title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: A nomadic biker gang sees the helicopter in flight, and break into the mall, destroying the barriers and allowing hundreds of zombies back inside. Despite having a fallback plan should the mall be attacked, Stephen, consumed by territorial rage over the mall, blindly fires on the looters, beginning a protracted battle. On their way out with whatever goods they could carry, straggling bikers are eventually overwhelmed and eaten by the zombies. Stephen tries to hide in the elevator shaft, but gets shot and subsequently mauled by roaming zombies. When Stephen reanimates, he instinctively returns to the safe room and leads the undead to Fran and Peter. Peter kills the undead Stephen while Fran escapes to the roof. Peter, not wanting to leave, locks himself in a room and contemplates suicide. When the zombies burst in, he has a change of heart and fights his way up to the roof, where he joins Fran. Having escaped and low on fuel, the two then fly away in the helicopter to an uncertain future.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Director George A. Romero makes an uncredited appearance as a WGON TV director. His future-wife—Christine Forrest—portrays his assistant. Also featured at the WGON TV station are David Crawford as Dr. James Foster, David Early as commentator Sidney Berman and Daniel Dietrich as station manager Dan Givens. Future "Romper Room" hostess Molly McClosky makes an uncredited appearance as a station worker. Later sequences depicting an emergency TV network feature Howard Smith as an unnamed commentator and recurring Romero collaborator Richard France as Dr. Millard Rausch, referred to in the credits as "Scientist".


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Featured among the motorcycle raiders are Rudy Ricci as their leader, brothers and frequent Romero collaborators Tony and Pasquale Buba, and Taso N. Stavrakis. Tom Savini, the film's make-up artist, also appears as Blades, a machete-wielding raider. Joseph Pilato, who would later be cast in Romero's "Day of the Dead", plays the leader of group of police officers evacuating by boat, although most of his performance was cut from the theatrical release. Other police officers in the film include James A. Baffico as Wooley, with his wife Joey Baffico having an uncredited role as a zombie who attacks Roger. Longtime Romero collaborator John Amplas, who also served as the film's casting director, makes an uncredited appearance as one of the apartment tenants who engages in a gunfight with the police.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The history of "Dawn of the Dead" began in 1974, when George A. Romero was invited by friend Mark Mason of Oxford Development Company—who Romero knew from an acquaintance at his alma mater, Carnegie Mellon—to visit the Monroeville Mall, which Mason's company managed. After showing Romero hidden parts of the mall, during which Romero noted the bliss of the consumers, Mason jokingly suggested that someone would be able to survive in the mall, should an emergency ever occur. With this inspiration, Romero began to write the screenplay for the film.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Romero and his producer, Richard P. Rubinstein, were unable to procure any domestic investors for the new project. By chance, word of the sequel reached Italian horror director Dario Argento. A fan of "Night of the Living Dead" and an early critical proponent of the film, Argento was eager to help the horror classic receive a sequel. He met Romero and Rubinstein, helping to secure financing in exchange for international distribution rights. Argento invited Romero to Rome so he would have a change of scenery while writing the screenplay. The two could also discuss plot developments. Romero was able to secure the availability of the Monroeville Mall as well as additional financing through his connections with the mall's owners at Oxford Development. Once the casting was completed, principal shooting was scheduled to begin in Pennsylvania on November 13, 1977.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Principal photography for "Dawn of the Living Dead" (its working title at the time) began on November 13, 1977, at the Monroeville Mall in Monroeville, Pennsylvania. Use of an actual, open shopping mall during the Christmas shopping season caused numerous time constraints. Filming began nightly once the mall closed, starting at 11 PM and ending at 7 AM, when automated music came on. As December arrived, the production decided against having the crew remove and replace the Christmas decorations—a task that had proved to be too time-consuming. Filming was shut down during the last three weeks of the year to avoid the possible continuity difficulties and lost shooting time. Production would resume on January 3, 1978. During the break in filming, Romero took the opportunity to begin editing his existing footage.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The airfield scenes were filmed at the Harold W. Brown Memorial Airfield in Monroeville, an airport located about two miles from the mall that is still in use. The scenes of the group's hideout at the top of the mall were filmed on a set built at Romero's then-production company, The Latent Image. The elevator shaft was located there as well, as no such area of the mall actually existed. The gun store was also not located in the mall—for filming, the crew used Firearms Unlimited, a shop that existed in the East Liberty district of Pittsburgh at the time. The police dock scene was filmed in downtown Pittsburgh right next the Monongahela River at 1 S. 6th St. The building, landing pad, and pumps are long gone, and the location is now an outdoor art gallery called The Color Park. The truck yard scene was filmed at the B&P Motor Express Co. which is now a First Student school bus company in Irwin, PA, about 22 minutes from the Monroeville Mall.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Principal photography on "Dawn of the Dead" ended in February 1978, and Romero's process of editing would begin. By using numerous angles during the filming, Romero allowed himself an array of possibilities during editing—choosing from these many shots to reassemble into a sequence that could dictate any number of responses from the viewer simply by changing an angle or deleting or extending portions of scenes. This amount of superfluous footage is evidenced by the numerous international cuts, which in some cases affects the regional version's tone and flow.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: According to the original screenplay, Peter and Francine were to kill themselves, Peter by shooting himself and Fran by sticking her head into the path of the rotating main helicopter blades. The ending credits would run over a shot of the helicopter blades turning until the engine winds down, implying that the two would not have gotten far if they had chosen to escape. During production, it was decided to change the ending of the film.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Much of the lead-in to the two suicides remains in the film as Francine leans out of the helicopter upon seeing the zombies approach, and Peter puts a gun to his head, ready to shoot himself. An additional scene, showing a zombie having the top of its head cut off by the helicopter blades (thus foreshadowing Francine's suicide) was included early in the film. Romero has stated that the original ending was scrapped before being shot, although behind-the-scenes photos show the original version was at least tested. The head appliance made for Fran's suicide was instead used in the opening SWAT raid, made-up to resemble an African-American male and blown apart by a shotgun blast.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: <nowiki> </nowiki>Tom Savini, who had been offered the chance to provide special effects and make-up for Romero's first zombie film, "Night of the Living Dead," before being drafted into the Vietnam War, made his debut as an effects artist on "Dawn of the Dead". Savini had been known for his make-up in horror for some time, prior to "Dawn of the Dead", and in his book explaining special effects techniques, "Bizarro", explains how his time in Vietnam influenced his craft. He had a crew of eight to assist in applying gray makeup to two to three hundred extras each weekend during the shoot. One of his assistants during production was Joseph Pilato, who played a police captain in the film and would go on to play the lead villain in the film's sequel, "Day of the Dead", Captain Henry Rhodes.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The makeup for the multitudes of extras in the film was a basic blue or gray tinge to the face of each extra. Some featured zombies, who would be seen close-up or on-screen longer than others, had more time spent on their look. Many of the featured zombies became part of the fanfare, with nicknames based upon their look or activity—such as Machete Zombie, Sweater Zombie, and Nurse Zombie. "Sweater zombie" Clayton Hill was described by a crew member as "one of the most convincing zombies of the bunch" citing his skill at maintaining his stiff pose and rolling his eyes back into his head, including heading down the wrong way in an escalator while in character.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: A cast of Ross' head that was to be used in the original ending of the film (involving a suicide rather than the escape scene finally used) ended up as an exploding head during the tenement building scene. The head, filled with food scraps, was shot with an actual shotgun to get the head to explode. One of the unintentional standout effects was the bright, fluorescent color of the fake blood that was used in the film. Savini was an early opponent of the blood, produced by 3M, but Romero thought it added to the film, claiming it emphasised the comic book feel of the movie.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The film's music varies with Romero's and Argento's cuts. For Romero's theatrical version, musical cues and selections were chosen from the De Wolfe Music Library, a compilation of stock music scores and cues. In the montage scene featuring the hunters and National Guard, the song played in the background is "'Cause I'm a Man" by the Pretty Things. The song was first released on the group's LP "Electric Banana". The music heard playing in a sequence in the mall and over the film's end credits is an instrumental titled "The Gonk"—a polka style tune from the De Wolfe Music Library written by Herbert Chappell, with a chorus of zombie moans added by Romero.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: For Argento's international cut, the Italian director used the band Goblin (incorrectly credited as "The Goblins") extensively. Goblin is a four-piece Italian progressive rock band that mostly provides contract work for film soundtracks. Argento, who received a credit for original music alongside Goblin, collaborated with the group to get music for his cut of the film. Romero used three of their pieces in his theatrical release version. The Goblin score would later find its way onto a "Dawn of the Dead"-inspired film, "Hell of the Living Dead". Many tracks would also appear in the Tsui Hark film "Dangerous Encounters of the First Kind". The version of "Dawn" released on video in the mid-nineties under the label "Director's Cut" does not use most of the Goblin tracks, as they had not been completed at the time of that edit.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: "Dawn of the Dead" has received a number of re-cuts and re-edits, due mostly to Argento's rights to edit the film for international foreign language release. Romero controlled the final cut of the film for English-language territories. In addition, the film was edited further by censors or distributors in certain countries. Romero, acting as the editor for his film, completed a hasty 139-minute version of the film (now known as the Extended, or Director's Cut) for premiere at the 1978 Cannes Film Market. This was later pared down to 126 minutes for the US theatrical release. The US theatrical cut of the film earned the taboo rating of X because of its graphic violence. Rejecting this rating, Romero and the producers chose to release the film unrated to help the film's commercial success. United Film Distribution Company eventually agreed to release it domestically in the United States. The film was refused classification in Australia twice: in its theatrical release in 1978 and once again in 1979. The cuts presented to the Australian Classification Board were Argento's cut and Romero's cut, respectively. "Dawn of the Dead" was finally released there by United Artists, with an R18+ rating following six minutes worth of cuts compared to Romero's US version, in February 1980.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Internationally, Argento controlled the Euro cut for non-English speaking countries. The version he created clocked in at 119 minutes. It included changes such as more music from Goblin than the cuts completed by Romero, removal of some expository scenes, and a faster cutting pace. There are, however, extra lines of dialogue and gore shots that are not in either of Romero's edits. It actually debuted nearly nine months before the US theatrical cut. "Dawn of the Dead" was release under different names un Europe, in Italy as , followed in March 1979 in France as , in Spain as , in the Netherlands as , in Germany by Constantin Film as , and in Denmark as .


