title: Genesis flood narrative

text: It is generally agreed that the history draws on two sources, one called the Priestly source, the other non-Priestly or Yahwist, and their interweaving is evidenced in the doublets (i.e., repetitions) contained within the final story. Many of these are contradictory, such as how long the flood lasted (40 days according to , 150 according to ), how many animals were to be taken aboard the ark (one pair of each in , one pair of the unclean animals and seven pairs of the clean in ), and whether Noah released a raven which "went to and fro until the waters were dried up" or a dove which on the third occasion "did not return to him again," or possibly both. But despite this disagreement on details the story forms a unified whole (some scholars see in it a "chiasm", a literary structure in which the first item matches the last, the second the second-last, and so on), and many efforts have been made to explain this unity, including attempts to identify which of the two sources was earlier and therefore influenced the other. Some scholars have even questioned whether the story is actually based on two different sources.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The following table compares the Yahwist and Priestly sources. Each provides a complete story-line, with introductions and conclusions, reasons for the flood, and theologies.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Scholars believe that the flood myth originated in Mesopotamia during the Old Babylonian Period (c.1880-1595 BCE) and reached Syro-Palestine in the latter half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Extant texts show three distinct versions, the Sumerian Epic of Ziusudra, (the oldest, found in very fragmentary form on a single tablet dating from about 1600 BCE, although the story itself is older), and as episodes in two Akkadian language epics, the Atrahasis and the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name of the hero, according to the version concerned, was Ziusudra, Atrahasis, or Utnapishtim, all of which are variations of each other, and it is just possible that an abbreviation of Utnapishtim/Utna'ishtim as "na'ish" was pronounced "Noah" in Palestine.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Numerous and often detailed parallels make clear that the Genesis flood narrative is dependent on the Mesopotamian epics, and particularly on Gilgamesh, which is thought to date from c.1300-1000 BCE.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Numbers in the Bible often have symbolic or idiomatic meaning, and the 40 days and nights for which rain fell on the Earth indicates a complete cycle.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The flood begins on the 17th day of the second month when "the springs of the great deep burst forth, and the floodgates of the heavens were opened", and after 40 days the ark floats (Genesis 7:11-12). The waters rise and then recede, and on the 17th day of the seventh month (or the 27th day in the Greek version) the ark rests on the mountains (Genesis 8:4). The waters continue to fall, the ark is uncovered on the 1st day of the 1st month of Noah's 601st year, and is opened on the 27th day of his 601st year (Genesis 8:13-14).


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The period from the beginning of the flood to the landing on the mountain is five months (the second month to the seventh, Genesis 7:11 and 8:4) and 150 days (8:3), making an impossible five months of 30 days each; the number is schematic, and is based on the Babylonian astronomical calendar of 360 days (12 months of 30 days each). This means that the flood lasts 36 weeks according to the flood calendar, in which an extra day is added to every third month. The number of weeks is symbolically significant, representing the biblical cypher for destruction (the number 6, expressed as 6x6=36), while the number 7 (the number of days in a week) represents the persistence of creation during this time of destruction.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The period while the ark is afloat, i.e. the period during which the Earth is entirely covered by water, represents gap in time, as is confirmed by the strange details of the ages of Noah and Shem. Noah is 600 years old when the flood comes, it ends in his 601st year, and he then lives another 350 years before dying in his 950th year (Genesis 9:28-29); the year taken up by the flood is not counted. Similarly his son Shem is 100 years old on entering the ark (Genesis 7:6) and still 100 years old on fathering Arpachshad two years after the flood.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Scholars have long puzzled over the significance of the flood lasting one year and eleven days (day 17 of year 600 to day 27 of year 601); one solution is that the basic calendar is a lunar one of 354 days, to which eleven days have been added to match a solar year of 365 days.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The "original", Jahwist narrative of the Great Deluge was modest; a week of ostensibly non-celestial rain is followed by a forty-day flood which takes a mere week to recede in order to provide Noah his stage for God's covenant. It is the Priestly source which adds more fantastic figures of a 150-day flood, which emerged by divine hand from the heavens and earth and took ten months to finally stop. That the Jahwist source's capricious and somewhat simplistic depiction of Yahweh is clearly distinguished from the Priestly source's characteristically majestic, transcendental, and austere virtuous Yahweh.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The Priestly flood narrative is the only Priestly text that covers dates with much detail before the Exodus narrative. This is perhaps due to a version of the flood myth that was floating around at the time. There is a text discovered from Ugarit known as RS 94.2953, consisting of fourteen lines telling a first-person account of how Ea appeared to the story's protagonist and commanded him to use tools to make a window ("aptu") at the top of the construction he was building, and how he implemented this directive and released a bird. Antoine Cavigneaux's translation of this text made him propose that this fragment belongs to a Mesopotamian flood myth, perhaps Atrahasis or Tablet IX of Gilgamesh, which has a version found in Ugarit (RS 22.421) that contains a first person account of the flood. If this suggestion is correct, then RS 94.2953 represents a unique version of the Mesopotamian flood story. Line 1 of the text says "At the start of the time of the disappearance of the moon, at the beginning of the month". This reference to the lunar date giving the specific date the protagonist released the bird is significant as it is the only variant of the flood story giving a specific date and the rest do not attribute specific dates or calendrical details to the various stages of the flood. Both RS 94.2953 and Genesis 8 are about the flood protagonist releasing a bird on a specific calendrical date in order to find land in the midst of the flood.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The primeval history is first and foremost about the world God made, its origins, inhabitants, purposes, challenges, and failures. It asks why the world which God has made is so imperfect and of the meaning of human violence and evil, and its solutions involve the notions of covenant, law, and forgiveness. The Genesis creation narrative (Genesis 1–2) deals with God's creation and God's repentance is the rationale behind the flood narrative, and in the Priestly source (which runs through all of Genesis and into the other four books of the Torah) these two verbs, "create" and "forgive", are reserved exclusively for divine actions.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Intertextuality is the way biblical stories refer to and reflect one another. Such echoes are seldom coincidental—for instance, the word used for "ark" is the same used for the basket in which Moses is saved, implying a symmetry between the stories of two divinely chosen saviours in a world threatened by water and chaos. The most significant such echo is a reversal of the Genesis creation narrative; the division between the "waters above" and the "waters below" the earth is removed, the dry land is flooded, most life is destroyed, and only Noah and those with him survive to obey God's command to "be fruitful and multiply."


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The flood is a reversal and renewal of God's creation of the world. In Genesis 1 God separates the "waters above the earth" from those below so that dry land can appear as a home for living things, but in the flood story the "windows of heaven" and "fountains of the deep" are opened so that the world is returned to the watery chaos of the time before creation. Even the sequence of flood events mimics that of creation, the flood first covering the earth to the highest mountains, then destroying, in order, birds, cattle, beasts, "swarming creatures", and finally mankind. (This parallels the Babylonian flood story in the Epic of Gilgamesh, where at the end of rain "all of mankind had returned to clay," the substance of which they had been made.) The Ark itself is likewise a microcosm of Solomon's Temple.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: In Jewish folklore, the kind of water that was pouring to the earth for forty days is not common rainfall; rather, God bade each drop pass through Gehenna before it fell to earth, which 'hot rain' scalded the skin of the sinners. The punishment that overtook them was befitting their crime. As their sensual desires had made them hot, and inflamed them to immoral excesses, so they were chastised by means of heated water.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The Genesis flood narrative is included in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible (see Books of the Bible). Jesus and the apostles additionally taught on the Genesis flood narrative in New Testament writing (, , , , , ). Some Christian biblical scholars suggest that the flood is a picture of salvation in Christ—the Ark was planned by God and there is only one way of salvation through the door of the Ark, akin to one way of salvation through Christ. Additionally, some scholars commenting on the teaching of the apostle Peter (), connect the Ark with the resurrection of Christ; the waters burying the old world but raising Noah to a new life. Christian scholars also highlight that demonstrates the Genesis flood as a type to Christian baptism.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: In the 3rd century Gnostic codex now referred to as the Hypostasis of the Archons, it is the corrupt rulers (Archons) who decide to flood the world in order to dispose of most of mankind. However, Noah is spared and told to build an ark. But when his wife Norea wants to board the ark, Noah attempts to not let her, thus she uses her divine power to blow on the ark, causing it to be consumed by fire. Noah later builds the ark a second time. When the Archons try to seize Norea, she calls out to God for help, then the angel Eleleth appears and scares away the Archons, revealing to Norea that she is a divine child of the great spirit. A different view is found in the Secret Book of John; instead of an ark, Noah hides in a bright cloud.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Mandaeism teaches that the flood of Noah was the last of three events where the world's population was reduced to a single family. Thirty generations after Adam, most of the population was killed by pestilence and war, leaving only Ram and his wife Rud. Twenty-five generations later, most of the population was killed by fire, leaving only Shurbai and his wife Shurhabil. Fifteen generations later, most of the population was killed by flood, leaving only Noah and Shem, in addition to the latter's wife Nuraitha.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: While some scholars have tried to offer possible explanations for the origins of the flood myth including a legendary retelling of a possible Black Sea deluge, the general mythological exaggeration and implausibility of the story are widely recognized by relevant academic fields. The acknowledgement of this follows closely the development of understanding of the natural history and especially the geology and paleontology of the planet.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: The development of scientific geology had a profound impact on attitudes towards the biblical flood narrative. By bringing into question the biblical chronology, which placed the Creation and the flood in a history which stretched back no more than a few thousand years, the concept of deep geological time undermined the idea of the historicity of the Ark itself. In 1823 the English theologian and natural scientist William Buckland interpreted geological phenomena as "Reliquiæ Diluvianæ" (relics of the flood) "Attesting the Action of an Universal Deluge". His views were supported by others at the time, including the influential geologist Adam Sedgwick, but by 1830 Sedgwick considered that the evidence suggested only local floods. Louis Agassiz subsequently explained such deposits as the results of glaciation.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: In 1862, William Thomson (later to become Lord Kelvin) calculated the age of the Earth at between 24 million and 400 million years, and for the remainder of the 19th century, discussion focused not on the viability of this theory of deep time, but on the derivation of a more precise figure for the age of the Earth. "Lux Mundi", an 1889 volume of theological essays which marks a stage in the acceptance of a more critical approach to scripture, took the stance that readers should rely on the gospels as completely historical, but should not take the earlier chapters of Genesis literally.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: By a variety of independent means, scientists have determined that the Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: So-called "flood geology" was championed in the latter half of the twentieth and on into the twenty-first century by Christian fundamentalists who believe in Young Earth creationism. Historian Ronald Numbers argues that this ideological connection by Christians wanting to challenge aspects of the scientific consensus they believe contradict their religion was first established by the publication of the 1961 book, "The Genesis Flood". The scientific community maintains that flood geology is a pseudoscience because it contradicts a variety of facts in geology, stratigraphy, geophysics, physics, paleontology, biology, anthropology, and archeology. For example, in contrast to the catastrophism inherent in flood geology, the science of geology relies on Charles Lyell's established principle of uniformitarianism. In relation to geological forces, uniformitarianism explains the formation of the Earth's features by means of mostly slow-acting forces seen in operation today. In contrast, there is a lack of evidence for the catastrophic mechanisms proposed by flood geologists, and scientists do not take their claims seriously.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: By the 17th century, believers in the Genesis account faced the issue of reconciling the exploration of the New World and increased awareness of the global distribution of species with the older scenario whereby all life had sprung from a single point of origin on the slopes of Mount Ararat. The obvious answer involved mankind spreading over the continents following the destruction of the Tower of Babel and taking animals along, yet some of the results seemed peculiar. In 1646 Sir Thomas Browne wondered why the natives of North America had taken rattlesnakes with them, but not horses: "How America abounded with Beasts of prey and noxious Animals, yet contained not in that necessary Creature, a Horse, is very strange".


