title: Angel investor

text: The application of the term "angel" originally comes from Broadway theater, where it was used to describe wealthy individuals who provided money for theatrical productions that would otherwise have had to shut down. In 1978, William Wetzel, a then-professor at the University of New Hampshire and founder of its Center for Venture Research, completed a pioneering study on how entrepreneurs raised seed capital in the US. He began using the term "angel" to describe the investors who supported them. A similar term, "patron", is commonly used in arts.


title: Angel investor

text: Angel investors are often retired entrepreneurs or executives, who may be interested in angel investing for reasons that go beyond pure monetary return. These include wanting to keep abreast of current developments in a particular business arena, mentoring another generation of entrepreneurs, and making use of their experience and networks on a less than full-time basis. Because innovations tend to be produced by outsiders and founders in startups, rather than existing organizations, angel investors provide (in addition to funds) feedback, advice and contacts. Because there are no public exchanges listing their securities, private companies meet angel investors in several ways, including referrals from the investors' trusted sources and other business contacts; at investor conferences and symposia; and at meetings organized by groups of angels where companies pitch directly to investor in face-to-face meetings.


title: Angel investor

text: According to the Center for Venture Research, there were 258,000 active angel investors in the U.S. in 2007. According to literature reviewed by the US Small Business Administration, the number of individuals in the US who made an angel investment between 2001 and 2003 is between 300,000 and 600,000. In the late 1980s, angels started to coalesce into informal groups with the goal of sharing deal flow and due diligence work, and pooling their funds to make larger investments. Angel groups are generally local organizations made up of 10 to 150 accredited investors interested in early-stage investing. In 1996 there were about 10 angel groups in the United States. There were over 200 as of 2006.


title: Angel investor

text: Angels typically invest their own funds, unlike venture capitalists, who manage the pooled money of others in a professionally managed fund. Although typically reflecting the investment judgment of an individual, the actual entity that provides the funding may be a trust, business, limited liability company, investment fund, or other vehicle. A Harvard report by William R. Kerr, Josh Lerner, and Antoinette Schoar provides evidence that angel-funded startups are more likely to succeed than companies that rely on other forms of initial financing. The paper by Kerr et al., found "that angel funding is positively correlated with higher survival, additional fundraising outside the angel group, and faster growth measured through growth in web site traffic".


title: Angel investor

text: Angel capital fills the gap in seed funding between "friends and family" and more robust start-up financing through formal venture capital. Although it is usually difficult to raise more than a few hundred thousand dollars from friends and family, most traditional venture capital funds are usually not able to make or evaluate small investments under US$1–2 million. On an annual basis, the combined value of all angel investments in the US almost reaches the combined value of all US venture capital funds, while angel investors invest in more than 60 times as many companies as venture capital firms (US$20.1 billion vs. $23.26 billion in the US in 2010, into 61,900 companies vs. 1,012 companies).


title: Angel investor

text: There is no "set amount" for angel investors; investments can range from a few thousand to a few million dollars. In a large shift from 2009, in 2010 healthcare/medical accounted for the largest share of angel investments, with 30% of total angel investments (vs. 17% in 2009), followed by software (16% vs. 19% in 2007), biotech (15% vs. 8% in 2009), industrial/energy (8% vs. 17% in 2009), retail (5% vs. 8% in 2009) and IT services (5%). While more readily available than venture financing, angel investment is still extremely difficult to raise. However, some new models are developing that are trying to make this easier.


title: Angel investor

text: Much like other forms of private equity, the angel investment decision-making has been shown to suffer from cognitive biases such as illusion of control and overconfidence.


title: Angel investor

text: Angel investments bear extremely high risks and are usually subject to dilution from future investment rounds. As such, they require a very high return on investment. Additionally, angel investors often mitigate the risk of an angel investment by allocating less than 10% of their portfolio to these types of investments. Because a large percentage of angel investments are lost completely when early stage companies fail, professional angel investors seek investments that have the potential to return at least ten or more times their original investment within 5 years, through a defined exit strategy, such as plans for an initial public offering or an acquisition. Current 'best practices' suggest that angels might do better setting their sights even higher, looking for companies that will have at least the potential to provide a 20x-30x return over a five- to seven-year holding period. After taking into account the need to cover failed investments and the multi-year holding time for even the successful ones, however, the actual effective internal rate of return for a typical successful portfolio of angel investments is typically as 'low' as 20–30%. While the investor's need for high rates of return on any given investment can thus make angel financing an expensive source of funds, cheaper sources of capital, such as bank financing, are usually not available for most early-stage ventures.


title: Angel investor

text: The last years showed the emergence of founding angels as angel investors involved even before the foundation of a start-up. Founding angels co-found start-ups together with scientists who bring in the technology on which the start-up is based. After foundation, they are actively engaged in the management of the start-ups, typically in a non-executive position. This type was firstly described by Gunter Festel and Sven De Cleyn who found that founding angels are individuals playing a key role in providing day-to-day operational support to the start-up together with early-stage financing.


title: Angel investor

text: Canada is reportedly home to the most sophisticated and advanced network of angel investors in the world. Incorporated in 2002, the National Angel Capital Organization pioneered the angel investing movement and supported the formation of regional angel networks in Canada. According to both the National Angel Capital Organization and Business Development Bank of Canada, there are 20,000–50,000 active angel investors in Canada. Over 4,000 are members of 45 angel groups that are members of the National Angel Capital Organization (NACO).


title: Angel investor

text: Prior to 2000, it was difficult for startups in China to find local angel investors. Entrepreneurs such as Jack Ma of Alibaba Group needed to raise funds from Softbank, Goldman Sachs, Fidelity and other institutions. However, by 2015, several Chinese Angel groups had been in operation.


title: Angel investor

text: In 2012, the International Business Angels Assembly took place in the Russian Federation. This was an exclusive event devoted to private investing into innovative projects in Eastern Europe.


title: Angel investor

text: A study by NESTA in 2009 estimated that there were between 4,000 and 6,000 angel investors in the UK with an average investment size of £42,000 per investment. Furthermore, each angel investor on average acquired 8 percent of the venture in the deal with 10 percent of investments accounting for more than 20 percent of the venture.


title: Angel investor

text: In terms of returns, 35 percent of investments produced returns of between one and five times of the initial investment, whilst 9 percent produced returns of multiples of ten times or more. The mean return, however, was 2.2 times investment in 3.6 years and an approximate internal rate of return of 22 percent gross.


title: Angel investor

text: The UK Business Angel market grew in 2009/2010 and, despite recessionary concerns, continues to show signs of growth.


title: Angel investor

text: In 2013, this dynamic kept going on in the UK as angel investors were named by two-thirds of technology entrepreneurs as a means of funding. By 2015, angel investments had increased throughout the UK, with the average number of investments made by angels at 5, compared to 2.5 in 2009. The same report also found an increase in angel investors making impact investments, with 25% of angels saying they had made an impact investment in 2014.


title: Angel investor

text: Geographically, Silicon Valley dominates United States angel investing, receiving 39% of the $7.5B invested in US-based companies throughout Q2 2011, 3–4 times as much as the total amount invested within New England. Total investments in 2011 were $22.5 billion, an increase of 12.1 percent over 2010 when investments totalled $20.1 billion. In the United States, angels are generally accredited investors in order to comply with current SEC regulations, although the JOBS Act of 2012 loosened those requirements starting in January 2013. Reaching nearly $23 billion in 2012 in the US, angel investors are not only responsible for funding over 67,000 startup ventures annually, but their capital also contributed to job growth by helping to finance 274,800 new jobs in 2012.


title: Angel investor

text: In 2013, 41% of tech sector executives name angel investors as a means of funding. In 2020 total US angel investment reached $25.3 billion, indicating recent slowdown in growth compared to several years prior.


title: Angel investor

text: In the early 2000s there were fewer than 50 Angel investors in the Indian Startup Ecosystem. This has grown to a massive number in today's context. Investors have invested about $7.8 billion in the first four months of 2021, which is almost 70% of the overall corpus of $12.1 billion invested in entire 2020 and more than 50% of $14.2 billion invested in 2019.


title: Angel investor

text: Saudi Vision 2030 has been launched in 2016, and since that, entrepreneurship ecosystem is being built from scratch. Angel investor group reached 8 in 2022.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: In mathematical optimization, the method of Lagrange multipliers is a strategy for finding the local maxima and minima of a function subject to equality constraints (i.e., subject to the condition that one or more equations have to be satisfied exactly by the chosen values of the variables). It is named after the mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange. The basic idea is to convert a constrained problem into a form such that the derivative test of an unconstrained problem can still be applied. The relationship between the gradient of the function and gradients of the constraints rather naturally leads to a reformulation of the original problem, known as the Lagrangian function.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The method can be summarized as follows: in order to find the maximum or minimum of a function formula_1 subjected to the equality constraint formula_2, form the Lagrangian function


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: and find the stationary points of formula_4 considered as a function of formula_5 and the Lagrange multiplier formula_6; this means that all partial derivatives should be zero, including the partial derivative with respect to formula_6. The solution corresponding to the original constrained optimization is always a saddle point of the Lagrangian function, which can be identified among the stationary points from the definiteness of the bordered Hessian matrix.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The great advantage of this method is that it allows the optimization to be solved without explicit parameterization in terms of the constraints. As a result, the method of Lagrange multipliers is widely used to solve challenging constrained optimization problems. Further, the method of Lagrange multipliers is generalized by the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker conditions, which can also take into account inequality constraints of the form formula_8 for a given constant formula_9.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Let formula_10 be the objective function, formula_11 be the constraints function, both belonging to formula_12 (that is, having continuous first derivatives). Let formula_13 be an optimal solution to the following optimization problem such that formula_14 (here formula_15 denotes the matrix of partial derivatives, formula_16):


