title: Baron

text: Children of barons and baronesses in their own right, whether hereditary or for life, have the style "The Honourable [Forename] [Surname]". After the death of the father or mother, the child may continue to use this style.


title: Baron

text: Courtesy barons are styled "Lord [Barony]", and their wives "Lady [Barony]"; the article "The" is always absent. If the courtesy baron is not a Privy Counsellor, the style "The Right Honourable" will also be absent.


title: Baron

text: It is very common for the surnames of barons and baronesses to be identical to or included in the formal title of their barony. However, when addressed as a peer, "Lord", "Lady" or "Baroness" is followed by the name of his or her barony, not his personal name. This is relevant when a baron or baroness's title is completely different from his or her personal surname (e.g. William Thomson, Lord Kelvin), or includes a territorial designation in addition to his surname (e.g. Martin Rees, Lord Rees of Ludlow). This also means that including a baron or baroness's forename before his or her title is incorrect and potentially misleading. For example, "Lady Margaret Thatcher" (as opposed to "Lady Thatcher") would imply that she was the daughter of an earl, marquess or duke, or Lady of the Garter or Thistle not holding a peerage rather than a baroness. Likewise, in the case of men, "Lord Digby Jones" (as opposed to "Lord Jones of Birmingham") would imply that he was the younger son of a marquess or duke rather than a baron.


title: Baron

text: The United Kingdom has a policy of including titles of nobility on passports: the title is entered into the surname field and a standard observation is recorded giving the holder's full name and title. A Baron would therefore record his surname as "Lord [Barony]", and the observation would note that "The holder is The Right Honourable [given names] [surname] Lord [Barony]". However, if the title of an applicant's peerage is different from his surname, he can choose whether to use his surname or title in the surname field. A baroness in her own right would substitute "Baroness" for "Lord", and the wife of a Baron would similarly substitute "Lady". Titles of nobility are checked against Debrett's Peerage, Who's Who or the London Gazette by the passport office on application.


title: Baron

text: In Scotland, the rank of baron is a rank of the ancient feudal nobility of Scotland and refers to the holder of a feudal barony, formerly a feudal superiority over a proper territorial entity erected into a free barony by a Crown Charter, this being the status of a minor baron, recognized by the crown as noble, but not a peer.


title: Baron

text: The Court of the Lord Lyon will officially recognise feudal barons or those possessing the dignity of baron who meet certain criteria, and will grant them arms with a helmet befitting their degree. Scottish barons rank below Lords of Parliament and while noble have the status of minor baron, being a non-Peerage rank; as such it can be transferred by either inheritance or conveyance.


title: Baron

text: In showing that Scottish barons are titles of nobility, reference may be made, amongst others, to the Lyon Court in the Petition of Maclean of Ardgour for a Birthbrieve by Interlocutor dated 26 February 1943 which "Finds and Declares that the Minor Barons of Scotland are, and have both in this Nobiliary Court, and in the Court of Session, been recognised as 'titled' nobility, and that the estait of the Baronage (The Barones Minores) is of the ancient Feudal Nobility of Scotland".


title: Baron

text: Sir Thomas Innes of Learney, in his "Scots Heraldry" (2nd Ed., p. 88, note 1), states that "The Act 1672, cap 47, specially qualifies the degrees thus: Nobles (i.e. peers, the term being here used in a restricted seventeenth-century English sense), Barons (i.e. Lairds of baronial fiefs and their 'heirs', who, even if fiefless, are equivalent to heads of Continental baronial houses) and Gentlemen (apparently all other armigers)." Baronets and knights are evidently classed as 'Gentlemen' here and are of a lower degree than Barons.


title: Baron

text: Scottish feudal barons were entitled to a red cap of maintenance (chapeau) turned up ermine if petitioning for a grant or matriculation of a coat of arms between the 1930s and 2004. This chapeau is identical to the red cap worn by an English baron, but without the silver balls or gilt. This is sometimes depicted in armorial paintings between the shield and the helmet. Additionally, if the baron is the head of a family, he may include a chiefly coronet which is similar to a ducal coronet, but with four strawberry leaves. Because the chapeau was a relatively recent innovation, a number of ancient arms of Scottish feudal barons do not display the chapeau. Now, Scottish barons are principally recognised by the baron's helm, which in Scotland is a steel helmet with grille of three grilles, garnished in gold. Occasionally, the great tilting-helm garnished with gold is shown, or a helmet befitting a higher rank, if held.


title: Baron

text: Scottish barons style their surnames similarly to Clan Chiefs, with the name of their barony following their name, as in "John Smith of Edinburgh" or "John Smith, Baron of Edinburgh". Most formally, and in writing, they are styled as "The Much Honoured Baron of Edinburgh". Their wives are styled " Lady Edinburgh", or "The Baroness of Edinburgh". The phrase "Lady of Edinburgh" is wrong if the lady in question does not hold a Scottish barony in her own right. Orally, Scottish barons may be addressed with the name of their barony, as in "Edinburgh" or else as "Baron" without anything else following, which if present would suggest a peerage barony. Informally, when referring to a Scots feudal baron in the third person, the name "Baron of [X]" is used or simply "[X]".


title: Baron

text: Scottish feudal Barons may record "[surname] of [territorial designation]" in the surname field of their passport, and an official observation would then note that "The holder is [given names] [surname] Baron of [territorial designation]"; applicants must provide evidence that the Lord Lyon has recognised their feudal barony, or else be included in Burke's Peerage.


title: Baron

text: During the , French baronies were very much like Scottish ones. Feudal landholders who possessed a barony were entitled to style themselves as a baron () if they were nobles; a (commoner) could only be a (lord of the barony). French baronies could be sold freely until 1789, when the Constituent Assembly abolished feudal law . The title of baron was assumed as a by many nobles, whether members of the Nobles of the Robe or cadets of Nobles of the Sword who held no title in their own right.


title: Baron

text: Emperor () created a new imperial nobility in which "baron" appeared from 1808 as the second-lowest title. The titles were inherited through a male-only line of descent and could not be purchased.


title: Baron

text: In 1815, King Louis XVIII created a new peerage system and a Chamber of Peers, based on the British model. Baron-peer was the lowest title, but the heirs to pre-1789 barons could remain barons, as could the elder sons of viscount-peers and the younger sons of count-peers. This peerage system was abolished in 1848.


title: Baron

text: In pre-republican Germany all the knightly families of the Holy Roman Empire (sometimes distinguished by the prefix or ) eventually were recognised as of baronial rank, although is the literal translation for "knight", and persons who held that title enjoyed a distinct, but lower, rank in Germany's nobility than barons (). The wife of a (Baron) is called a or sometimes , his daughter or sometimes .


title: Baron

text: Families which had always held this status were called ('primordial/ancient/original nobility'), and were heraldically entitled to a three-pointed coronet. Families which had been ennobled at a definite point in time ( or "nobility by patent") had seven points on their coronet. These families held their fief in vassalage from a suzerain. The holder of an allodial (i.e. suzerain-free) barony was thus called a Free Lord, or . Subsequently, sovereigns in Germany conferred the title of as a rank in the nobility, without implication of allodial or feudal status.


title: Baron

text: Since 1919, hereditary titles have had no legal status in Germany. In modern, republican Germany, and remain heritable only as part of the legal surname (and may thereby be transmitted by males to their wives and children, without implication of nobility).


title: Baron

text: In Austria, hereditary titles have been completely banned. Thus, a member of the formerly reigning House of Habsburg or members of the former nobility would in most cases simply be addressed as in an official/public context, for instance in the media. Still, in both countries, honorary styles like "His/Her (Imperial/Royal) Highness", "Serenity", etc. persist in social use as a form of courtesy.


title: Baron

text: In Luxembourg and Liechtenstein (where German is the official language), barons remain members of the recognized nobility, and the sovereigns retain authority to confer the title (morganatic cadets of the princely dynasty received the title "Baron of Lanskron", using "both" and for different members of this branch.)


title: Baron

text: Generally, all legitimate males of a German baronial family inherit the title or from birth, as all legitimate daughters inherit the title of or . As a result, German barons have been more numerous than those of such countries where primogeniture with respect to title inheritance prevails (or prevailed), such as France and the United Kingdom.


title: Baron

text: In Italy, was the lowest rank of feudal nobility except for that of or (lord of the manor). The title of baron was most generally introduced into southern Italy (including Sicily) by the Normans during the 11th century. Whereas originally a barony might consist of two or more manors, by 1700 we see what were formerly single manors erected into baronies, counties or even marquisates. Since the early 1800s, when feudalism was abolished in the various Italian states, it has often been granted as a simple hereditary title without any territorial designation or . The untitled younger son of a baron is a and in informal usage might be called a baron, while certain baronies devolve to heirs male general. Since 1948 titles of nobility have not been recognised by the Italian state. In the absence of a nobiliary or heraldic authority in Italy there are, in fact, numerous persons who claim to be barons or counts without any basis for such claims. Baron and noble () are hereditary titles and, as such, could only be created or recognised by the kings of Italy or (before 1860) the pre-unitary Italian states such as the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Parma or Modena, or by the Holy See (Vatican) or the Republic of San Marino. Beginning around 1800, a number of (lords of the manor) began to style themselves but in many cases this was not sanctioned legally by decree, while there was even less justification in the holder of any large (non-feudal) landed estate calling himself a baron. Nevertheless, both were common practices. In most of peninsular Italy the widespread medieval introduction of the title was Longobardic, while in Sicily and Sardinia it was coeval with Norman rule some centuries later, and one referred to the "baronage" when speaking of landed nobles generally. The heraldic coronet of an Italian baron is a jewelled rim of gold surmounted by seven visible pearls, set upon the rim directly or upon stems; alternately, the French style coronet (entwined in a string of small pearls, with or without four bigger visible pearls set upon the rim) is used.


title: Baron

text: In the medieval era, some allodial and enfeoffed lands held by nobles were created or recognized as baronies by the Holy Roman Emperors, within whose realm most of the Low Countries lay. Subsequently, the Habsburgs continued to confer the baronial title in the Southern Netherlands, first as kings of Spain and then, again, as emperors until abolition of the Holy Roman Empire, but these had become titular elevations rather than grants of new territory.