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: Browne, among the first to question the notion of spontaneous generation, was a medical doctor and amateur scientist making this observation in passing. However, biblical scholars of the time, such as Justus Lipsius (1547–1606) and Athanasius Kircher (c. 1601–80), had also begun to subject the Ark story to rigorous scrutiny as they attempted to harmonize the biblical account with the growing body of natural historical knowledge. The resulting hypotheses provided an important impetus to the study of the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and indirectly spurred the emergence of biogeography in the 18th century. Natural historians began to draw connections between climates and the animals and plants adapted to them. One influential theory held that the biblical Ararat was striped with varying climatic zones, and as climate changed, the associated animals moved as well, eventually spreading to repopulate the globe.


title: Genesis flood narrative

text: There was also the problem of an ever-expanding number of known species: for Kircher and earlier natural historians, there was little problem finding room for all known animal species in the Ark. Less than a century later, discoveries of new species made it increasingly difficult to justify a literal interpretation for the Ark story. By the middle of the 18th century only a few natural historians accepted a literal interpretation of the narrative.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod is a peninsula extending into the Atlantic Ocean from the southeastern corner of mainland Massachusetts, in the northeastern United States. Its historic, maritime character and ample beaches attract heavy tourism during the summer months. The name Cape Cod, coined in 1602 by Bartholomew Gosnold, is the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S.


title: Cape Cod

text: As defined by the Cape Cod Commission's enabling legislation, Cape Cod is conterminous with Barnstable County, Massachusetts. It extends from Provincetown in the northeast to Woods Hole in the southwest, and is bordered by Plymouth to the northwest. The Cape is divided into fifteen towns, several of which are in turn made up of multiple named villages. Cape Cod forms the southern boundary of the Gulf of Maine, which extends north-eastward to Nova Scotia.


title: Cape Cod

text: Since 1914, most of Cape Cod has been separated from the mainland by the Cape Cod Canal. The canal cuts roughly across the base of the peninsula, though small portions of the Cape Cod towns of Bourne and Sandwich lie on the mainland side of the canal. Two highway bridges cross the Cape Cod Canal: the Sagamore Bridge and the Bourne Bridge. In addition, the Cape Cod Canal Railroad Bridge carries railway freight and provides limited passenger service onto the Cape.


title: Cape Cod

text: Like Cape Cod itself, the islands south of the Cape have evolved from whaling and trading areas to become resort destinations, attracting wealthy families, celebrities, and tourists. These include the large nearby islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard.


title: Cape Cod

text: Both islands are also famous summer tourist destinations, commonly accessed by ferry from several locations on the cape. The phrases "Cape Cod and the Islands" and "the Cape and Islands" are often used to describe the whole region of Barnstable County, Dukes County (including Martha's Vineyard and the smaller Elizabeth Islands), and Nantucket County.


title: Cape Cod

text: Several small islands right off Cape Cod, including Monomoy Island, Monomoscoy Island, Popponesset Island, and Seconsett Island, are also in Barnstable County.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Forbes family-owned Naushon Island was first purchased by John Murray Forbes. Naushon is one of the Elizabeth Islands, many of which are privately owned. One of the publicly accessible Elizabeths is the southernmost island in the chain, Cuttyhunk Island, with a year-round population of 52 people. Several prominent families have established compounds or estates on the larger islands, making these islands some of the wealthiest resorts in the Northeast, yet they retain much of the early merchant trading and whaling culture.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod in particular is a popular retirement area; 31.8% of the population of Barnstable County is 65 years old or older., and the average age of residents is the highest of any area in New England. Cape Cod is majority Democrat, but by a smaller margin than the rest of Massachusetts.


title: Cape Cod

text: The bulk of the land in the area is glacial terminal moraine and represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island.


title: Cape Cod

text: The name "Cape Cod", as it was first used in 1602, applied only to the very tip of the peninsula. It remained that way for 125 years, until the "Precinct of Cape Cod" was incorporated as the Town of Provincetown. No longer in "official" use over the ensuing decades, the name came to mean all of the land east of the Manomet and Scusset rivers – essentially along the line that became the Cape Cod Canal. The creation of the canal separated the majority of the peninsula from the mainland. Most agencies, including the Cape Cod Commission and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), treat the Cape as an island with regard to disaster preparedness, groundwater management, and the like. Cape Codders tend to refer to the land on the mainland side of the canal as "off-Cape", though the legal delineation of Cape Cod, coincident to the boundaries of Barnstable County, includes portions of the towns of Bourne and Sandwich that are located north of the canal.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod Bay lies in between Cape Cod and the mainland – bounded on the north by a line between Provincetown and Marshfield. North of Cape Cod Bay (and Provincetown) is Massachusetts Bay, which contains the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary, located north of Provincetown. Cape Cod Bay and Massachusetts Bay are both part of the Gulf of Maine, which includes the waters between the Cape and Nova Scotia. The Atlantic Ocean is to the east of Cape Cod, and to the southwest of the Cape is Buzzards Bay. The Cape Cod Canal, completed in 1916, connects Buzzards Bay to Cape Cod Bay; its creation shortened the trade route between New York and Boston by .


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod extends into the Atlantic Ocean, with a breadth of between , and covers more than of shoreline. Its elevation ranges from at its highest point, at the top of Pine Hill, in the Bourne portion of Joint Base Cape Cod, down to sea level.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod and the Islands form part of a continuous archipelagic region consisting of a chain of islands running from Long Island to the tip of the Cape. This region is historically and collectively known by naturalists as the Outer Lands.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod incorporates all of Barnstable County, which comprises 15 towns: Bourne, Sandwich, Falmouth, Mashpee, Barnstable, Yarmouth, Harwich, Dennis, Brewster, Chatham, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Each of these towns include a number of villages; see Barnstable County for a complete list.


title: Cape Cod

text: Barnstable, the most populated municipality on Cape Cod, is the only one to have adopted a city form of government, whose legislative body is an elected 13-member council. However, like other smaller Massachusetts cities, Barnstable retained its "Town of Barnstable" moniker. All of the other towns elect a 5-member Board of Selectmen as the executive policy-setting board, and utilize Town Meetings as their legislative body.


title: Cape Cod

text: To the south of Cape Cod lie Nantucket Sound; Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, both large islands; and the mostly privately owned Elizabeth Islands.


title: Cape Cod

text: For most of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, Cape Cod was considered to consist of three sections (see map):


title: Cape Cod

text: The bulk of the land on Cape Cod consists of glacial landforms, formed by terminal moraine and outwash plains. This represents the southernmost extent of glacial coverage in southeast New England; similar glacial formations make up Long Island in New York and Block Island in Rhode Island. Together, these formations are known as the Outer Lands, or more obscurely as the "Isles of Stirling". Geologically speaking, Cape Cod is quite young, having been laid down some 16,000 to 20,000 years ago.


title: Cape Cod

text: Most of Cape Cod's geological history involves the advance and retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the late Pleistocene geological era and the subsequent changes in sea level. Using radiocarbon dating techniques, researchers have determined that around 23,000 years ago, the ice sheet reached its maximum southward advance over North America, and then started to retreat. Many kettle ponds – clear, cold lakes – were formed and remain on Cape Cod as a result of the receding glacier. By about 18,000 years ago, the ice sheet had retreated past Cape Cod. By roughly 15,000 years ago, it had retreated past southern New England. When so much of Earth's water was locked up in massive ice sheets, the sea level was lower. Truro's bayside beaches used to be a petrified forest, before it became a beach.


title: Cape Cod

text: As the ice began to melt, the sea began to rise. Initially, sea level rose quickly, about per 1,000 years, but then the rate declined. On Cape Cod, sea level rose roughly per millennium between 6,000 and 2,000 years ago. After that, it continued to rise at about per millennium. By 6,000 years ago, the sea level was high enough to start eroding the glacial deposits that the vanished continental ice sheet had left on Cape Cod. The water transported the eroded deposits north and south along the outer Cape's shoreline through a process known as longshore drift. Those reworked sediments that moved north went to the tip of Cape Cod. The entire town of Provincetown, at the extreme tip of the Cape, is a spit consisting largely of deposited marine sediment that was eroded and transported from farther south along the shore. Those sediments that instead moved south created the islands and shoals of Monomoy. So while other parts of the Cape have dwindled from the action of the waves, these parts of the Cape have grown through the deposition of sediment in just the last 6,000 years.