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The Lagrange multiplier theorem states that at any local maximum (or minimum) of the function evaluated under the equality constraints, if constraint qualification applies (explained below), then the gradient of the function (at that point) can be expressed as a linear combination of the gradients of the constraints (at that point), with the Lagrange multipliers acting as coefficients. This is equivalent to saying that any direction perpendicular to all gradients of the constraints is also perpendicular to the gradient of the function. Or still, saying that the directional derivative of the function is 0 in every feasible direction.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: For the case of only one constraint and only two choice variables (as exemplified in Figure 1), consider the optimization problem


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: (Sometimes an additive constant is shown separately rather than being included in formula_23, in which case the constraint is written formula_24, as in Figure 1.) We assume that both formula_25 and formula_26 have continuous first partial derivatives. We introduce a new variable (formula_27) called a Lagrange multiplier (or Lagrange undetermined multiplier) and study the Lagrange function (or Lagrangian or Lagrangian expression) defined by


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: where the formula_27 term may be either added or subtracted. If formula_30 is a maximum of formula_31 for the original constrained problem and formula_32, then there exists formula_33 such that (formula_34) is a stationary point for the Lagrange function (stationary points are those points where the first partial derivatives of formula_4 are zero). The assumption formula_36 is called constraint qualification. However, not all stationary points yield a solution of the original problem, as the method of Lagrange multipliers yields only a necessary condition for optimality in constrained problems. Sufficient conditions for a minimum or maximum also exist, but if a particular candidate solution satisfies the sufficient conditions, it is only guaranteed that that solution is the best one "locally" – that is, it is better than any permissible nearby points. The "global" optimum can be found by comparing the values of the original objective function at the points satisfying the necessary and locally sufficient conditions.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The method of Lagrange multipliers relies on the intuition that at a maximum, cannot be increasing in the direction of any such neighboring point that also has . If it were, we could walk along to get higher, meaning that the starting point wasn't actually the maximum. Viewed in this way, it is an exact analogue to testing if the derivative of an unconstrained function is 0, that is, we are verifying that the directional derivative is 0 in any relevant (viable) direction.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Suppose we walk along the contour line with . We are interested in finding points where almost does not change as we walk, since these points might be maxima.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: To check the first possibility (we touch a contour line of ), notice that since the gradient of a function is perpendicular to the contour lines, the tangents to the contour lines of and are parallel if and only if the gradients of and are parallel. Thus we want points where and


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: are the respective gradients. The constant formula_27 is required because although the two gradient vectors are parallel, the magnitudes of the gradient vectors are generally not equal. This constant is called the Lagrange multiplier. (In some conventions formula_27 is preceded by a minus sign).


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Notice that this method also solves the second possibility, that is level: if is level, then its gradient is zero, and setting formula_42 is a solution regardless of formula_43.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Note that this amounts to solving three equations in three unknowns. This is the method of Lagrange multipliers.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Note that formula_46 implies formula_47, as the partial derivative of formula_4 with respect to formula_6 is formula_50, which clearly is zero if and only if formula_51.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The constrained extrema of are "critical points" of the Lagrangian formula_4, but they are not necessarily "local extrema" of formula_4 (see Example 2 below).


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: One may reformulate the Lagrangian as a Hamiltonian, in which case the solutions are local minima for the Hamiltonian. This is done in optimal control theory, in the form of Pontryagin's minimum principle.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The fact that solutions of the Lagrangian are not necessarily extrema also poses difficulties for numerical optimization. This can be addressed by computing the "magnitude" of the gradient, as the zeros of the magnitude are necessarily local minima, as illustrated in the .


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The method of Lagrange multipliers can be extended to solve problems with multiple constraints using a similar argument. Consider a paraboloid subject to two line constraints that intersect at a single point. As the only feasible solution, this point is obviously a constrained extremum. However, the level set of formula_57 is clearly not parallel to either constraint at the intersection point (see Figure 3); instead, it is a linear combination of the two constraints' gradients. In the case of multiple constraints, that will be what we seek in general: the method of Lagrange seeks points not at which the gradient of formula_57 is multiple of any single constraint's gradient necessarily, but in which it is a linear combination of all the constraints' gradients.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Concretely, suppose we have formula_59 constraints and are walking along the set of points satisfying formula_60. Every point formula_61 on the contour of a given constraint function formula_62 has a space of allowable directions: the space of vectors perpendicular to formula_63. The set of directions that are allowed by all constraints is thus the space of directions perpendicular to all of the constraints' gradients. Denote this space of allowable moves by formula_64 and denote the span of the constraints' gradients by formula_65. Then formula_66, the space of vectors perpendicular to every element of formula_65.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: We are still interested in finding points where formula_57 does not change as we walk, since these points might be (constrained) extrema. We therefore seek formula_61 such that any allowable direction of movement away from formula_61 is perpendicular to formula_71 (otherwise we could increase formula_57 by moving along that allowable direction). In other words, formula_73. Thus there are scalars formula_74 such that


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: These scalars are the Lagrange multipliers. We now have formula_59 of them, one for every constraint.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The constraint qualification assumption when there are multiple constraints is that the constraint gradients at the relevant point are linearly independent.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The problem of finding the local maxima and minima subject to constraints can be generalized to finding local maxima and minima on a differentiable manifold formula_59. In what follows, it is not necessary that formula_59 be a Euclidean space, or even a Riemannian manifold. All appearances of the gradient formula_83 (which depends on a choice of Riemannian metric) can be replaced with the exterior derivative formula_84.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Let formula_59 be a smooth manifold of dimension formula_86. Suppose that we wish to find the stationary points formula_5 of a smooth function formula_88 when restricted to the submanifold formula_89 defined by formula_90 where formula_91 is a smooth function for which 0 is a regular value.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Let formula_92 and formula_93 be the exterior derivatives. Stationarity for the restriction formula_94 at formula_95 means formula_96 Equivalently, the kernel formula_97 contains formula_98 In other words, formula_99 and formula_100 are proportional 1-forms. For this it is necessary and sufficient that the following system of formula_101 equations holds:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: where formula_103 denotes the exterior product. The stationary points formula_5 are the solutions of the above system of equations plus the constraint formula_105 Note that the formula_106 equations are not independent, since the left-hand side of the equation belongs to the subvariety of formula_107 consisting of decomposable elements.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: In this formulation, it is not necessary to explicitly find the Lagrange multiplier, a number formula_6 such that formula_109


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Let formula_59 and formula_57 be as in the above section regarding the case of a single constraint. Rather than the function formula_23 described there, now consider a smooth function formula_113 with component functions formula_114 for which formula_115 is a regular value. Let formula_89 be the submanifold of formula_59 defined by formula_118


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: formula_5 is a stationary point of formula_94 if and only if formula_97 contains formula_122. For convenience let formula_123 and formula_124 where formula_125 denotes the tangent map or Jacobian formula_126 The subspace formula_127 has dimension smaller than that of formula_128, namely formula_129 and formula_130 formula_127 belongs to formula_128 if and only if formula_133 belongs to the image of formula_134 Computationally speaking, the condition is that formula_135 belongs to the row space of the matrix of formula_136 or equivalently the column space of the matrix of formula_137 (the transpose). If formula_138 denotes the exterior product of the columns of the matrix of formula_139 the stationary condition for formula_94 at formula_5 becomes


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Once again, in this formulation it is not necessary to explicitly find the Lagrange multipliers, the numbers formula_143 such that


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: In this section, we modify the constraint equations from the form formula_145 to the form formula_146, where the formula_147 are "m" real constants that are considered to be additional arguments of the Lagrangian expression formula_4.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Often the Lagrange multipliers have an interpretation as some quantity of interest. For example, by parametrising the constraint's contour line, that is, if the Lagrangian expression is


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: As examples, in Lagrangian mechanics the equations of motion are derived by finding stationary points of the action, the time integral of the difference between kinetic and potential energy. Thus, the force on a particle due to a scalar potential, , can be interpreted as a Lagrange multiplier determining the change in action (transfer of potential to kinetic energy) following a variation in the particle's constrained trajectory.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Moreover, by the envelope theorem the optimal value of a Lagrange multiplier has an interpretation as the marginal effect of the corresponding constraint constant upon the optimal attainable value of the original objective function: if we denote values at the optimum with an asterisk, then it can be shown that


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: For example, in economics the optimal profit to a player is calculated subject to a constrained space of actions, where a Lagrange multiplier is the change in the optimal value of the objective function (profit) due to the relaxation of a given constraint (e.g. through a change in income); in such a context is the marginal cost of the constraint, and is referred to as the shadow price.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Sufficient conditions for a constrained local maximum or minimum can be stated in terms of a sequence of principal minors (determinants of upper-left-justified sub-matrices) of the bordered Hessian matrix of second derivatives of the Lagrangian expression.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Suppose we wish to maximize formula_152 subject to the constraint formula_153. The feasible set is the unit circle, and the level sets of are diagonal lines (with slope −1), so we can see graphically that the maximum occurs at formula_154, and that the minimum occurs at formula_155.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Now we modify the objective function of Example 1a so that we minimize formula_171 instead of formula_172 again along the circle formula_173. Now the level sets of formula_57 are still lines of slope −1, and the points on the circle tangent to these level sets are again formula_175 and formula_176. These tangency points are maxima of formula_57.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: On the other hand, the minima occur on the level set for formula_57 = 0 (since by its construction formula_57 cannot take negative values), at formula_180 and formula_181, where the level curves of formula_57 are not tangent to the constraint. The condition that formula_183 correctly identifies all four points as extrema; the minima are characterized in by formula_184 and the maxima by formula_185.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: with the condition that the formula_5- and formula_188-coordinates lie on the circle around the origin with radius formula_189. That is, subject to the constraint


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The constraint formula_159 is identically zero on the circle of radius formula_189. Any multiple of formula_159 may be added to formula_159 leaving formula_159 unchanged in the region of interest (on the circle where our original constraint is satisfied).