title: Baron

text: In the Netherlands after 1815, titles of baron authorized by previous monarchs (except those of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland) were usually recognized by the Dutch kings. But such recognition was not automatic, having to be authenticated by the Supreme Council of Nobility and then approved by the sovereign. This ceased to be possible after the Dutch constitution was revised in 1983. More than one hundred Dutch baronial families have been recognized. The title is usually inherited by all males descended patrilineally from the original recipient of the title, although in a few noble families is the title of cadet family members, while in a few others it is heritable according to primogeniture.


title: Baron

text: After its secession in 1830, Belgium incorporated into its nobility all titles of baron borne by Belgian citizens which had been recognized by the Netherlands since 1815. In addition, its monarchs have since created or recognized other titles of baron, and the sovereign continues to exercise the prerogative to confer baronial and other titles of nobility. "Baron" is the third lowest title within the nobility system above knight (, ) and below "viscount". There are still a number of families in Belgium that bear the title of baron.


title: Baron

text: Luxembourg's monarch retains the right to confer the baronial title. Two of the grand duchy's prime ministers inherited baronial titles that were used during their tenures in office, Victor de Tornaco and Félix de Blochausen.


title: Baron

text: In Norway, king Magnus VI of Norway (1238–1280) replaced the title Lendmann with Baron, but in 1308 Haakon V abolished the title.


title: Baron

text: The present corresponding title is in the Danish nobility and in the Norwegian nobility, ( is used orally, while it is written as ) in the Swedish nobility, and in the nobility of Finland.


title: Baron

text: In the beginning, Finnish nobles were all without honorific titulature, and known simply as lords. Since the Middle Ages, each head of a noble family had been entitled to a vote in any of Finland's provincial diets whenever held, as in the realm's House of Nobility of the Riksdag of the Estates. In 1561, Sweden's King Eric XIV granted the hereditary titles of count and to some of these, but not all. Although their cadet family members were not entitled to vote or sit in the , they were legally entitled to the same title as the head of the family, but in customary address they became or . Theoretically, in the 16th and 17th centuries, families elevated to status were granted a barony in fief, enjoying some rights of taxation and judicial authority. Subsequently, the "barony" was titular, usually attached to a family property, which was sometimes entailed. Their exemptions from taxes on landed properties continued into the 20th century, although in the 19th century tax reforms narrowed this privilege. Nobility creations continued until 1917, the end of Finland's grand ducal monarchy.


title: Baron

text: Muscovite Russia had no traditional baronial titles of its own; they were introduced in early Imperial Russia by Peter the Great. In the hierarchy of nobility introduced by Peter the Great, barons () ranked above untitled nobility and below counts (, ). The styles "Your Well-born" (, ) and "Master Baron" (, ) were used to address a Russian baron.


title: Baron

text: There were two main groups of nobility which held the baronial title. One was the Baltic German nobility, for which Russia merely recognized their pre-existing titles; the other was new barons created by the Emperors of Russia after 1721. Like in many other countries, new baronial titles were often created by ennoblement of rich bourgeoisie. The title of baron, along with the rest of the noble hierarchy, was abolished in December 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution; however, certain leaders of the White movement like Baron Pyotr Wrangel and Roman von Ungern-Sternberg continued to use the title until the end of the Russian Civil War.


title: Baron

text: In Spain, the title follows in the noble hierarchy, and ranks above . is the feminine form, for the wife of a baron or for a woman who has been granted the title in her own right. In general, titles of created before the 19th century originate from the Crown of Aragon. lost territorial jurisdiction around the middle of the 19th century, and from then on the title became purely honorific. Although most have not held the rank of as well, the title has been conferred in conjunction with the . The sovereign continues to grant baronial titles.


title: Baron

text: Like other major Western noble titles, "baron" is sometimes used to render certain titles in non-Western languages with their own traditions, even though they are necessarily historically unrelated and thus hard to compare, which are considered 'equivalent' in relative rank.


title: Baron

text: This is the case with China's "nanjue" ("nan-chueh") (), hereditary title of nobility of the fifth rank, as well as its derivatives and adaptations.


title: Baron

text: In some "republics" of continental Europe, the unofficial title of "Baron" retains a purely social prestige, with no particular political privileges.


title: Baron

text: In Armenian, the word "Baron" should not be confused with the similar word "Paron" (Armenian: Պարոն), which is a title given to ordinary men, equivalent to 'Sir' or 'Mr'.


title: Baron

text: In the Polynesian island monarchy of Tonga, as opposed to the situation in Europe, barons are granted this imported title (in English), alongside traditional chiefly styles, and continue to hold and exercise some political power.


title: Baron

text: Barons and baronesses have appeared in various works of fiction. For examples of fictional barons and baronesses, see List of fictional nobility#Barons and baronesses.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin Se-kyung (; born July 29, 1990) is a South Korean actress, singer and model. She started as a child actress and had her breakthrough in 2009 with the sitcom "High Kick Through the Roof". Since then she starred in the films "Hindsight" (2011), "" (2012) and "" (2014), as well as the television series "Deep Rooted Tree" (2011), "The Girl Who Sees Smells" (2015), "Six Flying Dragons" (2015–2016), "The Bride of Habaek" (2017), "" (2017–2018), "Rookie Historian Goo Hae-Ryung" (2019), and "Run On" (2020).


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: "Forbes" listed her among the 40 most powerful celebrities in Korea; she ranked 26th in 2011 and 14th in 2012.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin was born on July 29, 1990, in . She studied at Shinmok High School before enrolling at Chung-Ang University, where she majored in Performing Arts.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin made her entertainment debut at eight years old in 1998 when she was featured on the cover and poster for Seo Taiji's solo album "Take Five". As a child actress, Shin Se Kyung was already known to Koreans for her appearance in the popular childrens show Ppo Ppo Ppo, which also starred Big Bang's G-Dragon. She spent her childhood hosting children shows.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: After a small part in "My Little Bride", she subsequently had starring roles in "Cinderella", omnibus films "Acoustic" and "Five Senses of Eros", as well as a well-received turn as the younger version of Princess Cheonmyeong in "Queen Seondeok".


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin failed to gain a large following until her breakthrough role as a housemaid on the second season of the popular TV sitcom "High Kick!" in 2009. Building on her sitcom fame, Shin signed on to numerous television commercials and print advertisement and became one of the most sought celebrity endorser. Lead roles in high-profile acting projects followed, among them film noir "Hindsight" with Song Kang-ho, the highly rated historical drama "Deep Rooted Tree" with Jang Hyuk and Han Suk-kyu, and aerial action film "" with Rain.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: However, Shin's next project "Fashion King" (2012) was poorly received by audiences, particularly its controversial ending.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin then released her first digital single, "You Were Sweet," which she recorded to promote a coffee franchise she models for. A former singer trainee in middle school, Shin has also contributed songs to the soundtrack of "Hindsight", the charity album "Love Tree Project", and did her own singing in showcase piece "Acoustic". In 2012, she recorded a Christmas carol duet with .


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: Shin returned to television in the 2013 melodrama "When a Man Falls in Love" opposite Song Seung-heon, but received criticism from viewers for her passive character. In 2014, she played a more "bold and confident" role in the gambling film "", followed by the fantasy-action series "Blade Man".


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: In a break from her usual dramatic roles, Shin played an aspiring comedian in the webtoon adaptation "The Girl Who Sees Smells" in 2015 as the titular character. Shin then reunited with "Fashion King" costar Yoo Ah-in in "Six Flying Dragons" (2015–2016), another period drama from the screenwriters of "Deep Rooted Tree".


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: In 2017, Shin starred in tvN's fantasy-romance drama "The Bride of Habaek" alongside Nam Joo-hyuk. This is followed shortly by another fantasy-romance drama, "" alongside Kim Rae-won.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: In 2019, Shin starred in the historical drama "Rookie Historian Goo Hae-ryung", alongside Cha Eun-woo. In 2020–2021, Shin starred in JTBC’s romance drama "Run On," alongside Im Si-Wan.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: On July 5, 2021, it was announced Shin has signed an exclusive contract with EDAM Entertainment (a subsidiary of Kakao Entertainment) after her contract with Namoo Actors expired.


title: Shin Se-kyung

text: On December 20, 2022, Shin made a donation from YouTube profits to support sanitary napkins for teenage girls in Korea, by donating through the G Foundation.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Upton Beall Sinclair Jr. (September 20, 1878 – November 25, 1968) was an American writer, muckraker, political activist and the 1934 Democratic Party nominee for governor of California who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres. Sinclair's work was well known and popular in the first half of the 20th century, and he won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1943.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In 1906, Sinclair acquired particular fame for his classic muck-raking novel, "The Jungle", which exposed labor and sanitary conditions in the U.S. meatpacking industry, causing a public uproar that contributed in part to the passage a few months later of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act. In 1919, he published "The Brass Check", a muck-raking exposé of American journalism that publicized the issue of yellow journalism and the limitations of the "free press" in the United States. Four years after publication of "The Brass Check", the first code of ethics for journalists was created. "Time" magazine called him "a man with every gift except humor and silence". He is also well remembered for the quote: "It is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends upon his not understanding it." He used this line in speeches and the book about his campaign for governor as a way to explain why the editors and publishers of the major newspapers in California would not treat seriously his proposals for old age pensions and other progressive reforms.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Many of his novels can be read as historical works. Writing during the Progressive Era, Sinclair describes the world of the industrialized United States from both the working man's and the industrialist's points of view. Novels such as "King Coal" (1917), "The Coal War" (published posthumously), "Oil!" (1927), and "The Flivver King" (1937) describe the working conditions of the coal, oil, and auto industries at the time.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: "The Flivver King" describes the rise of Henry Ford, his "wage reform" and his company's Sociological Department, to his decline into antisemitism as publisher of "The Dearborn Independent". "King Coal" confronts John D. Rockefeller Jr., and his role in the 1914 Ludlow Massacre in the coal fields of Colorado.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair was an outspoken socialist and ran unsuccessfully for Congress as a nominee from the Socialist Party. He was also the Democratic Party candidate for governor of California during the Great Depression, running under the banner of the End Poverty in California campaign, but was defeated in the 1934 election.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair was born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Upton Beall Sinclair Sr. and Priscilla Harden Sinclair. His father was a liquor salesman whose alcoholism shadowed his son's childhood. Priscilla Harden Sinclair was a strict Episcopalian who disliked alcohol, tea, and coffee. Both of Upton Sinclair's parents were of British ancestry. His paternal grandparents were Scottish, and all of his ancestors emigrated to America from Great Britain during the late 1600s and early 1700s. As a child, Sinclair slept either on sofas or cross-ways on his parents' bed. When his father was out for the night, he would sleep in the bed with his mother. His mother's family was very affluent: her parents were very prosperous in Baltimore, and her sister married a millionaire. Sinclair had wealthy maternal grandparents with whom he often stayed. This gave him insight into how both the rich and the poor lived during the late 19th century. Living in two social settings affected him and greatly influenced his books. Upton Beall Sinclair Sr. was from a highly respected family in the South, but the family was financially ruined by the Civil War, the end of slavery causing disruptions of the labor system during the Reconstruction era, and an extended agricultural depression.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: As he was growing up, Upton's family moved frequently, as his father was not successful in his career. He developed a love for reading when he was five years old. He read every book his mother owned for a deeper understanding of the world. He did not start school until he was 10 years old. He was deficient in math and worked hard to catch up quickly because of his embarrassment. In 1888, the Sinclair family moved to Queens, New York City, New York, where his father sold shoes. Upton entered the City College of New York five days before his 14th birthday, on September 15, 1892. He wrote jokes, dime novels, and magazine articles in boys' weekly and pulp magazines to pay for his tuition. With that income, he was able to move his parents to an apartment when he was seventeen years old.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: He graduated from City College in June 1897. He subsequently studied law at Columbia University, but he was more interested in writing. He learned several languages, including Spanish, German, and French. He paid the one-time enrollment fee to be able to learn a variety of subjects. He would sign up for a class and then later drop it. He again supported himself through college by writing boys' adventure stories and jokes. He also sold ideas to cartoonists. Using stenographers, he wrote up to 8,000 words of pulp fiction per day. His only complaint about his educational experience was that it failed to educate him about socialism. After leaving Columbia without a degree, he wrote four books in the next four years; they were commercially unsuccessful though critically well-received: "King Midas" (1901), "Prince Hagen" (1902), "The Journal of Arthur Stirling" (1903), and a Civil War novel, "Manassas" (1904).