title: Cape Cod

text: This process continues today. Due to their exposure to the open ocean, the Cape and islands are subject to considerable coastal erosion. Geologists say that due to erosion, the Cape will be completely submerged by the sea within several thousand years. This erosion causes the washout of beaches and the destruction of the barrier islands; for example, the ocean broke through the barrier island at Chatham during Hurricane Bob in 1991, allowing waves and storm surges to hit the coast with no obstruction. Consequently, the sediment and sand from the beaches is being washed away and deposited elsewhere. While this destroys land in some places, it creates land elsewhere, most noticeably in marshes where sediment is deposited by flowing water.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod's aquifer consists of six hydrologically independent lenses from which all the towns on the Cape obtain drinking water (except Falmouth, which, in 2015, drew 43.5% of its water from Long Pond). Contamination with industrial chemicals and pharmaceutical drugs from septic systems is a concern.


title: Cape Cod

text: Under the Koppen Climate Classification, the Cape Cod area has a temperate humid climate or Cfb climate (coldest month has a mean temperature above -3 C (26.4 F) but below 18 C (64.4 F). Locally, the Cape has a more moderate climate than inland locations in eastern New England. On occasion it takes the brunt of extreme weather systems such as the Blizzard of 2005 and Hurricane Bob. Because of the influence of the Atlantic Ocean on three sides, temperatures are typically a few degrees lower in the summer and often several degrees higher in the winter than the adjacent mainland. Two ocean currents (the Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current from the south) and the Labrador Current, a cold ocean current from the north), meander and interact with each other. As a result, the ocean temperatures on the eastern shore of Cape Cod rarely gets above , while along the southern coast (Nantucket Sound), water temperatures can sometimes reach or higher.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod's climate is also known for a delayed spring season due to the sea remaining cold from the winter; by the same token, the summer heat retained in the sea moderates fall temperatures in comparison to the adjacent inland area. The highest temperature yet recorded on the peninsula was in Provincetown,; the lowest temperature recorded was in Barnstable.


title: Cape Cod

text: The water surrounding Cape Cod moderates winter temperatures nearly enough to extend the humid subtropical climate zone to what could be its northernmost limit in eastern North America, as the majority of Cape Cod is in USDA hardiness zone 7a. Consequently, many subtropical indicator plant species typically found in more southerly latitudes are grown there, including "Camellias", "Ilex opaca", "Magnolia grandiflora" and "Albizia julibrissin". However, Cape Cod falls below the threshold, as the warmest month, July, averages around . Therefore, the climate may be better characterized as either a maritime climate or a humid continental climate (particularly on the northern coast of the upper and mid cape, which is somewhat sheltered from the cooler onshore wind to the south).


title: Cape Cod

text: Precipitation on Cape Cod and the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket is the lowest in the southern New England region, averaging slightly less than a year (most parts of New England average ). This is due to the maritime influence inhibiting summertime thunderstorm development and maintenance. The region does not experience a greater number of sunny days, however, as the number of cloudy days is the same as inland locales, in addition to increased fog. On average, roughly of snow, which is about less than Boston, falls in an average winter.


title: Cape Cod

text: Once every five or six years, a tropical storm, accompanied by very high and potentially damaging winds and heavy rain, will strike the region. About once every 11 or 12 years a hurricane brings damaging winds and storm surges to the region. Several Category 3 storms have struck Cape Cod since record-keeping began, such as a hurricane in 1869, the 1938 New England hurricane, and Hurricane Carol in 1954. Strong Category 2 storms, such as the 1869 Saxby Gale, Hurricane Edna in 1954, and Hurricane Bob in 1991, also caused considerable damage. Notable Category 1 storms include the 1944 Great Atlantic hurricane and Hurricane Donna in 1960. Other notable storms include the Gale of 1815, which would likely have been rated a strong hurricane on the Saffir-Simpson scale, and the so-called "Perfect Storm" of October 31, 1991. The February 2013 nor'easter produced winds in excess of and dropped over of snow on some parts of Cape Cod. The storm knocked out power to tens of thousands of Cape Cod residents, some for up to two weeks.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod has been the home of the indigenous Wampanoag for centuries prior to European colonization. They lived from the sea and were accomplished farmers. They understood the principles of sustainable forest management, and were known to light controlled fires to keep the underbrush in check. They helped the Pilgrims, who arrived in the fall of 1620, survive at their new Plymouth Colony.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Wampanoag gradually lost their lands during the period of European colonization through land cessions and violent conflict with white settlers. The documentary "Natives of the Narrowland" (1993), narrated by actress Julie Harris, shows the history of the Wampanoag people through Cape Cod archaeological sites.


title: Cape Cod

text: In 1974, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribal Council was formed to articulate the concerns of those with Native American ancestry. They petitioned the federal government in 1975 and again in 1990 for official recognition of the Mashpee Wampanoag as a tribe. In May 2007, the Wampanoag tribe was federally recognized.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod was a landmark for early explorers. It may have been the "Promontory of Vinland" mentioned by the Norse voyagers (985–1025). The Manomet River area (taken up by the western end of the Cape Cod Canal in the early 20th century) is claimed by some to have been visited by Leif Eiriksson, and a stone wall discovered in Provincetown in 1805 is also claimed to have been built by his younger brother Thorvald Eiriksson around 1007 AD, when the keel of his ship was repaired in the harbor, according to Norse sagas. He was killed later in the same journey, and is said to have been returned to this spot for burial. However, there is no tangible support of the presence of Norse voyagers in Cape Cod, and the view is not generally accepted by archaeologists or historians.


title: Cape Cod

text: Giovanni da Verrazzano approached it from the south in 1524. He named Martha's Vineyard Claudia, after Claude of France, the wife of Francis I of France. In 1525, Portuguese explorer Estêvão Gomes called it Cabo de la Arenas while sailing under the Spanish crown.


title: Cape Cod

text: In 1602, Bartholomew Gosnold named the tip Cape Cod, the surviving term and the ninth oldest English place-name in the U.S. Samuel de Champlain charted its sand-silted harbors in 1606, and Henry Hudson landed there in 1609. Captain John Smith noted it on his map of 1614, and at last the Pilgrims entered the "Cape Harbor" and – contrary to the popular myth of Plymouth Rock – made their first landing near present-day Provincetown on November 11, 1620. Nearby, in what is now Eastham, they had their first encounter with Native Americans.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod was among the first places settled by Puritan colonists in North America. The Cape's fifteen towns developed slowly, aside from Barnstable (1639), Sandwich (1637), and Yarmouth (1639). The final town to be established on the Cape was Bourne in 1884, breaking off from Sandwich. Provincetown was a group of huts until the 18th century. A channel from Massachusetts Bay to Buzzards Bay is shown on Southack's map of 1717. The present Cape Cod Canal was slowly developed from 1870 to 1914. The federal government purchased it in 1928.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Cape's vegetation was depauperate and trees were scarce by the time that Henry Thoreau saw Cape Cod during his four visits over 1849 to 1857, because of early colonial settlement and intensive land use. The settlers heated by fires, and it took 10 to 20 cords (40 to 80 m) of wood to heat a home, so they cleared most of Cape Cod of timber early on. They planted familiar crops, but these were unsuited to Cape Cod's thin, glacially derived soils. For instance, much of Eastham was planted to wheat. The settlers practiced burning of woodlands to release nutrients into the soil. Improper and intensive farming led to erosion and the loss of topsoil. Farmers grazed their cattle on the grassy dunes of coastal Massachusetts, only to watch "in horror as the denuded sands 'walked' over richer lands, burying cultivated fields and fences." Dunes on the outer Cape became more common, and many harbors filled in with eroded soils.


title: Cape Cod

text: By 1800, much of Cape Cod's firewood had to be transported by boat from Maine. The paucity of vegetation was worsened by the raising of merino sheep that reached its peak in New England around 1840. The early industrial revolution occurred through much of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, but it mostly bypassed Cape Cod due to a lack of significant water power in the area. The Cape developed as a large fishing and whaling center as a result, and also because of its geographic position. After 1860 and the opening of the American West, farmers abandoned agriculture on the Cape. By 1950, forests had recovered to an extent not seen since the 18th century.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod became a summer haven for city dwellers beginning at the end of the 19th century. Improved rail transportation made the towns of the Upper Cape, such as Bourne and Falmouth, accessible to Bostonians. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Northeastern mercantile elite built many large, shingled "cottages" along Buzzards Bay. The relaxed summer environment offered by Cape Cod was highlighted by writers including Joseph C. Lincoln, who published novels and countless short stories about Cape Cod folks in popular magazines such as "The Saturday Evening Post" and the "Delineator".


title: Cape Cod

text: Guglielmo Marconi made the first transatlantic wireless transmission originating in the United States from Cape Cod, at Wellfleet. The beach below the bluffs where his station was located is now called Marconi Beach. In 1914, he began construction of a new transatlantic wireless receiver station in Chatham and a companion transmitter station in Marion. In 1920, the stations were acquired by RCA and, in 1921, Chatham began operations as a maritime radio station communicating to ships at sea using the callsign WCC. WCC supported the communications of Amelia Earhart, Howard Hughes, Admiral Byrd, and the "Hindenburg". Marconi chose Chatham due to its vantage point on the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded on three sides by water. Walter Cronkite narrated a 17-minute documentary in 2005 about the history of the Chatham Station.


title: Cape Cod

text: Much of the east-facing Atlantic seacoast of Cape Cod consists of wide, sandy beaches. In 1961, a significant portion of this coastline, already slated for housing subdivisions, was made a part of the Cape Cod National Seashore by President John F. Kennedy. It was protected from private development and preserved for public use. Large portions are open to the public, including the Marconi Site in Wellfleet. This is a park encompassing the site of the first two-way transoceanic radio transmission from the United States. (Theodore Roosevelt used Marconi's equipment for this transmission.)