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Despite the various alternative versions of the film available, "Dawn of the Dead" was successful internationally. Its success in then-West Germany earned it the Golden Screen Award, given to films that have at least three million admissions within 18 months of release. A majority of these versions were released on DVD in the 2004 Special Edition, and have previously been released on VHS. The freelance photographer Richard Burke, working for "Pittsburgh Magazine", released in May 2010 the first exclusive behind-the-scenes photos from the set.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: On September 1, 1978, a 119-minute cut of the film created for non-English speaking countries premiered in Turin, Italy under the title "Zombi", with Dario Argento in attendance. The same cut would open in Japan the weekend on March 27, 1979, and immediately top its box office there. Tagline "When there's no more room in Hell , the dead will walk the Earth." was thought of as Romero was drunk. A126-minute cut for English-language speaking territories premiered in the United States on April 7, 1979, at the USA Film Festival in Dallas, Texas, having been selected for the event by film critic Roger Ebert. The following weekend, United Film Distribution opened the same cut in seventeen Pittsburgh cinemas, and continued with a wider rollout over the next month. The picture opened in New York City on April 20 and in Los Angeles on May 11.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: "Dawn of the Dead" performed well thanks both to commercial advertising and word-of-mouth. Ad campaigns and posters declared the film "the most intensely shocking motion picture experience for all times". The film earned $900,000 on its opening weekend in the United States, and after four weeks had grossed in the United States and Canada and went on to gross $16 million. Internationally it did well too, grossing $1.5 million in six Japanese cinemas over a period of 42 days and over $1 million in Italy, and by October 1979 it had grossed $24 million worldwide. "The Numbers" claims it had an international gross of $49.9 million, which with a domestic gross of $16 million, gives a worldwide total of $66 million, making it the most profitable film in the "Dead" series.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that 94% of 47 surveyed critics gave the film a positive review. The average rating is 8.60/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "One of the most compelling and entertaining zombie films ever, "Dawn of the Dead" perfectly blends pure horror and gore with social commentary on material society." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave it four out of four stars and proclaimed it "one of the best horror films ever made." While conceding "Dawn of the Dead" to be "gruesome, sickening, disgusting, violent, brutal and appalling," Ebert said that "nobody ever said art had to be in good taste." Steve Biodrowski of "Cinefantastique" praised the film, calling it a "broader" version of "Night of the Living Dead", and gave particular credit to the acting and themes explored: "the acting performances are uniformly strong; and the script develops its themes more explicitly, with obvious satirical jabs at modern consumer society, as epitomized by the indoor shopping mall where a small band of human survivors take shelter from the zombie plague sweeping the country." He went on to say that "Dawn of the Dead" was a "savage (if tongue-in-cheek) attack on the foibles of modern society", showcasing explicit gore and horror and turning them into "a form of art".


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Similar to the preceding "Night of the Living Dead", some critical reviewers did not like the gory special effects. Particularly displeased at the large amount of gore and graphic violence was "The New York Times" critic Janet Maslin, who claimed she walked out after the first 15 minutes due to "a pet peeve about flesh-eating zombies who never stop snacking," and Gene Shalit of NBC's "Today" show dismissed it as "Yawn of the Living." Others, particularly "Variety", attacked the film's writing, suggesting that the violence and gore detract from any development of the characters, making them "uninteresting", resulting in a loss of impact. "Variety" wrote: ""Dawn" pummels the viewer with a series of ever-more-grisly events — shootings, knifings, flesh tearings - that make Romero's special effects man, Tom Savini, the real "star" of the film—the actors are as woodenly uninteresting as the characters they play." Pauline Kael wrote that, in contrast to the "truly frightening" "Night of the Living Dead", "you begin to laugh with relief that you're not being emotionally challenged or even affected; ["Dawn of the Dead" is] just a gross-out." Leslie Halliwell of Halliwell's Film Guide stated the film was "occasionally laughable, otherwise sickening or boring."


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The film is often cited as being one of the few sequels that are superior to the original. The film was selected as one of "The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time" by "Empire" magazine in 2008. It was also named as one of "The Best 1000 Movies Ever Made", a list published by "The New York Times". In 2016, James Charisma of "Playboy" ranked the film #10 on a list of "15 Sequels That Are Way Better Than The Originals". The 25th anniversary issue of "Fangoria" named it the best horror film of 1979 (although it was released a year earlier), and "Entertainment Weekly" ranked it #27 on a list of "The Top 50 Cult Films." Film.com and Filmsite.org rated it as one of the best films of 1978.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: In 2004, after numerous VHS, Laserdisc and DVD releases of several different versions of the film from various companies, Anchor Bay Entertainment released a definitive "Ultimate Edition" DVD box set of "Dawn of the Dead", following a single-disc U.S. theatrical cut released earlier in the year. The set features all three widely available versions of the film, along with different commentary tracks for each version, documentaries and extras. Also re-released with the DVD set was Roy Frumkes' "Document of the Dead", which chronicled the making of "Dawn of the Dead" and Romero's career to that point. The "Ultimate Edition" earned a Saturn Award for Best Classic Film Release.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The US theatrical cut of "Dawn of the Dead" was released on Blu-ray by Anchor Bay on October 7, 2007 in the U.S. It was released on Blu-ray in the United Kingdom by Arrow Video, which includes the theatrical cut and two DVDs with the Cannes and Argento cut. An Australian Blu-ray was released by Umbrella Entertainment. All of these releases are out of print as a result of Rubinstein significantly increasing the film's home media licensing fee in the wake of an unreleased 3D version of the film, which he supervised and financed for $6 million.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: In November 2016, Koch Media, under their Midnight Factory line, released a six-disc Collector's Edition Blu-ray package in the Italian market. This release includes the Argento cut in 4K Ultra HD format, as well as both the original 1.85:1 theatrical framing and 1.33:1 of the Argento cut, as well as the original theatrical cut and the extended Cannes cut of the film in high definition Blu-ray format. Koch also released a four-disc set, omitting the UHD and 1.33:1 discs, and a single Blu-ray of the European cut.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: In 2018, XT Video released the complete version of the film for blu-ray, which is a fusion of the long and Italian versions of the film, plus cut scenes.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: In November 2020, British home media distributor Second Sight Films released a limited edition box set of the film in separate Blu-ray and 4K Blu-ray formats, featuring the theatrical, Cannes and Argento cuts of the film. For this release, all three cuts were remastered and restored in 4K resolution, with the theatrical and Cannes versions presented on the 4K Blu-ray sets in HDR10+. The theatrical and Cannes cuts were restored from the original camera negative by Second Sight at Final Frame New York and London under the supervision and approval of Michael Gornick, the film's cinematographer. The audio, presented in Mono (with additional Stereo and 5.1 Surround tracks for the theatrical cut), was restored from the negative's optical soundtrack. Scenes exclusive to the Cannes version were restored using that version's color reversal internegative, while the Argento version, presented in SDR, was restored from its interpositive, and similarly features Mono, Stereo and 5.1 Surround audio tracks. The box set also contains a Blu-ray disc with a collection of original and archival bonus features. Three audio CDs featuring Goblin's original soundtrack and a compilation of the De Wolfe Music cues featured in the theatrical and Cannes cuts; "Dawn of the Dead: Dissecting the Dead", an exclusive hardcover book containing essays, artwork and other archival features; and a paperback copy of the film's novelisation.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Released in 2004, the remake was directed by Zack Snyder (in his directorial debut) and written by James Gunn. It stars Sarah Polley, Ving Rhames, and Jake Weber with cameos from original cast members Ken Foree, Scott Reiniger, and Tom Savini.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: George Romero and Susanna Sparrow's paperback book based on the film was released in 1978. It was reissued, with a new introduction by Simon Pegg, on May 26, 2015, by Gallery Books. It was reissued again in November 2020, with Pegg's introduction and new artwork, as part of Second Sight Films' limited edition Blu-ray release of the film.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Audio samples from "Dawn of the Dead" have been repeatedly used in popular music. English virtual band Gorillaz sampled a music cue from the film in the intro track of their album "Demon Days" (2005) and also sampled dialogue from the TV studio at the beginning of the film in their B-side "Hip Albatross". Filmmaker, musician and composer John Harrison (who cameos as "Screwdriver Zombie" in "Dawn of the Dead" and who subsequently composed the music to its follow up "Day of the Dead"), receives a co-writing credit for the song. Mortician uses the "no more room in hell" quote as the intro to their song "Zombie Apocalypse", and White Zombie sampled dialogue in their song "Psychoholic Slag" from the album "". American alternative rock band My Chemical Romance's song "Early Sunsets Over Monroeville" draws lyrical inspiration from the movie, while American shock rock band Murderdolls takes heavy inspiration from the film in their song "Dawn Of The Dead," from the album "Beyond The Valley Of The Murderdolls".