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair did not get on with his mother when he became older because of her strict rules and refusal to allow him independence. Sinclair later told his son, David, that around Sinclair's 16th year, he decided not to have anything to do with his mother, staying away from her for 35 years because an argument would start if they met.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Upton became close with Reverend William Wilmerding Moir. Moir specialized in sexual abstinence and taught his beliefs to Sinclair. He was taught to "avoid the subject of sex." Sinclair was to report to Moir monthly regarding his abstinence. Despite their close relationship, Sinclair identified as agnostic.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Upton Sinclair considered himself a poet and dedicated his time to writing poetry. In 1904, Sinclair spent seven weeks in disguise, working undercover in Chicago's meatpacking plants to research his novel, "The Jungle" (1906), a political exposé that addressed conditions in the plants, as well as the lives of poor immigrants. When it was published two years later, it became a bestseller. In the spring of 1905, Sinclair issued a call for the formation of a new organization, a group to be called the Intercollegiate Socialist Society.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: With the income from "The Jungle", Sinclair founded the utopian—but non-Jewish white only—Helicon Home Colony in Englewood, New Jersey. He ran as a Socialist candidate for Congress. The colony burned down under suspicious circumstances within a year.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In 1913–1914, Sinclair made three trips to the coal fields of Colorado, which led him to write "King Coal" and caused him to begin work on the larger, more historical "The Coal War." In 1914, Sinclair helped organize demonstrations in New York City against Rockefeller at the Standard Oil offices. The demonstrations touched off more actions by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and the "Mother Earth" group, a loose association of anarchists and IWW members, in Rockefeller's hometown of Tarrytown.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: The Sinclairs moved to California in the 1920s and lived there for nearly four decades. During his years with his second wife, Mary Craig, Sinclair wrote or produced several films. Recruited by Charlie Chaplin, Sinclair and Mary Craig produced Eisenstein's "¡Qué viva México!" in 1930–32.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Aside from his political and social writings, Sinclair took an interest in occult phenomena and experimented with telepathy. His book "Mental Radio" (1930) included accounts of his wife Mary's telepathic experiences and ability. William McDougall read the book and wrote an introduction to it, which led him to establish the parapsychology department at Duke University.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair broke with the Socialist Party in 1917 and supported the First World War effort. By the 1920s, however, he had returned to the party.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In the 1920s, the Sinclairs moved to Monrovia, California, (near Los Angeles), where Sinclair founded the state's chapter of the American Civil Liberties Union. Wanting to pursue politics, he twice ran unsuccessfully for United States Congress on the Socialist Party ticket: in 1920 for the House of Representatives and in 1922 for the Senate. He was the party candidate for governor of California in 1926, winning nearly 46,000 votes, and in 1930, winning nearly 50,000 votes.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: During this period, Sinclair was also active in radical politics in Los Angeles. For instance, in 1923, to support the challenged free speech rights of Industrial Workers of the World, Sinclair spoke at a rally during the San Pedro Maritime Strike, in a neighborhood now known as Liberty Hill. He began to read from the Bill of Rights and was promptly arrested, along with hundreds of others, by the LAPD. The arresting officer proclaimed: "We'll have none of that Constitution stuff".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In 1934, Sinclair ran in the California gubernatorial election as a Democrat. Sinclair's platform, known as the End Poverty in California movement (EPIC), galvanized the support of the Democratic Party, and Sinclair gained its nomination. Gaining 879,000 votes made this his most successful run for office, but incumbent Governor Frank Merriam defeated him by a sizable margin, gaining 1,138,000 votes. Hollywood studio bosses unanimously opposed Sinclair. They pressured their employees to assist and vote for Merriam's campaign, and made false propaganda films attacking Sinclair, giving him no opportunity to respond. The unethical campaign tactics used against Sinclair are briefly depicted in the 2020 American biographical drama film "Mank".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair's plan to end poverty quickly became a controversial issue under the pressure of numerous migrants to California fleeing the Dust Bowl. Conservatives considered his proposal an attempted communist takeover of their state and quickly opposed him, using propaganda to portray Sinclair as a staunch communist. Sinclair had been a member of the Socialist Party from 1902 to 1934, when he became a Democrat, though always considering himself a socialist in spirit. The Socialist party in California and nationwide refused to allow its members to be active in any other party including the Democratic Party and expelled him, along with socialists who supported his California campaign. The expulsions destroyed the Socialist party in California.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: At the same time, American and Soviet communists disassociated themselves from him, considering him a capitalist. In later writings, such as his anti-alcohol book "The Cup of Fury", Sinclair scathingly censured communism. Science-fiction author Robert A. Heinlein was deeply involved in Sinclair's campaign, although he attempted to move away from the stance later in his life. In the 21st century, Sinclair is considered an early American democratic socialist.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: After his loss to Merriam, Sinclair abandoned EPIC and politics to return to writing. In 1935, he published "I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked", in which he described the techniques employed by Merriam's supporters, including the then popular Aimee Semple McPherson, who vehemently opposed socialism and what she perceived as Sinclair's modernism. Sinclair's line from this book "It is difficult to get a man to understand something, when his salary depends upon his not understanding it" has become well known and was for example quoted by Al Gore in "An Inconvenient Truth".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: The American People will take Socialism, but they won't take the label. I certainly proved it in the case of EPIC. Running on the Socialist ticket I got 60,000 votes, and running on the slogan to 'End Poverty in California' I got 879,000. I think we simply have to recognize the fact that our enemies have succeeded in spreading the Big Lie. There is no use attacking it by a front attack, it is much better to out-flank them.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In April 1900, Sinclair went to Lake Massawippi in Quebec to work on a novel, renting a small cabin for three months and then moving to a farmhouse where he was reintroduced to his future first wife, Meta Fuller (1880–1964). A childhood friend descended from one of the First Families of Virginia, she was three years younger than him and aspired to be more than a housewife, so Sinclair instructed her in what to read and learn. Though each had warned the other against it, on October 18, 1900, they married. The couple having used abstinence as their main form of contraception, Meta became pregnant the following year. Despite Meta's several attempts to terminate the pregnancy, the child, David, was born on December 1, 1901. Meta and her family tried to convince Sinclair to give up writing and get "a job that would support his family."


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair was opposed to sex outside of marriage and viewed it as necessary only for reproduction. He told his first wife Meta that only the birth of a child gave marriage "dignity and meaning". Despite his beliefs, Sinclair had a love affair with Anna Noyes during his marriage to Meta. He wrote a novel about the affair called "Love's Progress", a sequel to "Love's Pilgrimage". It was never published. His wife later had a love affair with John Armistead Collier, a theology student from Memphis; they had a son together named Ben.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In 1910, the Sinclairs moved to the single-tax village of Arden, Delaware, where they built a house. In 1911, Sinclair was arrested for playing tennis on the Sabbath and spent eighteen hours in the New Castle County prison in lieu of paying a fine. Earlier in 1911, Sinclair invited Harry Kemp, the "Vagabond Poet", to camp on the couple's land in Arden. Meta soon became enamored of Kemp, and in late August she left Sinclair for the poet.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In 1913, Sinclair married Mary Craig Kimbrough (1882–1961), a woman from an elite Greenwood, Mississippi, family who had written articles on Winnie Davis, the daughter of Confederate States of America President Jefferson Davis. They met when she attended one of his lectures about "The Jungle". In the 1920s, the couple moved to California. They remained married until her death in 1961.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Later that same year, Sinclair married his third wife, Mary Elizabeth Willis (1882–1967). They moved to Buckeye, Arizona, before returning east to Bound Brook, New Jersey, where Sinclair died in a nursing home on November 25, 1968, a year after his wife. He is buried next to Willis in Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair devoted his writing career to documenting and criticizing the social and economic conditions of the early 20th century in both fiction and nonfiction. He exposed his view of the injustices of capitalism and the overwhelming effects of poverty among the working class. He also edited collections of fiction and nonfiction.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: His novel based on the meatpacking industry in Chicago, "The Jungle," was first published in serial form in the socialist newspaper "Appeal to Reason," from February 25, 1905, to November 4, 1905. It was published as a book by Doubleday in 1906.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair had spent about six months investigating the Chicago meatpacking industry for "Appeal to Reason", the work which inspired his novel. He intended to "set forth the breaking of human hearts by a system which exploits the labor of men and women for profit". The novel featured Jurgis Rudkus, a Lithuanian immigrant who works in a meat factory in Chicago, his teenaged wife Ona Lukoszaite, and their extended family. Sinclair portrays their mistreatment by Rudkus' employers and the wealthier elements of society. His descriptions of the unsanitary and inhumane conditions that workers suffered served to shock and galvanize readers. Jack London called Sinclair's book "the "Uncle Tom's Cabin" of wage slavery". Domestic and foreign purchases of American meat fell by half.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair wrote in "Cosmopolitan" in October 1906 about "The Jungle": "I aimed at the public's heart, and by accident I hit it in the stomach." The novel brought public lobbying for Congressional legislation and government regulation of the industry, including passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act. At the time, President Theodore Roosevelt characterized Sinclair as a "crackpot", writing to William Allen White, "I have an utter contempt for him. He is hysterical, unbalanced, and untruthful. Three-fourths of the things he said were absolute falsehoods. For some of the remainder there was only a basis of truth." After reading "The Jungle," Roosevelt agreed with some of Sinclair's conclusions, but was opposed to legislation that he considered "socialist." He said, "Radical action must be taken to do away with the efforts of arrogant and selfish greed on the part of the capitalist."