title: Cape Cod

text: The Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port was President Kennedy's summer White House during his presidency, and the Kennedy family continues to maintain residences on the compound. President Grover Cleveland maintained a summer home in the Gray Gables section of Bourne. Other notable residents of Cape Cod have included actress Julie Harris, US Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, figure skater Todd Eldredge, composer and radio personality Canary Burton, and novelists Norman Mailer and Kurt Vonnegut. Influential natives included patriot James Otis, historian and writer Mercy Otis Warren, jurist Lemuel Shaw, and naval officer John Percival.


title: Cape Cod

text: Beginning in 1797, lighthouses were erected along Cape Cod to aid in navigation. Highland Light (or Cape Cod Light) is the oldest and tallest of these, and remains as one of a number of working lighthouses on Cape Cod and the Islands. Many of Cape Cod's earliest lighthouses featured a light tower that was attached directly to – and centered on the roof of – the keeper's dwelling. A stairway to the lantern room was accessible only from the top floor of the house. This came to be known as a Cape Cod style lighthouse, yet today, the only fully intact specimens are on the west coast of the United States.


title: Cape Cod

text: Most of Cape Cod's lighthouses are operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, with some exceptions, such as the Nauset Light, which has been owned since 1997 by the Cape Cod National Seashore (National Park Service) and operated since 2004 in partnership between that agency and the non-profit Nauset Light Preservation Society.


title: Cape Cod

text: In 1996, both Highland Light and Nauset Light were moved further from the shore because they were each at risk of being lost due to erosion by the sea. Highland Light, then from the ocean, was moved to the west, and Nauset Light, from the bluff, was moved west.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod is connected to the mainland by a pair of canal-spanning highway bridges, the Bourne and Sagamore that were constructed in the 1930s (replacing a 1912 drawbridge). The two parallel road bridges are four miles apart, with the Bourne Bridge to the west, and the Sagamore to the east. The bridges form a bottleneck, resulting in traffic backups of several miles during the tourist season - especially going on-cape at the beginning of the weekend and off-cape at the end of the weekend.


title: Cape Cod

text: The entire Cape is roughly bisected lengthwise by U.S. Route 6, locally known as the Mid-Cape Highway and officially as the Grand Army of the Republic Highway.


title: Cape Cod

text: Commercial air service to Cape Cod operates out of Cape Cod Gateway Airport and Provincetown Municipal Airport. General aviation airports are:


title: Cape Cod

text: There are ferry connections from Boston to Provincetown, as well as from Hyannis and Woods Hole to the islands.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod Regional Transit Authority operates a year-round public bus system comprising three long-distance routes and a local bus in Hyannis and Barnstable Village. From mid June until October, additional local routes are added in Falmouth and Provincetown. CCRTA also operates Barnstable County's ADA-required paratransit (dial-a-ride) service, under the name "B-Bus."


title: Cape Cod

text: Long-distance bus service is available through Plymouth and Brockton Street Railway, with regular service to downtown Boston and Logan International Airport, as well as less frequent service to Provincetown. Peter Pan Bus Lines also runs long-distance service to T.F. Green Airport in Providence, Rhode Island; New York City; and service between Logan Airport, Boston South Station, and Woods Hole.


title: Cape Cod

text: The third bridge over the Cape Cod Canal is a vertical-lift railroad bridge, providing an alternative land transport option. After the bridge, the track splits in two directions, heading towards Hyannis in one direction and North Falmouth in the other. The track to Hyannis is used for both freight and passenger services, while the Falmouth track is used mostly for freight with very limited passenger service.


title: Cape Cod

text: The CapeFlyer is a seasonal passenger rail service between Boston and Hyannis that operates on summer weekends from Memorial Day through Labor Day. Stops along or near the Cape include Buzzards Bay, Bourne, and Hyannis.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Cape Cod Central Railroad is a heritage railroad on Cape Cod. The service is primarily tourist-oriented and includes a dinner train over a scenic route between Hyannis and the Cape Cod Canal lasting about 2 hours round trip. Select trains feature stops at West Barnstable and Sandwich. Additional service is also provided from the Buzzards Bay station, and a small number of trains also depart from North Falmouth.


title: Cape Cod

text: Active freight service remains in the Upper Cape, both along the main line from Bourne to Hyannis and on the spur to North Falmouth. One of the more frequent operations is the transport of municipal waste to a waste-to-energy plant in Rochester, as well as removal of debris and refuse from Joint Base Cape Cod in Falmouth. Massachusetts Coastal Railroad is currently the sole operator of freight rail on the Cape, taking over from Bay Colony Railroad in 2007.


title: Cape Cod

text: Daily passenger rail service by the New Haven Railroad from Boston to Cape Cod ended in June 1959. Summertime "Day Cape Codder" service by the New Haven from New York City to the Cape ended in 1964. In 1978, the tracks east of South Dennis were abandoned and replaced with the Cape Cod Rail Trail. Another bike path, the Shining Sea Bikeway, was built over abandoned tracks between Woods Hole and Falmouth in 1975, and in 2008 the rail line between Falmouth and North Falmouth was removed and the right-of-way converted into an extension of the Shining Sea Bikeway.


title: Cape Cod

text: In 1986, Amtrak operated a seasonal service in the summer from New York City to Hyannis called the "Cape Codder". From 1988, Amtrak and the Massachusetts Department of Transportation increased service to a daily frequency, until service ended in 1996, leaving a gap until the current CapeFlyer service began in 2013.


title: Cape Cod

text: Bicycle and pedestrian access to the Cape is possible via a sidewalk on the southbound side of the Bourne Bridge. There are a number of dedicated bike trails and paths around the Cape, including:


title: Cape Cod

text: For long-distance biking, the mostly on-road Claire Saltonstall Bikeway connects Cape Cod to the Charles River Bike Path in Boston.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod has a year-round population of about 220,000, and it experiences a tourist season each summer, the beginning and end of which can be roughly approximated as Memorial Day and Labor Day, respectively. Many businesses specifically target summer visitors, although the "on season" has been expanding somewhat in recent years due to Indian Summer, reduced lodging rates, the number of people visiting the Cape after Labor Day who have no school-age children, and the elderly—reducing the true "off season" to six or seven months. In the late 20th century, tourists and owners of second homes began visiting the Cape more and more in the spring and fall, softening the definition of the high season and expanding it somewhat.


title: Cape Cod

text: Provincetown berths the original East Coast whale watching fleet (Dolphin Fleet) who patrol the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary. The fleet guarantee a whale sighting (mostly humpback whale, fin whale, minke whale, sei whale, and the critically endangered North Atlantic right whale) and is the only federally certified operation qualified to rescue whales. Provincetown has also long been known as an art colony, attracting writers and artists. The town is home to the Cape's most attended art museum, the Provincetown Art Association and Museum.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod is a popular destination for beachgoers from all over, with of coastline. Beaches—both public and private—are easily accessible. The Cape has upwards of sixty public beaches, many of which offer parking for non-residents for a daily fee (in summer). The Cape Cod National Seashore has of sandy beach and many walking paths.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod is also popular for its outdoor activities, such as beach walking, biking, boating, fishing, go-karts, golfing, kayaking, miniature golf, and unique shopping. There are 27 public, daily-fee golf courses and 15 private courses on Cape Cod. Bed and breakfasts or vacation houses are often used for lodging.


title: Cape Cod

text: Each summer, the Naukabout Music Festival is held at the Barnstable County Fair Grounds located in East Falmouth, typically during the first weekend of August. The festival features local, regional, and national talent, along with food, arts, and family-friendly activities. Some particularly well-known Cape products and industries include cranberries, shellfish (particularly oysters and clams), and lobstering.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod is known around the world as a spring-to-fall destination for sport anglers. Among the species most widely pursued are striped bass, bluefish, bluefin tuna, false albacore (little tunny), bonito, tautog, flounder and fluke. The Cape Cod Bay side of the Cape, from Sandwich to Provincetown, has numerous harbors, saltwater creeks, and shoals that hold bait fish and attract the larger game fish, such as striped bass, bluefish and bluefin tuna.


title: Cape Cod

text: The outer edge of the Cape, from Provincetown to Falmouth, faces the open Atlantic from Provincetown to Chatham, and then the more protected water of Nantucket and Vineyard Sounds, from Chatham to Falmouth. The bays, harbors and shoals along this coastline also provide a robust habitat for game species, and during the late summer months warm-water species such as mahi-mahi and marlin will also appear on the southern edge of Cape Cod's waters. Nearly every harbor on Cape Cod hosts sport fishing charter boats, which run from May through October.


title: Cape Cod

text: One of the most popular fishing spots on the East Coast is the Cape Cod Canal. Striped bass, especially, in season attract anglers from far and wide. A large part of the attraction involves ease of access. Ample free parking exists all along the waterway, and the banks are a short walk from one's vehicle. This reduces fishing to the basics – a pole and a few lures.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Cape has nine amateur baseball franchises playing within Barnstable County in the Cape Cod Baseball League. The Wareham Gatemen also play in the Cape Cod Baseball League in nearby Wareham in Plymouth County. The league's beginning is unsettled, even fanciful. Without any basis whatsoever, some claim a start date of 1875. However, the first Cape Cod League formed in Sandwich in 1910. It did not last. Three years later - in 1913 - another Cape Cod Baseball League organized. This venture lasted two years. In 1916, a third attempt at league play barely got off the ground. Then, in 1923, an initial four teams met in Hyannis and started a successful federation along the lines of the present league. Outstanding players from throughout the region competed until the war effort led to a shutdown in 1940. In 1946, the local town teams from the prewar County Twilight League and Lower Cape Cod League organized under the Cape Cod Baseball League banner. As the years passed, local players were moved aside by outside college stars. Finally, in 1963, the league became a wholly summer collegiate circuit sanctioned by the National Collegiate Athletic Association with some Major Leagues financial support. The current teams in the league are the Bourne Braves, Brewster Whitecaps, Chatham Anglers (formerly the Chatham Athletics), Cotuit Kettleers, Falmouth Commodores, Harwich Mariners, Hyannis Harbor Hawks (formerly the Hyannis Mets), Orleans Firebirds (formerly the Orleans Cardinals), Wareham Gatemen and the Yarmouth–Dennis Red Sox. MLB scouts frequent the games in the summer, looking for stars of the future.