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: Joe Hill's short story "Bobby Conroy Comes Back From the Dead" takes place on the set of "Dawn of the Dead". The story focuses on two extras playing zombies, and Romero and Savini appear as two minor characters.


title: Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)

text: The 2006 video game "Dead Rising" is set in a shopping mall during a zombie outbreak and was at one point sued by the owners of "Dawn of the Dead". Later releases of the game included a disclaimer specifically noting that it was not licensed or approved by the creators of the movie to which it Bears resemblance.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: James Reiher Snuka (born James Wiley Smith; May 18, 1943 – January 15, 2017) was a Fijian American professional wrestler. He is better known by the ring name Jimmy "Superfly" Snuka.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka wrestled for several promotions from the 1970s to 2010s. He was best known for his time in the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, now WWE) in the 1980s and was credited with introducing the high-flying style of wrestling to the WWF. He was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1996, but was quietly removed from the Hall of Fame section of WWE's website, in 2015, after he was arrested for the murder of his girlfriend in 1983. Snuka was the inaugural ECW World Heavyweight Champion (a title he held twice) in Eastern Championship Wrestling (later Extreme Championship Wrestling). His children, Sim Snuka and Tamina Snuka, are both professional wrestlers.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was indicted and arrested in September 2015 on third-degree murder and involuntary manslaughter charges in relation to the May 1983 death of his girlfriend, Nancy Argentino, in Allentown, Pennsylvania. Snuka pleaded not guilty, but was ultimately found unfit to stand trial in June 2016 due to being diagnosed with dementia. As his health declined, the charges were dismissed on January 3, 2017. Snuka died twelve days later at the age of 73.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was born in the British colony of Fiji on May 18, 1943, to Louisa Smith and Charles Thomas. Thomas was married to another woman, and Smith was engaged to Bernard Reiher. Before Snuka was born, his mother married Reiher. As a child, Snuka moved with his family to the Marshall Islands and then to Hawaii.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was active in amateur bodybuilding in Hawaii in the 1960s. He also enjoyed some success as a professional bodybuilder, earning the titles of Mr. Hawaii, Mr. Waikiki and Mr. North Shore.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka opted to go into the more lucrative career of professional wrestling due to the uncertainty of his making a living in bodybuilding. While working at Dean Ho's gym in Hawaii, Snuka met many of the wrestlers who worked in the South Pacific region and decided to try the business. Snuka made his debut as Jimmy Kealoha fighting Maxwell "Bunny" Butler in Hawaii in 1970. He later moved to the mainland and wrestled for Don Owen’s NWA Pacific Northwest territory where he held the belt as heavyweight champion six times. He first won the title by pinning Bull Ramos on November 16, 1973. It was in this territory that Reiher transformed himself into Jimmy Snuka. Snuka also held the NWA Pacific Northwest Tag Team Championship six times with partner Dutch Savage. Snuka also had a two-year feud with another rookie, Jesse "the Body" Ventura.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka also wrestled in several other National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) regions, including Texas. In 1977, he won both the Texas heavyweight and tag team titles. Snuka then left for the Mid-Atlantic where he formed a tag team with Paul Orndorff. In their first television match they defeated the NWA World Tag Team champions Jack and Jerry Brisco in a non-title bout. Orndorff and Snuka defeated Baron von Raschke and Greg Valentine to become the tag team title holders in 1979. On September 1, 1979, Snuka defeated Ricky Steamboat to hold the United States title. Snuka also formed a tag team with Ray Stevens while with this promotion. His career eventually led him to Georgia, where he teamed with Terry Gordy to win the NWA National Tag Team Championship by defeating Ted DiBiase and Steve Olsonoski."


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In January 1982, Snuka entered the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) as a villainous character under the guidance of Captain Lou Albano. Snuka lost several title shots at WWF champion Bob Backlund, including a steel cage match at Madison Square Garden on June 28, 1982, in which Snuka leapt from the top of the cage and missed a prone Backlund, who managed to roll out of the way and escape the cage for the win. The contest was declared Match of the Year by "Pro Wrestling Illustrated".


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Even though Snuka portrayed a violent villain, he won fans because of his athletic style. In a storyline in 1982, Buddy Rogers told Snuka that Albano was cheating him financially, and as a result, Snuka fired Albano. Snuka took on Rogers as his manager during the feud with Albano, Freddie Blassie, and Ray Stevens. The attack solidified Snuka's new role as a fan favorite seeking to settle the score. Snuka defeated Stevens in the majority of the series of matches between the two. He also faced several other of Albano's wrestlers, and defeated Albano in a steel cage match in Madison Square Garden.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka also feuded with Don Muraco in 1983, which began after Snuka entered the ring for a match against Don Kernodle on the June 18 episode of "Championship Wrestling" while Muraco, the Intercontinental Heavyweight champion, was being interviewed. Muraco, enraged at the perceived lack of respect, confronted Snuka at ringside, triggering a brawl. This feud led to a defining moment of Snuka's career on October 17, 1983, in a steel cage match at Madison Square Garden. The match ended in a loss for Snuka, but afterward he dragged Muraco back into the ring and connected with the most famous "Superfly splash" of his career, off the top of the high steel cage. Future wrestling stars the Sandman, Mick Foley, Tommy Dreamer, and Bubba Ray Dudley were all in attendance at the event and cite this match as the reason they decided to actively pursue professional wrestling. Snuka was named the 1983 Wrestler of the Year by "Victory Magazine" (later renamed "WWF Magazine") for his efforts.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In June 1984, Snuka became embroiled in a feud with one of the WWF's top villains, "Rowdy" Roddy Piper. In a segment of "Piper's Pit", Piper hit Snuka on the left side of his head very close to the temple, with a coconut. The attack led to a series of grudge matches between the two that were played out over venues across the US throughout the summer of 1984. In late 1984, Snuka entered a rehabilitation facility; the WWF created a storyline in which Piper had broken Snuka's neck by hitting him over the head with a chair. Tonga Kid, who was billed as Snuka's cousin, continued the feud on Snuka's behalf.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: The remainder of Snuka's initial WWF stint had him frequently tangling with Piper one way or another, often via tag matches or wrestling Piper's closest ally, Bob Orton Jr. Snuka defeated Orton at The War to Settle the Score on February 18, 1985; an injury during the match forced Orton to wear a cast on his left arm, which he continued to wear after the injury healed. The feud played a small part in the first WrestleMania, in March 1985, when Snuka acted as a cornerman for Hulk Hogan and Mr. T when they defeated Piper and Paul Orndorff (with Orton in their corner). Snuka left the WWF in July 1985, though he still appeared in cartoon form when "Hulk Hogan's Rock 'n' Wrestling" premiered in September.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: After spending the rest of 1985 and early 1986 competing for New Japan Pro-Wrestling, Snuka resurfaced in the American Wrestling Association (AWA), replacing Jerry Blackwell as Greg Gagne's partner, to defeat Bruiser Brody and Nord the Barbarian in a tag team cage match at WrestleRock 86. Snuka split his time between the AWA and Japan throughout 1986 and 1987. His most notable feud in the AWA during that time was with Colonel DeBeers, who portrayed a racist and looked down on Snuka because of his skin color. This led the way for a series of grudge matches in 1987.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka also worked for Pacific Northwest Wrestling and Continental Wrestling Association. In 1988, he worked a couple of matches in Singapore.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka re-emerged in the WWF at WrestleMania V on April 2, 1989. He made his televised return to action on the May 27 episode of "Saturday Night's Main Event XXI", defeating Boris Zhukov. After a brief feud with the Honky Tonk Man, Snuka made his in-ring pay-per-view debut at "SummerSlam" against "Million Dollar Man" Ted DiBiase. Snuka lost the match by count-out as a result of interference from DiBiase's bodyguard Virgil.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: By the later part of 1989, Snuka was put into a spot like many veterans before him, being used to help put over other rising stars such as "Mr. Perfect" Curt Hennig. At the Survivor Series, Snuka and Hennig were each the final remaining members of their teams, with Hennig pinning Snuka to win the match for his team. In January 1990, Snuka made his Royal Rumble match debut, lasting 17 minutes and eliminating two competitors before being eliminated by the eventual winner, Hulk Hogan. Snuka had his first WrestleMania match at WrestleMania VI, where he was defeated by Rick Rude. When the Intercontinental Championship was vacated after WrestleMania, Snuka entered the tournament to crown a new champion. He was eliminated in the first round when he once again lost to Mr. Perfect. At that November's Survivor Series, Snuka joined Jake Roberts and the Rockers in a losing effort against Rick Martel, the Warlord and Power and Glory.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On March 24, 1991, Snuka was defeated by the Undertaker at WrestleMania VII, which began Undertaker's undefeated streak at WrestleMania. In January 1992, he competed in the Royal Rumble for the vacant WWF Championship, but lasted only three minutes before being eliminated by Undertaker. Snuka left the WWF soon after, his last recorded match being a loss to Shawn Michaels at the Los Angeles Sports Arena on February 8, 1992.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In the midst of his ECW career, Snuka once again returned to the WWF on September 25, 1993, defeating Brian Christopher at a Madison Square Garden house show. He returned to television two nights later, defeating Paul Van Dale via Superfly Splash on the September 27 episode of "Monday Night Raw". The following week on "Raw", Snuka participated in a battle royal for the vacant Intercontinental Championship, in which he was eliminated by Rick Martel before departing the company.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: After leaving the WWF in March 1992, Snuka toured with various smaller organizations and played a role in the formation of Tod Gordon's Philadelphia-based Eastern Championship Wrestling (ECW) organization along with fellow veterans Don Muraco and Terry Funk. Snuka made his ECW debut as a fan favorite at a live event on April 25. He won his first match, a battle royal to qualify for the ECW Heavyweight Championship match against Salvatore Bellomo, the winner of the other battle royal. Immediately after, Snuka defeated Bellomo to become the promotion's first heavyweight champion. A day later, he dropped the title to Johnny Hotbody.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: He returned to ECW on July 14, where he defeated Hotbody to regain the heavyweight title, winning it for a second time. He made his first successful title defense, against Mr. Sandman, on July 15. Snuka held the title for the next two months, defeating challengers like Super Destroyer No. 1 and King Kaluha, before losing the title to Muraco on September 30. Snuka unsuccessfully challenged Muraco for the title in a rematch on October 24, after which he turned into a villain by feigning confrontation with color commentator Stately Wayne Manor and then attacking ECW owner Tod Gordon with a chair. Snuka took on Hunter Q. Robbins III as his manager and closed the year with a loss to Davey Boy Smith on December 19.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka became a member of Paul E. Dangerously's new faction Hotstuff International on the debut episode of the company's eponymous television program "Eastern Championship Wrestling" on April 6 and won an eight-man tournament for the vacant television championship by defeating Larry Winters, the undefeated Tommy Cairo and Glen Osbourne. Snuka frequently teamed with his stablemates Eddie Gilbert and Muraco. Snuka made his first televised title defense against Osbourne on the May 25 episode of "Eastern Championship Wrestling", where Snuka retained the title. Snuka successfully defended the title against J.T. Smith and the NWA Pennsylvania Heavyweight champion Tommy Cairo at Super Summer Sizzler Spectacular, while also defending the title on "Eastern Championship Wrestling". Snuka lost the title to Terry Funk in a brutal steel cage match at NWA Bloodfest".