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: (iii) is just the original constraint. (i) implies formula_200 "or" formula_201. If formula_200 then formula_203 by (iii) and consequently formula_204 from (ii). If formula_201, substituting this into (ii) yields formula_206. Substituting this into (iii) and solving for formula_188 gives formula_208. Thus there are six critical points of formula_4:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Therefore, the objective function attains the global maximum (subject to the constraints) at formula_212 and the global minimum at formula_213 The point formula_214 is a local minimum of formula_57 and formula_216 is a local maximum of formula_57, as may be determined by consideration of the Hessian matrix of formula_218.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Note that while formula_219 is a critical point of formula_4, it is not a local extremum of formula_221 We have


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Given any neighbourhood of formula_219, one can choose a small positive formula_224 and a small formula_225 of either sign to get formula_4 values both greater and less than formula_227. This can also be seen from the Hessian matrix of formula_4 evaluated at this point (or indeed at any of the critical points) which is an indefinite matrix. Each of the critical points of formula_4 is a saddle point of formula_4.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Suppose we wish to find the discrete probability distribution on the points formula_231 with maximal information entropy. This is the same as saying that we wish to find the least structured probability distribution on the points formula_232. In other words, we wish to maximize the Shannon entropy equation:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: For this to be a probability distribution the sum of the probabilities formula_234 at each point formula_235 must equal 1, so our constraint is:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: We use Lagrange multipliers to find the point of maximum entropy, formula_237, across all discrete probability distributions formula_238 on formula_239. We require that:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Hence, the uniform distribution is the distribution with the greatest entropy, among distributions on points.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The critical points of Lagrangians occur at saddle points, rather than at local maxima (or minima). Unfortunately, many numerical optimization techniques, such as hill climbing, gradient descent, some of the quasi-Newton methods, among others, are designed to find local maxima (or minima) and not saddle points. For this reason, one must either modify the formulation to ensure that it's a minimization problem (for example, by extremizing the square of the gradient of the Lagrangian as below), or else use an optimization technique that finds stationary points (such as Newton's method without an extremum seeking line search) and not necessarily extrema.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: As a simple example, consider the problem of finding the value of that minimizes formula_247, constrained such that formula_248. (This problem is somewhat untypical because there are only two values that satisfy this constraint, but it is useful for illustration purposes because the corresponding unconstrained function can be visualized in three dimensions.)


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Using Lagrange multipliers, this problem can be converted into an unconstrained optimization problem:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: In order to solve this problem with a numerical optimization technique, we must first transform this problem such that the critical points occur at local minima. This is done by computing the magnitude of the gradient of the unconstrained optimization problem.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: If the target function is not easily differentiable, the differential with respect to each variable can be approximated as


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Next, we compute the magnitude of the gradient, which is the square root of the sum of the squares of the partial derivatives:


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The critical points of occur at and , just as in formula_4. Unlike the critical points in formula_4, however, the critical points in occur at local minima, so numerical optimization techniques can be used to find them.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: In optimal control theory, the Lagrange multipliers are interpreted as costate variables, and Lagrange multipliers are reformulated as the minimization of the Hamiltonian, in Pontryagin's minimum principle.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: The Lagrange multiplier method has several generalizations. In nonlinear programming there are several multiplier rules, e.g. the Carathéodory–John Multiplier Rule and the Convex Multiplier Rule, for inequality constraints.


title: Lagrange multiplier

text: Methods based on Lagrange multipliers have applications in power systems, e.g. in distributed-energy-resources (DER) placement and load shedding.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Smriti Shriniwas Mandhana ( ; born 18 July 1996) is an Indian cricketer who plays for the Indian women's national team. In June 2018, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) named her as the Best Women's International Cricketer. In December 2018, the International Cricket Council (ICC) awarded her with the Rachael Heyhoe-Flint Award for the best female cricketer of the year. On 30 December 2021, she became a nominee of the ICC Women's T20 Player of the Year. In December 2021, she, Tammy Beaumont, Lizelle Lee and Gaby Lewis were nominated for the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year. In January 2022, the ICC awarded her with the Rachael Heyhoe-Flint Award for the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: When she was two, the family moved to Madhavnagar, Sangli in Maharashtra, where she completed her schooling. Both her father and brother, Shravan, played cricket at the district-level, for Sangli. She was inspired to take up cricket after watching her brother play at the Maharashtra state Under-16s tournaments. At the age of nine, she was selected in the Maharashtra's Under-15 team. At eleven, she was picked for the Maharashtra Under-19s team.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Mandhana's family is closely involved in her cricketing activities. Her father Shrinivas, a chemical distributor, takes care of her cricket programme, her mother Smita is in charge of her diet, clothing and other organisational aspects, and her brother Shravan still bowls to her in the nets.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Her first breakthrough came in October 2013, when she became the first Indian woman to achieve a double-hundred in a one-day game. Playing for Maharashtra against Gujarat, she scored an unbeaten 224 off 150 balls in the West Zone Under-19 Tournament, at the Alembic Cricket Ground in Vadodara.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In the 2016 Women's Challenger Trophy, Mandhana scored three half-centuries for India Red in as many games, and helped her team win the trophy by making an unbeaten 62 off 82 balls in the final against India Blue. With 192 runs, she emerged as the tournament's top-scorer.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In September 2016, Mandhana was signed up for a one-year deal with Brisbane Heat for the Women's Big Bash League (WBBL), and along with Harmanpreet Kaur, became one of the first two Indians to be signed up for the League. Playing against Melbourne Renegades in January 2017, she fell awkwardly while fielding after bowling the final ball of her over hurting her knee. She was ruled out of the rest of the tournament which she ended having scored 89 runs in 12 innings.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In June 2018, Mandhana signed for Kia Super League defending champions Western Storm, becoming the first Indian to play in the league. In November 2018, she was named in the Hobart Hurricanes' squad for the 2018–19 Women's Big Bash League season. In 2021, she was drafted by Southern Brave for the inaugural season of The Hundred. She played for them in 7 games and scored 167 runs before leaving them for India's tour of Australia.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In September 2021, she was named in the Sydney Thunder's squad for the 2021-22 Women's Big Bash League season. She scored a hundred in the season, equalling the record for the tournament's highest ever score.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Mandhana made her Test debut in August 2014 against England at Wormsley Park. She helped her team to win the match by scoring 22 and 51 in her first and second innings, respectively; in the latter innings, she shared in an opening-wicket partnership of 76 runs with Thirush Kamini, chasing 182.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In the second ODI game of India's tour of Australia in 2016 at the Bellerive Oval in Hobart, Mandhana scored her maiden international hundred (102 off 109 balls), in a losing cause. Mandhana was the only Indian player to be named in the ICC Women's Team of the Year 2016.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Mandhana came into the team for the 2017 World Cup after recovering from an injury she sustained, an anterior cruciate ligament rupture, during her time at the WBBL in January that year. In her five-month recovery period, she missed the World Cup Qualifier and the Quadrangular Series in South Africa. She began the World Cup with a 90 against England in Derby, in the first of the group matches. She helped her team win by 35 runs, and was named the player of the match. followed by her second hundred in a One Day International against West Indies,(106*)


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Mandhana was part of the Indian team to reach the final of the 2017 Women's Cricket World Cup where the team lost to England by nine runs.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: Smriti Mandhana scored the fastest fifty for India in Women's T20Is of just 24 balls against New Zealand in February 2019. In March 2018, she also scored the fifty for India in a Women's Twenty20 International (WT20I) fixture, taking 30 balls to reach a half-century against Australia in the 2017–18 India women's Tri-Nation Series. The following month, she was named the player of the series, for the three WODI matches played England. On 3 August 2018, she scored the first century in the 2018 Women's Cricket Super League.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In October 2018, she was named in India's squad for the Women's World Twenty20 tournament in the West Indies. Ahead of the tournament, she was named as the star of the team. During the tournament, she became the third cricketer for India to score 1,000 runs in WT20I matches. She ended that year as the leading run-scorer in WODIs with 669 at an average of 66.90. She was adjudged the ICC Women's Cricketer of the Year and the ICC Women's ODI Player of the Year.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In February 2019, she was named as the captain of India's Women T20I squad for the three match against England. She became the youngest T20I captain for India when she led the women's team against England in the first T20I in Guwahati. At 22 years and 229 days, the India women's cricket team opener is taking over from Harmanpreet Kaur, who has been ruled out of the three-match series with an ankle injury.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In May 2019, she has won the International Woman Cricketer of the Year awards at CEAT International Cricket Awards 2019. In November 2019, during the series against West Indies, she became the third-fastest cricketer, in terms of innings, to score 2,000 runs in WODIs, doing so in her 51st innings.


