because of these liturgical elements, Daim's claim of Hitler's messiah-like status and the ideology's totalitarian nature, the Nazi movement, like other fascist movements and communism, is sometimes termed a "political religion" that is anti-ecclesiastical and anti-religious.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Although Hitler expressed negative views towards the mystical notions of some of his senior Nazi underlings in private, he nevertheless appointed Heinrich Himmler and Alfred Rosenberg to senior positions in the Nazi movement. William Shirer wrote that, "under the leadership of Rosenberg, Bormann and Himmlerbacked by Hitlerthe Nazi regime intended to destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and substitute the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods with the new paganism of the Nazi extremists". The regime launched an effort toward coordination of German Protestants under a unified Protestant Reich Church (but this was resisted by the Confessing Church), and moved early to eliminate political Catholicism. Blainey wrote: "Nazism itself was a religion, a pagan religion, and Hitler was its high priest ... Its high altar [was] Germany itself and the German people, their soil and forests and language and traditions".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In 1924, during his imprisonment, Hitler had chosen Alfred Rosenberg to lead the Nazi movement in his absence. In his seminal 1930 work "The Myth of the Twentieth Century", Rosenberg wrote: "We now realize that the central supreme values of the Roman and the Protestant Churches ... hinder the organic powers of the peoples determined by their Nordic race, ... they will have to be remodeled". Hitler had called his book "derivative, pastiche, illogical rubbish!" But in January 1934, Hitler appointed Rosenberg as the cultural and educational leader of the Reich – the official Nazi philosopher and ideologist. Rosenberg was notoriously anti-Christian. Church officials were perturbed by Hitler's appointment of Rosenberg as Nazi philosopher as it apparently endorsed Rosenberg's anti-church and neo-pagan philosophy. The Vatican banned "The Myth of the Twentieth Century" in February 1934. During the war, Rosenberg outlined the future he envisioned for religion in Germany. Among its articles: the National Reich Church of Germany was to claim exclusive control over all churches; publication of the Bible was to cease; crucifixes, Bibles and saints were to be removed from altars; and Mein Kampf was to be placed on altars as "to the German nation and therefore to God the most sacred book"; and the Christian Cross was to be removed from all churches and replaced with the swastika. But Rosenberg was, in the end, a marginalised figure in the Hitler regime.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler selected Heinrich Himmler to head the Nazi "Schutzstaffel" (SS) security forces. Himmler saw the main task of the SS to be that of "acting as the vanguard in overcoming Christianity and restoring a 'Germanic' way of living" in order to prepare for the coming conflict between "humans and subhumans": He set about making his SS the focus of a "cult of the Teutons". In 1937 he wrote that it was "the mission of the SS to give the German people in the next half century the non-Christian ideological foundations on which to lead and shape their lives. This task does not consist solely in overcoming an ideological opponent but must be accompanied at every step by a positive impetus: in this case that means the reconstruction of the German heritage in the widest and most comprehensive sense."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler viewed atheists as uneducated, and atheism as the state of the animals. He associated atheism with Bolshevism, communism, and "Jewish materialism". Richard Overy cited Hitler's belief in racial biology as evidence of scientific views and atheism, but stated that Hitler was not a thorough atheist in that sense because of his theistic and spiritual ideologies:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: The historian Geoffrey Blainey wrote that Hitler courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant Communist atheism. "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Blainey, and with the National Socialists becoming the main opponent of Communism in Germany: "[Hitler] himself saw Christianity as a temporary ally, for in his opinion 'one is either a Christian or a German'. To be both was impossible." In early 1933, Hitler publicly defended National Socialism against charges that it was anti-Christian. Responding to accusations by Eugen Bolz, the Catholic Centre Party Staatspräsident of Württemberg, that the National Socialist movement threatened the Christian faith, he said:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In a radio address October 14, 1933 Hitler stated, "For eight months we have been waging a heroic battle against the Communist threat to our Volk, the decomposition of our culture, the subversion of our art, and the poisoning of our public morality. We have put an end to denial of God and abuse of religion. We owe Providence humble gratitude for not allowing us to lose our battle against the misery of unemployment and for the salvation of the German peasant."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In a speech delivered in Berlin, October 24, 1933, Hitler stated: "We were convinced that the people needs and requires this faith. We have therefore undertaken the fight against the atheistic movement, and that not merely with a few theoretical declarations: we have stamped it out." In a speech delivered at Koblenz, August 26, 1934 Hitler said: "There may have been a time when even parties founded on the ecclesiastical basis were a necessity. At that time Liberalism was opposed to the Church, while Marxism was anti-religious. But that time is past. National Socialism neither opposes the Church nor is it anti-religious, but on the contrary, it stands on the ground of a real Christianity. The Church's interests cannot fail to coincide with ours alike in our fight against the symptoms of degeneracy in the world of today, in our fight against the Bolshevist culture, against an atheistic movement, against criminality, and in our struggle for the consciousness of a community in our national life, for the conquest of hatred and disunion between the classes, for the conquest of civil war and unrest, of strife and discord. These are not anti-Christian, these are Christian principles."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler's choice of the swastika as the Nazis' main and official symbol was linked to the belief in the Aryan cultural descent of the German people. They considered the early Aryans to be the prototypical White invaders and the sign of the swastika to be a symbol of the Aryan master race. The theory was inspired by the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna, who argued that the ancient Aryans were a superior Nordic race from northern Germany who expanded into the steppes of Eurasia, and from there into India, where they established the Vedic religion.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler's views on Islam are a matter of controversy. On the one hand, Hitler privately demeaned ethnic groups he associated with Islam, notably Arabs, as racially inferior. On the other hand, he also made private and public statements expressing admiration for what he perceived to be the militaristic nature of Islam and the political sharpness of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Among eastern religions, Hitler described religious leaders such as "Confucius, Buddha, and Muhammad" as providers of "spiritual sustenance". In this context, Hitler's connection to Mohammad Amin al-Husseini, who served as the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem until 1937 – which included his asylum in 1941 – has been interpreted by some as a sign of respect, while others characterize it as a relationship born out of political expediency. Starting in 1933, al-Husseini, who had launched a campaign to both expel the British from the Middle East and Jews from both Egypt and Palestine, became impressed by the Jewish boycott policies which the Nazis were enforcing in Germany, and hoped that he could use the anti-semitic views which many in the Arab region shared with Hitler's regime in order to forge a strategic military alliance that would help him eliminate the Jews from Palestine. Despite al-Husseini's attempts to reach out to Germany, Hitler refused to form such an alliance with al-Husseini, fearing that it would weaken relations with Britain.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: During the unsuccessful 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine, Husseini and his allies took the opportunity to strengthen relations with Germany and enforced the spread of Nazi customs and propaganda throughout their strongholds in Palestine as a gesture of respect. In Egypt, the Muslim Brotherhood would follow al-Husseini's lead. Hitler's influence soon spread throughout the region, but it was not until 1937 that the Nazi government agreed to grant al-Husseini and the Muslim Brotherhood's request for financial and military assistance.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: During a meeting with a delegation of distinguished Arab figures, Hitler learned of how Islam motivated the Umayyad Caliphate during the Islamic invasion of Gaul. According to Albert Speer, Hitler wished that the Caliphate had won the Battle of Tours against the Franks in 732: "The Mohammedan religion would have been much more compatible to us than Christianity. Why did it have to be Christianity with its meekness and flabbiness?" "Had Charles Martel not been victorious at Poitiersalready, you see, the world had fallen into the hands of the Jews, so gutless a thing was Christianity!then we should in all probability have been converted to Mohammedanism, that cult which glorifies heroism and which opens the seventh Heaven to the bold warrior alone. Then the Germanic races would have conquered the world. Christianity alone prevented them from doing so." According to Speer, Hitler was convinced that had Islam taken root in central Europe at this time, the Germanic people would have become the "heirs of that religion" with Islam being "perfectly suited to the Germanic temperament". Hitler said that while the Arabs, on account of their "racial inferiority", would have been unable to handle the harsh climate and conditions of the region, and that instead the Islamized Germans would have "stood at the head of this Mohammedan Empire". A "religion that believed in spreading the faith by the sword and in subjugating all nations to that faith".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Notwithstanding Hitler's apparent admiration for Islam and Muhammad, and his willingness to work with Arab political leaders, he viewed Arab people as racial and social inferiors. Speer acknowledged that in private, Hitler regarded Arabs as an inferior race and that the relationship he had with various Muslim figures was more political than personal.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler was also quoted in the early war years stating, "We shall continue to make disturbances in the Far East and in Arabia. Let us think as men and let us see in these peoples at best lacquered half-apes who are anxious to experience the lash." Nevertheless, Hitler simultaneously made positive references about Muslim culture and Muslims as potential collaborators, such as: "The peoples of Islam will always be closer to us than, for example, France".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In spite of Hitler's conflicting opinions on Islam and Arabs, in a letter to President Roosevelt during the war, Churchill pointed out that Muslim soldiers were providing "the main army elements on which we [the British] must rely for the immediate fighting." Many Muslims have sacrificed themselves to save Jews and fight the Nazis the like of Noor Inayat Khan, Behic Erkin, Abdol-Hossein Sardari, and Si Kaddour Benghabrit the founder of the Great Mosque of Paris.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: National Socialist ideology developed a racial hierarchy which placed minority groups – most especially the Jews – as subhuman. The categorization was based on the Nazi conception of race, and not on religion, thus Slavs and Poles (who were overwhelmingly Christian) were also grouped as inferior to the so-called "Aryan" peoples. Hitler espoused a ruthless policy of "negative eugenic selection", believing that world history consisted of a struggle for survival between races, in which the Jews plotted to undermine the Germans, and inferior groups like Slavs and defective individuals in the German gene pool, threatened the Aryan "master race". However, Hitler also had ideological objections to Judaism as a faith, and some of Hitler's antipathy towards Pauline Christianity (as opposed to his "Nordic Jesusism") flowed from its Jewish origins, as he saw (Pauline) Christianity as "indelibly Jewish in origin and character" and a "prototype of Bolshevism", which "violated the law of natural selection".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Writing for the public in "Mein Kampf", Hitler described the Jews as enemies of all civilization and as materialistic, unspiritual beings: "His life is only of this world, and his spirit is inwardly as alien to true Christianity as his nature two thousand years previous was to the great founder of the new doctrine." In the work, he also described a supposedly divine mandate for his anti-Semitism: "Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance with the will of the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I am fighting for the work of the Lord."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: During negotiations for the Concordat between the Catholic Church and Germany in 1933, Hitler said to Bishop Wilhelm Berning: "I have been attacked because of my handling of the Jewish question. The Catholic Church considered the Jews pestilent for fifteen hundred years, put them in ghettos, etc, because it recognised the Jews for what they were. In the epoch of liberalism the danger was no longer recognised. I am moving back toward the time in which a fifteen-hundred-year-long tradition was implemented. I do not set race over religion, but I recognise the representatives of this race as pestilant for the state and for the church and perhaps I am thereby doing Christianity a great service by pushing them out of schools and public functions".