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka's next notable match took place at The Night the Line Was Crossed in 1994, where he faced rising star Tommy Dreamer in an infamous match. During the match, Dreamer kicked out of a pinfall attempt by Snuka after a Superfly splash, thus marking one of the few times in wrestling history that an opponent kicked out of Snuka's finishing move. Snuka still managed to win by delivering three splashes. Snuka continued his assault on Dreamer after the match, which began a feud between the two. Snuka lost to Dreamer on March 5 before beating him in a steel cage match at Ultimate Jeopardy. Snuka wrestled his last ECW match at Hardcore Heaven in August, where he and the Tazmaniac picked up a tag team victory over the Pitbulls. Later that month, ECW was taken over by Paul Heyman, who renamed it Extreme Championship Wrestling.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka wrestled for one night at WCW's on May 23, 1993, teaming with Don Muraco and Dick Murdoch against Wahoo McDaniel, Blackjack Mulligan, and Jim Brunzell in a no contest.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka also appeared on "WCW Monday Nitro" January 10, 2000, where he gave Jeff Jarrett a Superfly splash off the top of a steel cage.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka continued to spend much of his time with East Coast Wrestling organizations through the mid-1990s and into the 2000s. During this time, he wrestled the Metal Maniac in a series of matches that spanned across many independent wrestling promotions, winning most of these matches. On August 15, 1997, Snuka defeated the Masked Superstar at the "IWA Night of the Legends" show in Kannapolis, North Carolina via disqualification when his opponent hit special guest referee Ricky Steamboat.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka also participated at the first X Wrestling Federation TV tapings, accompanying his son, Jimmy Snuka, Jr. to the ring for matches, including one match where they both delivered a Superfly splash to prone opponents. On June 22, 2002, Snuka won the International Wrestling Superstars (IWS) United States Championship by pin fall against King Kong Bundy in Atlantic City, New Jersey. On April 3, 2004, Snuka and Kamala fought to a no-contest at the International Wrestling Cartel's first-annual "Night Of Legends" event in Franklin, Pennsylvania.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In 2004, Snuka made an appearance for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling at their "Victory Road" pay-per-view as Piper's guest on "Piper's Pit".


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On July 1, 2006, Snuka wrestled for 1PW's "Fight Club 2" event where he teamed with Darren Burridge to defeat Stevie Lynn and Jay Phoenix.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On March 28, 2009, Snuka again participated at the IWC's "Night Of Legends" event, where he defeated former rival Orton. On August 1, Snuka teamed with Jon Bolen, Jimmy Vegas, and Michael Facade (with Dominic DeNucci) to defeat James Avery, Logan Shulo, Shane Taylor and Lord Zoltan (with Mayor Mystery) at IWC's "No Excuses 5" in Elizabeth, Pennsylvania. On November 28, 2009, he teamed with his son at an NWA Upstate event in Lockport, New York. They defeated the NWA Upstate Tag Team champions Hellcat and Triple X in a non-title match.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In 2011, Jimmy Snuka competed at "JCW: Icons and Legends" event in a battle royal match won by Zach Gowen. On May 11, 2014, Snuka teamed up with the Patriot to defeat the team of Brodie Williams and Mr. TA at a Big Time Wrestling event. Snuka's last match was at an ECPW event, where he teamed up with Frankie Flow to defeat the team of Andrew Anderson and Jason Knight on May 15, 2015, just 3 days before his 72nd birthday.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame class of 1996. Afterward, he competed at the 1996 Survivor Series. Snuka received a lifetime achievement award from WWE at Madison Square Garden on WWE "Raw", August 26, 2002.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In 2005, he appeared at the "WWE Homecoming", where he delivered a Superfly splash to Rob Conway. He was a part of the Taboo Tuesday pay-per-view, where fans voted for him (ahead of Kamala and Jim Duggan) to team with Eugene against Conway and Tyson Tomko. Snuka won the match, pinning Conway after a Superfly splash. He appeared at the 2007 WWE draft edition of "Raw" in a vignette for Vince McMahon appreciation night. On June 24, 2007, Snuka was introduced as Sgt. Slaughter's tag team partner in the open invitational match for the WWE Tag Team Championship at , but he was ultimately pinned by his son, Deuce. In 2008, Snuka appeared in the Royal Rumble. He was in the match less than five minutes and primarily focused his efforts on onetime nemesis, Piper. Both were quickly eliminated by the next entrant, Kane.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On the March 2, 2009 episode of "Raw", he was attacked by Chris Jericho during a parody of "Piper's Pit". This was part of a storyline where Jericho was disrespecting and attacking legends. Two weeks later, on the March 16, 2009 episode of "Raw", Snuka, Piper, Ric Flair and Steamboat attacked Jericho. At WrestleMania 25 on April 5, 2009, Snuka teamed with Steamboat and Piper to face Jericho in a legends of WrestleMania handicap match with Flair in their corner. Snuka was the first man eliminated by Jericho, who eventually won the match.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was the part-owner of Body Slam University and Coastal Championship Wrestling in South Florida with Dan Ackerman and Bruno Sassi. He wrote an autobiography, "Superfly: The Jimmy Snuka Story", which was released on December 1, 2012.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was married three times. His second marriage was to Sharon Ili and they had two daughters Liana Snuka and Sarona. He has two granddaughters named Milaneta Kai Viti Dina Snuka and Maleata Aliiau Snuka and he has a stepdaughter Ata, Sharon's third daughter. His third marriage was to Carole on September 4, 2004. He was the stepfather to Carole's three children: Bridget, Richard, and Dennis. He was also married to Patrice Aguirre, the mother of wrestler Gino Hernandez.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On May 10, 1983, a few hours after defeating José Estrada at a WWF television taping at the Lehigh County Agricultural Hall in Allentown, Pennsylvania, Snuka placed a call for an ambulance. When emergency personnel arrived at his room at the George Washington Motor Lodge, they found that his girlfriend, Nancy Argentino, had been injured. She was transported to Allentown's Sacred Heart Medical Center, where she died shortly after an "undetermined craniocerebral injuries." The coroner's report stated that Argentino, 23, died of traumatic brain injuries consistent with a moving head striking a stationary object. Autopsy findings show Argentino had more than two dozen cuts and bruises—a possible sign of serious domestic abuse—on her head, ear, chin, arms, hands, back, buttocks, legs, and feet. Forensic pathologist Isidore Mihalakis, who performed the autopsy, wrote at the time that the case should be investigated as a homicide until proven otherwise. Deputy Lehigh County coroner Wayne Snyder later said, "Upon viewing the body and speaking to the pathologist, I immediately suspected foul play and so notified the district attorney."


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: Snuka was the only suspect involved in the subsequent investigation. Although charges were not pressed at the time against Snuka, the case was left officially open. In 1985, Argentino's parents won a $500,000 default judgment against Snuka in U.S. District Court in Philadelphia. Snuka appears not to have ever paid, claiming financial inability. On June 28, 2013, Lehigh County District Attorney Jim Martin announced that the still-open case would be reviewed by his staff. On January 28, 2014, Martin announced that the case had been turned over to a grand jury.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On September 1, 2015, 32 years after the incident, Snuka was arrested and charged with third-degree murder and involuntary manslaughter for Argentino's death. It is the oldest case to result in charges in Lehigh County's history. On October 7, 2015, Snuka's lawyers agreed to forego a preliminary hearing, which the prosecution contended was a waste of court resources, given the thorough grand jury investigation. In return, they received transcripts and other evidence from that investigation, which defense attorney Robert J. Kirwan II said would be much more helpful in preparing Snuka's case than a hearing would have been.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On November 2, 2015, Snuka pleaded not guilty before Judge Kelly Banach. A hearing to determine Snuka's competency for trial began in May 2016. Snuka's attorneys argued that a forensic psychologist found Snuka's mental and physical health to be deteriorating. Prosecutors countered by showing a tape of Snuka performing wrestling moves at a May 2015 match. On June 1, 2016, Judge Banach ruled that Snuka was not mentally competent to stand trial for the murder and that a new hearing would be held six months later to re-evaluate his competency, though his attorneys maintained that his condition wouldn't improve over time. Judge Kelly Banach dismissed the charges on January 3, 2017, deeming Snuka not mentally fit to stand trial.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In August 2015, Snuka's wife, Carole, announced that he was diagnosed with stomach cancer. As a result, he had surgery to remove his lymph nodes, part of his stomach and all apparent cancer. She said they both expected he would fully recover after "a long road ahead". Following his arrest his attorney, William E. Moore, told reporters Snuka had dementia, stemming from wrestling-related injuries, to the point of being unfit for trial, and a judge ultimately agreed.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: In July 2016, Carole Snuka, acting as representative for her husband, joined a class action lawsuit filed against WWE which alleged that wrestlers incurred "long term neurological injuries" and that the company "routinely failed to care" for them and "fraudulently misrepresented and concealed" the nature and extent of those injuries. The suit is litigated by attorney Konstantine Kyros, who has been involved in a number of other lawsuits against WWE. According to a court document filed by Kyros in November 2016, Snuka was diagnosed with "chronic traumatic encephalopathy or a similar disease". WWE challenged the filing, stating that "no medical report was included" in it. Since the September 2007 autopsy on Chris Benoit that detected he had CTE, the Kyros Law Firm has represented over 60 wrestlers or estates of deceased wrestlers (including Carole Snuka) in litigation against the WWE. The lawsuit was dismissed by US District Judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant in September 2018.