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Bertolt Brecht's play, "Saint Joan of the Stockyards", transporting Joan of Arc to the environment of the Chicago stockyards, is clearly inspired by "The Jungle".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: In "The Brass Check" (1919), Sinclair made a systematic and incriminating critique of the severe limitations of the "free press" in the United States. Among the topics covered is the use of yellow journalism techniques created by William Randolph Hearst. Sinclair called "The Brass Check" "the most important and most dangerous book I have ever written."


title: Upton Sinclair

text: According to the "Brass Check", "American Journalism is a class institution, serving the rich and spurning the poor." This bias, Sinclair felt, had profound implications for American democracy:


title: Upton Sinclair

text: The social body to which we belong is at this moment passing through one of the greatest crises of its history ... What if the nerves upon which we depend for knowledge of this social body should give us false reports of its condition?


title: Upton Sinclair

text: This was a pamphlet he published in 1934 as a preface to running for office in the state of California. In the book he outlined his plans to run as a Democrat instead of a Socialist, and imagines his climb to the Democratic nomination, and then subsequent victory by a margin of 100,000 votes.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Between 1940 and 1953, Sinclair wrote a series of 11 novels featuring a central character named Lanny Budd. The son of an American arms manufacturer, Budd is portrayed as holding in the confidence of world leaders, and not simply witnessing events, but often propelling them. As a sophisticated socialite who mingles easily with people from all cultures and socioeconomic classes, Budd has been characterized as the antithesis of the stereotyped "Ugly American".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair placed Budd within the important political events in the United States and Europe in the first half of the 20th century. An actual company named the Budd Company manufactured arms during World War II, founded by Edward G. Budd in 1912.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: The novels were bestsellers upon publication and were published in translation, appearing in 21 countries. The third book in the series, "Dragon's Teeth" (1942), won the Pulitzer Prize for the Novel in 1943. Out of print and nearly forgotten for years, ebook editions of the Lanny Budd series were published in 2016.


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair was keenly interested in health and nutrition. He experimented with various diets, and with fasting. He wrote about this in his book, "The Fasting Cure" (1911), another bestseller. He believed that periodic fasting was important for health, saying, "I had taken several fasts of ten or twelve days' duration, with the result of a complete making over of my health".


title: Upton Sinclair

text: Sinclair favored a raw food diet of predominantly vegetables and nuts. For long periods of time, he was a complete vegetarian, but he also experimented with eating meat. His attitude to these matters was fully explained in the chapter, "The Use of Meat", in the above-mentioned book. In the last years of his life, Sinclair strictly ate three meals a day consisting only of brown rice, fresh fruit and celery, topped with powdered milk and salt, and pineapple juice to drink.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 is a consumer-oriented operating system developed by Microsoft as part of its Windows 9x family of operating systems. The first operating system in the 9x family, it is the successor to Windows 3.1x, and was released to manufacturing on July 14, 1995, and generally to retail on August 24, 1995, almost three months after the release of Windows NT 3.51. Windows 95 merged Microsoft's formerly separate MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows products, and featured significant improvements over its predecessor, most notably in the graphical user interface (GUI) and in its simplified "plug-and-play" features. There were also major changes made to the core components of the operating system, such as moving from a mainly cooperatively multitasked 16-bit architecture to a 32-bit preemptive multitasking architecture, at least when running only 32-bit protected mode applications.


title: Windows 95

text: Accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign, Windows 95 introduced numerous functions and features that were featured in later Windows versions, and continue in modern variations to this day, such as the taskbar, notification area, and the "Start" button.


title: Windows 95

text: Three years after its introduction, Windows 95 was followed by Windows 98. Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2000. Like Windows NT 3.51, Windows 95 received only one year of extended support, ending on December 31, 2001.


title: Windows 95

text: The initial design and planning of Windows 95 can be traced back to around March 1992, just around the time before the release of Windows 3.1. At this time, "Windows for Workgroups 3.11" and Windows NT 3.1 were still in development. At this point, Microsoft's strategy was to have a next generation, high-end OS based on Windows NT, namely, Cairo, and a low-end, consumer-focused one as an evolution of Windows 3.1. The latter strategy was to develop a 32-bit underlying kernel and filesystem with 32-bit protect mode device drivers in Windows for Workgroups 3.11, to be used as the basis for the next version of Windows, code named "Chicago." Cairo would be Microsoft's next-generation operating system based on Windows NT, featuring a new user interface and an object-based file system, but it was not planned to be shipped before 1994. Cairo would never be shipped, however, although elements from the Cairo project eventually shipped in Windows NT 4.0 in late July 1996, without the object-based file system, which would later evolve into WinFS.


title: Windows 95

text: Simultaneously with Windows 3.1's release, IBM started shipping OS/2 2.0. Microsoft realized they required an updated version of Windows that could support 32-bit applications and preemptive multitasking, but could still run on low-end hardware (Windows NT did not). Initially, the "Chicago" team did not know how the product would be packaged. Initial thoughts were there might be two products, MS-DOS 7, which would just be the underlying OS, an evolution of the Windows for Workgroups 3.11 kernel, with a character mode OS on top, and a fully integrated graphical Windows OS. But soon into the project, the idea of MS-DOS 7 was abandoned and the decision was made to develop only an integrated graphical OS Windows "Chicago."


title: Windows 95

text: Before Windows 95's official release, users in the United States and United Kingdom had an opportunity to participate in the Windows 95 Preview Program. For US$19.95/£19.95, users would receive several 3.5-inch floppy disks that would be used to install Windows 95 either as an upgrade from Windows 3.1x or as a fresh installation. Participants were also given a free preview of The Microsoft Network (MSN), the online service that Microsoft launched with Windows 95. During the preview period, Microsoft established various electronic distribution points for promotional and technical documentation on Chicago, including a detailed document for media reviewers describing the new system highlights. The preview versions expired in November 1995, after which the user would have to purchase their copy of the final version of Windows 95.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 was designed to be maximally compatible with existing MS-DOS and 16-bit Windows programs and device drivers while offering a more stable and better performing system. The Windows 95 architecture is an evolution of Windows for Workgroups' 386 enhanced mode.


title: Windows 95

text: Access requests to physical media are sent to "Input/Output Supervisor", a component responsible for scheduling the requests. Each physical media has its device driver: access to the disk is performed by a "port driver", while access to a SCSI device is handled by a "miniport" driver working atop the SCSI layer. Port and Miniport drivers perform I/O operations in 32-bit protected mode, bypassing MS-DOS and BIOS, significantly improving performance. In case there is no native Windows driver for a certain storage device, or if a device is forced to run in compatibility mode, the "Real Mode Mapper" can access it through MS-DOS.


title: Windows 95

text: 32-bit Windows programs are assigned their memory segments, which can be adjusted to any desired size. Memory areas outside the segment cannot be accessed by a program. If a program crashes, nothing else is harmed. Before this, programs used fixed non-exclusive 64 KB segments. While the 64 KB size was a serious handicap in DOS and Windows 3.x, lack of guarantee of exclusiveness was the cause of stability issues because programs sometimes overwrote each other's segments. A crashing Windows 3.x program could knock out surrounding processes.


title: Windows 95

text: To end-users, MS-DOS appears as an underlying component of Windows 95. For example, it is possible to prevent the loading of the graphical user interface and boot the system into a real-mode MS-DOS environment. This was done by inserting command.com into the autoexec.bat file or changing the BootGUI variable in the MSDOS.SYS file to 0. This sparked debate amongst users and professionals regarding the extent to which Windows 95 is an operating system or merely a graphical shell running on top of MS-DOS.


title: Windows 95

text: When the graphical user interface is started, the virtual machine manager takes over the filesystem-related and disk-related functionality. MS-DOS itself is demoted to a compatibility layer for 16-bit device drivers. This contrasts with earlier versions of Windows which rely on MS-DOS to perform file and disk access (Windows for Workgroups 3.11 could also largely bypass MS-DOS when 32-bit file access and 32-bit disk access were enabled). Keeping MS-DOS in memory allows Windows 95 to use DOS device drivers when suitable Windows drivers are unavailable. Windows 95 is capable of using all 16-bit Windows 3.x drivers.


title: Windows 95

text: Unlike Windows 3.x, DOS programs running in Windows 95 do not need DOS drivers for the mouse, CD-ROM and sound card; Windows drivers are used instead. HIMEM.SYS is still required to boot Windows 95. EMM386 and other memory managers, however, are only used by DOS programs. In addition, CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT settings (aside from HIMEM.SYS) do not affect Windows programs. DOS games, which could not be executed on Windows 3.x, can run inside Windows 95 (games tended to lock up Windows 3.x or cause other problems). As with Windows 3.x, DOS programs that use EGA or VGA graphics modes run in windowed mode (CGA and text mode programs can continue to run).