title: Cape Cod

text: Along with the Cape Cod Baseball League and the new Junior Hockey League team, the Cape Cod Islanders, many high school players are being recruited as well. Barnstable and Harwich have each sent multiple players to Division 1 colleges for baseball. Harwich has also won three state titles since 1996 (1996, 2006, 2007). Bourne and Sandwich, rivals in hockey, have each won state championships recently, Bourne in 2004 and Sandwich in 2007. Nauset, Barnstable, and Martha's Vineyard are also state hockey powerhouses. Barnstable and Falmouth hold the title of having one of the longest Thanksgiving football rivalries in the country. The teams have played each other every year on Thanksgiving since 1895. High school football teams on the Cape have also recently become successful and the region has also become a hot-spot for college recruiting. In 2011, four high school football teams from the Cape won state championships in their respective divisions; Dennis-Yarmouth (Division 2A), Bourne (Division 3A), Mashpee (Division 4), as well as Nantucket and Upper Cape Cod Tech (Division 5). Also, numerous other Cape schools have made appearances in the football state championship game recently, including Barnstable in 2012, Martha's Vineyard in 2008, Cape Cod Tech in 2006, and Dennis-Yarmouth in 2013. The Bourne and Barnstable girls' volleyball teams are two of the best teams in the state and Barnstable is considered one of the best programs in the country. Bourne won the state title in 2003 and 2007, and Barnstable has won 12 Division 1 state titles in the past 13 years and has won the state title the three years in a row (2011–2013). In the 2010 cross country season, Sturgis Charter Public School's Division 4 cross country team remained virtually unbeaten throughout their running season.


title: Cape Cod

text: The end of each summer is marked with the running of the Falmouth Road Race, held on the third Saturday in August. It draws about 10,000 runners to the Cape and showcases the finest runners in the world (mainly for the large purse that the race is able to offer). The race is long, which is a non-standard distance. The reason for the unusual distance is that the man who thought the race up (Tommy Leonard) was a bartender who wanted a race along the coast from one bar (The Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole) to another (The Brothers Four in Falmouth Heights). While the bar in Falmouth Heights is now the British Beer Company, the race still starts at the front door of the Cap'n Kidd in Woods Hole and now finishes at the beach in Falmouth Heights. Prior to the Falmouth race is an annual race through Brewster called the Brew Run, held early in August.


title: Cape Cod

text: Most Cape Cod towns have a few elementary schools, one or two middle schools and one large public high school that serves the entire town. Exceptions to this include Dennis-Yarmouth Regional High School, located in Yarmouth, which serves the two towns in its name; Monomoy Regional High School, located in Harwich and serving that town as well as Chatham; and Nauset Regional High School in Eastham, which serves the towns of Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, Wellfleet, Truro, and Provincetown. Bourne High School serves students in that town, which includes the villages of Sagamore, Sagamore Beach, and Buzzards Bay. Barnstable High School is the Cape's largest. Sturgis Charter Public School, a public school in Hyannis that was featured in "Newsweek" magazine's "Best High Schools" ranking, offers the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme in their junior and senior year and is open to students from as far away as Plymouth. The Cape also has two vocational high schools. One is the Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Harwich, and the other is Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School in Bourne.


title: Cape Cod

text: In 1976 the Cape schools and districts petitioned the Massachusetts Legislature to create an educational collaborative, the Cape Cod Collaborative, to facilitate cooperation and efficiency in providing gifted and talented, and special needs programs. With locations in Osterville and Bourne the Cape Cod Collaborative provides transportation services, professional development, autism support, developmental training, itinerant services and an alternative education program. Each summer, in cooperation with the Massachusetts Maritime Academy, it operates a science-based program for gifted and talented students from around the Cape.


title: Cape Cod

text: Mashpee High School is home to the Mashpee Chapter of SMPTE, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers. This chapter is the first and only high school chapter in the world to be a part of this organization and has received much recognition within the Los Angeles broadcasting industry as a result.


title: Cape Cod

text: In addition to public schools, Cape Cod has a wide range of private schools. The town of Barnstable has Trinity Christian Academy, Cape Cod Academy, St. Francis Xavier Preparatory School, and Saint John Paul II High School. Sandwich offers the Waldorf School of Cape Cod, Harwich offers the Lighthouse Charter School for elementary and middle school students, and Falmouth offers Falmouth Academy. Riverview School is located in East Sandwich and is a special co-ed boarding school which serves students as old as 22 who have learning disabilities. Another specialized school is the Penikese Island School, located in the Elizabeth Islands off southwestern Cape Cod, which serves struggling and troubled teenage boys.


title: Cape Cod

text: Cape Cod contains three institutions of higher education. One is the Cape Cod Community College located in West Barnstable. The second is Massachusetts Maritime Academy in the village of Buzzards Bay. Massachusetts Maritime Academy is the oldest continuously operating maritime college in the United States. The third is Bridgewater State University, which opened a satellite campus in South Yarmouth in January 2015. The school will provide 40 undergraduate and graduate courses leading to the completion of bachelor's degree and master's degree programs in Early Childhood Education, Educational Leadership, Secondary Education, Reading, and Special Education. The campus will also offer Certificate Programs in Business and Social Work. Beginning in the Summer 2015, the campus will begin to offer undergraduate credit courses in History.


title: Cape Cod

text: Celebrated naturalist and philosopher Henry David Thoreau wrote about an 1849 trip along the Cape. His book "Cape Cod" was published posthumously in 1865.


title: Cape Cod

text: The Cape Codder cocktail is named after the peninsula; both are notable for cranberry. Cape Cod also generated a distinctive Cape style house and Cape lighthouse.


title: Cape Cod

text: Artist Edward Hopper owned a summer house in Truro, and painted numerous Cape scenes including "Corn Hill" (1930), "Highland Light, North Truro" (1930), "Rich's House" (1930), "High Road" (1931), "House on Dune Edge" (1931), "Cold Storage Plant" (1933), and "Cottages at North Truro" (1936).


title: Cape Cod

text: The band Vampire Weekend's self-titled LP contains two songs mentioning Cape Cod, "Cape Cod Kwassa Kwassa" and "Walcott".


title: Pharyngitis

text: Pharyngitis is inflammation of the back of the throat, known as the pharynx. It typically results in a sore throat and fever. Other symptoms may include a runny nose, cough, headache, difficulty swallowing, swollen lymph nodes, and a hoarse voice. Symptoms usually last 3–5 days. Complications can include sinusitis and acute otitis media. Pharyngitis is a type of upper respiratory tract infection.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Most cases are caused by a viral infection. Strep throat, a bacterial infection, is the cause in about 25% of children and 10% of adults. Uncommon causes include other bacteria such as "gonococcus", fungi, irritants such as smoke, allergies, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Specific testing is not recommended in people who have clear symptoms of a viral infection, such as a cold. Otherwise, a rapid antigen detection test or throat swab is recommended. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include epiglottitis, thyroiditis, retropharyngeal abscess, and occasionally heart disease.


title: Pharyngitis

text: NSAIDs, such as ibuprofen, can be used to help with the pain. Numbing medication, such as topical lidocaine, may also help. Strep throat is typically treated with antibiotics, such as either penicillin or amoxicillin. It is unclear whether steroids are useful in acute pharyngitis, other than possibly in severe cases, but a recent (2020) review found that when used in combination with antibiotics they moderately improved pain and the likelihood of resolution.


title: Pharyngitis

text: About 7.5% of people have a sore throat in any 3-month period. Two or three episodes in a year are not uncommon. This resulted in 15 million physician visits in the United States in 2007. Pharyngitis is the most common cause of a sore throat. The word comes from the Greek word "pharynx" meaning "throat" and the suffix "-itis" meaning "inflammation".


title: Pharyngitis

text: Pharyngitis is a type of inflammation caused by an upper respiratory tract infection. It may be classified as acute or chronic. Acute pharyngitis may be catarrhal, purulent, or ulcerative, depending on the causative agent and the immune capacity of the affected individual. Chronic pharyngitis may be catarrhal, hypertrophic, or atrophic.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Tonsillitis is a subtype of pharyngitis. If the inflammation includes both the tonsils and other parts of the throat, it may be called pharyngotonsillitis or tonsillopharyngitis. Another subclassification is nasopharyngitis (the common cold).


title: Pharyngitis

text: Clergyman's sore throat or clergyman's throat is an archaic term formerly used for chronic pharyngitis associated with overuse of the voice as in public speaking. It was sometimes called "dysphonia clericorum" or chronic folliculitis sore throat.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Most cases are due to an infectious organism acquired from close contact with an infected individual.


title: Pharyngitis

text: These comprise about 40–80% of all infectious cases and can be a feature of many different types of viral infections.


title: Pharyngitis

text: A number of different bacteria can infect the human throat. The most common is group A streptococcus ("Streptococcus pyogenes"), but others include "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "Haemophilus influenzae", "Bordetella pertussis", "Bacillus anthracis", "Corynebacterium diphtheriae", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "Chlamydophila pneumoniae", "Mycoplasma pneumoniae," and "Fusobacterium necrophorum".


title: Pharyngitis

text: Streptococcal pharyngitis or strep throat is caused by a group A beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS). It is the most common bacterial cause of cases of pharyngitis (15–30%). Common symptoms include fever, sore throat, and large lymph nodes. It is a contagious infection, spread by close contact with an infected individual. A definitive diagnosis is made based on the results of a throat culture. Antibiotics are useful to both prevent complications (such as rheumatic fever) and speed recovery.