title: Smriti Mandhana

text: In May 2021, she was named in India's Test squad for their one-off match against England. In August 2021, she was also named in India's Test squad for their one-off match against Australia. In the first innings of the match, she scored her first century in Test cricket. She became the first Indian female cricketer to score a century in both ODIs and Tests in Australia. In January 2022, she was named in India's team for the 2022 Women's Cricket World Cup in New Zealand. In July 2022, she was named as the vice-captain of India's team for the cricket tournament at the 2022 Commonwealth Games in Birmingham, England.


title: Logos

text: Logos (, ; ) is a term used in Western philosophy, psychology and rhetoric and refers to the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. Aristotle first systemised the usage of the word, making it one of the three principles of rhetoric. This specific use identifies the word closely to the structure and content of text itself. This specific usage has then been developed through the history of western philosophy and rhetoric.


title: Logos

text: The word has also been used in different senses along with "rhema". Both Plato and Aristotle used the term "logos" along with "rhema" to refer to sentences and propositions. It is primarily in this sense the term is also found in religion.


title: Logos

text: is related to which is cognate with . The word derives from a Proto-Indo-European root, *leǵ-, which can have the meanings "I put in order, arrange, gather, I choose, count, reckon, I say, speak".


title: Logos

text: The primary meaning of logos in philosophy is that of "Reason" () or "cause". Additionally, it can have the meaning of "human speech" or "discourse".. It is occasionally used in other contexts, such as for "ratio" in mathematics.


title: Logos

text: The Purdue Online Writing Lab clarifies that "Logos" is the appeal to reason that relies on logic or reason, inductive and deductive reasoning. In the context of Aristotle's Rhetoric, logos is one of the three principles of rhetoric and in that specific use it more closely refers to the structure and content of the text itself.


title: Logos

text: Logos became a technical term in Western philosophy beginning with Heraclitus (), who used the term for a principle of order and knowledge. Ancient Greek philosophers used the term in different ways. The sophists used the term to mean discourse. Aristotle applied the term to refer to "reasoned discourse" or "the argument" in the field of rhetoric, and considered it one of the three modes of persuasion alongside "ethos" and "pathos". Pyrrhonist philosophers used the term to refer to dogmatic accounts of non-evident matters. The Stoics spoke of the "logos spermatikos" (the generative principle of the Universe) which foreshadows related concepts in Neoplatonism.


title: Logos

text: Philo distinguished between "logos prophorikos" ("the uttered word") and the "logos endiathetos" ("the word remaining within").


title: Logos

text: The Gospel of John identifies the Christian Logos, through which all things are made, as divine ("theos"), and further identifies Jesus Christ as the "incarnate Logos". Early translators of the Greek New Testament, such as Jerome (in the 4th century AD), were frustrated by the inadequacy of any single Latin word to convey the meaning of the word "logos" as used to describe Jesus Christ in the Gospel of John. The Vulgate Bible usage of was thus constrained to use the (perhaps inadequate) noun for "word"; later Romance language translations had the advantage of nouns such as in French. Reformation translators took another approach. Martin Luther rejected (verb) in favor of (word), for instance, although later commentators repeatedly turned to a more dynamic use involving "the living word" as used by Jerome and Augustine. The term is also used in Sufism, and the analytical psychology of Carl Jung.


title: Logos

text: Despite the conventional translation as "word", "logos" is not used for a word in the grammatical sense—for that, the term "lexis" (, ) was used. However, both "logos" and "lexis" derive from the same verb (), meaning "(I) count, tell, say, speak".


title: Logos

text: The writing of Heraclitus () was the first place where the word "logos" was given special attention in ancient Greek philosophy, although Heraclitus seems to use the word with a meaning not significantly different from the way in which it was used in ordinary Greek of his time. For Heraclitus, "logos" provided the link between rational discourse and the world's rational structure.


title: Logos

text: What "logos" means here is not certain; it may mean "reason" or "explanation" in the sense of an objective cosmic law, or it may signify nothing more than "saying" or "wisdom". Yet, an independent existence of a universal "logos" was clearly suggested by Heraclitus.


title: Logos

text: Following one of the other meanings of the word, Aristotle gave "logos" a different technical definition in the "Rhetoric", using it as meaning argument from reason, one of the three modes of persuasion. The other two modes are "pathos" (, ), which refers to persuasion by means of emotional appeal, "putting the hearer into a certain frame of mind"; and "ethos" (, ), persuasion through convincing listeners of one's "moral character". According to Aristotle, "logos" relates to "the speech itself, in so far as it proves or seems to prove". In the words of Paul Rahe:


title: Logos

text: "Logos", "pathos", and "ethos" can all be appropriate at different times. Arguments from reason (logical arguments) have some advantages, namely that data are (ostensibly) difficult to manipulate, so it is harder to argue against such an argument; and such arguments make the speaker look prepared and knowledgeable to the audience, enhancing "ethos". On the other hand, trust in the speaker—built through "ethos"—enhances the appeal of arguments from reason.


title: Logos

text: Robert Wardy suggests that what Aristotle rejects in supporting the use of "logos" "is not emotional appeal per se, but rather emotional appeals that have no 'bearing on the issue', in that the "pathē" [, ] they stimulate lack, or at any rate are not shown to possess, any intrinsic connection with the point at issue—as if an advocate were to try to whip an antisemitic audience into a fury because the accused is Jewish; or as if another in drumming up support for a politician were to exploit his listeners's reverential feelings for the politician's ancestors".


title: Logos

text: The Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus defined the Pyrrhonist usage of "logos" as "When we say 'To every logos an equal logos is opposed,' by 'every logos' we mean 'every logos that has been considered by us,' and we use 'logos' not in its ordinary sense but for that which establishes something dogmatically, that is to say, concerning the non-evident, and which establishes it in any way at all, not necessarily by means of premises and conclusion."


title: Logos

text: Stoic philosophy began with Zeno of Citium , in which the "logos" was the active reason pervading and animating the Universe. It was conceived as material and is usually identified with God or Nature. The Stoics also referred to the "seminal logos" (""logos spermatikos""), or the law of generation in the Universe, which was the principle of the active reason working in inanimate matter. Humans, too, each possess a portion of the divine "logos".


title: Logos

text: The Stoics took all activity to imply a "logos" or spiritual principle. As the operative principle of the world, the "logos" was "anima mundi" to them, a concept which later influenced Philo of Alexandria, although he derived the contents of the term from Plato. In his Introduction to the 1964 edition of Marcus Aurelius' "Meditations", the Anglican priest Maxwell Staniforth wrote that ""Logos" ... had long been one of the leading terms of Stoicism, chosen originally for the purpose of explaining how deity came into relation with the universe".


title: Logos

text: Public discourse on ancient Greek rhetoric has historically emphasized Aristotle's appeals to "logos", "pathos", and "ethos", while less attention has been directed to Isocrates' teachings about philosophy and "logos", and their partnership in generating an ethical, mindful "polis". Isocrates does not provide a single definition of "logos" in his work, but Isocratean "logos" characteristically focuses on speech, reason, and civic discourse. He was concerned with establishing the "common good" of Athenian citizens, which he believed could be achieved through the pursuit of philosophy and the application of "logos".


title: Logos

text: Philo (), a Hellenized Jew, used the term "logos" to mean an intermediary divine being or demiurge. Philo followed the Platonic distinction between imperfect matter and perfect Form, and therefore intermediary beings were necessary to bridge the enormous gap between God and the material world. The "logos" was the highest of these intermediary beings, and was called by Philo "the first-born of God".


title: Logos

text: Philo also wrote that "the Logos of the living God is the bond of everything, holding all things together and binding all the parts, and prevents them from being dissolved and separated".


title: Logos

text: Plato's Theory of Forms was located within the "logos", but the "logos" also acted on behalf of God in the physical world. In particular, the Angel of the Lord in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) was identified with the "logos" by Philo, who also said that the "logos" was God's instrument in the creation of the Universe.


title: Logos

text: The concept of "logos" also appears in the Targums (Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible dating to the first centuries AD), where the term "memra" (Aramaic for "word") is often used instead of 'the Lord', especially when referring to a manifestation of God that could be construed as anthropomorphic.


title: Logos

text: In Christology, the Logos () is a name or title of Jesus Christ, seen as the pre-existent second person of the Trinity. The concept derives from , which in the Douay–Rheims, King James, New International, and other versions of the Bible, reads:


title: Logos

text: According to the Gnostic scriptures recorded in the Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit, the Logos is an emanation of the great spirit that is merged with the spiritual Adam called Adamas.


title: Logos

text: Neoplatonist philosophers such as Plotinus (270 AD) used "logos" in ways that drew on Plato and the Stoics, but the term "logos" was interpreted in different ways throughout Neoplatonism, and similarities to Philo's concept of "logos" appear to be accidental. The "logos" was a key element in the meditations of Plotinus regarded as the first neoplatonist. Plotinus referred back to Heraclitus and as far back as Thales in interpreting "logos" as the principle of meditation, existing as the interrelationship between the hypostases—the soul, the intellect ("nous"), and the One.