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Scholarly interest continues on the extent to which inherited, long-standing, cultural-religious notions of anti-Judaism in Christian Europe contributed to Hitler's personal racial anti-Semitism, and what influence a pseudo-scientific "primitive version of social-Darwinism", mixed with 19th century imperialist notions, brought to bear on his psychology. While Hitler's views on these subjects have often been called "social Darwinist", Hitler's grasp of the subject has been argued to have been incomplete, there is little agreement among historians as to what the term may mean, or how it transformed from its 19th-century scientific origins, to become a central component of a genocidal political ideology in the 20th century.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: According to historian Lucy Dawidowicz, anti-Semitism has a long history within Christianity, and the line of "anti-Semitic descent" from Luther to Hitler is "easy to draw". In her "The War Against the Jews, 1933–1945", she writes that Luther and Hitler were obsessed by the "demonologized universe" inhabited by Jews. Dawidowicz states that the similarities between Luther's anti-Semitic writings and modern anti-Semitism are no coincidence, because they derived from a common history of "Judenhass" which can be traced to Haman's advice to Ahasuerus, although modern German anti-Semitism also has its roots in German nationalism. Writers including Heschel and Toland, have drawn links between Hitler's Catholic background and his anti-Semitism. Catholic historian José M. Sánchez argues that the anti-Semitism that led to the Holocaust was explicitly rooted in Christianity:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Laurence Rees in contrast, notes that there is little emphasis on Christianity in "Mein Kampf", which presents a view of the universe conspicuously at odds with traditional Christian notions long established in Germany. Hitler's vision is ordered instead around principles of struggle between weak and strong. Rees argues that Hitler's "bleak and violent vision" and visceral hatred of the Jews had been influenced by sources outside the Christian tradition. The notion of life as struggle Hitler drew from social Darwinism, the notion of the superiority of the "Aryan race" he drew from Arthur de Gobineau's "The Inequality of the Human Races"; from events following Russia's surrender in World War One when Germany seized agricultural lands in the East he formed the idea of colonising the Soviet Union; and from Alfred Rosenberg he took the idea of a link between Judaism and Bolshevism, writes Rees.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Richard J. Evans notes that Hitler "used his own version of the language of social Darwinism as a central element in the discursive practice of extermination...", and the language of Social Darwinism, in its Nazi variant, helped to remove all restraint from the directors of the "terroristic and exterminatory" policies of the regime, by "persuading them that what they were doing was justified by history, science and nature". Fest considers that Hitler simplified de Gobineau's elaborate ideas of struggle for survival among the different races, from which the Aryan race, guided by providence, was supposed to be the torchbearers of civilization.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In his rhetoric Hitler fed on the old accusation of Jewish deicide. It has been speculated that Christian anti-Judaism influenced Hitler's ideas, especially such works as Martin Luther's essay "On the Jews and Their Lies" and the writings of Paul de Lagarde. Others disagree with this view. Hitler biographer John Toland offers the opinion that Hitler "carried within him its teaching that the Jew was the killer of God. The extermination, therefore, could be done without a twinge of conscience since he was merely acting as the avenging hand of God ..." Toland wrote that in 1941 Hitler was still "a member in good standing of the Church of Rome despite his detestation of its hierarchy" and "he carried within himself its teaching that the Jew was the killer of God. The extermination, therefore, could be done without a twinge of conscience since he was merely acting as the avenging hand of Godso long as it was done impersonally, without cruelty."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In the aftermath of World War II, a Soviet major who asserted Hitler's survival speculated that "It is possible that the man wishes to surround himself with the legend of Jesus Christ," implying that the escaped dictator would ape a main tenet of Christianity, the resurrection of Jesus.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Smaller religious minorities faced harsher repression, with the Jews of Germany expelled for extermination on the grounds of Nazi racial ideology. Jehovah's Witnesses were ruthlessly persecuted for refusing both military service and allegiance to Hitler's movement.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Nazi ideology could not accept an autonomous establishment whose legitimacy did not spring from the government. It desired the subordination of church to state. Nevertheless, Nazi Germany was not formally atheist, and other than for Jews and Jehovah's Witnesses, religious observance was permitted. Julian Baggini wrote that Hitler's Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state", but one which "sacralized" notions of blood and nation.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler feared the results of overt attacks on the deep-rooted German churches, as around two thirds of Germans were Protestant and most of the rest were Roman Catholic. German conservative elements, such as the officer corps of the army, opposed Nazi efforts against the churches, and Hitler needed to show caution. The Hitler regime responded to the ideological challenge of Christian morality using political repression and persecution and by challenging Christian teachings through education and propaganda. Some scholars, such as Richard Steigmann-Gall, argue that while there were anti-Christian Nazis, they did not represent the movement's position.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Hitler possessed radical instincts in relation to the Nazi conflict with the Churches, and though he occasionally spoke of wanting to delay a struggle and was prepared to restrain his anti-clericalism out of political considerations, Kershaw considers that his "own inflammatory comments gave his immediate underlings all the license they needed to turn up the heat in the 'Church Struggle.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: According to Overy, Hitler "wanted to neutralise any political threat from organised religion ... The first step was to reach agreement with the Roman Catholic Church, whose theology was not susceptible to the new nationalist trends". Hitler dispatched the Catholic conservative Franz von Papen to negotiate a Concordat with the Vatican. He obtained an agreement that clergy would refrain from politics, in return for guarantees of Church rights. Hitler was delighted, and received the congratulations of German Catholic leaders. However, violations of the treaty began almost as soon as it was signed. Hitler promulgated the sterilization law, and began work to dissolve the Catholic Youth League. Clergy, nuns and lay leaders began to be targeted, leading to thousands of arrests over the ensuing years, often on trumped up charges of currency smuggling or "immorality". Catholic publications were shut down. The Gestapo began to violate the sanctity of the confessional.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: As Hitler's genocidal plans began to manifest, Catholic priests and bishops held no public protests. Instead, they prayed in support of Germany's cause, seeking to show that their support for Hitler was undiminished.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: By early 1937, the church hierarchy in Germany, which had initially attempted to co-operate with Hitler, had become highly disillusioned and Pope Pius XI issued the "Mit brennender Sorge" encyclicalaccusing Germany of violations of the Concordat and of sowing the tares of "open fundamental hostility to Christ and His Church", and denounced the pagan myth of "blood and soil". Hitler's invasion of the predominantly Catholic Poland in 1939 ignited the Second World War. Kerhsaw wrote that, in Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of the East, "There would, he made clear, be no place in this utopia for the Christian Churches".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: On Protestantism, Hitler proposed to unite Germany's 28 Protestant churches into one Reich Church, which was the German Evangelical Church. Hitler stated to Albert Speer, "Through me the Protestant Church could become the established church, as in England." Steigmann-Gall wrote that Hitler demonstrated a preference for Protestantism over Catholicism, as Protestantism was more liable to reinterpretation and a non-traditional readings, more receptive to "positive Christianity", and because some of its liberal branches had held similar views. Hitler's interest was opportunistic: "From Hitler's point of view, a national church was of interest purely from a point of view of control and manipulation", wrote Kershaw. He installed his friend Ludwig Müller as leader of the movement and sought to establish a pro-Nazi and anti-Semitic unified Reich Church. Resistance quickly arose in the form of the Pastors' Emergency League, led by Martin Niemöller, which had 40% of clergy by 1934 and founded the Confessing Church, from which some clergymen opposed the Nazi regime.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: When "German Christians" called for rejection of the Bible as "Jewish superstition" and of the Christian calling to "love thy neighbour", the movement lost still further support. Hitler's move to have Müller elected Bishop failed – despite intimidation. He then abandoned his efforts to unite the Protestant churches, appointed Hans Kerrl as Minister for Church Affairs in December 1934, and distanced himself permanently from the so-called "German Christians". According to Steigmann-Gall, he regretted that "the churches had failed to back him and his movement as he had hoped". A relative moderate, Kerrl initially had some success but amid continuing protests by the Confessing Church against Nazi policies, he accused dissident churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil". Kerrl said Nazi positive Christianity rejected the Apostle's Creed and Divinity of Christ as the basis of Christianity, and called Hitler the herald of a new revelation. Hitler had Neimoller sent to the Concentration Camps in 1938, where he remained until war's end. Hitler largely ignored Kerrl, who died in office in 1941 and was not replaced.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: From the mid 1930s, the Nazi movement came increasingly to be led by vehement anti-Christians, whom Hitler appointed to key positions. As with the "Jewish question", the radicals pushed the Church struggle forward, especially in Catholic areas, so that by the winter of 1935–1936 there was growing dissatisfaction with the Nazis in those areas. Kershaw wrote that in early 1937, Hitler again told his inner circle that though he "did not want a 'Church struggle' at this juncture", he expected "the great world struggle in a few years' time". Nevertheless, wrote Kershaw, Hitler's impatience with the churches "prompted frequent outbursts of hostility. In early 1937 he was declaring that 'Christianity was ripe for destruction', and that the Churches must yield to the "primacy of the state", railing against any compromise with "the most horrible institution imaginable". Priests were frequently denounced, arrested and sent to concentration camps. At Dachau, the regime established a dedicated Clergy Barracks for church dissidents. The Confessing Church seminary was banned. Its leaders, like Dietrich Bonhoeffer were arrested. Implicated in the 1944 July Plot to assassinate Hitler, he was later executed.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Overy wrote that Christianity was ultimately as incompatible with National Socialism as it was with Soviet Communism and that "Hitler expected the end of the disease of Christianity to come about by itself once the falsehoods were self-evident. During the war he reflected that in the long run 'National Socialism and religion will no longer be able to exist together'." Other historians have written of a more active intent on the part of Hitler and the Nazi leadership. Kershaw noted that Hitler's scheme for the Germanization of Eastern Europe saw no place for Christian churches and that Goebbels wrote from conversations with Hitler that there was an insoluble opposition between the Christian and a Germanic-heroic world-view which would need settling after the war. Speer noted in his memoir that churches were not to receive building sites in Hitler's new Berlin. Bullock wrote "once the war was over, Hitler promised himself, he would root out and destroy the influence of the Christian Churches". The Nazi plan was to "de-Christianise Germany after the final victory", writes historian of German Resistance Anton Gill. "By the latter part of the decade of the thirties church officials were well aware that the ultimate aim of Hitler and other Nazis was the total elimination of Catholicism and of the Christian religion. Since the overwhelming majority of Germans were either Catholic or Protestant this goal had to be a long-term rather than a short-term Nazi objective", wrote Michael Phayer.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: In its brief of evidence for the Nuremberg Trials concerning the Nazi persecution of the churches, the American Office of Strategic Services (a forerunner to the CIA) compiled a report entitled "The Nazi Master Plan" which examined the Nazi persecution of the churches and found that the Hitler regime had a plan to subvert and destroy German Christianity. The investigator wrote:


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: According to Kershaw, in 1937 Goebbels noted Hitler was becoming more radical on the 'Church Question', and indicated that, though current political circumstances required waiting, his long term plan was to eventually dissolve the Reich concordat with Rome, detach the church entirely from the state and turn the entire force of the party to 'the destruction of the clerics', and end the Peace of Westphalia in a 'great world showdown'. In 1941, when Bishop Galen protested against Nazi Euthanasia and seizures of church properties, although Hitler's sympathies lay with the radicals who wanted Galen dead and church properties seized, he calculated that this would turn Catholic areas still further against the regime. "Only the need for peace in relation with the churches to avoid deteriorating morale on the home front determined his stance", wrote Kershaw, "Events in the Warthegau (where by 1941 94% of churches and chapels in the Posen-Gnesen diocese were closed, 11% of the clergy were murdered, and most of the remainder thrust into prisons and concentration camps) showed the face of the future."


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: The National Socialist movement was not formally atheist, and generally allowed religious observance. Julian Baggini wrote that Hitler's Germany was not a "straightforwardly atheist state", but one which "sacrilized" notions of blood and nation. On October 13, 1933, Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess issued a decree stating: "No National Socialist may suffer any detriment on the ground that he does not profess any particular faith or confession or on the ground that he does not make any religious profession at all." However, "The aggressive spread of atheism in the Soviet Union alarmed many German Christians", wrote Geoffrey Blainey and Hitler saw Christianity as a "temporary ally" against Bolshevism, and courted and benefited from fear among German Christians of militant Communist atheism. In that same year the regime banned most atheistic and freethinking groups in Germanyother than those that supported the Nazis.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: When criticised for anti-Christian sentiments in February 1933, Hitler claimed that it was the Nazis not the Catholic Centre Party that had taken on atheist politics. When negotiating the concordat with the Catholic Church, Hitler said he supported religious education in schools. Once in office however, Hitler then pursued a policy of suppression of denominational schools and church youth organizations. Clergymen teachers were removed from virtually all state schools. By 1939 all denominational schools had been disbanded or converted to public facilities. In that year, Evans notes, some 95% of Germans still called themselves Protestant or Catholic, while only 3.5% "Deist" ("gottgläubig") and 1.5% atheist. Most in these latter categories were "convinced Nazis who had left their Church at the behest of the Party, which had been trying since the mid 1930s to reduce the influence of Christianity in society".