title: Pharyngitis

text: "Fusobacterium necrophorum" is a normal inhabitant of the oropharyngeal flora and can occasionally create a peritonsillar abscess. In one out of 400 untreated cases, Lemierre's syndrome occurs.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Diphtheria is a potentially life-threatening upper respiratory infection caused by "Corynebacterium diphtheriae", which has been largely eradicated in developed nations since the introduction of childhood vaccination programs, but is still reported in the Third World and increasingly in some areas in Eastern Europe. Antibiotics are effective in the early stages, but recovery is generally slow.


title: Pharyngitis

text: A few other causes are rare, but possibly fatal, and include parapharyngeal space infections: peritonsillar abscess ("quinsy abscess"), submandibular space infection (Ludwig's angina), and epiglottitis.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Some cases of pharyngitis are caused by fungal infection, such as "Candida albicans", causing oral thrush.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Pharyngitis may also be caused by mechanical, chemical, or thermal irritation, for example cold air or acid reflux. Some medications may produce pharyngitis, such as pramipexole and antipsychotics.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Differentiating a viral and a bacterial cause of a sore throat based on symptoms alone is difficult. Thus, a throat swab often is done to rule out a bacterial cause.


title: Pharyngitis

text: The modified Centor criteria may be used to determine the management of people with pharyngitis. Based on five clinical criteria, it indicates the probability of a streptococcal infection.


title: Pharyngitis

text: The Infectious Disease Society of America recommends against empirical treatment and considers antibiotics only appropriate following positive testing. Testing is not needed in children under three, as both group A strep and rheumatic fever are rare, except if they have a sibling with the disease.


title: Pharyngitis

text: The majority of the time, treatment is symptomatic. Specific treatments are effective for bacterial, fungal, and herpes simplex infections.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Gargling salt water is often suggested, but there is no evidence to support or discourage this practice. Alternative medicines are promoted and used for the treatment of sore throats. However, they are poorly supported by evidence.


title: Pharyngitis

text: Acute pharyngitis is the most common cause of a sore throat and, together with cough, it is diagnosed in more than 1.9 million people a year in the United States.


title: Windows Server 2019

text: Windows Server 2019 is the ninth version of the Windows Server operating system by Microsoft, as part of the Windows NT family of operating systems. It is the second version of the server operating system based on the Windows 10 platform, after Windows Server 2016. It was announced on March 20, 2018 for the first Windows Insider preview release, and was released internationally on October 2, 2018. It was succeeded by Windows Server 2022 on August 18, 2021.


title: Windows Server 2019

text: Windows Server 2019 was announced on March 20, 2018, and the first Windows Insider preview version was released on the same day. It was released for general availability on October 2 of the same year.


title: Windows Server 2019

text: On October 6, 2018, distribution of Windows 10 version 1809 (build 17763) was paused while Microsoft investigated an issue with user data being deleted during an in-place upgrade. It affected systems where a user profile folder (e.g. Documents, Music or Pictures) had been moved to another location, but data was left in the original location. As Windows Server 2019 is based on the Windows version 1809 codebase, it too was removed from distribution at the time, but was re-released on November 13, 2018. The software product life cycle for Server 2019 was reset in accordance with the new release date.


title: Windows Server 2019

text: Microsoft Edge did not support Server 2019 at release. Microsoft considers Internet Explorer 11 a "compatibility layer," not a browser. Edge added support in January 2020, but Server 2019 does not install it by default. Microsoft encourages server and enterprise users to install Edge.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The Toyota S Series engines are a family of straight-4 petrol or CNG engines with displacement from 1.8 L to 2.2 L produced by Toyota Motor Corporation from January 1980 to August 2007. The series has cast iron engine blocks and alloy cylinder heads.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 1S is the first version of the S-series engine. It is a member of Toyota's "Lasre" engine family ("Lightweight Advanced Super Response Engine"). Bore and stroke are 80.5 x 90.0 mm. The engine was first seen in 1981, and was fitted to a wide range of Toyotas, in both RWD and FWD applications.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Original "1S" engine, designed for longitudinal, rear-wheel-drive applications. Designated "1S-U" with Japanese emissions controls.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Adaption of the "1S" engine, designed for transverse, front-wheel-drive applications. Designated "1S-LU" with Japanese emissions controls.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Adaption of the "1S-L" engine, with added central injection (Ci). Designated "1S-iLU" with Japanese emissions controls.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Adaption of the "1S-L" engine, with added multiport fuel injection. Designated "1S-ELU" with Japanese emissions controls.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 2S is a four-cylinder engine with an iron block and an alloy head. Bore and stroke are 84.0 x 90.0 mm. This was to be the last of the S engine family not to be equipped with twincams.


title: Toyota S engine

text: It was used in the Australian delivered SA63 Celica (replacing the 21R-C powered RA60), and ST141 Corona.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 2S-E is the same as the 2S except it uses EFI. This particular engine was used in the Camry and in the Celica ST161. It was fitted with hydraulic lash adjusters.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 2S-EL, 2S-ELU and 2S-ELC are the same as the 2S-E except they are transversely mounted (as fitted to the V10 Camry). The 2S-ELU has Japanese emission controls and the 2S-ELC has US emission controls.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 3S is a inline-four engine with an iron block and an alloy head. Similar to the 2S engine, the bore was increased to 86.0 mm and the stroke was reduced to 86.0 mm, allowing for the fitment of larger valves and enabling higher power outputs. First introduced in May 1984, the 3S remained in production until 2007.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Two-barrel carburettor version of the 3S-FE. This engine is found in lower-specification variants of the 1986–1992 Toyota Camry and its Holden Apollo twin (SL and SLX versions). Power is at 5,600 rpm, with max torque of at 3,200 rpm.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The Toyota 3S-FE is a 16-valve 2.0 L twin camshaft, single cam gear engine built by Toyota from 1986 to 2000. European version produces at 5,600 rpm and 179 Nm (132 ft-lb) at 4,400 rpm without a catalytic converter; with, maximum power is . It is commonly used in the Camry 1987–1992 model, the Celica T160/T180/T200, Carina 1987–1992, Carina 1988–2001, Caldina 1992–2002, Carina ED 1990–1992 and E 1993–1998 models, Corona T170/T190 as well as Avensis 1997–2000 models and RAV4, 1994–2000, Picnic/Ipsum 1996–2002 and Comfort 2001-2007. The 3S-FE was also used in some MR2 Mk2 cars due to its torque band being suitable for the automatic models. The 3S-FE is fitted with EFI. The 3S-FE engine is fitted with a cast iron crankshaft, whereas the 3S-GE/GELU engines have forged crankshafts.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 3S-FSE was a direct injection engine with Toyota D4 system. A cam driven high pressure fuel pump is at the #4 end of the head. This engine was only released in Japan, and installed in the Camry (Windom).


title: Toyota S engine

text: The Toyota 3S-GE (originally titled 3S-GELU in transversely-mounted applications with Japanese emission controls), is an in-line 4 cylinder engine in the S engine family, manufactured by Toyota and designed in conjunction with Yamaha. While the block is iron, the cylinder head is made of aluminium alloy. The pent-roof combustion chambers are complemented by a cross-flow intake and exhaust layout. The spark plug is located in the center of the combustion chamber. The firing order is 1-3-4-2, with cylinder number 1 adjacent to the timing belt. The 3S-GE was designed to be light, the first iteration 3S-GELU weighing in at a low .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The forged crankshaft, located within the crankcase, rotates on five aluminium alloy bearings and is balanced by eight weights. Oil holes are located in the middle of the crankshaft to provide oil to the connecting rods, bearing, pistons and other moving components. The intake manifold has four independent ports and benefits from inertia build up to improve engine torque at low and medium speeds.


title: Toyota S engine

text: A single timing belt drives the intake and exhaust camshaft. The cam journals are supported on five points between the valve lifters of each cylinder and on the front of the cylinder head, and are lubricated by an oiler port located in the middle of the camshaft.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The pistons are made from an aluminium alloy, designed to withstand high temperatures. An indentation is incorporated into the piston head to prevent the pistons from hitting the valves, should the timing belt break (this is not true of the later BEAMS - an acronym which stands for Breakthrough Engine with Advanced Mechanism System - motors). This is commonly referred to as a "non-interference" engine. Piston pins holding the pistons in place are locked by snap rings. The "Outer Shim Type System" allows for the replacement of the shims without the need to remove the camshaft. To adjust the valve clearance, adjust the shims above the valve lifters.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The first compression ring and the oil ring are made of steel, the second compression ring is made of cast iron. Compression rings 1 and 2 prevent exhaust leakage from the combustion chamber while the oil ring works to clear oil off the cylinder walls, preventing excessive oil from entering the combustion chamber. An oil pan baffle is used to ensure that there is sufficient oil available in the oil pan.


title: Toyota S engine

text: There are five generations of the 3S-GE, which were used in the Toyota Celica, Toyota Corona, MR2, Caldina, RAV4, and Altezza. All 3S-GE engines had a displacement of . Additionally, the turbocharged 3S-GTE engines are based on the 3S-GE platform.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The first-generation 3S-GE was produced from May 1984 to 1989, arriving in both North American versions, as well as In Japan as a second variation. The North American engine was slightly less powerful, producing around . This engine was the only 3S-GE to come to North America, in the Celica GT-S (ST162). Among other things, the Japanese market version sported a more aggressive ECU and lacked the EGR valve system, pushing the output to somewhere around at 6,400 rpm and of torque. The engine was originally available in particular in the Toyota Camry/Vista Twin Cam 2000 (3S-GELU for V10s, 3S-GE for V20s) and Toyota Corona *T150 (limited chassis version - ST162 with 3S-GELU).