title: Logos

text: Plotinus used a trinity concept that consisted of "The One", the "Spirit", and "Soul". The comparison with the Christian Trinity is inescapable, but for Plotinus these were not equal and "The One" was at the highest level, with the "Soul" at the lowest. For Plotinus, the relationship between the three elements of his trinity is conducted by the outpouring of "logos" from the higher principle, and "eros" (loving) upward from the lower principle. Plotinus relied heavily on the concept of "logos", but no explicit references to Christian thought can be found in his works, although there are significant traces of them in his doctrine. Plotinus specifically avoided using the term "logos" to refer to the second person of his trinity. However, Plotinus influenced Gaius Marius Victorinus, who then influenced Augustine of Hippo. Centuries later, Carl Jung acknowledged the influence of Plotinus in his writings.


title: Logos

text: Victorinus differentiated between the "logos" interior to God and the "logos" related to the world by creation and salvation.


title: Logos

text: Augustine of Hippo, often seen as the father of medieval philosophy, was also greatly influenced by Plato and is famous for his re-interpretation of Aristotle and Plato in the light of early Christian thought. A young Augustine experimented with, but failed to achieve ecstasy using the meditations of Plotinus. In his "Confessions", Augustine described "logos" as the "Divine Eternal Word", by which he, in part, was able to motivate the early Christian thought throughout the Hellenized world (of which the Latin speaking West was a part) Augustine's "logos" "had taken body" in Christ, the man in whom the "logos" (i.e. or ) was present as in no other man.


title: Logos

text: The concept of the "logos" also exists in Islam, where it was definitively articulated primarily in the writings of the classical Sunni mystics and Islamic philosophers, as well as by certain Shi'a thinkers, during the Islamic Golden Age. In Sunni Islam, the concept of the "logos" has been given many different names by the denomination's metaphysicians, mystics, and philosophers, including "ʿaql" ("Intellect"), "al-insān al-kāmil" ("Universal Man"), "kalimat Allāh" ("Word of God"), "haqīqa muḥammadiyya" ("The Muhammadan Reality"), and "nūr muḥammadī" ("The Muhammadan Light").


title: Logos

text: One of the names given to a concept very much like the Christian Logos by the classical Muslim metaphysicians is "ʿaql", which is the "Arabic equivalent to the Greek (intellect)." In the writings of the Islamic neoplatonist philosophers, such as al-Farabi () and Avicenna (d. 1037), the idea of the "ʿaql" was presented in a manner that both resembled "the late Greek doctrine" and, likewise, "corresponded in many respects to the Logos Christology."


title: Logos

text: The concept of "logos" in Sufism is used to relate the "Uncreated" (God) to the "Created" (humanity). In Sufism, for the Deist, no contact between man and God can be possible without the "logos". The "logos" is everywhere and always the same, but its personification is "unique" within each region. Jesus and Muhammad are seen as the personifications of the "logos", and this is what enables them to speak in such absolute terms.


title: Logos

text: One of the boldest and most radical attempts to reformulate the neoplatonic concepts into Sufism arose with the philosopher Ibn Arabi, who traveled widely in Spain and North Africa. His concepts were expressed in two major works "The Ringstones of Wisdom" ("Fusus al-Hikam") and "The Meccan Illuminations" ("Al-Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya"). To Ibn Arabi, every prophet corresponds to a reality which he called a "logos" ("Kalimah"), as an aspect of the unique divine being. In his view the divine being would have for ever remained hidden, had it not been for the prophets, with "logos" providing the link between man and divinity.


title: Logos

text: Ibn Arabi seems to have adopted his version of the "logos" concept from neoplatonic and Christian sources, although (writing in Arabic rather than Greek) he used more than twenty different terms when discussing it. For Ibn Arabi, the "logos" or "Universal Man" was a mediating link between individual human beings and the divine essence.


title: Logos

text: Other Sufi writers also show the influence of the neoplatonic "logos". In the 15th century Abd al-Karīm al-Jīlī introduced the "Doctrine of Logos and the Perfect Man". For al-Jīlī, the "perfect man" (associated with the "logos" or the Prophet) has the power to assume different forms at different times and to appear in different guises.


title: Logos

text: In Ottoman Sufism, Şeyh Gâlib (d. 1799) articulates Sühan ("logos"-"Kalima") in his "Hüsn ü Aşk" ("Beauty and Love") in parallel to Ibn Arabi's Kalima. In the romance, "Sühan" appears as an embodiment of Kalima as a reference to the Word of God, the Perfect Man, and the Reality of Muhammad.


title: Logos

text: Carl Jung contrasted the critical and rational faculties of "logos" with the emotional, non-reason oriented and mythical elements of "eros". In Jung's approach, "logos" vs "eros" can be represented as "science vs mysticism", or "reason vs imagination" or "conscious activity vs the unconscious".


title: Logos

text: For Jung, "logos" represented the masculine principle of rationality, in contrast to its feminine counterpart, "eros":


title: Logos

text: Jung attempted to equate "logos" and "eros", his intuitive conceptions of masculine and feminine consciousness, with the alchemical Sol and Luna. Jung commented that in a man the lunar anima and in a woman the solar animus has the greatest influence on consciousness. Jung often proceeded to analyze situations in terms of "paired opposites", e.g. by using the analogy with the eastern yin and yang and was also influenced by the neoplatonists.


title: Logos

text: And in this book Jung again emphasized that the animus compensates "eros", while the anima compensates "logos".


title: Logos

text: Author and professor Jeanne Fahnestock describes "logos" as a "premise". She states that, to find the reason behind a rhetor's backing of a certain position or stance, one must acknowledge the different "premises" that the rhetor applies via his or her chosen diction. The rhetor's success, she argues, will come down to "certain objects of agreement...between arguer and audience". "Logos is logical appeal, and the term logic is derived from it. It is normally used to describe facts and figures that support the speaker's topic." Furthermore, "logos" is credited with appealing to the audience's sense of logic, with the definition of "logic" being concerned with the thing as it is known.


title: Logos

text: Furthermore, one can appeal to this sense of logic in two ways. The first is through inductive reasoning, providing the audience with relevant examples and using them to point back to the overall statement. The second is through deductive enthymeme, providing the audience with general scenarios and then indicating commonalities among them.


title: Logos

text: The word "logos" has been used in different senses along with "rhema". Both Plato and Aristotle used the term "logos" along with "rhema" to refer to sentences and propositions.


title: Logos

text: The Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek uses the terms "rhema" and "logos" as equivalents and uses both for the Hebrew word "dabar", as the Word of God.


title: Logos

text: Some modern usage in Christian theology distinguishes "rhema" from "logos" (which here refers to the written scriptures) while "rhema" refers to the revelation received by the reader from the Holy Spirit when the Word ("logos") is read, although this distinction has been criticized.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle in England is a castle chapel built in the late-medieval Perpendicular Gothic style. It is both a Royal Peculiar (a church under the direct jurisdiction of the monarch) and the Chapel of the Order of the Garter. St George's Chapel was founded in the 14th century by King Edward III and extensively enlarged in the late 15th century. It is located in the Lower Ward of the castle. The castle has belonged to the monarchy for almost 1,000 years and was a principal residence of Elizabeth II before her death. The chapel has been the scene of many royal services, weddings and burials – in the 19th century, St George's Chapel and the nearby Frogmore Gardens superseded Westminster Abbey as the chosen burial place for the British royal family. The running of the chapel is the responsibility of the dean and Canons of Windsor who make up the College of Saint George. They are assisted by a clerk, verger and other staff. The Society of the Friends of St George's and Descendants of the Knights of the Garter, a registered charity, was established in 1931 to assist the college in maintaining the chapel.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: In 1348, King Edward III founded two religious colleges: St Stephen's at Westminster and St George's at Windsor. The new college at Windsor was attached to the Chapel of St Edward the Confessor which had been constructed by Henry III in the early thirteenth century. The chapel was then re-dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary, George the Martyr and Edward the Confessor, but soon became known only by its dedication to St George. Edward III also built the Aerary Porch in 1353–54.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The period 1475–1528 saw a radical redevelopment of St George's Chapel set in motion by Edward IV and continued by Henry VII under the supervision of his most esteemed counsellor, Sir Reginald Bray, and by Henry VIII. The thirteenth-century Chapel of St Edward the Confessor was enlarged into a cathedral-like space under the direction of Richard Beauchamp, Bishop of Salisbury, and the master mason, Henry Janyns.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The Chapel suffered a great deal of destruction during the English Civil War. Parliamentary forces broke into and plundered the chapel and treasury on 23 October 1642. Further pillage occurred in 1643 when the fifteenth-century chapter house was destroyed, lead was stripped off the chapel roofs, and elements of Henry VIII's unfinished funeral monument were stolen. Following his execution in 1649, Charles I was buried in a small vault in the centre of the choir at St George's Chapel, which also contained the coffins of Henry VIII and Queen Jane (née Seymour).