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: John Conway notes that the majority of the three million Nazi Party members continued to pay their church taxes and register as either Roman Catholic or Protestant Christians, "despite all Rosenberg's efforts." Aggressive anti-Church radicals like Joseph Goebbels and Martin Bormann saw the "kirchenkampf" campaign against the Churches as a priority concern, and anti-church and anticlerical sentiments were strong among grassroots party activists. From 1938, writes Overy, "Martin Bormann, head of the Party Chancellery and a prominent party atheist, took a leading role in trying to sever all state financial support for the churches, and to limit their legal status and activities, but the need to mobilise church support for the war effort from September 1939 led, as it did in the Soviet Union after 1941, to a limited political truce between church and state." Speer considered Bormann to be the driving force behind the regime's campaign against the churches and thought that Hitler approved of his aims, but wanted to "postpone this problem to a more favourable time":


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Jehovah's Witnesses numbered around 30,000 at the start of Hitler's rule in Germany. For refusing to declare loyalty to the Reich, and refusing conscription into the army, they were declared to be enemies of Germany and persecuted. About 6,000 were sent to the concentration camps.


title: Religious views of Adolf Hitler

text: Anti-Judaism as well as racial anti-Semitism were central planks of Hitler's philosophy. His regime perpetrated the Final Solution an effort to exterminate the Jews, which resulted in a genocide estimated by historians to have killed between 4,204,000 to 7,000,000 Jews. Hitler's ideology presented the Jews as a biological challenge to the "purity" of German blood.


title: TeamViewer

text: TeamViewer is a remote access and remote control computer software, allowing maintenance of computers and other devices. It was first released in 2005, and its functionality has expanded step by step. TeamViewer is proprietary software, but does not require registration and is free of charge for non-commercial use. It has been installed on more than two billion devices. TeamViewer is the core product of developer TeamViewer AG.


title: TeamViewer

text: Rossmanith GmbH released the first version of TeamViewer software in 2005, at that time still based on the VNC project. The IT service provider wanted to avoid unnecessary trips to customers and perform tasks such as installing software remotely. The development was very successful and gave rise to TeamViewer GmbH, which today operates as TeamViewer Germany GmbH and is part of TeamViewer AG.


title: TeamViewer

text: TeamViewer is available for most desktop computers with common operating systems, including Microsoft Windows and Windows Server, as well as Apple's macOS. There are also packages for several Linux distributions and derivatives, for example, Debian, Ubuntu, Red Hat, and Fedora Linux. Besides, there is Raspberry Pi OS, a Debian variant for the Raspberry Pi.


title: TeamViewer

text: TeamViewer is also available for smartphones and tablets running Android or Apple's iOS/iPadOS operating system, very limited functionality on Linux based operating systems. Support for Windows Phone and Windows Mobile has been phased out after Microsoft discontinued support for the two operating systems.


title: TeamViewer

text: The functionality of TeamViewer differs depending on the device and variant or version of the software. The core of TeamViewer is remote access to computers and other endpoints as well as their control and maintenance. After the connection is established, the remote screen is visible to the user at the other endpoint. Both endpoints can send and receive files as well as access a shared clipboard, for example. Besides, some functions facilitate team collaboration, such as audio and video transmissions via IP telephony.


title: TeamViewer

text: In recent years, the functionality of the software has been optimized in particular for use in large companies. For this purpose, the enterprise variant TeamViewer Tensor was developed. With TeamViewer Pilot, TeamViewer sells software for remote support with augmented reality elements. TeamViewer offers interfaces to other applications and services, for example from Microsoft (Teams), Salesforce, and ServiceNow. The solution is available in nearly all countries and supports over 30 languages.


title: TeamViewer

text: Private users who use TeamViewer for non-commercial purposes may use the software free of charge. Fees must be paid for the commercial use of the software. Companies and other commercial customers must sign up for a subscription. A one-time purchase of the application is no longer possible since the switch from a license to a subscription model. The prices for using the software are scaled according to the number of users as well as the number of concurrent sessions. Updates are released monthly and are included for all users.


title: TeamViewer

text: Incoming and outgoing connections are equally possible via the Internet or local networks. If desired, TeamViewer can run as a Windows system service, which allows unattended access via TeamViewer. There is also a portable version of the software that runs completely without installation, for example via a USB data carrier.


title: TeamViewer

text: The connection is established using automatically generated unique IDs and passwords. Before each connection, the TeamViewer network servers check the validity of the IDs of both endpoints. Security is enhanced by the fingerprint, which allows users to provide additional proof of the remote device's identity. Passwords are protected against brute force attacks, especially by increasing the waiting time between connection attempts exponentially. TeamViewer provides additional security features, such as two-factor authentication, block and allow lists.


title: TeamViewer

text: Before establishing a connection, TeamViewer first checks the configuration of the device and the network to detect restrictions imposed by firewalls and other security systems. Usually, a direct TCP/UDP connection can be established so that no additional ports need to be opened. Otherwise, TeamViewer falls back on other paths such as an HTTP tunnel.


title: TeamViewer

text: Regardless of the connection type selected, data is transferred exclusively via secure data channels. TeamViewer includes end-to-end encryption based on RSA (4096 bits) and AES (256 bits). According to the manufacturer, man-in-the-middle attacks are principally not possible. This is to be guaranteed by the signed key exchange of two key pairs.


title: TeamViewer

text: TeamViewer and similar programs can be abused for technical support scams. In this process, attackers pretend to be employees of well-known companies to gain control over their victims' computers. They then use a pretext to obtain money from their victims. For this reason, the British Internet provider TalkTalk permanently blocked the software's data traffic. TeamViewer condemns all forms of misuse of the software, provides tips for safe use, and provides a way to investigate corresponding incidents.


title: TeamViewer

text: In June 2016, hundreds of TeamViewer users reported having their computers accessed by an unauthorized address in China and bank accounts misappropriated. TeamViewer attributed the outcome to user's "careless password use" and denied all responsibility, saying "neither was TeamViewer hacked nor is there a security hole, TeamViewer is safe to use and has proper security measures in place. Our evidence points to careless use as the cause of the reported issue, a few extra steps will prevent potential abuse."


title: 9-1-1

text: , usually written 911, is an emergency telephone number for the United States, Canada, Mexico, Panama, Palau, Argentina, Philippines, Jordan, as well as the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), one of eight N11 codes. Like other emergency numbers around the world, this number is intended for use in emergency circumstances only. Using it for any other purpose (such as making false or prank calls) is a crime in most jurisdictions.


title: 9-1-1

text: In over 98% of locations in Argentina, Panama, Belize, Anguilla, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Jordan, Ethiopia, Liberia, Saudi Arabia, Philippines, Uruguay, United States, Palau, Mexico, Tonga and Canada, dialing "9-1-1" from any telephone will link the caller to an emergency dispatch office—called a Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP) by the telecommunications industry—which can send emergency responders to the caller's location in an emergency. In approximately 96 percent of the United States, the enhanced 9-1-1 system automatically pairs caller numbers with a physical address.


title: 9-1-1

text: In the Philippines, the emergency hotline has been available to the public since August 1, 2016, starting in Davao City. It is the first of its kind in Asia-Pacific region. It replaces the previous emergency number 117 used outside Davao City.


title: 9-1-1

text: As of 2017, a system is in use in Mexico, where implementation in different states and municipalities is being conducted. Venezuela also has a 911 emergency services called VEN911. It has been in operation for approximately 10 years.


title: 9-1-1

text: The first known use of a national emergency telephone number began in the United Kingdom in 1937–1938 using the number 999, which continues to this day. In the United States, the first 911 call was made in Haleyville, Alabama in 1968 by Alabama Speaker of the House Rankin Fite and answered by U.S. Rep. Tom Bevill. In Canada, 911 service was adopted in 1972, and the first 911 call occurred after 1974 roll-out in London, Ontario.