title: Windows 95

text: On startup, the MS-DOS component in Windows 95 responds to a pressed key by temporarily pausing the default boot process and presenting the DOS boot options menu, allowing the user to continue starting Windows normally, start Windows in safe mode or exit to the DOS prompt. As in previous versions of MS-DOS, there is no 32-bit support and DOS drivers must be loaded for mice and other hardware.


title: Windows 95

text: As a consequence of DOS compatibility, Windows 95 has to keep internal DOS data structures synchronized with those of Windows 95. When starting a program, even a native 32-bit Windows program, MS-DOS momentarily executes to create a data structure known as the Program Segment Prefix. It is even possible for MS-DOS to run out of conventional memory while doing so, preventing the program from launching. Windows 3.x allocated "fixed" segments in conventional memory first. Since the segments were allocated as fixed, Windows could not move them, which would prevent any more programs from launching.


title: Windows 95

text: Microsoft partially removed support for File Control Blocks (an API hold-over of DOS 1.x and CP/M) in Windows 95 OSR2 (OEM Service Release 2). FCB functions can read FAT32 volumes, but not write to them.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 introduced a redesigned shell based around a desktop metaphor; File shortcuts (also known as shell links) were introduced and the desktop was re-purposed to hold shortcuts to applications, files and folders, reminiscent of Mac OS.


title: Windows 95

text: In Windows 3.1 the desktop was used to display icons of running applications. In Windows 95, the currently running applications were displayed as buttons on a taskbar across the bottom of the screen. The taskbar also contained a notification area used to display icons for background applications, a volume control and the current time.


title: Windows 95

text: The Start menu, invoked by clicking the "Start" button on the taskbar or by pressing the Windows key, was introduced as an additional means of launching applications or opening documents. While maintaining the program groups used by its predecessor Program Manager, it also displayed applications within cascading sub-menus.


title: Windows 95

text: The previous File Manager program was replaced by Windows Explorer and the Explorer-based Control Panel and several other special folders were added such as My Computer, Dial-Up Networking, Recycle Bin, Network Neighborhood, My Documents, Recent documents, Fonts, Printers, and My Briefcase among others. AutoRun was introduced for CD drives.


title: Windows 95

text: The user interface looked dramatically different from prior versions of Windows, but its design language did not have a special name like "Metro", "Aqua" or "Material Design". Internally it was called "the new shell" and later simply "the shell". The subproject within Microsoft to develop the new shell was internally known as "Stimpy".


title: Windows 95

text: In 1994, Microsoft designers Mark Malamud and Erik Gavriluk approached Brian Eno to compose music for the Windows 95 project. The result was the six-second start-up music-sound of the Windows 95 operating system, "The Microsoft Sound" and it was first released as a startup sound in May 1995 on Windows 95 May Test Release build 468.


title: Windows 95

text: When released for Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0, Internet Explorer 4 came with an optional Windows Desktop Update, which modified the shell to provide several additional updates to Windows Explorer, including a "Quick Launch" toolbar, and new features integrated with Internet Explorer, such as Active Desktop (which allowed Internet content to be displayed directly on the desktop).


title: Windows 95

text: Some of the user interface elements introduced in Windows 95, such as the desktop, taskbar, Start menu and Windows Explorer file manager, remained fundamentally unchanged on future versions of Windows.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 included support for 255-character mixed-case long filenames and preemptively multitasked protected-mode 32-bit applications. 16-bit processes were still co-operatively multitasked.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 tried to automate device detection and configuration as much as possible, but could still fall back to manual settings if necessary. During the initial install process of Windows 95, it would attempt to automatically detect all devices installed in the system.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 also introduced the Device Manager to indicate which devices were working optimally with correct drivers and configuration and to allow the user to override automatic Plug and Play-based driver installation with manual options or give a choice of several semi-automatic configurations to try to free up resources for devices that still needed manual configuration.


title: Windows 95

text: 32-bit File Access is necessary for the "long file names" feature introduced with Windows 95 through the use of the VFAT file system extension. It is available to both Windows programs and MS-DOS programs started from Windows (they have to be adapted slightly, since accessing long file names requires using larger pathname buffers and hence different system calls). Competing DOS-compatible operating systems released before Windows 95 cannot see these names. Using older versions of DOS utilities to manipulate files means that the long names are not visible and are lost if files are moved or renamed and by the copy (but not the original) if the file is copied. During a Windows 95 automatic upgrade of an older Windows 3.1 system, DOS and third-party disk utilities which can destroy long file names are identified and made unavailable. When Windows 95 is started in DOS mode, e.g. for running DOS programs, low-level access to disks is locked out. In case the need arises to depend on disk utilities that do not recognize long file names, such as the MS-DOS 6. x's defrag utility, a program called LFNBACK for backup and restoration of long file names is provided on the CD-ROM, specifically in its \ADMIN\APPTOOLS\LFNBACK directory.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 followed Windows for Workgroups 3.11 with its lack of support for older, 16-bit x86 processors, thus requiring an Intel 80386 (or compatible). While the OS kernel is 32-bit, much code (especially for the user interface) remained 16-bit for performance reasons as well as development time constraints. This had a rather detrimental effect on system stability and led to frequent application crashes.


title: Windows 95

text: The introduction of 32-bit file access in Windows for Workgroups 3.11 meant that 16-bit real mode MS-DOS is not used for managing the files while Windows is running, and the earlier introduction of the 32-bit disk access means that the PC BIOS is often no longer used for managing hard disks. DOS can be used for running old-style drivers for compatibility, but Microsoft discourages using them, as this prevents proper multitasking and impairs system stability. Control Panel allows a user to see which MS-DOS components are used by the system; optimal performance is achieved when they are bypassed. The Windows kernel uses MS-DOS style real-mode drivers in "Safe Mode", which exists to allow a user to fix problems relating to loading native, protected-mode drivers.


title: Windows 95

text: OEM Service Releases of Windows 95 introduced support in Windows for several core new technologies which were not included in the original release of Windows 95. These include the Internet Explorer web browser, DriveSpace compression, OpenGL, DirectX, FAT32 file system support, UltraDMA mode for disk drives, Universal Serial Bus, IEEE 1394 (FireWire), and Accelerated Graphics Port.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 introduced computer accessibility features like Sticky keys, FilterKeys, ToggleKeys, Mouse keys. Microsoft Active Accessibility API was introduced as an add-on for Windows 95.


title: Windows 95

text: Official system requirements were an Intel 386DX CPU of any speed, 4 MB of system RAM and 50–55 MB of hard disk space depending on features selected. These minimal claims were made in order to maximize the available market of Windows 3.1 migrations. This configuration would rely heavily on virtual memory and was only optimal for productive use on single-tasking dedicated workstations. It was possible to run Windows 95 on a 386 SX, but this led to even less acceptable performance due to its 16-bit external data bus. To achieve optimal performance, Microsoft recommended an i486 or compatible CPU with at least 8 MB of RAM.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 may fail to boot on computers with a processor faster than 2.1 GHz and more than approximately 480 MB of memory. In such a case, reducing the file cache size or the size of video memory can help. The theoretical maximum according to Microsoft is 2 GB.


title: Windows 95

text: Most copies of Windows 95 were on CD-ROM, but a -inch floppy version was also available for older machines. The retail floppy disk version of Windows 95 came on 13 DMF formatted floppy disks, while OSR 2.1 doubled the floppy count to 26. Both versions exclude additional software that the CD-ROM version might have featured. Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 was also available on floppy disks.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 was superseded by Windows 98, which also included the Windows Desktop Update and Internet Explorer 4 by default. It could still be directly upgraded by either Windows 2000 Professional or Windows Me. Office 2000 is the last version of Microsoft Office to be compatible with Windows 95. Similarly, Windows Media Player 7.0, released in June 2000, and DirectX 8.0a, released in February 2001, are the last versions of Windows Media Player and DirectX available for Windows 95, respectively.


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 originally shipped without Internet Explorer, and the default network installation did not install TCP/IP, the network protocol used on the Internet. At the release date of Windows 95, Internet Explorer 1.0 was available, but only in the Plus! add-on pack for Windows 95, which was a separate product. The Plus! pack did not reach as many retail consumers as the operating system itself (it was mainly advertised for its non-Internet-related add-ons such as themes and better disk compression) but was usually included in pre-installed (OEM) sales, and at the time of Windows 95's release, the web was being browsed mainly with a variety of early web browsers such as NCSA Mosaic and Netscape Navigator (promoted by-products such as IBox).


title: Windows 95

text: Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1 was the first release of Windows to include Internet Explorer (version 2.0) with the OS. While there was no uninstaller, it could be deleted easily if desired. OEM Service Release 2 included Internet Explorer 3. The installation of Internet Explorer 4 on Windows 95 (or the OSR2.5 version preinstalled on a computer) gave Windows 95 Active Desktop and browser integration into Windows Explorer, known as the Windows Desktop Update. The CD version of the last release of Windows 95, OEM Service Release 2.5 (version 4.00.950C), includes Internet Explorer 4, and installs it after Windows 95's initial setup and first boot are complete.


title: Windows 95

text: While only the 4.x series of the browser contained the option to install the Windows Desktop Update features, the subsequent 5.x version had the option hidden. Editing the installer's configuration file located in a temporary folder would make the feature available in the installer. Alternatively, Windows 95 and Windows NT 4.0 users could first install IE 4 with the desktop update before installing a newer version of Internet Explorer. The last version of Internet Explorer supported on Windows 95 is Internet Explorer 5.5 with SP2, which was released on July 23, 2001. Windows 95 shipped with Microsoft's dial-up online service called The Microsoft Network (MSN).


title: Windows 95

text: The Windows 95 release included a commercial featuring The Rolling Stones' 1981 single "Start Me Up" (a reference to the Start button). It was widely reported that Microsoft paid the Rolling Stones between US$8 and US$14 million for the use of the song in the Windows 95 advertising campaign. However, Microsoft said that this was just a rumour spread by the band to increase their market value, and the company paid US$3 million. A 30-minute promotional video, labeled a "cyber sitcom," featuring Jennifer Aniston and Matthew Perry, was also released to showcase the features of Windows 95. Microsoft's US$200 million advertising campaign featured stories of people waiting in line outside stores to get a copy.


title: Windows 95

text: In the UK, the largest computer chain PC World received a large quantity of point-of-sale material; many branches opened at midnight to sell the first copies of the product. Copies of "The Times" were available for free, and Microsoft paid for 1.5 million issues (twice the daily circulation at the time).