title: Jimmy Snuka

text: On December 2, 2016, it was announced that Snuka was in hospice and had six months left to live, due to a terminal illness. He died on January 15, 2017, at age 73 in Pompano Beach, Florida.


title: Blood libel

text: Blood libel or ritual murder libel (also blood accusation) is an antisemitic canard which falsely accuses Jews of murdering Christian boys in order to use their blood in the performance of religious rituals. Historically, echoing very old myths of secret cultic practices in many prehistoric societies, the claim as it is leveled against Jews, was rarely attested to in antiquity. It was however, frequently attached to early communities of Christians in the Roman Empire, re-emerging as a European Christian accusation against Jews in the medieval period. This libel—alongside those of well poisoning and host desecration—became a major theme of the persecution of Jews in Europe from that period to the present day.


title: Blood libel

text: Blood libels typically claim that Jews require human blood for the baking of matzos, an unleavened flatbread which is eaten during Passover, although this element of the accusation was allegedly absent in the earliest blood libels in which then-contemporary Jews were accused of re-enacting the crucifixion. The accusations often assert that the blood of Christian children is especially coveted, and historically, blood libel claims have been made in order to account for the otherwise unexplained deaths of children. In some cases, the alleged victims of human sacrifice have become venerated as Christian martyrs. Three of these William of Norwich, Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, and Simon of Trent became objects of local cults and veneration; and although he was never canonized, the veneration of Simon was added to the General Roman Calendar. One child who was allegedly murdered by Jews, Gabriel of Białystok, was canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.


title: Blood libel

text: In Jewish lore, blood libels served as the impetus for the writing of the Golem of Prague by Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel in the 16th century. According to Walter Laqueur:


title: Blood libel

text: The term 'blood libel' has also been used in reference to any unpleasant or damaging false accusation, and as a result, it has acquired a broader metaphoric meaning. However, this wider usage of the term remains controversial, because Jewish groups object to it.


title: Blood libel

text: The earliest versions of the accusations involving Jews supposedly crucifying Christian children on Easter/Passover is said to be because of a prophecy. There is no reference to the use of blood in unleavened matzo bread at this time yet, which develops later as a major motivation for the crime.


title: Blood libel

text: The earliest known antecedent is from a man named Democritus (not the philosopher) mentioned in the Suda, who alleged that "every seven years the Jews captured a stranger, brought him to the temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed him, cutting his flesh into bits." The Greco-Egyptian author Apion claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in their temple. Here, the writer states that when Antiochus Epiphanes entered the temple in Jerusalem, he discovered a Greek captive, who told him that he was being fattened for sacrifice. Every year, Apion claimed, the Jews would sacrifice a Greek and consume his flesh, at the same time swearing eternal hatred towards the Greeks. Apion's claim likely reflects already circulating attitudes towards Jews as similar claims are made by Posidonius and Apollonius Molon in the 1st century BCE. This idea is exampled later in history, when Socrates Scholasticus ( 5th century) reported that in a drunken frolic, a group of Jews bound a Christian child to a cross in mockery of the death of Christ and scourged him until he died.


title: Blood libel

text: Israel Yuval proposed that the blood libel may have originated in the 12th century due to Christian views on Jewish behavior during the First Crusade. Some Jews committed suicide and killed their own children rather than exposing them to forced conversion to Christianity. Yuval wrote that Christians may have argued that if Jews could kill their own children, they could also kill Christian children.


title: Blood libel

text: In England in 1144, the Jews of Norwich were falsely accused of ritual murder after a boy, William of Norwich, was found dead in the woods with stab wounds. William's hagiographer, Thomas of Monmouth, falsely claimed that every year there is an international council of Jews at which they choose the country in which a child will be killed during Easter, because of a Jewish prophecy that states that the killing of a Christian child each year will ensure that the Jews will be restored to the Holy Land. In 1144, England was chosen, and the leaders of the Jewish community delegated the Jews of Norwich to perform the killing. They then abducted and crucified William. The legend was turned into a cult, with William acquiring the status of a martyr and pilgrims bringing offerings to the local church.


title: Blood libel

text: This was followed by similar accusations in Gloucester (1168), Bury St Edmunds (1181) and Bristol (1183). In 1189, the Jewish deputation attending the coronation of Richard the Lionheart was attacked by the crowd. Massacres of Jews at London and York soon followed. In 1190 on 16 March 150 Jews were attacked in York and then massacred when they took refuge in the royal castle, where Clifford's Tower now stands, with some committing suicide rather than being taken by the mob. The remains of 17 bodies thrown in a well in Norwich between the 12th and 13th century (five that were shown by DNA testing to likely be members of a single Jewish family) were very possibly killed as part of one of these pogroms.


title: Blood libel

text: After the death of Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, there were trials and executions of Jews. The case is mentioned by Matthew Paris and Chaucer, and thus has become well-known. Its notoriety sprang from the intervention of the Crown, the first time an accusation of ritual killing had been given royal credibility.


title: Blood libel

text: The eight-year-old Hugh disappeared at Lincoln on 31 July 1255. His body was probably discovered on 29 August, in a well. A Jew named Copin or Koppin confessed to involvement. He confessed to John of Lexington, a servant of the crown, and relative of the Bishop of Lincoln. He confessed that the boy had been crucified by the Jews, who had assembled at Lincoln for that purpose. King Henry III, who had reached Lincoln at the beginning of October, had Copin executed and 91 of the Jews of Lincoln seized and sent up to London, where 18 of them were executed. The rest were pardoned at the intercession of the Franciscans or Dominicans. Within a few decades, Jews would be expelled from all of England in 1290 and not allowed to return until 1657.


title: Blood libel

text: Much like the blood libel of England, the history of blood libel in continental Europe consists of unsubstantiated claims made about the corpses of Christian children. There were frequently associated supernatural events speculated about these discoveries and corpses, events which were often attributed by contemporaries to miracles. Also, just as in England, these accusations in continental Europe typically resulted in the execution of numerous Jews – sometimes even all, or close to all, the Jews in one town. These accusations and their effects also, in some cases, led to royal interference on behalf of the Jews.


title: Blood libel

text: Thomas of Monmouth's story of the annual Jewish meeting to decide which local community would kill a Christian child also quickly spread to the continent. An early version appears in "Bonum Universale de Apibus" ii. 29, § 23, by Thomas of Cantimpré (a monastery near Cambray). Thomas wrote, in around 1260, "It is quite certain that the Jews of every province annually decide by lot which congregation or city is to send Christian blood to the other congregations." Thomas of Cantimpré also believed that since the time when the Jews called out to Pontius Pilate, "His blood be on us, and on our children" (), they have been afflicted with hemorrhages, a condition equated with male menstruation:


title: Blood libel

text: A very learned Jew, who in our day has been converted to the (Christian) faith, informs us that one enjoying the reputation of a prophet among them, toward the close of his life, made the following prediction: 'Be assured that relief from this secret ailment, to which you are exposed, can only be obtained through Christian blood (""solo sanguine Christiano"").' This suggestion was followed by the ever-blind and impious Jews, who instituted the custom of annually shedding Christian blood in every province, in order that they might recover from their malady.


title: Blood libel

text: Thomas added that the Jews had misunderstood the words of their prophet, who by his expression ""solo sanguine Christiano"" had meant not the blood of any Christian, but that of Jesus the only true remedy for all physical and spiritual suffering. Thomas did not mention the name of the "very learned" proselyte, but it may have been Nicholas Donin of La Rochelle, who, in 1240, had a disputation on the Talmud with Yechiel of Paris, and who in 1242 caused the burning of numerous Talmudic manuscripts in Paris. It is known that Thomas was personally acquainted with Nicholas. Nicholas Donin and another Jewish convert, Theobald of Cambridge, are greatly credited with the adoption and the belief of the blood libel myth in Europe.


title: Blood libel

text: The first known case outside England was in Blois, France, in 1171. This was the site of a blood libel accusation against the town's entire Jewish community that led to around 31–33 Jews (with 17 women making up this total) being burned to death. on 29 May of that year, or the 20th of Sivan of 4931. The blood libel revolved around R. Isaac, a Jew whom a Christian servant reported had deposited a murdered Christian in the Loire. The child's body was never found. The count had about 40 adult Blois Jews arrested and they were eventually to be burned. The surviving members of the Blois Jewish community, as well as surviving holy texts, were ransomed. As a result of this case, the Jews garnered new promises from the king. The burned bodies of the sentenced Jews were supposedly maintained unblemished through the burning, a claim which is a well-known miracle, martyr myth for both Jews and Christians. There is significant primary source material from this case including a letter revealing moves for Jewish protection with King Louis VII. Responding to the mass execution, the 20th of Sivan was declared a fast day by Rabbenu Tam. In this case in Blois, there was not yet the myth proclaimed that Jews needed the blood of Christians.