title: Toyota S engine

text: The second generation was produced from 1990 to 1993, receiving a slight boost in output to at 6,800 rpm in Japanese specifications, at 6,600 rpm in European markets. Peak torque went to at 4,800 rpm, in Europe. It also proved to be a slightly more reliable engine. The second generation also did away with the T-VIS system, which was replaced by the ACIS (Acoustic Control Induction System), proving to be much more efficient. T-VIS was, however, retained on the second-generation 3S-GTE, the turbocharged counterpart.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The third-generation 3S-GE was produced from 1994 to 1999. Power output for the Japanese market was increased to as the compression ratio was increased to 10.3:1, while motors for other markets received a minor revision in 1996 for emissions (EGR) which reduced power output slightly to at 7,000 rpm. Torque remains the same for both at .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The fourth-generation 3S-GE, also known as the 'Red Top BEAMS' 3S-GE began production in 1997. BEAMS is an acronym which stands for Breakthrough Engine with Advanced Mechanism System.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The first version was equipped with VVT-i and produced at 7,000 rpm when coupled to a manual transmission. The automatic version produced at 7000 rpm; this is believed to be an ECU restriction implemented by Toyota due to gearbox limitations. It was available in a few models sold only in Japan: the MR2 G and G-Limited, the Celica ST202 SS-II and SS-III and the Caldina.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The second version generation 4 3S-GE, the 'Grey Top BEAMS' 3S-GE, was an available engine option in the RAV4 and second-generation Caldina Active Sports GT in Japan. Even though the valve cover on this engine is black, it is referred to as the "Grey Top", taking its name from the grey intake plenum colouring. This naming is as such to differentiate it from the fifth-generation Dual-VVTi "Black Top" in the Altezza. Power output is at 6,600 rpm in the RAV4 and in the Caldina GT. The mechanical differences between the Red Top and Grey Top is the headers and the ECU. Wiring is identical.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Casting provisions exist in the heads for Exhaust VVT solenoid, and RWD water gallery is open, behind the alternator mount. Rear oil drain at the back of the head is in a different position.


title: Toyota S engine

text: In 1998, the fifth and final version of the 3S-GE was released, found only in the Japanese-delivered Altezza RS200. The 'Black Top' as it came to be referred to as, was fitted with a dual VVT-i system that adjusted timing on both intake and exhaust camshafts and came in two different spec levels dependent on which transmission it was coupled to.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Gen 5 uses electronic controlled throttle with cable (semi-drive by wire), so no idle speed controller is required. A returnless fuel rail is also used.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The MT version that came equipped with the J160 6-speed manual transmission featured larger diameter titanium intake valves measuring 35mm, larger exhaust valves measuring 29.5mm also made from titanium, a larger 33mm bucket and a compression ratio of 11.5:1. It made at 7,600 rpm and at 6,400 rpm.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Compared to the MT version, the 5-speed AT version came equipped with the A650E 5Super ECT (with manual shift mode) automatic transmission and had a lower compression ratio of 11.1:1, a less aggressive cam profile, smaller steel-alloy valves and smaller 31mm buckets. This engine made at 7,000 rpm and at a considerably lower 4,800 rpm. Externally, the AT model can be identified by differences in the wiring loom and the lack of an acoustic blanket on the intake plenum.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 3S-GTE is an in-line 4-cylinder engine from Toyota, based on the 3S-GE with the addition of under piston oil squirters and a reduced compression ratio to accommodate the addition of a turbocharger.


title: Toyota S engine

text: There are four generations of this engine, which started manufacture in 1986 and was built until 2007. The turbochargers used in the 3S-GTE engines are Toyota designs and use an internal wastegate design. Depending on where the engine was intended to be sold the exhaust turbine is either ceramic (Japan) or steel (US and Australia). It was fitted to the MR2 (North America and Japan only. There is no official MR2 for the European market with this engine.), Toyota Celica GT-Four, and the Caldina GT-T and GT-Four.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Its cylinders are numbered 1-2-3-4, cylinder number 1 is beside the timing belt. The Dual Over Head Cam (DOHC) 16-valve cylinder head designed by Yamaha is made of aluminum alloy. The pent-roof combustion chambers are complemented by a cross flow intake and exhaust layout. Spark plugs are located in the middle of the combustion chambers. A distributor based system is used to fire the cylinders in a 1-3-4-2 order.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The crankshaft, located within the crankcase, rotates on five aluminum alloy bearings and is balanced by eight weights. Oil holes are located in the middle of the crankshaft to provide oil to the connecting rods, bearing, pistons and various other components.


title: Toyota S engine

text: A single timing belt drives the intake and exhaust camshaft along with the oil and water pumps. The cam journal is supported on 5 points between the valve lifters of each cylinder and on the front of the cylinder head. The cam journals are lubricated by oiler port located in the middle of the camshaft. To adjust the valve clearance in the first two generations, a shim over bucket system is employed. In the following generations a shim under bucket system is used.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The pistons are made from an aluminum alloy designed to withstand high temperatures. An indentation is incorporated into the pistons to prevent the pistons from hitting the valves if the timing belt breaks. Piston pins holding the pistons in place are locked by snap rings.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The first compression ring and the oil ring is made of steel, the second compression ring is made of cast iron. Compression ring 1 and 2, prevents gas leakages from the combustion chamber while the oil ring works to clear oil off the cylinder walls, preventing any excessive oil from entering the combustion chamber.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The first-generation Toyota CT26 utilized a single entry turbine housing and a single wastegate port design. It was fitted to the first generation Toyota Celica GT-Four (ST165). The intake charge was cooled by a water-to-air intercooler and the intake manifold design is Toyota's T-VIS. It has 8 independent ports and benefits from the inertia build up to improve engine torque at low and medium speeds by closing 4 ports below a certain RPM and throttle position to increase air speed and maximize fuel atomization and opening all 8 at higher engine loads for better air volume. Air metering is through an air flow meter and there is no factory BPV/BOV in this generation. Fuel delivery is through 430 cc injectors while air is fed through a throttle body and intake and exhaust valve lift. Compression ratio is 8.5:1 and produces and with a factory 8-9 psi of boost. Fuel cut is at 12 psi.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The second-generation Toyota CT26 used a twin entry turbine housing with dual wastegate ports. It was fitted to the second generation Toyota Celica GT-Four (ST185) as well as the Toyota MR2 Turbo (SW20). The intake charge is cooled by an air-to-air intercooler either top-mounted in the Celica or side-mounted in the MR2. The rally homologation Celica (known as GT-Four RC in Japan, Group A Rallye in Australia, or Carlos Sainz Limited Edition in Europe) used a top-mounted water-to-air intercooler and is distinguished by a hood vent rather than a hood scoop as found in the non-homologation ST185s. This generation retains the T-VIS intake manifold and the Air Flow Meter. A factory BPV is included in the SW20 MR2 Turbo but not on the Celicas. Compression ratio is 8.8:1 and produces and . This generation retains the injector size and throttle body size from the previous generation. However, boost is increased to 10-11 psi in the ST185 and MR2 while it is increased to 16 psi in the ST185RC. Intake and exhaust valve lift is significantly increased to .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The third-generation engine uses the Toyota C20b turbo, which was of the same design as the second-generation but with a slightly improved turbine housing and larger compressor wheel. A factory BPV is installed on all applications. The intake charge is cooled by a water-to-air top-mounted intercooler similar in shape to the ST185RC WTA. One can tell the difference as the ST205 WTA is black while the ST185 WTA is silver with a black centre. This generation does away with T-VIS and uses a normal 4 runner intake with the same port shape and size as the NA engine (but with larger injector holes for side feed). The Air Flow Meter is also removed in favor of a MAP sensing system (prior generations used a MAP sensor only for the purpose of the factory boost gauge and determining overboost fuel cut). Various increases included injector size (540 cc), boost (13 psi), overboost fuel cut limit (18 psi), intake cam lift (), throttle body size (), and a increase in exhaust ports. Exhaust valve lift is retained at . In late 1997, the block casting was revised with added support around the head to prevent block cracking problems. The C20b turbo found in this generation is backwards compatible with the second generation motors, however not the first generation. Further improvements include a factory oil catch can. Compression is reduced down to 8.5:1 however power is improved to and .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The fourth-generation engine uses a proprietary CT15B turbocharger. This generation was used in the Toyota Caldina GT-T AWD Wagon (ST215). The exhaust housing is actually cast into the cylinder exhaust manifold, rather than the normal practice of a separate turbine housing after the cylinder exhaust manifold. Due to this, the CT15 is backwards compatible with the third-generation 3S-GTE cylinder head only, not either the first or second generation. Intake charge was cooled by an air-to-air top-mounted intercooler fed through a new side-feed intake manifold. This generation utilizes a coil-on-plug ignition system and 550 cc injectors. Boost remains at 13-14 psi, however overboost fuel cut is increased to 21 psi. Compression is increased to 9:1 and produces and .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The fifth-generation engine uses the same turbo as the fourth generation model. This generation was used in the Toyota Caldina GT-Four (ST246). There are only minor differences to this engine compared to the previous version and due to only limited markets receiving the ST246, very little is known and very few are aware of the engine. Differences include longer injectors to be closer to the intake ports. The intake manifold returns to a center-feed type fed by an air-to-air top-mounted intercooler. This intercooler is slightly smaller than the previous generation and is oriented slightly different than any of the previous generations. It is tilted more towards the front of the car. The coil-on-plug ignition is different in this generation and it is not compatible with the ST215 ECU. The valve cover is different as for the first time in the 3S-GTE series as the oil filler hole is on top of the exhaust camshaft instead of the intake. Other differences include the first time that there is no oil cooler in this generation as well as OBD2 diagnostics. Despite the downsize in various components of this generation, power is retained at and .