title: Windows 95

text: In the United States, the Empire State Building in New York City was lit to match the colors of the Windows logo. In Canada, a banner was hung down the side of the CN Tower in Toronto.


title: Windows 95

text: The release included a number of "Fun Stuff" items on the CD, including music videos of Edie Brickell's "Good Times" and Weezer's "Buddy Holly," a trailer for the 1995 film "Rob Roy" and the computer game "Hover!"


title: Windows 95

text: Sales were strong, with one million copies shipped worldwide in just four days. According to International Data Corporation, by the end of 1998, Windows 95 was the most used desktop OS with 57.4% of the marketshare, with its successor Windows 98 coming in second at 17.2%. Windows 95 also still sold more non-OEM copies to large customers in the month of May 1999, which analysts attributed to large companies opting to wait for the release of Windows 2000.


title: Windows 95

text: Several Windows 95 editions have been released. Only the original release was sold as a shrink-wrapped product; later editions were provided only to computer OEMs for installation on new PCs. For this reason, these editions are known as OEM Service Releases (OSR).


title: Windows 95

text: Together with the introduction of Windows 95, Microsoft released the "Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95" pack, which contained several optional components for high-end multimedia PCs, including Internet Explorer, DriveSpace and additional themes.


title: Windows 95

text: The first service pack was made available half a year after the original release and fixed several small bugs.


title: Windows 95

text: The second service pack mainly introduced support for new hardware, most notably support for hard drives larger than 2 GB in the form of the FAT32 file system. This release was never made available to end-users directly and was only sold through OEMs with the purchase of a new PC.


title: Windows 95

text: A full third service pack was never released, but two smaller updates to the second were released in the form of a USB Supplement (OSR 2.1) and the Windows Desktop Update (OSR 2.5). Both were available as stand-alone updates and as updated disc images shipped by OEMs. OSR 2.5 was notable for featuring several changes to the Windows Explorer, integrating it with Internet Explorer 4.0—this version of Internet Explorer looks very similar to the one featured in Windows 98.


title: Windows 95

text: On December 31, 2001, Microsoft ended its support for Windows 95, making it an "obsolete" product per the Microsoft Lifecycle Policy.


title: Windows 95

text: Many features have since become key components of the Microsoft Windows series, such as the Start menu and the taskbar, originated in Windows 95. Neil MacDonald, a Gartner analyst, said that Windows 95 "was a quantum leap in difference in technological capability and stability." Ina Fried of "CNET" said that "by the time Windows 95 was finally ushered off the market in 2001, it had become a fixture on computer desktops around the world."


title: Windows 95

text: Even though support for Windows 95 has ended, the software has occasionally remained in use on legacy systems for various purposes. In addition, some video game enthusiasts choose to use Windows 95 for their legacy system to play old DOS games, although some other versions of Windows such as Windows 98 can also be used for this purpose.


title: Degree symbol

text: The degree symbol or degree sign, , is a typographical symbol that is used, among other things, to represent degrees of arc (e.g. in geographic coordinate systems), hours (in the medical field), degrees of temperature or alcohol proof. The symbol consists of a small superscript circle.


title: Degree symbol

text: The word degree is equivalent to Latin gradus which, since the medieval period, could refer to any stage in a graded system of ranks or steps. The number of the rank in question was indicated by ordinal numbers, in abbreviation with the ordinal indicator (a superscript "o").


title: Degree symbol

text: Use of "degree" specifically for the degrees of arc, used in conjunction with Arabic numerals, became common in the 16th century, but this was without the use of an ordinal marker or degree symbol.


title: Degree symbol

text: Similarly, the introduction of the temperature scales with degrees in the 18th century was at first without such symbols, but with the word "gradus" spelled out. Use of the degree symbol was introduced for temperature in the later 18th century and became widespread in the early 19th century.


title: Degree symbol

text: Antoine Lavoisier in his "Opuscles physiques et chymiques" (1774) used the ordinal indicator with Arabic numerals – for example, when he wrote in the introduction:


title: Degree symbol

text: The is to be read as meaning "in the first place", followed by ("in the second place"), etc. In the same work, when Lavoisier gives a temperature, he spells out the word "degree" explicitly, for example (p. 194): ("a temperature of 16 to 17 degrees of the thermometer").


title: Degree symbol

text: An early use of the degree symbol proper is that by Henry Cavendish in 1776 for degrees of the Fahrenheit scale.


title: Degree symbol

text: The degree symbol for degrees of temperature appears to have been transferred to the use for degrees of arc early in the 19th century. An early textbook using this notation is Charles Hutton, "A Course of Mathematics" vol. 1 (1836), page 383.


title: Degree symbol

text: An earlier convention is found in Conrad Malte-Brun, "Universal Geography" vol. 1 (1827), where degrees of arc are abbreviated with a superscript "d" (alongside a superscript "m" for minutes of arc).


title: Degree symbol

text: In the case of degrees of angular arc, the degree symbol follows the number without any intervening space, e.g. . The addition of minute and second of arc follows the degree units, with intervening spaces (optionally, non-breaking space) between the sexagesimal degree subdivisions but no spaces between the numbers and units, for example .


title: Degree symbol

text: In the case of degrees of temperature, three scientific and engineering standards bodies (the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, the International Organization for Standardization and the U.S. Government Printing Office) prescribe printing temperatures with a space between the number and the degree symbol, e.g. . However, in many works with professional typesetting, including scientific works published by the University of Chicago Press or Oxford University Press, the degree symbol is printed with no spaces between the number, the symbol, and the Latin letters "C" or "F" representing Celsius or Fahrenheit, respectively, e.g. . This is also the practice of the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, which operates the National Center for Atmospheric Research. Both ASTM International and NIST, the official US entities related to the standardization of the use of units, require a space between the numerical value and the unit designator, except when the degree symbol alone is used to denote an angular value.


title: Degree symbol

text: Use of the degree symbol to refer to temperatures measured in kelvins (symbol: K) was abolished in 1967 by the 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM). Therefore, the triple point of water, for instance, is written simply as 273.16 K. The name of the SI unit of temperature is now "kelvin", in lower case, and no longer "degrees Kelvin".


title: Degree symbol

text: In photography, the symbol is used to denote logarithmic film speed grades. In this usage, it follows the number without spacing as in 21° DIN, 5° ASA or ISO 100/21°.


title: Degree symbol

text: The degree sign was missing from the basic 7-bit ASCII set of 1963, but in 1987 the ISO/IEC 8859 standard introduced it at position 0xB0 (176 decimal) in all variants except Part 5 (Cyrillic), 6 (Arabic), 7 (Greek) and 11 (Thai). In 1991 the Unicode standard incorporated all of the ISO/IEC 8859 code points, including the degree sign (at U+00B0)..


title: Degree symbol

text: The Windows Code Page 1252 was also an extension of ISO/IEC 8859-1 (Part 1 or Latin-1) standard, so it had the degree sign at the same code point, 0xB0.


title: Degree symbol

text: The code point in the older DOS Code Page 437 was 0xF8 (248 decimal); therefore, the Alt code used to enter the symbol directly from the keyboard is .


title: Degree symbol

text: Some computer keyboard layouts, such as the QWERTY layout as used in Italy, the QWERTZ layout as used in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and the AZERTY layout as used in France and Belgium, have the degree symbol available directly on a key. But the common keyboard layouts in English-speaking countries do not include the degree sign, which then has to be input some other way. The method of inputting depends on the operating system being used.


title: Degree symbol

text: On the Colemak keyboard layout (Windows/Mac), one can press + followed by to insert a degree sign. On Linux, one can press + twice to insert a degree sign.


title: Degree symbol

text: In the classic Mac OS and macOS operating systems, the degree symbol can be entered by typing . One can also use the Mac OS character palette, which is available in many programs by selecting "Special Characters" from the Edit Menu, or from the 'Input Menu' (flag) icon on the menu bar (enabled in the International section of the System Preferences).


title: Degree symbol

text: In Linux operating systems such as Ubuntu, this symbol may be entered via the Compose key followed by , . Some keyboard layouts display this symbol upon pressing (once or twice, depending on specific keyboard layout), and, in programs created by GTK+, one can enter Unicode characters in any text entry field by first pressing , regardless of keyboard layout. For the degree symbol, this is done by entering (where the last key is the number zero) followed by a space.


title: Degree symbol

text: For ChromeOS, use the Unicode entry method then then space or return; with the UK extended layout, use .


title: Degree symbol

text: In iOS, the degree symbol is accessed by pressing and holding and dragging a finger to the degree symbol. This procedure is the same as entering diacritics on other characters.


title: Degree symbol

text: In Microsoft Office and similar programs, there is often also an "Insert" menu with an "Insert Symbol" or "Symbol" command that brings up a graphical palette of symbols to insert, including the degree symbol. As with the CharMap app, the table is arranged in Unicode order. Alternatively, the alt code technique may be used, as described above.


title: Degree symbol

text: In LaTeX, the packages codice_1 and codice_2 provide the commands and codice_3, respectively. In the absence of these packages one can write the degree symbol as codice_4 in math mode. In other words, it is written as the empty circle glyph as a superscript.


title: Arwen

text: Arwen Undómiel is a fictional character in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth legendarium. She appears in the novel "The Lord of the Rings". Arwen is one of the half-elven who lived during the Third Age; her father was Elrond half-elven, lord of the Elvish sanctuary of Rivendell, while her mother was the Elf Celebrian, daughter of the Elf-queen Galadriel, ruler of Lothlórien. She marries the Man Aragorn, who becomes King of Arnor and Gondor.


title: Arwen

text: In Peter Jackson's film adaptation, Arwen is played by Liv Tyler. She plays a more active role in the film than in the book, personally rescuing the Hobbit Frodo from the Black Riders at the Fords of Bruinen (a role played by Glorfindel in the book).


title: Arwen

text: Arwen was the youngest child of Elrond, lord of the Elvish sanctuary of Rivendell and leader of the High Elves remaining in Middle-earth at the end of the Third Age, and Celebrían, daughter of Galadriel, ruler of the Elvish forest realm of Lothlórien. Her elder brothers were the twins Elladan and Elrohir. Her name ""Ar-wen"" means 'noble maiden' in Sindarin. She was given the name "Evenstar" as the most beautiful of the last generation of High Elves in Middle-earth.