title: Blood libel

text: In 1235, after the dead bodies of five boys were found on Christmas day in Fulda, the inhabitants of the town claimed the Jews had killed them to consume their blood, and burned 34 Jews to death with the help of Crusaders assembled at the time. Even though emperor Frederick II cleared the Jews of any wrongdoing after an investigation, blood libel accusations persisted in Germany. At Pforzheim, Baden, in 1267, a woman supposedly sold a girl to Jews who, according to the myth, then cut her open and dumped her in the Enz River, where boatmen found her; the girl cried for vengeance, and then died. The body was said to have bled as the Jews were brought to it. The woman and the Jews allegedly confessed and were subsequently killed. That a judicial execution was summarily committed in consequence of the accusation is evident from the manner in which the Nuremberg "Memorbuch" and the synagogal poems refer to the incident.


title: Blood libel

text: In 1270, at Weissenburg, of Alsace, a supposed miracle alone decided the charge against the Jews. A child's body had shown up in the Lauter River; it was claimed that Jews had cut into the child to acquire his blood, and that the child continued bleeding for five days.


title: Blood libel

text: At Oberwesel, near Easter of 1287, alleged miracles again constituted the only evidence against the Jews. In this case, it was claimed that the corpse of the 16-year-old Werner of Oberwesel (also referred to as "Good Werner") landed at Bacharach and the body performed miracles, particularly medicinal miracles. Light was also said to have been emitted by the body. Reportedly, the child was hung upside down, forced to throw up the host and was cut open. In consequence, the Jews of Oberwesel and many other adjacent localities were severely persecuted during the years 1286-89. The Jews of Oberwesel were particularly targeted because there were no Jews remaining in Bacharach following a 1283 pogrom. Additionally, there were pogroms following this case as well at and around Oberwesel. Rudolph of Habsburg, to whom the Jews had appealed for protection, in order to manage the miracle story, had the archbishop of Mainz declare great wrong had been done to the Jew. This apparent declaration was very limited in effectiveness.


title: Blood libel

text: A statement was made, in the "Chronicle" of Konrad Justinger of 1423, that at Bern in 1293 or 1294 the Jews tortured and murdered a boy called Rudolph (sometimes also referred to as Rudolph, Ruff, or Ruof). The body was reportedly found by the house of Jöly, a Jew. The Jewish community was then implicated. The penalties imposed upon the Jews included torture, execution, expulsion, and steep financial fines. Justinger argued Jews were out to harm Christianity. The historical impossibility of this widely credited story was demonstrated by Jakob Stammler, pastor of Bern, in 1888.


title: Blood libel

text: There have been several explanations put forth as to why these blood libel accusations were made and perpetuated. For example, it has been argued Thomas of Monmouth's account and other similar false accusations, as well as their perpetuation, largely had to do with the economic and political interests of leaders who did, in fact, perpetuate these myths. Additionally, it was largely believed in Europe that Jews used Christian blood for medicinal and other purposes. Despite the unsubstantiated, mythical nature of these claims, as well as their sources, they evidently materially impacted the communities in which they occurred including both the Jewish and non-Jewish populations.


title: Blood libel

text: Simon of Trent, aged two, disappeared in 1475, and his father alleged that he had been kidnapped and murdered by the local Jewish community. Fifteen local Jews were sentenced to death and burned. Simon was regarded locally as a saint, although he was never canonised by the church of Rome. He was removed from the Roman Martyrology in 1965 by Pope Paul VI.


title: Blood libel

text: Christopher of Toledo, also known as Christopher of La Guardia or "the Holy Child of La Guardia", was a four-year-old Christian boy supposedly murdered in 1490 by two Jews and three conversos (converts to Christianity). In total, eight men were executed. It is now believed that this case was constructed by the Spanish Inquisition to facilitate the expulsion of Jews from Spain.


title: Blood libel

text: In a case at Tyrnau (Nagyszombat, today Trnava, Slovakia), the absurdity, even the impossibility, of the statements forced by torture from women and children shows that the accused preferred death as a means of escape from the torture, and admitted everything that was asked of them. They even said that Jewish men menstruated and that the latter therefore practiced the drinking of Christian blood as a remedy.


title: Blood libel

text: At Bösing (Bazin, today Pezinok, Slovakia), it was charged that a nine-year-old boy had been bled to death, suffering cruel torture; thirty Jews confessed to the crime and were publicly burned. The true facts of the case were disclosed later when the child was found alive in Vienna. He had been taken there by the accuser, Count Wolf of Bazin, as a means of ridding himself of his Jewish creditors at Bazin.


title: Blood libel

text: In Rinn, near Innsbruck, a boy named Andreas Oxner (also known as Anderl von Rinn) was said to have been bought by Jewish merchants and cruelly murdered by them in a forest near the city, his blood being carefully collected in vessels. The accusation of drawing off the blood (without murder) was not made until the beginning of the 17th century when the cult was founded. The older inscription in the church of Rinn, dating from 1575, is distorted by fabulous embellishments for example, that the money paid for the boy to his godfather turned into leaves, and that a lily blossomed upon his grave. The cult continued until officially prohibited in 1994, by the Bishop of Innsbruck.


title: Blood libel

text: On 17 January 1670 Raphael Levy, a member of the Jewish community of Metz, was executed on charges of the ritual murder of a peasant child who had gone missing in the woods outside the village of Glatigny on 25 September 1669, the eve of Rosh Hashanah.


title: Blood libel

text: One of the child-saints in the Russian Orthodox Church is the six-year-old boy Gavriil Belostoksky from the village Zverki. According to the legend supported by the church, the boy was kidnapped from his home during the holiday of Passover while his parents were away. Shutko, who was a Jew from Białystok, was accused of bringing the boy to Białystok, piercing him with sharp objects and draining his blood for nine days, then bringing the body back to Zverki and dumping it at a local field. A cult developed, and the boy was canonized in 1820. His relics are still the object of pilgrimage. On All Saints Day, 27 July 1997, the Belarusian state TV showed a film alleging the story is true. The revival of the cult in Belarus was cited as a dangerous expression of antisemitism in international reports on human rights and religious freedoms which were passed to the UNHCR.


title: Blood libel

text: The attitude of the Catholic Church towards these accusations and the cults venerating children supposedly killed by Jews has varied over time. The Papacy generally opposed them, although it had problems in enforcing its opposition.


title: Blood libel

text: In 1911, the "Dictionnaire apologétique de la foi catholique", an important French Catholic encyclopedia, published an analysis of the blood libel accusations. This may be taken as being broadly representative of educated Catholic opinion in continental Europe at that time. The article noted that the popes had generally refrained from endorsing the blood libel, and it concluded that the accusations were unproven in a general sense, but it left open the possibility that some Jews had committed ritual murders of Christians. Other contemporary Catholic sources (notably the Jesuit periodical "La Civiltà Cattolica") promoted the blood libel as truth.


title: Blood libel

text: Today, the accusations are rarer in Catholic circles. While Simon of Trent's local status as a saint was removed in 1965, several towns in Spain still commemorate the blood libel.


title: Blood libel

text: In late 1553 or 1554, Suleiman the Magnificent, the reigning Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, issued a firman (royal decree) which formally denounced blood libels against the Jews. In 1840, following the Western outrage arising from the Damascus affair, British politician and leader of the British Jewish community, Sir Moses Montefiore, backed by other influential westerners including Britain's Lord Palmerston and Damascus consul Charles Henry Churchill, the French lawyer Adolphe Crémieux, Austrian consul Giovanni Gasparo Merlato, Danish missionary John Nicolayson, and Solomon Munk, persuaded Sultan Abdulmecid I in Constantinople, to issue a firman on 6 November 1840 intended to halt the spread of blood libel accusations in the Ottoman Empire. The edict declared that blood libel accusations were a slander against Jews and they would be prohibited throughout the Ottoman Empire, and read in part:


title: Blood libel

text: "... and for the love we bear to our subjects, we cannot permit the Jewish nation, whose innocence for the crime alleged against them is evident, to be worried and tormented as a consequence of accusations which have not the least foundation in truth...".


title: Blood libel

text: In the remainder of the 19th century and into the 20th century, there were many instances of the blood libel in Ottoman lands, such as the 1881 Fornaraki affair. However the libel almost always came from the Christian community, sometimes with the connivance of Greek or French diplomats. The Jews could usually count on the goodwill of the Ottoman authorities and increasingly on the support of British, Prussian and Austrian representatives.


title: Blood libel

text: In the 1910 Shiraz blood libel, the Jews of Shiraz, Iran, were falsely accused of murdering a Muslim girl. The entire Jewish quarter was pillaged, with the pogrom leaving 12 Jews dead and about 50 injured.


title: Blood libel

text: In 1983, Mustafa Tlass, the Syrian Minister of Defense, wrote and published "The Matzah of Zion", which is a treatment of the Damascus affair of 1840 that repeats the ancient "blood libel", that Jews use the blood of murdered non-Jews in religious rituals such as baking Matza bread. In this book, he argues that the true religious beliefs of Jews are "black hatred against all humans and religions", and no Arab country should ever sign a peace treaty with Israel. Tlass re-printed the book several times. Following the book's publication, Tlass told "Der Spiegel", that this accusation against Jews was valid and he also claimed that his book is "an historical study ... based on documents from France, Vienna and the American University in Beirut."


title: Blood libel

text: In 2003, the Egyptian newspaper "Al-Ahram" published a series of articles by Osama El-Baz, a senior advisor to the then Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak. Among other things, Osama El-Baz explained the origins of the blood libel against the Jews. He said that Arabs and Muslims have never been antisemitic, as a group, but he accepted the fact that a few Arab writers and media figures attack Jews "on the basis of the racist fallacies and myths that originated in Europe". He urged people not to succumb to "myths" such as the blood libel.


title: Blood libel

text: Nevertheless, on many occasions in modern times, blood libel stories have appeared in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab and Muslim nations, as well as on their television shows and websites, and books which allege instances of Jewish blood libels are not uncommon there.