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: During his life and reign, King George III was responsible for reigniting royal interest in Windsor Castle, which had been much overlooked after the House of Hanover came to the throne of the Great Britain in 1714. On 12 August 1776 the royal family first attended the Sunday morning service at St George's Chapel – which they called "the Cathedral". George III was committed to St George's Chapel; he inspired and in large part funded an extensive restoration of the chapel from 1780 to 1790.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The reign of Queen Victoria saw further changes made to the structure of the chapel. The east end of the choir was reworked in memory of Prince Albert. The Lady Chapel, which had been abandoned by Henry VII, was completed and renamed the Albert Memorial Chapel.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: By the early twentieth century, the bowing walls, cracked vaulting, decayed stone and stripped lead required urgent attention. In 1920 a much needed ten-year restoration project began at George's Chapel, overseen by the consulting architect Sir Harold Brakspear. As part of this programme, Mahomet Thomas Phillips - an Anglo-Congolese sculptor - produced a falcon and a unicorn in 1923.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The King George VI Memorial Chapel was constructed in 1969 between the Rutland Chapel and the north choir of St George's Chapel to a design by George Pace.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: On the roof of the chapel, standing on the pinnacles, and also on pinnacles at the sides, are seventy-six heraldic statues representing the Queen's Beasts, showing the Royal supporters of England. They represent fourteen of the heraldic animals: the lion of England, the red dragon of Wales, the panther of Jane Seymour, the falcon of York, the black bull of Clarence, the yale of Beaufort, the white lion of Mortimer, the greyhound of Richmond, the white hart of Richard II, the collared silver antelope of Bohun, the black dragon of Ulster, the white swan of Hereford, the unicorn of Edward III and the golden hind of Kent.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The original beasts dated from the sixteenth century, but were removed in 1682 on the advice of Sir Christopher Wren. Wren had criticised the Reigate Stone, the calcareous sandstone from which they were constructed. The present statues date from 1925 when the chapel was restored.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The Choir of St George's Chapel continues to this day and numbers 20. The choristers are boarders at St George's School, Windsor Castle.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: Members of the Order of the Garter meet at Windsor Castle every June for the annual Garter Service. After lunch in the State Apartments (Upper Ward of the Castle), they process on foot in their robes and insignia, down to St George's Chapel for the service. The Garter Service was revived in 1948 by King George VI for the 600th anniversary of the founding of the Order and has since become an annual event.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: After their installation, members are each assigned a stall in the chapel choir above which his or her heraldic devices are displayed. A member's sword is placed beneath a helmet which is decorated with a mantling and topped with a crest, coronet or crown. Above this, a member's heraldic banner is hoisted emblazoned with his arms.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: A Garter stall plate, a small elaborately enamelled plate of brass, is affixed to the back of the stall displaying its member's name and arms with other inscriptions. On a member's death, the sword, helmet, mantling, crest, coronet or crown, and banner are removed. A service marking the death of a late member must be held before the stall can be assigned to anyone else. The ceremony takes place in the chapel, during which the Military Knights of Windsor carry the banner of the deceased member and offer it to the Dean of Windsor, who places it on the altar. The stall plates, however, are not removed. They remain permanently affixed to the stall, so the stalls of the chapel are emblazoned with a collection of 800 plates of the members throughout history.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: St George's Chapel is among the most important medieval chantry foundations to have survived in England. The college was itself part of a medieval chantry, and there are a number of other chantry elements in the form of altars and small chapels in memory of various English monarchs and of a number of prominent courtiers, deans and canons. Special services and prayers would also be offered in memory of the founder. Henry VIII had originally intended another chantry to be set up in the chapel, despite the fact that his ecclesiastical changes led to the Reformation in England and the eventual suppression of chantries.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The much-admired iron gates in the sanctuary of the chapel as well as the locks on the doors of the chapel are the work of the medieval Cornish metalsmith John Tresilian.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The Rutland Chantry chapel, forming the northern transept of St George's Chapel, was founded in 1491 in honour of Sir Thomas St Leger (c. 1440 – 1483) and Anne of York (1439–1476). Sir Thomas was Anne's second husband. She was the eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and thus elder sister of kings Edward IV (1442–1483) and Richard III (1452–1485). A monumental brass in memory of Anne and Sir Thomas survives on the east wall of the Rutland Chantry, the inscription of which records that the chantry was founded "with two priests singing forevermore":


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: "Wythin thys Chappell lyethe beryed Anne Duchess of Exetur suster unto the noble kyng Edward the forte. And also the body of syr Thomas Sellynger knyght her husband which hathe funde within thys College a Chauntre with too prestys sy’gyng for ev’more. On whose soule god have mercy. The wych Anne duchess dyed in the yere of oure lorde M Thowsande CCCCl xxv"


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The chantry received its current name in honour of the Earls of Rutland, descendants of Anne and Sir Thomas: their daughter, also Anne, married George Manners, 11th Baron Ros, and their son was Thomas Manners, 1st Earl of Rutland. The tomb of George and Anne Manners is a prominent feature of the chantry. Their effigies are carved in English alabaster.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The chantry comprises five panels which represent the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Adoration of the Magi, the Temptations of Christ in the wilderness and the Miracle at Cana. They were commissioned from embroiderer Beryl Dean and took five years to complete. Only one panel is normally on display to the public, but the others may be seen on request.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The chapel has been the site of many royal weddings, particularly of the children of Queen Victoria. They have included:


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: Charles III, then-Prince of Wales, and Camilla Parker Bowles received a blessing from the Archbishop of Canterbury following their marriage in 2005.


title: St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle

text: The chapel has been the site of many royal funerals and interments. People interred in the Chapel include:


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The Sandinista National Liberation Front (, FSLN) is a socialist political party in Nicaragua. Its members are called Sandinistas () in both English and Spanish. The party is named after Augusto César Sandino, who led the Nicaraguan resistance against the United States occupation of Nicaragua in the 1930s.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN overthrew Anastasio Somoza Debayle in 1979, ending the Somoza dynasty, and established a revolutionary government in its place. Having seized power, the Sandinistas ruled Nicaragua from 1979 to 1990, first as part of a Junta of National Reconstruction. Following the resignation of centrist members from this Junta, the FSLN took exclusive power in March 1981. They instituted a policy of mass literacy, devoted significant resources to health care, and promoted gender equality but came under international criticism for human rights abuses, mass execution and oppression of indigenous peoples.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: A US-backed group, known as the Contras, was formed in 1981 to overthrow the Sandinista government and was funded and trained by the Central Intelligence Agency. In 1984 elections were held but were boycotted by some opposition parties. The FSLN won the majority of the votes, and those who opposed the Sandinistas won approximately a third of the seats. The civil war between the Contras and the government continued until 1989. After revising the constitution in 1987, and after years of fighting the Contras, the FSLN lost the 1990 election to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro but retained a plurality of seats in the legislature.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN is now Nicaragua's sole leading party. In the 2006 Nicaraguan general election, former FSLN President Daniel Ortega was reelected President of Nicaragua with 38.7% of the vote to 29% for his leading rival, bringing in the country's second Sandinista government after 17 years of other parties winning elections. Ortega and the FSLN were reelected in the presidential elections of 2011, 2016, and 2021.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The Sandinistas took their name from Augusto César Sandino (1895–1934), the leader of Nicaragua's nationalist rebellion against the US occupation of the country during the early 20th century (ca. 1922–1934). The suffix "-ista" is the Spanish equivalent of "-ist".