title: Arwen

text: As told in "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", in his twentieth year Aragorn met Arwen for the first time in Rivendell, where he lived under Elrond's protection. Arwen, then over 2,700 years old, had recently returned to her father's home after living with her grandmother, Galadriel, in Lothlórien. Aragorn fell in love with Arwen at first sight. Thirty years later, the two were reunited in Lothlórien. Arwen reciprocated Aragorn's love, and on the mound of Cerin Amroth they committed themselves to marrying each other. In making that choice, Arwen gave up the Elvish immortality available to her as a daughter of Elrond, and agreed to remain in Middle-earth instead of travelling to the Undying Lands.


title: Arwen

text: Arwen first appears in the text of "The Lord of the Rings" in Rivendell, shortly after Frodo Baggins wakes in the House of Elrond: she sits beside her father at the celebratory feast. When the Fellowship of the Ring comes to Lothlórien, Aragorn remembers his earlier meeting with Arwen and pauses in reverence.


title: Arwen

text: Shortly before Aragorn takes the Paths of the Dead, he is joined by a contingent of his people accompanied by Arwen's brothers, Elladan and Elrohir, who bring him a gift from Arwen: a banner of black cloth. The banner is unfurled at the Battle of the Pelennor Fields to reveal the emblem of Elendil figured in "mithril", gems, and gold; this becomes the first triumphant public announcement of the king's return.


title: Arwen

text: After the ring is destroyed, Aragorn becomes king of Arnor and Gondor. Arwen arrives at Minas Tirith, and they are married. She gives Frodo the Evenstar: her necklace with a white stone, to aid him when his injuries trouble him.


title: Arwen

text: Arwen serves as inspiration and motivation for Aragorn, who must become King of both Arnor and Gondor before Elrond will allow her to marry him. "The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen", an appendix to the main story, relates that Aragorn and Arwen had a son, Eldarion, and at least two unnamed daughters. One year after Aragorn's death, Arwen dies at the age of 2,901.


title: Arwen

text: Through her father, Elrond, Arwen was the granddaughter of Eärendil the Mariner (the second of the Half-elven), great-granddaughter of Tuor of Gondolin, and therefore a direct descendant of the ancient House of Hador. Through her great-grandmother, Idril, Arwen was also a descendant of King Turgon of the Noldor. Through her mother, she was the granddaughter of the Elf-queen Galadriel of Lothlórien, and the great-granddaughter of Finarfin. Through both of her parents, Arwen was a direct descendant of the ancient Elven House of Finwë. Furthermore, Arwen was a descendant of Beren and Lúthien, whose story resembled hers. Indeed, Arwen was held to be the reappearance in likeness of her ancestor Lúthien, fairest of all the Elves, who was called Nightingale ("Tinúviel").


title: Arwen

text: Arwen was a distant relative of her husband Aragorn. Aragorn's ancestor, Elros Tar-Minyatur, the first King of Númenor, was her father Elrond's brother, who chose to live as a Man rather than as one of the Eldar. Arwen eventually became Queen of the Reunited Kingdom of Arnor and Gondor when she married Aragorn, who was of the line of the Kings of Arnor. By Arwen and Aragorn's marriage, the long-separated lines of the Half-elven were joined. Their union served to unite and preserve the bloodlines of the three kings of the high Elves (Ingwë, Finwë, and the brothers Olwë and Elwë) as well as the only line with Maiarin blood through Arwen's great-great-great grandmother, Melian, Queen of Doriath, and also on Aragorn's side, through the line of kings of Arnor and Númenor to Elros, Elrond's brother, whose great-great-grandmother was also Melian.


title: Arwen

text: As related in "The History of Middle-earth", Tolkien conceived the character of "Elrond's daughter" late in the writing. Prior to this, he considered having Aragorn marry Éowyn of the royal family of Rohan.


title: Arwen

text: Arwen is depicted as extremely beautiful; she is in Melissa Hatcher's view in "Mythlore" "a symbol of the unattainable, a perfect match for the unattainable Aragorn in Éowyn's eyes." Carol Leibiger wrote in the "J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia" that Arwen's lack of involvement follows the general Elvish pattern of retreating to safe havens already established in "The Silmarillion" and continued in "The Lord of the Rings".


title: Arwen

text: The scholar of English literature Nancy Enright wrote that Arwen, like Christ, is an immortal who voluntarily chooses mortality out of love, in her case for Aragorn. She granted that Arwen is not a conspicuous character, and unlike Éowyn does not ride into battle, but stated that her inner power is "subtly conveyed" and present throughout the novel.


title: Arwen

text: In Peter Jackson's "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, Arwen is played by Liv Tyler. The films give her a more prominent role than her literary counterpart.


title: Arwen

text: In the first film, Arwen searches for Aragorn and single-handedly rescues Frodo Baggins from the Black Riders at Bruinen, thwarting them with a sudden flood, summoned by an incantation. (In the novel, Elrond summons the flood, and Glorfindel lends Frodo his horse.) During this flight Arwen wields the sword Hadhafang, which according to film merchandise was once wielded by her father and had belonged to his grandmother Idril Celebrindal.


title: Arwen

text: In the film adaptation of "", the injured Aragorn is revived by a dream or vision of Arwen, who kisses him and asks the Valar to protect him.


title: Arwen

text: In the film, Arwen does not send Aragorn the banner she has made; instead, Elrond takes the sword Narsil, reforged as Andúril, to Aragorn at Dunharrow, and tells him that Arwen's fate has become bound to the One Ring, and that she is dying. The Tolkien scholar Janet Brennan Croft comments that Jackson makes Arwen passive, denying her independence of mind; from being a constant support, she is a distraction, even a temptation, to the American Superhero, and their marriage, in the book a sign of his rightful kingship, is in the film something he accepts as if he was condemned to it.


title: Arwen

text: In the extended version, Elrond asks Arwen, in Elvish with English subtitles, to accompany him to safety in Valinor, away from Middle-earth.


title: Arwen

text: The Tolkien scholar Dimitra Fimi comments that the procession of Elves in the scene "Arwen's vision" in the extended version borrows visually from the "Celtic" imagery of John Duncan's 1911 Pre-Raphaelite painting "Riders of the Sidhe".


title: Arwen

text: Sauron uses the Palantír to show Aragorn a dying Arwen (a scene from the future) in the hope of weakening his resolve.


title: Arwen

text: The films portray Arwen as becoming human through her love for Aragorn; as in the novel, she follows the choice of her ancestor Lúthien to become a mortal woman for the love of a mortal man. The films introduce a jewelled pendant called the "Evenstar" which Arwen gives to Aragorn as a token of their love. A similar pendant appears in Marion Zimmer Bradley's short story "The Jewel of Arwen", although in that story Arwen gives it to "the Ring-Bearer" rather than to Aragorn. In Tolkien's novel, Arwen gives Frodo "a white gem like a star...hanging upon a silver chain" before he leaves Minas Tirith, saying, "When the memory of the fear and the darkness troubles you...this will bring you aid".


title: Arwen

text: In earlier versions of the script, Arwen fought in the Battle of Helm's Deep and brought the sword Andúril to Aragorn. Some scenes of Arwen fighting in Helm's Deep were filmed before both the film's writers (with Liv Tyler's approval) reconsidered the change and deleted her from the sequence. The critic John D. Rateliff wrote approvingly of the deletion of what he calls "Arwen, ", even though it came "at the cost of reducing her to a sort of Lady of Shallott languishing for most of the final two films".


title: Arwen

text: In the Mythopoeic Society's "Tolkien on Film: Essays on Peter Jackson's The Lord of the Rings", Cathy Akers-Jordan, Victoria Gaydosik, Jane Chance, and Maureen Thum all contend that the portrayal of Arwen and other women in the Jackson films is thematically faithful to or compatible with Tolkien's writings, despite the differences.


title: Arwen

text: In the 1981 BBC radio serialisation of "The Lord of the Rings", Arwen is voiced by Sonia Fraser. In the musical theatre adaptation of "Lord of the Rings", Arwen, played in London in 2007 by Rosalie Craig, sings the Prologue, and three musical numbers: "The Song of Hope", "Star of Eärendil" (with the Elven chorus) and "The Song of Hope Duet" (with Aragorn). In the 2009 fan film "The Hunt for Gollum", Arwen is played by Rita Ramnani.


title: Arwen

text: The "Lord of the Rings" board game made use of a rendition of Arwen by Jackson's conceptual designer, the illustrator John Howe; the work was inspired by the French actress Isabelle Adjani.


title: Arwen

text: The International Astronomical Union names all colles (small hills) on Saturn's moon Titan after characters in Tolkien's work. In 2012, they named a hilly area "Arwen Colles" after Arwen.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK FC ( ; Αθλητική Ένωσις Κωνσταντινουπόλεως; "Athlitikí Énosis Konstantinoupόleos", meaning "Athletic Union of Constantinople") is a Greek professional football club based in Nea Filadelfeia, a suburb of Attica, Greece.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Established in Nea Filadelfeia in 1924 by Greek refugees from Istanbul in the wake of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), AEK is one of the three most successful teams in Greek football (including Olympiacos and Panathinaikos), winning 30 national titles and the only one


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: to have won all the competitions organised by the Hellenic Football Federation (12 Championships, 15 Greek Cups, 1 League Cup and 2 Super Cups).


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The club has appeared several times in European competitions (UEFA Champions League, UEFA Europa League and the defunct UEFA Cup Winners' Cup). It is the only Greek team that advanced to


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup (1976–77) and the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup twice (1996–97 and 1997–98).


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK was also the first Greek team that advanced to the quarter-finals of the European Cup (1968–69) and also to the group stage of the UEFA Champions League (1994–95).