title: 9-1-1

text: In the United States, the push for the development of a nationwide American emergency telephone number came in 1957 when the National Association of Fire Chiefs recommended that a single number be used for reporting fires. The first city in North America to use a central emergency number was the Canadian city of Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1959, which instituted the change at the urging of Stephen Juba, mayor of Winnipeg at the time. Winnipeg initially used 999 as the emergency number, but switched numbers when 9-1-1 was proposed by the United States.


title: 9-1-1

text: In 1964, an attack on a woman in New York City, Kitty Genovese, helped to greatly increase the urgency to create a central emergency number. "The New York Times" falsely reported that nobody had called the police in response to Genovese's cries for help. Some experts theorized that one source of reluctance to call police was due to the complexity of doing so; any calls to the police would go to a local precinct, and any response might depend on which individual sergeant or other ranking personnel might handle the call.


title: 9-1-1

text: In 1967, the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice recommended the creation of a single number that could be used nationwide for reporting emergencies. The Federal Communications Commission then met with AT&T in November 1967 in order to choose the number.


title: 9-1-1

text: In 1968, the number was agreed upon. AT&T chose the number , which was simple, easy to remember, dialed easily (which, with the rotary dial phones in place at the time, 999 would not), and because of the middle 1, which indicating a special number (see also and ), worked well with the phone systems at the time. At the time, this announcement only affected the Bell System telephone companies; independent phone companies were not included in the emergency telephone plan. Alabama Telephone Company decided to implement it ahead of AT&T, choosing Haleyville, Alabama, as the location.


title: 9-1-1

text: AT&T made its first implementation in Huntington, Indiana on March 1, 1968. However, the rollout of service took many years. For example, although the City of Chicago, Illinois, had access to service as early as 1976, the Illinois Commerce Commission did not authorize telephone service provider Illinois Bell to offer to the Chicago suburbs until 1981. Implementation was not immediate even then; by 1984, only eight Chicago suburbs in Cook County had service. As late as 1989, at least 28 Chicago suburbs still lacked service; some of those towns had previously elected to decline service due to costs and—according to emergency response personnel—failure to recognize the benefits of the system.


title: 9-1-1

text: Regarding national U.S. coverage, by 1979, 26% of the U.S. population could dial the number. This increased to 50% by 1987 and 93% by 2000. , 98.9% of the U.S. population has access.


title: 9-1-1

text: Conversion to in Canada began in 1972, and as of 2018 virtually all areas (except for some rural areas, such as Nunavut) are using . each year Canadians make twelve million calls to . On November 4, 2019, the Northwest Territories launched the service across the territory with the ability to receive service in the territory's 11 Official languages.


title: 9-1-1

text: On September 15, 2010, AT&T announced that the State of Tennessee had approved a service to support a Text-to-9-1-1 trial statewide, where AT&T would be able to allow its users to send text messages to PSAPs.


title: 9-1-1

text: Most British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean use the North American Numbering Plan; Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands use .


title: 9-1-1

text: Enhanced 9-1-1 ( or E911) automatically gives the dispatcher the caller's location, if available. Enhanced is available in most areas, including approximately 96 percent of the U.S.


title: 9-1-1

text: In all North American jurisdictions, special legislation permits emergency operators to obtain a caller's telephone number and location information. This information is gathered by mapping the calling phone number to an address in a database. This database function is known as Automatic Location Identification (ALI). The database is generally maintained by the local telephone company, under a contract with the PSAP. Each telephone company has its standards for the formatting of the database. Most ALI databases have a companion database known as the MSAG, Master Street Address Guide. The MSAG describes address elements including the exact spellings of street names, and street number ranges.


title: 9-1-1

text: To locate a mobile telephone geographically, there are two general approaches: some form of radiolocation from the cellular network, or to use a Global Positioning System receiver built into the phone itself. Both approaches are described by the radio resource location services protocol (LCS protocol). Depending on the mobile phone hardware, one of two types of location information can be provided to the operator. The first is Wireless Phase One (WPH1), which is the tower location and the direction the call came from, and the second is Wireless Phase Two (WPH2), which provides an estimated GPS location.


title: 9-1-1

text: As Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology matured, service providers began to interconnect VoIP with the public switched telephone network and marketed the VoIP service as a cheap replacement phone service. However, regulations and legal penalties have severely hampered the more widespread adoption of VoIP: VoIP is much more flexible than landline phone service, and there is no easy way to verify the physical location of a caller on a nomadic VoIP network at any given time (especially in the case of wireless networks), and so many providers offered services which specifically excluded service to avoid the severe non-compliance penalties. VoIP services tried to improvise, such as routing calls to the administrative phone number of the Public Safety Answering Point, adding on software to track phone locations, etc.


title: 9-1-1

text: In response to the challenges inherent to IP phone systems, specialized technology has been developed to locate callers in the event of an emergency. Some of these new technologies allow the caller to be located down to the specific office on a particular floor of a building. These solutions support a wide range of organizations with IP telephony networks. The solutions are available for service providers offering hosted IP PBX and residential VoIP services. This increasingly important segment in IP phone technology includes call routing services and automated phone tracking appliances. Many of these solutions have been established according to FCC, CRTC, and NENA i2 standards, to help enterprises and service providers reduce liability concerns and meet regulations.


title: 9-1-1

text: dispatchers use computer-aided dispatch (CAD) to record a log of EMS, police and fire services. It can either be used to send messages to the dispatched via a mobile data terminal (MDT) and/or used to store and retrieve data (i.e. radio logs, field interviews, client information, schedules, etc.). A dispatcher may announce the call details to field units over a two-way radio. Some systems communicate using a two-way radio system's selective calling features.


title: 9-1-1

text: CAD systems may send text messages with call-for-service details to alphanumeric pagers or wireless telephony text services like SMS.


title: 9-1-1

text: In the United States and Canada, is typically funded via monthly fees on telephone customers. Telephone companies, including wireless carriers, may be entitled to apply for and receive reimbursements for costs of their compliance with laws requiring that their networks be compatible with . Fees depend on locality and may range from around $.25 to $3.00 per month, per line. The average wireless fee is around $.72.


title: 9-1-1

text: Monthly fees usually do not vary based on the customer's usage of the network, though some states do cap the number of lines subject to the fee for large multi-line businesses.


title: 9-1-1

text: These fees defray the cost of providing the technical means for connecting callers to a dispatch center; emergency services themselves are funded separately.


title: 9-1-1

text: Some U.S. states required that all landline telephones connected to the network be able to reach , even if normal service has been disconnected (as for nonpayment). In the U.S., carriers are required to connect calls from inactive mobile phones. Similar rules apply in Canada. However, dispatchers may not receive Phase II information for inactive lines, and may not be able to call back if an emergency call is disconnected.


title: 9-1-1

text: About 70 percent of calls came from cell phones in 2014, and finding out where the calls came from required triangulation. A "USA Today" study showed that where information was compiled on the subject, many of the calls from cell phones did not include information allowing the caller to be located. Chances of getting as close as were higher in areas with more towers. But if a call was made from a large building, even that would not be enough to precisely locate the caller. New federal rules, which service providers helped with, require location information for 40 percent of calls by 2017 and 80 percent by 2021.


title: 9-1-1

text: Certain cell phone operating systems allow users to access local emergency services by calling any country's version of .


title: 9-1-1

text: If is dialed from a commercial Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) service, depending on how the provider handles such calls, the call may not go anywhere at all, or it may go to a non-emergency number at the public safety answering point associated with the billing or service address of the caller. Because a VoIP adapter can be plugged into any broadband internet connection, a caller could be hundreds or even thousands of miles away from home, yet if the call goes to an answering point at all, it would be the one associated with the caller's address and not the actual location of the call. It may never be possible to reliably and accurately identify the location of a VoIP user, even if a GPS receiver is installed in the VoIP adapter, since such phones are normally used indoors, and thus may be unable to get a signal.