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Sandino was assassinated in 1934 by the Nicaraguan National Guard (), the US-equipped police force of Anastasio Somoza, whose family ruled the country from 1936 until they were overthrown by the Sandinistas in 1979.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The second U.S intervention in Nicaragua ended when Juan Bautista Sacasa of the Liberal Party won the elections. By 1 January 1933 there wasn’t a single US soldier left on Nicaraguan soil, however in 1930 the US had formed a group for national security known as the National Guard. The National Guard remained after the exit of the U.S under the leadership of Anastasio Somoza Garcia who was supported by the U.S. On 21 February 1934 Somoza, using the National Guard, assassinated Sandino who opposed and fought against US intervention. This was the first act of a series that Somoza, with help from the U.S, would take that would culminate in his election as president in 1936. The result of his election was the start of the U.S sponsored dictatorship of the Somoza family.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: During the 1960’s leftist ideas began spreading throughout the world sparking independence movements in different colonial territories. On 1 January 1959 in Havana, Cuban revolutionaries fought against dictator Fulgencio Batista. In Algeria the Algerian National Liberation Front was founded to fight against French colonial control. In Nicaragua different movements that opposed the Somoza dynasty began to unite, forming the Nicaraguan National Liberation Front which would later be renamed the Sandinista National Liberation Front.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The economic situation of Nicaragua, in the middle of the 20th century, had deteriorated as the prices of agricultural exports such as cotton and coffee dropped. Politically the conservative party of Nicaragua split and one of the factions, the Zancudos, began collaborating with the Somoza regime.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In 1957 Carlos Fonseca Amador, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge, Oswaldo Madriz y Heriberto Carrillo formed the first cell of the Nicaraguan Revolutionary Committee who identified with the issues of the proletariat. Later that October, the Mexican cell was formed with members such as Edén Pastora Gómez, Juan José Ordóñez, Roger Hernández, Porfirio Molina y Pedro José Martínez Alvarado.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On October 1958 Ramon Raudales began his guerilla war against the Somoza dynasty beginning the armed conflict.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: June 1959 the event known as "El Chaparral" occurred in Honduran territory bordering Nicaragua. The guerrilla fighters "Rigoberto López Pérez" under the command of Rafael Somarriba (in which Carlos Fonseca was integrated) was found and annihilated by the Honduran Army in coordination with the intelligence services of the Nicaraguan National Guard.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: After "El Chaparral", several more armed rebellions took place. In August the journalist Manuel Díaz y Sotelo died; in September Carlos "Chale" Haslam died; in December Heriberto Reyes (Colonel of the ) died. The following year the events of "El Dorado" (February 28, 1960) took place where several events occurred leading to several deaths including Luis Morales, Julio Alonso Leclair (head of the September 15 column), Manuel Baldizón and Erasmo Montoya.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The conventional opposition, up to that point led by the Nicaraguan Communist Party, had not been able to form a common front against the dictatorship. The opposition to the dictatorship was established around various student organizations. Among its leaders, Carlos Fonseca Amador in the early 1960s.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: At the start of 1961 the New Nicaragua Movement (NNM) was founded by prominent leaders in education like Carlos Fonseca, Silvio Mayorga, Tomás Borge, Gordillo, Navarro y Francisco Buitrago; prominents leaders on workers issues such as Jose Benito Escobar; countryside leaders like Germán Pomares and small business leaders such as Julio Jerez Suárez. Legendary guerilla veteran Santos Lopez, who fought with Augusto Cesar Sandino, also participated in the NNM.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The New Nicaragua Movement was established in three cities Managua, Leon and Estelí, however they were generally stationed in Honduras. Their first public activity was held in March 1961, in support of the Cuban revolution and in protest of the position that the Nicaraguan government held with Cuba. The NNM later dissolved to make way for the National Liberation Front.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The New Nicaragua Movement soon dissolved with its members forming the National Liberation Front, FLN.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN originated in the milieu of various oppositional organizations, youth and student groups in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The University of Léon, and the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua (UNAN) in Managua were two of the principal centers of activity. Inspired by the Revolution and the FLN in Algeria, the FSLN was founded in 1961 by Carlos Fonseca, , Tomás Borge, Casimiro Sotelo and others as "The National Liberation Front" (FLN). Only Borge lived long enough to see the Sandinista victory in 1979.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: A congress or assembly is not formed between all the prominent leaders of the various groups as the preparation would have required a prior theoretical process in order to create them. As a result the FSLN was not prepared for its own formation. Different discussions took place within the group as they came to a consensus on political ideas. Even in 1963, while still under the name of FLN, there was a lack of internal coherence in political ideas (this can be seen in the publication of the newspaper Trinchera). The first few years were carried by some basic shared values of all the forces that were being integrated. Some of these basic shared ideas was to imitate the success of the Cuban Revolution, the ineffectiveness of the conventional opposition to the Somoza regime and the need to remain independent of them (referring to the from the conservative, liberal and communist parties), the need for a revolutionary movement that would use the armed struggle as opposition to the Somoza dictatorship, and after some discussion, identification with Sandino's struggle. It was not until 1969 that any programmatic document was published.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The Sandinista National Liberation Front was supposedly founded in a meeting in Tegucigalpa (Honduras) between Carlos Fonseca, Tomás Borge, and Silvio Mayorga. It's even been said that the meeting was held on July 19, 1961. In reality, there is no documentary reference that supports this affirmation, with the first news of this meeting and date surfacing after the revolutionary triumph of 1979.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The term "Sandinista" was adopted two years later, establishing continuity with Sandino's movement, and using his legacy to develop the newer movement's ideology and strategy. By the early 1970s, the FSLN was launching limited military initiatives.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On December 23, 1972, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake leveled the capital city, Managua. The earthquake killed 10,000 of the city's 400,000 residents and left another 50,000 homeless. About 80% of Managua's commercial buildings were destroyed. President Anastasio Somoza Debayle's National Guard embezzled much of the international aid that flowed into the country to assist in reconstruction, and several parts of downtown Managua were never rebuilt. The president gave reconstruction contracts preferentially to family and friends, thereby profiting from the quake and increasing his control of the city's economy. By some estimates, his personal wealth rose to US$400 million in 1974.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In December 1974, a guerrilla group affiliated with FSLN directed by Eduardo Contreras and Germán Pomares seized government hostages at a party in the house of the Minister of Agriculture in the Managua suburb Los Robles, among them several leading Nicaraguan officials and Somoza relatives. The siege was carefully timed to take place after the departure of the US ambassador from the gathering. At 10:50 pm, a group of 15 young guerrillas and their commanders, Pomares and Contreras, entered the house. They killed the minister, who tried to shoot them, during the takeover. The guerrillas received US$2 million ransom, and had their official communiqué read on the radio and printed in the newspaper "La Prensa".


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Over the next year, the guerrillas got 14 Sandinista prisoners released from jail, and with them were flown to Cuba. One of the released prisoners was Daniel Ortega, who later became president of Nicaragua. The group also lobbied for an increase in wages for National Guard soldiers to 500 córdobas ($71 at the time). The Somoza government responded with further censorship, intimidation, torture, and murder.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In 1975, Somoza imposed a state of siege, censoring the press, and threatening all opponents with internment and torture. Somoza's National Guard also increased its violence against people and communities suspected of collaborating with the Sandinistas. Many of the FSLN guerrillas were killed, including its leader and founder Carlos Fonseca in 1976. Fonseca had returned to Nicaragua in 1975 from his exile in Cuba to try to reunite factions that existed in the FSLN. He and his group were betrayed by a peasant who informed the National Guard that they were in the area. The guerrilla group was ambushed, and Fonseca was wounded in the process. The next morning the National Guard executed Fonseca.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: After the FSLN's defeat at the battle of Pancasán in 1967, it adopted the "Prolonged Popular War" ("Guerra Popular Prolongada", GPP) theory as its strategic doctrine. The GPP was based on the "accumulation of forces in silence": while the urban organization recruited on the university campuses and robbed money from banks, the main cadres were to permanently settle in the north central mountain zone. There they would build a grassroots peasant support base in preparation for renewed rural guerrilla warfare.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: As a consequence of the repressive campaign of the National Guard, in 1975 a group within the FSLN's urban mobilization arm began to question the GPP's viability. In the view of the young orthodox Marxist intellectuals, such as Jaime Wheelock, economic development had turned Nicaragua into a nation of factory workers and wage-earning farm laborers. Wheelock's faction was known as the "Proletarian Tendency".


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Shortly after, a third faction arose within the FSLN. The "Insurrectional Tendency", also known as the "Third Way" or "Terceristas", led by Daniel Ortega, his brother Humberto Ortega, and Mexican-born Victor Tirado Lopez, was more pragmatic and called for tactical, temporary alliances with non-communists, including the right-wing opposition, in a popular front against the Somoza regime. By attacking the Guard directly, the Terceristas would demonstrate the regime's weakness and encourage others to take up arms.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In October 1977, a group of prominent Nicaraguan professionals, business leaders, and clergymen allied with the Terceristas to form ""El Grupo de los Doce"" (The Group of Twelve) in Costa Rica. The group's main idea was to organize a provisional government in Costa Rica. The Terceristas' new strategy also included unarmed strikes and rioting by labor and student groups coordinated by the FSLN's "United People's Movement" (Movimiento Pueblo Unido – MPU).


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On January 10, 1978, Pedro Joaquín Chamorro, the editor of the opposition newspaper "La Prensa" and leader of the "Democratic Union of Liberation" (Unión Democrática de Liberación – UDEL), was assassinated. His assassins were not identified at the time, but evidence implicated Somoza's son and other members of the National Guard. Spontaneous riots followed in several cities, while the business community organized a general strike demanding Somoza's resignation.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The Terceristas carried out attacks in early February in several Nicaraguan cities. The National Guard responded by further increasing repression and using force to contain and intimidate all government opposition. The nationwide strike that paralyzed the country for ten days weakened private enterprises and most of them decided to suspend their participation in less than two weeks. Meanwhile, Somoza asserted his intention to stay in power until the end of his presidential term in 1981. The United States government showed its displeasure with Somoza by suspending all military assistance to the regime, but continued to approve economic assistance to the country for humanitarian reasons.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In August, the Terceristas took hostages. Twenty-three Tercerista commandos led by Edén Pastora seized the entire Nicaraguan congress and took nearly 1,000 hostages, including Somoza's nephew José Somoza Abrego and cousin Luis Pallais Debayle. Somoza gave in to their demands and paid a $500,000 ransom, released 59 political prisoners (including GPP chief Tomás Borge), broadcast a communiqué with FSLN's call for general insurrection and gave the guerrillas safe passage to Panama.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: A few days later six Nicaraguan cities rose in revolt. Armed youths took over the highland city of Matagalpa. Tercerista cadres attacked Guard posts in Managua, Masaya, León, Chinandega and Estelí. Large numbers of semi-armed civilians joined the revolt and put the Guard garrisons of the latter four cities under siege. The September Insurrection of 1978 was subdued at the cost of several thousand, mostly civilian, casualties. Members of all three factions fought in these uprisings, which began to blur the divisions and prepare the way for unified action.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In early 1979, President Jimmy Carter and the United States ended support for the Somoza government, but did not want a left-wing government to take power in Nicaragua. The moderate "Broad Opposition Front" ("Frente Amplio Opositor" – FAO), which opposed Somoza, was made up of a conglomeration of dissidents within the government as well as the "Democratic Union of Liberation" (UDEL) and the "Twelve", representatives of the Terceristas (whose founding members included Casimiro A. Sotelo, later to become Ambassador to the U.S. and Canada representing the FSLN). The FAO and Carter came up with a plan to remove Somoza from office but give the FSLN no government power. The FAO's efforts lost political legitimacy, as the grassroots support of the FLSN wanted more structural changes and was opposed to "Somocism without Somoza."