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The large Greek population of Constantinople, not unlike those of the other Ottoman urban centres, continued its athletic traditions in the form of numerous athletic clubs. Clubs such as Énosis Tatávlon () and Iraklís () from the Tatavla district, Mégas Aléxandros () and Ermís () of Galata, and Olympiás () of Therapia existed to promote Hellenic athletic and cultural ideals. These were amongst a dozen Greek-backed clubs that dominated the sporting landscape of the city in the years preceding World War I. After the war, with the influx of mainly French and British soldiers to Constantinople, many of the city's clubs participated in regular competitions with teams formed by foreign troops. Taxim, Pera, and Tatavla became the scene of weekly competitions in not only football, but also athletics, cycling, boxing, and tennis.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Of the clubs in the city, football was dominated by Énosis Tatávlon and Ermís. Ermís, one of the most popular sports clubs, was formed in 1875 by the Greek community of Pera (Galata). Known as "Pera" since the mid-1880s, and "The Greek Football Team" when its football department was formed in 1914, it was forced to change its name to "Pera Sports Club", and then "Beyoğluspor Kulübü" in 1923. Many of its athletes, and those of most other sporting clubs, fled during the population exchanges at the end of the Greco-Turkish War, and settled in Athens and Thessaloniki.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1924, the founders of AEK – a group of Constantinopolitan refugees (among them former athletes from the Pera Sports Club and the other Constantinopolitan clubs) – met at the athletic shop "Lux" of Emilios Ionas and Konstantinos Dimopoulos on Veranzerou Street, in the centre of Athens, and created AEK. Their intention was to create a club that provided athletic and cultural diversions for the thousands of predominantly Constantinopolitan and Anatolian refugees who had settled in the new suburbs of Athens (including Nea Filadelfeia, Nea Ionia, Nea Chalkidona, Nea Smyrni).


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The first team of AEK was: "GK: Kitsos, DF: Ieremiadis, DF: Asderis, MF: Kechagias, MF: Paraskevas, MF: Dimopoulos, MF: Karagiannides, FW: Baltas, FW: Milas, FW: Iliades, and FW: Georgiades". AEK played its first match against "Aias Athinon" in November 1924, winning 2–0.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK's football team grew rapidly in popularity during the 1920s, eclipsing the already-established Athens-based refugee clubs (Panionios, Apollon Smyrnis etc.), thanks mainly to the large pool of immigrants that were drawn to the club, the significance of the name "Constantinople" for many refugees and Greeks, plus, in no small part, to the political connections and wealth of several of the club's board members. Not possessing a football ground, AEK played most of its early matches at various locations around Athens, including the grounds of the Temple of Olympian Zeus and the Leoforos Alexandras Stadium.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK's first president, Konstantinos Spanoudis (1871–1941), a journalist and associate of the Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos, petitioned the government to set aside land for the establishment of a sports ground. In 1926, land in Nea Filadelfeia which was originally set aside for refugee housing, was donated as a training ground for the refugees' sports activities. AEK began using the ground for training, albeit unofficially.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1928, Panathinaikos, Olympiacos and AEK began a dispute with the fledgling Hellenic Football Federation (EPO), decided to break away from the Athens regional league, and formed an alliance called POK (from their initial letters, K was for AEK: "Konstantinoupόleos"). During the dispute, POK organised friendly matches against each other and several continental European clubs. In 1929, though, the dispute ended and AEK, along with the other POK clubs, entered the EPO fold once again.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1930, the property where AEK trained was officially signed over to the club. Venizelos soon approved the plans to build what was to become AEK's home ground for the next 70 years, the Nikos Goumas Stadium. The first home game, in November 1930, was an exhibition match against Olympiacos that ended in a 2–2 draw.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1932, AEK won their first Greek Cup title, beating Aris 5–3 in the final. The team boasted a number of star football players like Kostas Negrepontis (a veteran of the original Pera Club of Constantinople), Kleanthis Maropoulos, Tryfon Tzanetis, Michalis Delavinias, Giorgos Mageiras, and Spyros Sklavounos.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The club's mixed success during the 1930's was highlighted by the first Greek Championship and Greek Cup (making the Double) in 1939. Under former player Kostas Negrepontis as head coach, AEK also won the Greek Championship of 1940.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: With Kostas Nestoridis scoring goals in the early 1960's (top goalscorer for 5 seasons in row, from 1958 to 1963), and the timely signing of attacker Mimis Papaioannou (all-time top goalscorer and appearances recordman of the club) in 1962, AEK went on to win the 1962–63 championship. Known affectionately as "Mimis" by the AEK supporters, Papaioannou scored twice in the 1963 playoff against Panathinaikos, levelling the scores at 3–3 and giving AEK its first post-war championship on goal aggregate. Coached by Hungarian-German Jenő Csaknády, the championship team also consisted of Stelios Serafidis, Miltos Papapostolou, and Andreas Stamatiadis. Youngsters like Alekos Sofianidis, Stelios Skevofilakas, Giorgos Petridis and Manolis Kanellopoulos also played a significant role in the victorious 1963 campaign.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The club followed up with Cup victories in 1964 and 1966. With the return of Csaknády to the coach's position in 1968 and with the addition of some great players like Kostas Nikolaidis, Giorgos Karafeskos, Panagiotis Ventouris, Fotis Balopoulos, Spyros Pomonis, Alekos Iordanou, Nikos Stathopoulos and Andreas Papaemmanouil, AEK easily won the championship of 1967–68.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In the 1968–69 season AEK, with new Serbian coach Branko Stanković, became the first Greek football club to reach the quarter-finals of the European Champions Cup, but were eliminated by the Czechoslovakian Spartak Trnava.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: The addition of goalkeeper Stelios Konstantinidis and Apostolos Toskas reinforced the team, and allowed AEK to take their fifth championship title in 1971.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK also won the unofficial Greek Super Cup of 1971, beating Olympiacos 4–2 on penalty kicks after 2 draws (2–2 at Piraeus and 1–1 at Nea Filadelfeia). Mavros, Eleftherakis, and Ardizoglou were part of the AEK outfit that dominated the Greek league in the late 1970's.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Loukas Barlos, a successful industrialist, took over the presidency and financial support of AEK in 1974, and with the help of coach František Fadrhonc built one of the finest teams in the club's history. The Barlos "Golden Era" saw some of the greatest players ever to have played for AEK: Christos Ardizoglou, Giorgos Dedes, Giorgos Skrekis, the Germans Walter Wagner and Timo Zahnleiter, Dionysis Tsamis, Pantelis Nikolaou, Petros Ravousis, Dušan Bajević, Takis Nikoloudis, Stefanos Theodoridis, Babis Intzoglou and Nikos Christidis.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Captained by Papaioannou in the 1976–1977 season, AEK reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup competition, the first Greek football club to do so. Beating Dynamo Moscow (Russia) 2–0, Derby County (U.K.) 2–0 and 3–2, Red Star Belgrade (Yugoslavia) 2–0, and QPR (U.K.) 3–0 and 7–6 on penalties, AEK were eventually eliminated by Gianni Agnelli's Juventus. Juventus went on to win their first European title.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: It was during this period that AEK signed one of Greece's finest strikers, Thomas Mavros, the all-time top goalscorer in the Greek Championship. In the following years, he and Dušan Bajević formed a formidable attacking duo for AEK. Mavros was an integral part of the team that reached the UEFA Cup semi-final in 1976, but it was his devastating form (top goal scorer of 1978 and 1979 – 22 and 31 goals, respectively) that helped AEK to win the 1977–78 Championship-Cup double. The addition of former Panathinaikos stars Domazos and Eleftherakis to the AEK roster, the following year, saw the club cap off their most successful decade to date by winning the 1979 Championship.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Under the leadership of Loukas Barlos, the Nikos Goumas Stadium was finally completed with the addition of the iconic "covered stand", or "Skepasti" (), which eventually became home to the most fanatic of AEK supporter groups, "Original 21". The next generation of star players, fresh out of AEK's Academy, made their debut during this period: Stelios Manolas, Spyros Ikonomopoulos, Vangelis Vlachos, and Lysandros Georgamlis.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: With new president Michalis Arkadis and Austrian head coach Helmut Senekowitsch, AEK won the 1983 Greek Cup, beating PAOK 2–0 in the newly built Athens Olympic Stadium. Thomas Mavros and Vangelis Vlachos were the goalscorers.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: AEK also chased the elusive Championship title and it finally came in 1989. Coached by former player Dušan Bajević, AEK clinched the title after a winning a crucial match 1–0 against Olympiacos at the Athens Olympic Stadium. Takis Karagiozopoulos scored the goal that gave AEK its first Championship after ten years. AEK won also the Greek Super Cup of 1989, beating Panathinaikos on penalties after the match ended in a 1–1 draw.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: After the 1989 triumphs, under Bajević, AEK built what was to become one of the most successful teams in its history. Captained by Stelios Manolas, the team, which included Toni Savevski, Daniel Batista, Vaios Karagiannis, Vasilis Dimitriadis, Giorgos Savvidis, Alexis Alexandris, Vasilis Tsiartas, Michalis Kasapis, Refik Šabanadžović and Vasilis Borbokis dominated the Greek league through the 1990s with three successive Championship titles (1992, 1993, and 1994). AEK won the only Greek League Cup ever organised in 1990 (beating Olympiacos 3–2).


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1994–95, AEK was the first Greek football club that participated in the group stage of the UEFA Champions League after defeating Scottish champions Rangers; AEK was eliminated by Ajax Amsterdam and AC Milan, who made it to the final. With Michalis Trochanas as president and Dušan Bajević as coach, the club won the Greek Cup in 1996.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: Former player Petros Ravousis took over the coaching position when Dušan Bajević defected to Olympiacos at the end of 1996. Ravousis led the team to its second Super Cup in 1996, and its eleventh Cup title in 1997, beating Panathinaikos in both finals.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: By far AEK's most successful run with titles, the period also saw the club sign Temur Ketsbaia and several young, talented players like Demis Nikolaidis, Christos Kostis, Christos Maladenis and Akis Zikos. Nikolaidis, in particular, an AEK fan since childhood, declined more lucrative offers from Olympiacos and Panathinaikos to sign for his beloved club. During the 1996–97 and 1997–98 seasons, AEK progressed to the quarter-finals of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, where they were eliminated by Paris Saint-Germain and Lokomotiv Moscow.


title: AEK Athens F.C.

text: In 1999, ex-president Dimitris Melissanidis organised a friendly match against FK Partizan in Belgrade, during the height of the NATO bombing of Serbia. As a gesture of compassion and solidarity towards the embattled Serbs, the AEK players and management staff defied the international embargo and traveled to Belgrade for the match. The game ended 1–1, when after 60 minutes thousands of Serbian football fans invaded the pitch to embrace the footballers.