title: Blood libel

text: In 2007, Lebanese poet Marwan Chamoun, in an interview aired on Télé Liban, referred to the "... slaughter of the priest Tomaso de Camangiano ... in 1840... in the presence of two rabbis in the heart of Damascus, in the home of a close friend of this priest, Daud Al-Harari, the head of the Jewish community of Damascus. After he was slaughtered, his blood was collected, and the two rabbis took it." A novel, "Death of a Monk", based on the Damascus affair, was published in 2004.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The ultimate fate of the universe is a topic in physical cosmology, whose theoretical restrictions allow possible scenarios for the evolution and ultimate fate of the universe to be described and evaluated. Based on available observational evidence, deciding the fate and evolution of the universe has become a valid cosmological question, being beyond the mostly untestable constraints of mythological or theological beliefs. Several possible futures have been predicted by different scientific hypotheses, including that the universe might have existed for a finite and infinite duration, or towards explaining the manner and circumstances of its beginning.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Observations made by Edwin Hubble during the 1930s–1950s found that galaxies appeared to be moving away from each other, leading to the currently accepted Big Bang theory. This suggests that the universe began very dense about 13.787 billion years ago, and it has expanded and (on average) become less dense ever since. Confirmation of the Big Bang mostly depends on knowing the rate of expansion, average density of matter, and the physical properties of the mass–energy in the universe.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: There is a strong consensus among cosmologists that the shape of the universe is considered "flat" (parallel lines stay parallel) and will continue to expand forever.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Factors that need to be considered in determining the universe's origin and ultimate fate include the average motions of galaxies, the shape and structure of the universe, and the amount of dark matter and dark energy that the universe contains.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The theoretical scientific exploration of the ultimate fate of the universe became possible with Albert Einstein's 1915 theory of general relativity. General relativity can be employed to describe the universe on the largest possible scale. There are several possible solutions to the equations of general relativity, and each solution implies a possible ultimate fate of the universe.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Alexander Friedmann proposed several solutions in 1922, as did Georges Lemaître in 1927. In some of these solutions, the universe has been expanding from an initial singularity which was, essentially, the Big Bang.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In 1929, Edwin Hubble published his conclusion, based on his observations of Cepheid variable stars in distant galaxies, that the universe was expanding. From then on, the "beginning" of the universe and its possible "end" have been the subjects of serious scientific investigation.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In 1927, Georges Lemaître set out a theory that has since come to be called the Big Bang theory of the origin of the universe. In 1948, Fred Hoyle set out his opposing Steady State theory in which the universe continually expanded but remained statistically unchanged as new matter is constantly created. These two theories were active contenders until the 1965 discovery, by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, of the cosmic microwave background radiation, a fact that is a straightforward prediction of the Big Bang theory, and one that the original Steady State theory could not account for. As a result, the Big Bang theory quickly became the most widely held view of the origin of the universe.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Einstein and his contemporaries believed in a static universe. When Einstein found that his general relativity equations could easily be solved in such a way as to allow the universe to be expanding at the present and contracting in the far future, he added to those equations what he called a cosmological constant — essentially a constant energy density, unaffected by any expansion or contraction — whose role was to offset the effect of gravity on the universe as a whole in such a way that the universe would remain static. However, after Hubble announced his conclusion that the universe was expanding, Einstein would write that his cosmological constant was "the greatest blunder of my life."


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: An important parameter in fate of the universe theory is the density parameter, omega (formula_1), defined as the average matter density of the universe divided by a critical value of that density. This selects one of three possible geometries depending on whether formula_1 is equal to, less than, or greater than formula_3. These are called, respectively, the flat, open and closed universes. These three adjectives refer to the overall geometry of the universe, and not to the local curving of spacetime caused by smaller clumps of mass (for example, galaxies and stars). If the primary content of the universe is inert matter, as in the dust models popular for much of the 20th century, there is a particular fate corresponding to each geometry. Hence cosmologists aimed to determine the fate of the universe by measuring formula_1, or equivalently the rate at which the expansion was decelerating.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Starting in 1998, observations of supernovas in distant galaxies have been interpreted as consistent with a universe whose expansion is accelerating. Subsequent cosmological theorizing has been designed so as to allow for this possible acceleration, nearly always by invoking dark energy, which in its simplest form is just a positive cosmological constant. In general, dark energy is a catch-all term for any hypothesized field with negative pressure, usually with a density that changes as the universe expands.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The current scientific consensus of most cosmologists is that the ultimate fate of the universe depends on its overall shape, how much dark energy it contains and on the equation of state which determines how the dark energy density responds to the expansion of the universe. Recent observations conclude, from 7.5 billion years after the Big Bang, that the expansion rate of the universe has probably been increasing, commensurate with the Open Universe theory. However, other recent measurements by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe suggest that the universe is either flat or very close to flat.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: If formula_5, the geometry of space is closed like the surface of a sphere. The sum of the angles of a triangle exceeds 180 degrees and there are no parallel lines; all lines eventually meet. The geometry of the universe is, at least on a very large scale, elliptic.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In a closed universe, gravity eventually stops the expansion of the universe, after which it starts to contract until all matter in the universe collapses to a point, a final singularity termed the "Big Crunch", the opposite of the Big Bang. Some new modern theories assume the universe may have a significant amount of dark energy, whose repulsive force may be sufficient to cause the expansion of the universe to continue forever—even if formula_5.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: If formula_7, the geometry of space is open, i.e., negatively curved like the surface of a saddle. The angles of a triangle sum to less than 180 degrees, and lines that do not meet are never equidistant; they have a point of least distance and otherwise grow apart. The geometry of such a universe is hyperbolic.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Even without dark energy, a negatively curved universe expands forever, with gravity negligibly slowing the rate of expansion. With dark energy, the expansion not only continues but accelerates. The ultimate fate of an open universe is either universal heat death, a "Big Freeze" (not to be confused with heat death, despite seemingly similar name interpretation ; see "§Theories about the end of the universe" below), or a "Big Rip" — in particular dark energy, quintessence, and the Big Rip scenario — where the acceleration caused by dark energy eventually becomes so strong that it completely overwhelms the effects of the gravitational, electromagnetic and strong binding forces.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Conversely, a "negative" cosmological constant, which would correspond to a negative energy density and positive pressure, would cause even an open universe to re-collapse to a big crunch.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that formula_8, then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat within a 0.4% margin of error.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In the absence of dark energy, a flat universe expands forever but at a continually decelerating rate, with expansion asymptotically approaching zero. With dark energy, the expansion rate of the universe initially slows down, due to the effects of gravity, but eventually increases, and the ultimate fate of the universe becomes the same as that of an open universe.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The fate of the universe may be determined by its density. The preponderance of evidence to date, based on measurements of the rate of expansion and the mass density, favors a universe that will continue to expand indefinitely, resulting in the "Big Freeze" scenario below. However, observations are not conclusive, and alternative models are still possible.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The Big Freeze (or Big Chill) is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is gaining ground as the most important hypothesis.<ref name="astro-ph/0409264"></ref> It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation. Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and the fluctuation theorem.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: A related scenario is heat death, which states that the universe goes to a state of maximum entropy in which everything is evenly distributed and there are no gradients—which are needed to sustain information processing, one form of which is life. The heat death scenario is compatible with any of the three spatial models, but requires that the universe reaches an eventual temperature minimum.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The current Hubble constant defines a rate of acceleration of the universe not large enough to destroy local structures like galaxies, which are held together by gravity, but large enough to increase the space between them. A steady increase in the Hubble constant to infinity would result in all material objects in the universe, starting with galaxies and eventually (in a finite time) all forms, no matter how small, disintegrating into unbound elementary particles, radiation and beyond. As the energy density, scale factor and expansion rate become infinite the universe ends as what is effectively a singularity.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In the special case of phantom dark energy, which has supposed negative kinetic energy that would result in a higher rate of acceleration than other cosmological constants predict, a more sudden big rip could occur.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The Big Crunch hypothesis is a symmetric view of the ultimate fate of the universe. Just as the Big Bang started as a cosmological expansion, this theory assumes that the average density of the universe will be enough to stop its expansion and the universe will begin contracting. The result is unknown; a simple estimation would have all the matter and space-time in the universe collapse into a dimensionless singularity back into how the universe started with the Big Bang, but at these scales unknown quantum effects need to be considered (see Quantum gravity). Recent evidence suggests that this scenario is unlikely but has not been ruled out, as measurements have been available only over a short period of time, relatively speaking, and could reverse in the future.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: This scenario allows the Big Bang to occur immediately after the Big Crunch of a preceding universe. If this happens repeatedly, it creates a cyclic model, which is also known as an oscillatory universe. The universe could then consist of an infinite sequence of finite universes, with each finite universe ending with a Big Crunch that is also the Big Bang of the next universe. A problem with the cyclic universe is that it does not reconcile with the second law of thermodynamics, as entropy would build up from oscillation to oscillation and cause the eventual heat death of the universe . Current evidence also indicates the universe is not closed. This has caused cosmologists to abandon the oscillating universe model. A somewhat similar idea is embraced by the cyclic model, but this idea evades heat death because of an expansion of the branes that dilutes entropy accumulated in the previous cycle.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: The Big Bounce is a theorized scientific model related to the beginning of the known universe. It derives from the oscillatory universe or cyclic repetition interpretation of the Big Bang where the first cosmological event was the result of the collapse of a previous universe.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: According to one version of the Big Bang theory of cosmology, in the beginning the universe was infinitely dense. Such a description seems to be at odds with other more widely accepted theories, especially quantum mechanics and its uncertainty principle. Therefore, quantum mechanics has given rise to an alternative version of the Big Bang theory, specifically that the universe tunneled into existence and had a finite density consistent with quantum mechanics, before evolving in a manner governed by classical physics. Also, if the universe is closed, this theory would predict that once this universe collapses it will spawn another universe in an event similar to the Big Bang after a universal singularity is reached or a repulsive quantum force causes re-expansion.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In simple terms, this theory states that the universe will continuously repeat the cycle of a Big Bang, followed up with a Big Crunch.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Each possibility described so far is based on a very simple form for the dark energy equation of state. However, as the name is meant to imply, very little is currently known about the physics of dark energy. If the theory of inflation is true, the universe went through an episode dominated by a different form of dark energy in the first moments of the Big Bang, but inflation ended, indicating an equation of state far more complex than those assumed so far for present-day dark energy. It is possible that the dark energy equation of state could change again, resulting in an event that would have consequences which are extremely difficult to predict or parameterize. As the nature of dark energy and dark matter remain enigmatic, even hypothetical, the possibilities surrounding their coming role in the universe are currently unknown. None of these theoretic endings for the universe are certain. In other words, considering the universe is only around 14 billion years old, extrapolating the trends observed in the cosmic history so far to a considerably longer timescale can be criticized as being insufficiently substantiated.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: There are also some possible events, such as the Big Slurp, which would seriously harm the universe, although the universe as a whole would not be completely destroyed as a result.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: This theory posits that the universe currently exists in a false vacuum and that it could become a true vacuum at any moment.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: In order to best understand the false vacuum collapse theory, one must first understand the Higgs field which permeates the universe. Much like an electromagnetic field, it varies in strength based upon its potential. A true vacuum exists so long as the universe exists in its lowest energy state, in which case the false vacuum theory is irrelevant. However, if the vacuum is not in its lowest energy state (a false vacuum), it could tunnel into a lower-energy state. This is called "vacuum decay". This has the potential to fundamentally alter our universe; in more audacious scenarios even the various physical constants could have different values, severely affecting the foundations of matter, energy, and spacetime. It is also possible that all structures will be destroyed instantaneously, without any forewarning.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: However, only a portion of the universe would be destroyed by the Big Slurp while most of the universe would still be unaffected because galaxies located further than 4,200 megaparsecs (13 billion light-years) away from each other are moving away from each other faster than the speed of light while the Big Slurp itself cannot expand faster than the speed of light.