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The "Twelve" abandoned the coalition in protest and formed the "National Patriotic Front" ("Frente Patriotico Nacional" – FPN) together with the "United People's Movement" (MPU). This strengthened the revolutionary organizations as tens of thousands of youths joined the FSLN and the fight against Somoza. A direct consequence of the spread of the armed struggle in Nicaragua was the official reunification of the FSLN that took place March 7, 1979. Nine men, three from each tendency, formed the National Directorate that led the reunited FSLN: Daniel Ortega, Humberto Ortega and Víctor Tirado (Terceristas); Tomás Borge, , and Henry Ruiz (GPP faction); and Jaime Wheelock, Luis Carrión and Carlos Núñez.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN evolved from one of many opposition groups to a leadership role in the overthrow of the Somoza regime. By mid-April 1979, five guerrilla fronts opened under the FSLN's joint command, including an internal front in Managua. Young guerrilla cadres and the National Guardsmen were clashing almost daily in cities throughout the country. The Final Offensive's strategic goal was the division of the enemy's forces. Urban insurrection was the crucial element because the FSLN could never hope to outnumber or outgun the National Guard.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On June 4, the FSLN called a general strike, to last until Somoza fell and an uprising was launched in Managua. On June 16, the formation of a provisional Nicaraguan government in exile, consisting of a five-member Junta of National Reconstruction, was announced and organized in Costa Rica. The members of the new junta were Daniel Ortega (FSLN), Moisés Hassan (FPN), Sergio Ramírez (the "Twelve"), Alfonso Robelo (MDN) and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of "La Prensa"s director Pedro Joaquín Chamorro. By the end of that month, with the exception of the capital, most of Nicaragua was under FSLN control, including León and Matagalpa, Nicaragua's two largest cities after Managua.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On July 9, the provisional government in exile released a government program in which it pledged to organize an effective democratic regime, promote political pluralism and universal suffrage, and ban ideological discrimination, except for those promoting the "return of Somoza's rule". On July 17, Somoza resigned, handed over power to Francisco Urcuyo, and fled to Miami. While initially seeking to remain in power to serve out Somoza's presidential term, Urcuyo ceded his position to the junta and fled to Guatemala two days later.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On July 19, the 18th anniversary of the foundation of the FSLN, the FSLN army entered Managua, culminating the first goal of the revolution. The war left 30,000–50,000 dead and 150,000 Nicaraguans in exile. The five-member junta entered Managua the next day and assumed power, reiterating its pledge to work for political pluralism, a mixed economic system, and a nonaligned foreign policy.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The Sandinistas inherited a country with a debt of US$1.6 billion, an estimated 30,000 to 50,000 war dead, 600,000 homeless, and a devastated economic infrastructure. To begin establishing a new government, they created a Council (or ) of National Reconstruction, made up of five appointed members. Three of the appointed members—Sandinista militants Daniel Ortega, Moises Hassan, and novelist Sergio Ramírez (a member of Los Doce "the Twelve")—belonged to the FSLN. Two opposition members, businessman Alfonso Robelo, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro (the widow of Pedro Joaquín Chamorro), were also appointed. Only three votes were needed to pass law.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN also established a Council of State, subordinate to the junta, which was composed of representative bodies. But the Council of State gave political parties only 12 of 47 seats; the rest were given to Sandinista organizations. Of the 12 seats reserved for political parties, only three were not allied with the FSLN. Due to the rules governing the Council of State, in 1980 both non-FSLN junta members resigned. Nevertheless, as of the 1982 State of Emergency, opposition parties were no longer given representation in the council. The preponderance of power also remained with the Sandinistas through their mass organizations, including the Sandinista Workers' Federation (), the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Nicaraguan Women's Association (), the National Union of Farmers and Ranchers (), and most importantly the Sandinista Defense Committees (CDS). The Sandinista-controlled mass organizations were extremely influential over civil society and saw their power and popularity peak in the mid-1980s.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Upon assuming power, the FSLN's official political platform included nationalization of property owned by the Somozas and their supporters; land reform; improved rural and urban working conditions; free unionization for all workers, both urban and rural; price fixing for commodities of basic necessity; improved public services, housing conditions, education; abolition of torture, political assassination and the death penalty; protection of democratic liberties; equality for women; non-aligned foreign policy; and formation of a "popular army" under the leadership of the FSLN and Humberto Ortega.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN's literacy campaign sent teachers into the countryside and within six months, half a million people had been taught rudimentary reading, bringing the national illiteracy rate down from over 50% to just under 12%. Over 100,000 Nicaraguans participated as literacy teachers. One of the literacy campaign's aims was to create a literate electorate that could make informed choices in the promised elections. The success of the literacy campaign was recognized by UNESCO with a Nadezhda Krupskaya International Prize.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN also created neighborhood groups similar to the Cuban Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, called Sandinista Defense Committees ( or CDS). Especially in the early days following Somoza's overthrow, the CDSes served as "de facto" units of local governance. Their obligations included political education, organizing Sandinista rallies, distributing food rations, organizing neighborhood/regional cleanup and recreational activities, policing to control looting, and apprehending counter-revolutionaries. The CDSes organized civilian defense efforts against Contra activities and a network of intelligence systems in order to apprehend their supporters. These activities led critics of the Sandinistas to argue that the CDS was a system of local spy networks for the government used to stifle political dissent, and the CDS did hold limited powers—such as the ability to suspend privileges such as driver licenses and passports—if locals refused to cooperate with the government. After the initiation of heavier U.S. military involvement in the Nicaraguan conflict the CDS was empowered to enforce wartime bans on political assembly and association with other political parties (i.e., parties associated with the Contras).


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: By 1980, conflicts began to emerge between the Sandinista and non-Sandinista members of the governing junta. Violeta Chamorro and Alfonso Robelo resigned from the junta in 1980, and rumors began that members of the Ortega junta would consolidate power among themselves. These allegations spread, and rumors intensified that it was Ortega's goal to turn Nicaragua into a state modeled after Cuban socialism. In 1979 and 1980, former Somoza supporters and ex-members of Somoza's National Guard formed irregular military forces, while the original core of the FSLN began to splinter. Armed opposition to the Sandinista government eventually divided into two main groups: The Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense (FDN), a U.S.-supported army formed in 1981 by the CIA, U.S. State Department, and former members of the Somoza-era Nicaraguan National Guard; and the Alianza Revolucionaria Democratica (ARDE) Democratic Revolutionary Alliance, a group that had existed since before the FSLN and was led by Sandinista founder and former FSLN supreme commander Edén Pastora, a.k.a. "Commander Zero". Milpistas, former anti-Somoza rural militias, eventually formed the largest pool of recruits for the Contras. Although independent and often in conflict with each other, these guerrilla bands—along with several others—all became known as Contras (short for —counter-revolutionaries).


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The opposition militias were initially organized and largely remained segregated according to regional affiliation and political backgrounds. They conducted attacks on economic, military, and civilian targets. During the Contra war, the Sandinistas arrested suspected members of the Contra militias and censored publications they accused of collaborating with the enemy, such as the U.S., the FDN, and ARDE.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: In March 1982 the Sandinistas declared an official State of Emergency. They argued that this was a response to attacks by counter-revolutionary forces. The State of Emergency lasted six years, until January 1988, when it was lifted.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Under the new "Law for the Maintenance of Order and Public Security" the "Tribunales Populares Anti-Somozistas" allowed for the indefinite holding of suspected counter-revolutionaries without trial. The State of Emergency, however, most notably affected rights and guarantees contained in the "Statute on Rights and Guarantees of Nicaraguans". Many civil liberties were curtailed or canceled such as the freedom to organize demonstrations, the inviolability of the home, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the freedom to strike.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: All independent news program broadcasts were suspended. In total, twenty-four programs were cancelled. In addition, Sandinista censor Nelba Cecilia Blandón issued a decree ordering all radio stations to take broadcasts from government radio station La Voz de La Defensa de La Patria every six hours.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The rights affected also included certain procedural guarantees in the case of detention including habeas corpus. The State of Emergency was not lifted during the 1984 elections. There were many instances where rallies of opposition parties were physically broken up by Sandinista Youth or pro-Sandinista mobs. Opponents to the State of Emergency argued its intent was to crush resistance to the FSLN. James Wheelock justified the actions of the Directorate by saying "... We are annulling the license of the false prophets and the oligarchs to attack the revolution."


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Some emergency measures were taken before 1982. In December 1979 special courts called "Tribunales Especiales" were established to speed up the processing of 7,000-8,000 National Guard prisoners. These courts operated through relaxed rules of evidence and due process and were often staffed by law students and inexperienced lawyers. However, the decisions of the "Tribunales Especiales" were subject to appeal in regular courts. Many of the National Guard prisoners were released immediately due to lack of evidence. Others were pardoned or released by decree. By 1986 only 2,157 remained in custody and only 39 were still being held in 1989 when they were released under the Esquipulas II agreement.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: On October 5, 1985 the Sandinistas broadened the 1982 State of Emergency and suspended many more civil rights. A new regulation also forced any organization outside of the government to first submit any statement it wanted to make public to the censorship bureau for prior approval.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: The FSLN lost power in the presidential election of 1990 when Daniel Ortega was defeated in an election for the Presidency of Nicaragua by Violeta Chamorro.


title: Sandinista National Liberation Front

text: Upon assuming office in 1981, U.S. President Ronald Reagan condemned the FSLN for joining with Cuba in supporting "Marxist" revolutionary movements in other Latin American countries such as El Salvador. His administration authorized the CIA to begin financing, arming and training rebels, most of whom were the remnants of Somoza's National Guard, as anti-Sandinista guerrillas that were branded "counter-revolutionary" by leftists ( in Spanish). This was shortened to "Contras", a label the force chose to embrace. Edén Pastora and many of the indigenous guerrilla forces, who were not associated with the "Somozistas", also resisted the Sandinistas.