title: 9-1-1

text: In March 2005, commercial Internet telephony provider Vonage was sued by the Texas Attorney General, who alleged that their website and other sales and service documentation did not make clear enough that Vonage's provision of service was not done traditionally. In May 2005, the FCC issued an order requiring VoIP providers to offer service to all their subscribers within 120 days of the order being published. In Canada, the federal regulators have required Internet service providers (ISPs) to provide an equivalent service to the conventional PSAPs, but even these encounter problems with caller location, since their databases rely on company billing addresses.


title: 9-1-1

text: In May 2010, most VoIP users who dial are connected to a call center owned by their telephone company, or contracted by them. The operators are most often not trained emergency service providers and are only there to do their best to connect the caller to the appropriate emergency service. If the call center can determine the location of the emergency they try to transfer the caller to the appropriate PSAP. Most often the caller ends up being directed to a PSAP in the general area of the emergency. A operator at that PSAP must then determine the location of the emergency.


title: 9-1-1

text: VoIP services operating in Canada are required to provide emergency service. In April 2008, an 18-month-old boy in Calgary, Alberta, died after a Toronto VoIP provider's operator had an ambulance dispatched to the address of the family's previous abode in Mississauga, Ontario.


title: 9-1-1

text: When a caller dials , the call is routed to the local public safety answering point. However, if the caller is reporting an emergency in another jurisdiction, the dispatchers may or may not know how to contact the proper authorities. The publicly posted phone numbers for most police departments in the U.S. are non-emergency numbers that often specifically instruct callers to dial in case of emergency, which does not resolve the issue for callers outside of the jurisdiction.


title: 9-1-1

text: NENA has developed the North American Resource Database which includes the National PSAP Registry. PSAPs can query this database to obtain emergency contact information of a PSAP in another county or state when it receives a call involving another jurisdiction. Online access to this database is provided at no charge for authorized local and state authorities.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Walter Marvin Koenig (; born September 14, 1936) is an American actor and screenwriter. He began acting professionally in the mid 1960s and quickly rose to prominence for his supporting role as Ensign Pavel Chekov in "" (1967–1969). He went on to reprise this role in all six original-cast "Star Trek" films. He has also acted in several other series and films including "Goodbye, Raggedy Ann" (1971), "The Questor Tapes" (1974), and "Babylon 5" (1993). In addition to his acting career, Koenig has made a career in writing as well and is known for working on "Land of the Lost" (1974)," Family" (1976), "What Really Happened to the Class of '65?" (1977) and "The Powers of Matthew Star" (1982).


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of businessman Isadore Koenig and his wife Sarah (née Strauss). They moved to the Inwood neighborhood of Manhattan when Walter was a child, where he went to school. Koenig's parents were Russian Jewish immigrants from the Soviet Union; his family had been living in Lithuania when they emigrated, and they shortened their surname from "Königsberg" to "Koenig".


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig's father was a communist who was investigated by the FBI during the McCarthy era. Koenig attended Grinnell College in Grinnell, Iowa, with a pre-med major. He transferred to UCLA and received a Bachelor of Arts in psychology. After a professor encouraged Koenig to become an actor, he attended Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York City with fellow students Dabney Coleman, Christopher Lloyd, and James Caan.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In Gene Roddenberry's first television production, the 1963–64 NBC series "The Lieutenant", Koenig played a significant role as noncom Sgt. John Delwyn, who is recommended for Officer Candidates School by the series protagonist, Lt William T. (Tiberius) Rice, played by Gary Lockwood; (in episode 27, "Mother Enemy", aired on April 4, 1964). The plot twist, at the height of the US–Soviet Cold War, is that Sgt Delwyn's visiting mother is a prominent, and politically active, American Communist Party member. This sets up various interesting plot tensions involving Delwyn, Rice, and Rice's CO, Capt. Rambridge, played by Robert Vaughn.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 1964, Koenig portrayed a New York City juvenile gang leader in an adaptation of Memos from Purgatory for The Alfred Hitchcock Hour.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig began playing Ensign Pavel Chekov, navigator on the USS "Enterprise", in the original "Star Trek" television series in the second season, and continued in the role in all of the films featuring the original cast, including "Star Trek Generations".


title: Walter Koenig

text: One of only two actors to audition, he was cast as Chekov almost immediately primarily because of his resemblance to British actor and singer Davy Jones of the Monkees. Show creator Gene Roddenberry hoped that Koenig would increase the show's appeal to young people. (The studio's publicity department, however, falsely ascribed the inclusion of Chekov to an article in "Pravda" that complained about the lack of Russians in "Star Trek".)


title: Walter Koenig

text: As the 30-year-old's hair was already receding, costume designers fashioned a Davy Jones-style "moptop" hairpiece for him. In later episodes, his own hair grew out enough to accomplish the look with a comb-over.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Roddenberry asked him to "ham up" his Russian accent to add a note of comic relief to the series. Chekov's accent has been criticized as inauthentic, in particular Koenig's substituting the "w" sound in place of a "v" sound (e.g., "wodka" for "vodka"); Koenig has said the accent was inspired by his father, who had the same difficulty with the "v" sound.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Most of Koenig's fan mail indeed came from children, and the high volume of letters contributed to his soon receiving a contract as a regular cast member; this surprised Koenig, who had been told that Chekov would be a recurring role. When the early Season 2 episodes of "Star Trek" were shot, George Takei was delayed while completing the movie "The Green Berets", so Chekov was joined at the "Enterprise" helm by a different character. When Takei returned, the two had to share a dressing room and a single episode script. This reportedly angered Takei to the point where he nearly left the show (although Koenig observed in a 2016 interview that, whilst sharing a dressing room with Takei and James Doohan, they recognised their status as supporting players, and "didn't think twice about it"), but the two actors have since become good friends, to the point that Koenig was the best man at Takei's wedding in 2008.


title: Walter Koenig

text: The Chekov character never appeared in the animated "Star Trek". Though the show's producers had decided not to cast him for budgetary reasons, and purchased his script for an episode of the series titled "The Infinite Vulcan", Koenig later confessed that he was upset at being left out of the cast. "The Infinite Vulcan" makes him the first cast member to write a "Star Trek" story for television.


title: Walter Koenig

text: He received Saturn Award nominations for Best Supporting Actor in a Film for both "" and "". Koenig reprised the role of Chekov for the fan webseries "", "To Serve All My Days", and the independent Sky Conway/Tim Russ film, "", both in 2006, and "" in 2015. According to the teaser for "Renegades" episodes 2 and 3, this would be the last time Koenig played the role of Chekov.


title: Walter Koenig

text: After "Star Trek", and before the movies started, Koenig found some work as a writer. He submitted freelance scripts to a number of shows, and was the main writer on the show "What Really Happened to the Class of '65?".


title: Walter Koenig

text: After Chekov, Koenig had a recurring role as Psi Cop Alfred Bester on the television series "Babylon 5". He was a "Special Guest Star" in twelve episodes and, at the end of the third season, the production company applied for an Emmy nomination on his behalf. He was slated to play Bester on the spin-off series "Crusade", but the series was cancelled before his episode was filmed. The character name of "Alfred Bester" was an homage to the science-fiction writer of the same name.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig played "Oro" in two episodes of the Canadian science fiction television series "The Starlost", which aired in 1973 on Canada's CTV television network. He filmed a few FMV sequences for a re-released copy of the game "Star Trek Starfleet Academy" for PCs.


title: Walter Koenig

text: The game was later cancelled, but considerable footage from it was recycled for the film "Game Over", with Koenig's dialogue dubbed over in order to retrofit his performance into the role of a computer hard drive.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig's film, stage, and TV roles span fifty years. He has played roles ranging from a teenage gang leader ("Alfred Hitchcock Presents") to Scandinavian fiancé Gunnar in the "Gidget" episode entitled "Gidget's Foreign Policy", to a Las Vegas entertainer ("I Spy"). He returned to space with a starring role in "Moontrap" and played a futuristic dictator in the video game "Maximum Surge".