title: Ultimate fate of the universe

text: Choosing among these rival scenarios is done by 'weighing' the universe, for example, measuring the relative contributions of matter, radiation, dark matter, and dark energy to the critical density. More concretely, competing scenarios are evaluated against data on galaxy clustering and distant supernovas, and on the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi (), also referred to as Krishnaa, Panchali, and Yagyaseni, is the main female protagonist of the Hindu epic "Mahabharata," and the common consort of the five Pandava brothers—Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva. She is noted for her beauty, courage, and a rare polyandrous marriage.


title: Draupadi

text: In Mahabharata, Draupadi and her brother, Dhrishtadyumna, were born from a "yajna" (fire sacrifice) organized by King Drupada of Panchala. Arjuna won her hand in marriage, but she had to marry the five brothers because of her mother-in-law's misunderstanding. Later, she became an empress, as Yudhishthira performed the Rajasuya ritual and achieved the status of the emperor. She had five sons, one from each Pandava, who were collectively addressed as the Upapandavas.


title: Draupadi

text: The most notable incident in Draupadi's life is the game of dice at Hastinapura where Yudhishthira loses his possessions and wife, and she is humiliated by the Kaurava brothers and Karna. An attempt is made by Dushasana to disrobe her, but she is saved by the divine intervention of Krishna. Following the subsequent episodes, Draupadi and the Pandavas are exiled for 13 years. Significant events during this period include an attempted kidnapping by Jayadratha and the death of Kichaka. The exile is followed by the Kurukshetra War, where Draupadi loses her father, brothers, and her five children. After the war, she resumes her role as the empress for 36 years, after which she retires to the Himalayas, along with her husbands.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi's story has been an inspiration for various arts, performances and secondary literature. In Hinduism, she is extolled as one of the "panchakanya" (five virgins), archetypes of female chastity whose names are believed to dispel sin when recited. In some parts of the sub-continent, a sect of Draupadi exists, where she is worshipped as a goddess.


title: Draupadi

text: The word "Draupadī" ('daughter of Drupada') is a patronymic, derived from the word "Drupada", which means 'pillar'. Like other epic characters, she is referred to by multiple names in the "Mahabharata". Some of her other names and epithets are as follows:


title: Draupadi

text: The story of Draupadi is told in the great indian script "Mahabharata", one of the Sanskrit epics from the Indian subcontinent. The work is written in Classical Sanskrit and is a composite work of revisions, editing and interpolations over many centuries. The oldest parts in the surviving version of the text probably date to about 400 BCE.


title: Draupadi

text: The "Mahabharata" manuscripts exist in numerous versions, wherein the specifics and details of major characters and episodes vary, often significantly. Except for the sections containing the "Bhagavad Gita" which is remarkably consistent between the numerous manuscripts, the rest of the epic exists in many versions. The differences between the Northern and Southern recensions are particularly significant, with the Southern manuscripts more profuse and longer. Scholars have attempted to construct a critical edition, relying mostly on a study of the "Bombay" edition, the "Poona" edition, the "Calcutta" edition and the "south Indian" editions of the manuscripts. The most accepted version is one prepared by scholars led by Vishnu Sukthankar at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, preserved at Kyoto University, Cambridge University and various Indian universities.


title: Draupadi

text: Most Hindu texts state that Draupadi was not born of a woman and thus, she is often described as an "ayonija" (lit. 'one not born from a woman's womb'). Her birth is narrated in the "Adi Parva" of the epic. Drona—the teacher of the Kuru princes—defeats Drupada with the help of his students, and takes half of Panchala. Drupada seeks vengeance but realises that none of his children and allies is capable enough to slay Drona. As a result, he decides to perform a "yajna" (fire-sacrifice) to obtain a powerful son. With the sages Yaja and Upyaja serving as the head priests, the yajna is conducted. After completion, the priests instruct Prishati—the wife of Drupada—to consume the sacrifice offering, but she refuses and asks them to wait till she washed herself. Unable to wait, Yaja pours the offering into the altar of the sacrifice, from which a youth and a maiden emerge. The maiden's birth is followed by a divine prophecy,


title: Draupadi

text: The youth and the maiden are named Dhrishtadyumna and Krishnaa, but the latter one is better known by the patronymic "Draupadi". They accept Drupada and Prishati as their parents and are raised in Drupada's palace.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi is described to be extremely beautiful. Vyasa—the author of the "Mahabharata"—describes her having a dark complexion, lotus-like eyes, beautiful copper nails, dark curly hair and an enchanting fragrance like that of a blue lotus.


title: Draupadi

text: The news of Draupadi's svayamvara spread far and wide, and numerous princes, as well as the general public including brahmanas, began proceeding towards Panchala. It so happened that the Pandavas also began their journey toward Panchala at this time along with their mother, Kunti. As they were on their way toward Panchala they were met by a large group of brahmanas on their way to Panchala, who invited Pandavas to join them.


title: Draupadi

text: Drupada intended to wed his daughter to Arjuna. Upon hearing of the Pandavas' supposed death at Varnavata, he set up a Swayamvara contest for Draupadi to choose her husband from the competitive contest. The test was to lift and string a bow, and fire arrows to pierce the eye of a golden fish only by looking at its reflection in the water. At the Swayamvara, almost all the assorted monarchs were unable to complete the challenge. There are some variations regarding Karna's participation. Some renditions show Draupadi refusing to marry Karna on account of being a Suta, while some other versions describe him failing to string the bow by the "breadth of a hair".


title: Draupadi

text: In the end, Arjuna succeeds in the task, dressed as a Brahmin. The other attendees, including the Kauravas and Karna protest at a Brahmin winning the competition and attack Draupadi and Arjuna. Arjuna and Bhima together protect Draupadi by defeating all attendees and are able to retreat. Arjuna, along with Draupadi and his brothers, runs home to tell Kunti of his success, shouting "look what we have found". Kunti thought he was referring to alms found in the forest or to some great prize unknown to her. She tells Arjuna that the find must be shared with his brothers, as they had always shared such things in the past. This misunderstanding, combined with a motherly command, leads to an agreement that all five brothers marry her. This is one of the rare examples of polyandry in Sanskrit literature. Thus, begins the unique journey of Draupadi with five husbands.. The brothers agreed that none should intrude if Draupadi was alone with one of the others, the penalty for doing so being 12 years to be spent in exile. Some versions say that a year was allotted to each Pandava and during that year only that Pandava could enter Draupadi's private chambers, while the others have no such mention.


title: Draupadi

text: Later Draupadi becomes a mother of five sons, one son each from the Pandava brothers. They were known as Upapandavas. Their names were Prativindhya (from Yudhishthira), Sutasoma (from Bheema), Shrutakarma (from Arjuna), Satanika (from Nakula) and Shrutasena (from Sahadeva). Ashwatthama killed the Upapandavas during his surprise raid on Pandava camp on the eighteenth day of the war to avenge the death of his father Drona.


title: Draupadi

text: With the Pandavas' survival revealed, a succession crisis was started. Upon the news of Pandavas' death at Varnavrat, the title of 'the crown prince' had fallen to Duryodhana. Dhritrashtra invites the Pandavas to Hastinapur and proposes that the kingdom be divided. The Pandavas are assigned the wasteland Khandavprastha, referred to as "unreclaimed desert". With the help of Krishna, Pandavas rebuilt Khandavprastha into the glorious Indraprastha. The crown jewel of the kingdom was built at the Khandava forest, where Draupadi resided in the "Palace of Illusions". Yudhishthira performed the Rajasuya Yagna with Draupadi by his side; the Pandavas gained lordship over many regions.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi was trained in economy and was responsible for the treasury of the Empire. Additionally, she also ran a citizen liaison. Her duties as a busy Empress are mentioned in her famous conversation with Satyabhama, Krishna's favourite wife, during their exile.