title: Walter Koenig

text: During the early 1990s, he starred in a touring production of the play "The Boys in Autumn", playing a middle aged Tom Sawyer, who reunites with childhood friend Huckleberry Finn. Fellow "Trek" actor Mark Lenard played Finn.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In addition to acting, he has written several films ("I Wish I May", "You're Never Alone When You're a Schizophrenic"), one-act plays, and a handful of episodes for TV shows: "", "Land of the Lost", "Family" and "The Powers of Matthew Star".


title: Walter Koenig

text: He has written several books, including "Warped Factors: A Neurotic's Guide to the Universe" (an autobiography), "Chekov's Enterprise" (a journal kept during the filming of "") and "Buck Alice and the Actor-Robot" (a science fiction novel), which was re-released in 2006. He created his own comic book series called "Raver", which was published by Malibu Comics in the early 1990s, and appeared as a "special guest star" in an issue of the comic book "Eternity Smith", which features him prominently on its cover.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 2013, he released the graphic novel "Walter Koenig's Things To Come" with artist J.C. Baez, published by Bluewater Comics, which compiled the four issues of the miniseries of the same name.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig has taught classes in acting and directing at UCLA, the Sherwood Oaks Experimental Film College, the Actor's Alley Repertory Company in Los Angeles, and the California School of Professional Psychology at Alliant International University. In 2002, he directed stage versions of two of the original "Twilight Zone" episodes for Letter Entertainment.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 1987, Koenig directed his original one-act play "The Secret Life of Lily Langtree" at the Theatre of NOTE in Los Angeles. In 1989, Koenig starred in the science fiction film "Moontrap" as Mission commander Colonel Jason Grant.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 1997, Koenig starred in "Drawing Down the Moon", an independent film about a Wiccan woman who attempts to open a homeless shelter in a small Pennsylvania town. Koenig played Joe Merchant, a local crime lord obsessed with chaos theory who sends his thugs to intimidate her into shutting down the shelter.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 2004, Koenig co-starred in "Mad Cowgirl", an independent movie about a meat-packing health inspector dying from a brain disorder, in which he played televangelist Pastor Dylan. The movie played the SF Indiefest and the Silverlake Film Festival, followed by a limited release in major cities. "Mad Cowgirl" was released on DVD on December 5, 2006.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 2013, Koenig ventured into the steampunk genre, starring in the short film "Cowboys & Engines" alongside Malcolm McDowell and Richard Hatch. He played an evil newspaper tycoon in "Blue Dream" from director Gregory Hatanaka. In 2017, Koenig appeared in the 1980s throwback "Neil Stryker and the Tyrant of Time" from director Rob Taylor, battling puppet goblins as science officer Ray Nabroski.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 2018, he again appeared opposite Hatch in the science-fiction drama "Diminuendo", which was Hatch's last performance before his death.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In 2007, Koenig was asked by the human rights group U.S. Campaign for Burma to help in their grassroots campaign about the humanitarian crisis in Burma. As detailed on his official website, he visited refugee camps along the Burma–Thailand border from July 16 to 25, 2007.


title: Walter Koenig

text: Koenig married Judy Levitt in 1965. In 1968, they had a son, actor Andrew, who died in 2010. They have a daughter, Danielle, a comedienne and writer, who is married to comedian Jimmy Pardo.


title: Walter Koenig

text: In September 2008, Koenig served as best man at the wedding of his "Star Trek" co-star George Takei to Brad Altman.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Glynn Russell Turman (born January 31, 1947) is an American actor, writer, director, and producer. Turman is known for his roles as Lew Miles on the prime-time soap opera "Peyton Place" (1968–1969), high school student Leroy "Preach" Jackson in the 1975 coming-of-age film "Cooley High", math professor and retired Army colonel Bradford Taylor on the NBC sitcom "A Different World" (1988–1993), and Baltimore mayor Clarence Royce on the HBO drama series "The Wire". He also portrayed Jeremiah Kaan on the Showtime series "House of Lies" and Doctor Senator in the fourth season of the FX black comedy crime drama series "Fargo".


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman was born in New York City. According to a DNA analysis, Turman shares maternal ancestry with the Edo people of Nigeria. Turman studied at High School of Performing Arts located in the Manhattan section of New York City, graduating in 1965.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman had his first prominent acting role at the age of 12 as Travis Younger in the original Broadway production of Lorraine Hansberry's classic play, "A Raisin in the Sun", opposite Sidney Poitier, Ruby Dee, Claudia McNeil, Ivan Dixon, Louis Gossett Jr., Lonne Elder III, John Fiedler and Diana Sands. After graduating high school, he apprenticed in regional and repertory companies throughout the US, including Tyrone Guthrie's Repertory Theatre, in which he performed in late 1960s productions of "Good Boys", "Harper's Ferry", "The Visit", and "The House of Atreus". He made his Los Angeles stage debut in William Hanley’s "Slow Dance on the Killing Ground". A 1974 performance in "The Wine Sellers" earned him a Los Angeles Critics Award nomination and a Dramalogue Award. The play was also produced on Broadway as "What The Wine Sellers Buy".


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman won his first NAACP Image Award for his work in the play "Eyes of the American". He received his second NAACP Image award for directing "Deadwood Dick" at the Inner City Cultural Center in Los Angeles.


title: Glynn Turman

text: On television, he has directed episodes of "The Parent 'Hood", "Hangin' with Mr. Cooper", "A Different World", and "The Wayans Bros".


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman began his film career in the 1970s with blaxploitation flicks including "Five on the Black Hand Side" (1973), "Thomasine & Bushrod" (1974) and "Together Brothers" (1974), then progressed to roles in "Cooley High" (1975), plus "The River Niger" (1976), "J. D.'s Revenge" (1976) and "A Hero Ain't Nothin' but a Sandwich" (1978). TV movies included "Carter's Army", the prestigious "Centennial", "Attica", and "Minstrel Man", for which he won his third NAACP Image Award.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman appeared in TV movies "Race to Freedom: The Underground Railroad" in 1994, "Buffalo Soldiers", and "Freedom Song". More notable films include "Penitentiary II" (1982), "Gremlins" (1984), "Deep Cover" (1992), "How Stella Got Her Groove Back" (1998), "Men of Honor" (2000), "Sahara" (2005), "Kings of the Evening" (2007), "Burlesque" (2010) and "Super 8" (2011). In 2004, he joined the HBO series "The Wire" portraying the recurring role of Mayor Clarence Royce, becoming a full-time regular in 2006. His portrayal of Mayor Royce earned him an NAACP Image Award nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2007.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Since "The Wire", Turman guest-starred as a patient in the "Scrubs" episode "My Last Words". Turman's other television appearances include "Hawaii Five-O" (as Harley Dartson, 1973, "Tricks Are Not Treats"), the "Twilight Zone" segment "Paladin of the Lost Hour" (co-starring Danny Kaye with a script by Harlan Ellison), "Matlock", "Millennium", and the sitcom "All of Us". In 2008, he won a Primetime Emmy award for his guest appearance on the HBO series "In Treatment". He appeared in the ABC series "Detroit 1-8-7". He has performed and produced a one-man show, "Movin' Man," about his life.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman auditioned for the role of Han Solo in "Star Wars". In a 2007 interview, Turman recalled: "That was in George Lucas' book. Apparently George Lucas had me in mind for the role, and then thought that there might be too much controversy between a white Princess Leia and a black Han Solo – because those were the times – and he didn't want to get into that. At the time, I had no idea. I just went to the audition, did it and got out of there." In 2012, he began appearing in "House of Lies" on Showtime as the father of the characters played by Don Cheadle and Larenz Tate. In 2016, he appeared in the Oprah Winfrey Network TV show "Queen Sugar" in which he played the father, Ernest Bordelon.


title: Glynn Turman

text: In 2017, Turman was cast as Nate Lahey Sr. in 10 episodes in seasons 4 and 5 of the ABC drama "How to Get Away With Murder". His character is the imprisoned father of Nate Lahey (Billy Brown), a former police officer, detective and lover to series star Annalise Keating (Viola Davis). In 2018, Turman appeared on the legal drama "Suits" as Vic.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman recently appeared in the ABC limited series "Women of the Movement" in 2021, playing Mose Wright, Emmett Till's great-uncle.


title: Glynn Turman

text: Turman has been married three times and has four children. Turman was married to Ula M. Walker from 1965 until 1971. Together, Turman and Walker had three children. Turman married singer Aretha Franklin on April 11, 1978, at her father's (C. L. Franklin) New Bethel Baptist Church in Detroit, Michigan. Turman and Franklin separated in 1982 and divorced in 1984. Turman married Jo-Ann Allen in 1992. Turman and Allen have one daughter.


title: Moisés Arias

text: Moisés Arias (born April 18, 1994), is an American actor. He is best known for his roles as Rico in the Disney Channel series "Hannah Montana", Biaggio in the 2013 Sundance film "The Kings of Summer", Cokestraw in the 2019 SXSW comedy-drama "The Wall of Mexico", and Bigfoot in the Colombian war drama "Monos". He has also appeared in "Pitch Perfect 3", "Five Feet Apart", "Ender's Game", "The Stanford Prison Experiment", "Jockey", "The Perfect Game" and "The King of Staten Island".


title: Moisés Arias

text: Moisés Arias was born April 18, 1994, in New York City, the son of Mónica and César Arias. His parents are Colombian, and he was raised bilingual. His brother is "Kickin' It" actor Mateo Arias. Before starting his acting career, Moises graduated from Barbizon Modeling and Acting School in Tampa, Florida.


title: Moisés Arias

text: Moisés has made guest appearances on shows such as "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody", "Everybody Hates Chris" and "Wizards of Waverly Place". He had a recurring role as Rico on "Hannah Montana", and became a series regular in the show's second season. In 2009, he played Andre in the Disney Channel Original Movie "Dadnapped". As a regular on the Disney Channel, he participated on the first and second Disney Channel Games on the red team. He also participated in the third Disney Channel games on the Yellow Team (Comets). His main role while at Disney was as Rico Suave on "Hannah Montana".


title: Moisés Arias

text: He appeared in music videos for Pearl Jam, the Jonas Brothers (for their song "SOS"), and Parmalee. Arias also appeared in the 2006 film "Nacho Libre" in a minor role. He participated in the 2009 Guadalajara Film Festival during the presentation of the movie "The Perfect Game" with Eva Longoria.


title: Moisés Arias

text: Arias appeared in "Beethoven's Big Break" in 2008. He appeared on the ESPN family of networks as a roving 'sideline' reporter conducting interviews with fans and players at the 2009 Little League World Series. He appeared in "Wizards of Waverly Place" and played Conscience, Max (Jake T. Austin)'s conscience.


title: Moisés Arias

text: Arias and his brother directed a series of YouTube films under the user name Moiswashere. In 2009, they worked on a film called "Motocross Madness".


title: Moisés Arias

text: In mid-2012, Arias filmed "The Kings of Summer", which had its premiere on January 19, 2013, at the 2013 Sundance Film Festival to positive reviews. That year, he appeared in the film "Ender's Game", starring with Asa Butterfield, Abigail Breslin and Harrison Ford.


title: Moisés Arias

text: In 2012, Arias co-founded MSFTSrep, a youth collective and fashion brand alongside Jaden Smith, Willow Smith, and Mateo Arias. In late 2018, Arias released an album under a different alias.


title: Lepidoptera

text: Lepidoptera ( ) is an order of insects that includes butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 families and 46 superfamilies, 10 percent of the total described species of living organisms. It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world. The Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution. Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought, and is among the four most speciose orders, along with the Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera.


title: Lepidoptera

text: Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features. The most apparent is the presence of scales that cover the bodies, wings, and a proboscis. The scales are modified, flattened "hairs", and give butterflies and moths their wide variety of colors and patterns. Almost all species have some form of membranous wings, except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless. Mating and the laying of eggs is normally performed near or on host plants for the larvae. Like most other insects, butterflies and moths are holometabolous, meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis. The larvae are commonly called caterpillars, and are completely different from their adult moth or butterfly forms, having a cylindrical body with a well-developed head, mandible mouth parts, three pairs of thoracic legs and from none up to five pairs of prolegs. As they grow, these larvae change in appearance, going through a series of stages called instars. Once fully matured, the larva develops into a pupa. A few butterflies and many moth species spin a silk case or cocoon prior to pupating, while others do not, instead going underground. A butterfly pupa, called a chrysalis, has a hard skin, usually with no cocoon. Once the pupa has completed its metamorphosis, a sexually mature adult emerges.


title: Lepidoptera

text: The Lepidoptera have, over millions of years, evolved a wide range of wing patterns and coloration ranging from drab moths akin to the related order Trichoptera, to the brightly colored and complex-patterned butterflies. Accordingly, this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many people involved in the observation, study, collection, rearing of, and commerce in these insects. A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as a lepidopterist.


title: Lepidoptera

text: Butterflies and moths play an important role in the natural ecosystem as pollinators and as food in the food chain; conversely, their larvae are considered very problematic to vegetation in agriculture, as their main source of food is often live plant matter. In many species, the female may produce from 200 to 600 eggs, while in others, the number may approach 30,000 eggs in one day. The caterpillars hatching from these eggs can cause damage to large quantities of crops. Many moth and butterfly species are of economic interest by virtue of their role as pollinators, the silk they produce, or as pest species.


title: Lepidoptera

text: The term Lepidoptera was used in 1746 by Carl Linnaeus in his "Fauna Svecica". The word is derived from Greek , gen. ("scale") and ("wing"). Sometimes, the term Rhopalocera is used for the clade of all butterfly species, derived from the Ancient Greek (') and (') meaning "club" and "horn", respectively, coming from the shape of the antennae of butterflies.


title: Lepidoptera

text: The origins of the common names "butterfly" and "moth" are varied and often obscure. The English word butterfly is from Old English ', with many variations in spelling. Other than that, the origin is unknown, although it could be derived from the pale yellow color of many species' wings suggesting the color of butter. The species of Heterocera are commonly called moths. The origins of the English word moth are clearer, deriving from Old English] ' (cf. Northumbrian dialect ') from Common Germanic (compare Old Norse ', Dutch ' and German ' all meaning "moth"). Perhaps its origins are related to Old English "" meaning "maggot" or from the root of "midge", which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva, usually in reference to devouring clothes.


title: Lepidoptera

text: The etymological origins of the word "caterpillar", the larval form of butterflies and moths, are from the early 16th century, from Middle English "catirpel", "catirpeller", probably an alteration of Old North French "catepelose" (from Latin "cattus", "cat" + "pilosus", "hairy").


title: Lepidoptera

text: The Lepidoptera are among the most successful groups of insects. They are found on all continents, except Antarctica, and inhabit all terrestrial habitats ranging from desert to rainforest, from lowland grasslands to mountain plateaus, but almost always associated with higher plants, especially angiosperms (flowering plants). Among the most northern dwelling species of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo ("Parnassius arcticus"), which is found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia, at an altitude of above sea level. In the Himalayas, various Apollo species such as "Parnassius epaphus" have been recorded to occur up to an altitude of above sea level.


title: Lepidoptera

text: Some lepidopteran species exhibit symbiotic, phoretic, or parasitic lifestyles, inhabiting the bodies of organisms rather than the environment. Coprophagous pyralid moth species, called sloth moths, such as "Bradipodicola hahneli" and "Cryptoses choloepi", are unusual in that they are exclusively found inhabiting the fur of sloths, mammals found in Central and South America.


title: Lepidoptera

text: Two species of "Tinea" moths have been recorded as feeding on horny tissue and have been bred from the horns of cattle. The larva of "Zenodochium coccivorella" is an internal parasite of the coccid "Kermes" species. Many species have been recorded as breeding in natural materials or refuse such as owl pellets, bat caves, honeycombs or diseased fruit.