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 503E was used to power a number of Toyota Sports cars, including the Toyota 88C Group C entry and the All American Racers-built Eagle HF89/HF90 and Eagle MkIII IMSA Grand Touring Prototypes. It was hand-built by Toyota Racing Development in Torrance, California and produced up to . The 3S-GTE was later based on its design. They are similar engines, though not identical.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The Toyota TOM'S Supra GT500 race car used a version of the 3S-GTE known as the 3S-GT, another name for the 503E which was detuned to , in accordance to the regulations of GT500 at the time. This was due to the Supra's conventional engine, the 2JZ, being deemed as too front-heavy for the race car.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 4S is a , a narrower bore version of the 3S (82.5 x 86.0 mm). This was essentially a multi-valve, twin cam replacement for the 1.8-litre 1S series, with parallel differences as those between the 2S and 3S. There were both 4S-Fi (central point fuel injection) and 4S-FE (multi-point fuel injection) versions.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 5S engine was essentially the same basic design as the 3S, but features a slightly increased bore and an increased stroke (87.1 x 90.9 mm). The total displacement was thus increased to . It was used in the fifth- and sixth-generation Celica, the second-generation MR2, the third- and fourth-generation Camry, as well as the first-generation Camry Solara. Like the 3S, the 5S is of a non-interference design to prevent the pistons from striking the valves in case of a timing belt failure.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 5S-FE was available in several variations each being distinguished by valve cover design. The first generation, introduced in the 1990–92 Celica GT/GT-S and MR2, had a power rating of 130 hp and 144 lb ft of torque. The second generation was introduced in 1993 with the fifth generation (ST184) Celica, and continued through the sixth generation (ST204) Celica. The second generation was also used in the MR2 (SW21) and Camry/Scepter (XV10) series and had a power output of 135 hp and 145 lb ft of torque. It had slightly less aggressive cams, no cold start injector, a knock sensor, and more aggressive tuning to give it slightly more power. In states that had adopted California emission standards the 5S-FE was rated at 130 hp and 145 lb ft of torque due mainly to emission equipment used to meet those emission regulations. The third generation was the last 5S-FE engine produced and was used in the 1997–01 Camry XV20 and 1999–01 Camry Solara; however, from 1996 onward, the engine received a crank angle sensor instead of a cam angle sensor for a smoother idle. From 1997 to 1999 the engine produced 133 hp at 5,200 rpm and 147 lb ft of torque at 4,400 rpm. From 2000 to 2001, the engine received modest improvements to increase power output to 136 hp at 5,200 rpm and 150 lb ft of torque at 4,400 rpm. The 5S-FE was replaced in all applications by the 2.4 L 2AZ-FE.


title: Toyota S engine

text: California specification 1994-1996 5S-FEs in the Celica and Camry used air-assisted, 250 cc injectors, and sequential fuel injection for reduced emissions over the grouped (2+2) firing scheme. The 1994-1995 MR2 did not receive this change, nor did Camrys/Celicas in federal emissions states.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Camry 5S-FEs have a counter-rotating balance shaft assembly to reduce noise, vibration, and harshness. These reduce the second order vibrations common to four-cylinder engines by spinning at twice the crankshaft speed. The 1994-1999 Celica and 1991-1995 MR2 5S-FEs lack these balance shafts, so any 5S-FE engine with balance shafts likely came from a Camry.


title: Toyota S engine

text: In 1997, for the fourth generation Camry, the 5S-FE was updated for the last time. This engine received a direct ignition system with external camshaft and crankshaft sensors. This system used a wasted-spark design, and the coils had integrated igniters. The engine did not use a typical coil-on-plug design, but rather two coil+igniter assemblies mounted near cylinder four, and provided spark via normal high-tension cords (spark plug wires). This change means that the 1997-01 Camry 5S-FE has a blocked off distributor mounting hole and could be used with older 5S-FEs without swapping cylinder heads.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 1997-99 Camry 5S-FE continued with the air-assisted, 250 cc injectors. The Camry 5S-FE also had a factory 4-to-1 exhaust design - in Federal form, it had no pre-catalyst, although the California version did replace the collector design of the Federal version with a warm-up pre-catalyst for reduced cold start emissions.


title: Toyota S engine

text: For 2000 Toyota removed the air-assisted injectors and moved to superfine atomization (~50 micrometers), 12-hole, 235 cc injectors made by Denso. They are of a different design, and required a change in the cylinder head casting.


title: Toyota S engine

text: For 2001 Toyota started fitting factory MLS (multi-layer steel) head gaskets and other metal gaskets layered with Viton to engines, including the 5S-FE. MLS head gaskets require cylinder head and cylinder block resurfacing on older engines to ensure proper sealing; consequently, the MLS head gasket did not supersede the old composite head gasket.


title: Toyota S engine

text: The 1994 through 1999 Celica 5S-FE was not updated with these changes, and continued to use a distributor and the older electronic control system and injectors.


title: Toyota S engine

text: Essentially a CNG version of the 5S-FE. This engine was fitted to the XV20 Camry in California to fleet customers in 1999.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: Lee Byung-chul (Korean: 이병철 12 February 1910 – 19 November 1987) was a South Korean businessman. He was the founder of the Samsung Group, which is South Korea's largest chaebol, and he is considered one of South Korea's most successful businessmen. He was a pioneer of modern entrepreneurship and was a beacon of national economic development for South Korea.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: Byung-chul was the youngest son of four siblings to father Lee Chan-woo and mother Kwon Jae-lim. Byung-chul was the son of a wealthy land-owning yangban family (a branch of the Gyeongju Lee clan). He attended highschool at Joongdong High School in Seoul, and then college at Waseda University in Tokyo but did not complete his degree.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: After his death, Byung-chul's estate (Ho-Am) was opened to the public for tours. His collection of Korean art is considered one of the largest private collections in the country, featuring a number of art objects that have been designated "National Treasures" by the Korean government. Ho-Am is located a short distance from the Everland park, one of South Korea's popular amusement parks (Everland is also owned by the Samsung Group).


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: Byung-chul established a trucking business in Daegu on 1 March 1938, which he named Samsung Trading Co, the forerunner to Samsung. Samsung means "Three Stars" which explains the initial corporate logos.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: By 1945 Samsung was transporting goods throughout Korea and to other countries. The company was based in Seoul by 1947. It was one of the ten largest "trading companies" when the Korean War started in 1950. With the conquest of Seoul by the North Korean army, Lee was forced to relocate his business to Busan. The massive influx of U.S. troops and equipment into Busan over the next year and a half of the war proved to be highly beneficial to Lee's trading company.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: In 1961, when Park Chung-hee seized power in the May 16 coup, Lee was in Japan and for some time he did not return to South Korea. Eventually, a deal was struck and Lee returned but Samsung had to give up control over the banks it acquired and follow economic directives from Park's government.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: The first step of the Federation of Korean Industries was established in August 1961. The association was founded by Samsung Group chairman Lee Byung-chul.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: Later in life, Byung-chul served as chairman of the Federation of Korean Industries and was known as the richest man in Korea.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: In 1965, he established the Samsung Culture Foundation to promote a broad range of programs to enrich Korean cultural life.


title: Lee Byung-chul

text: In 1969, Samsung Electronics Manufacturing (renamed Samsung Electronics) and later merged with Samsung-Sanyo Electric. Samsung Electronics Manufacturing had 45 employees and about $250,000 sales in 1970 and it made household electronics exclusively.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: Robin Hood is a 1973 American animated musical adventure comedy film produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by Buena Vista Distribution, based on the English folk tale of the same name with the characters reimagined as anthropomorphic animals. Produced and directed by Wolfgang Reitherman, it is the 21st Disney animated feature film and the first entirely "post-Walt" animated feature, as Walt Disney was involved in the production of both "The Jungle Book" (1967) and "The Aristocats" (1970) before his death in 1966. The story follows the adventures of Robin Hood, Little John, and the inhabitants of Nottingham as they fight against the excessive taxation of Prince John, and Robin Hood wins the hand of Maid Marian. The film features the voices of Brian Bedford, Phil Harris, Peter Ustinov, Pat Buttram, Monica Evans, and Carole Shelley.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: The idea to adapt "Robin Hood" into an animated feature was dated back to Walt Disney's interest in the tale of Reynard the Fox during the theatrical release of his first full-length feature production, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" (1937). The idea was repeatedly shelved until writer and production designer Ken Anderson incorporated ideas from it in a pitch of the legend of Robin Hood using anthropomorphic animals rather than humans during the previous production of "The Aristocats" (1970).


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: "Robin Hood" was released on November 8, 1973. The film was a commercial success but received mixed reviews.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: The story is narrated by Alan-a-Dale. He introduces Robin Hood and Little John, who live in Sherwood Forest, robbing from the rich and giving to the overtaxed townsfolk of Nottingham. The Sheriff of Nottingham tries to catch the two, but he fails every time. Meanwhile, Prince John and his counselor Sir Hiss arrive in Nottingham. Earlier, Sir Hiss hypnotized Prince John's brother King Richard to fight in the third crusade, allowing Prince John to take the throne as "de facto" King. Unfortunately, the Prince is greedy and immature, even sucking his thumb whenever his mother is mentioned. Robin and Little John rob Prince John by disguising themselves as fortune tellers, prompting the Prince to put a bounty on their heads.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: The Sheriff, under Prince John's orders, taxes the inhabitants of Nottingham excessively. However, Robin gives back some money to a family of rabbits, and gives a bow, arrow and one of his hats to the young rabbit Skippy for his birthday. Skippy and his two sisters and his friend, Toby, test out the bow, but Skippy accidentally fires the arrow into the grounds of Nottingham Castle. The children sneak inside, meeting Maid Marian and her lady-in-waiting Lady Kluck. Marian reveals that she and Robin were once childhood sweethearts, but she was sent to London and has not seen him for years, only recently returning to Nottingham and assuming Robin has forgotten her.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: Friar Tuck, the local priest, visits Robin and Little John to report that Prince John is hosting an archery tournament, with a kiss from Maid Marian as the prize. Robin disguises himself as a stork and enters the contest, while Little John masquerades as the Duke of Chutney to get close to Prince John. Robin wins the tournament, but Prince John recognizes and exposes him, sentencing him to death despite Marian's pleas. Little John threatens Prince John with a dagger, resulting in a fight between Robin's forces and Prince John's soldiers, culminating in Robin's party escaping with Marian and Lady Kluck in tow.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: In the forest, Robin and Marian share a romantic evening, then are surprised by Robin's "merry men", who sing a funny song dubbing John the "Phony King of England". Prince John learns of the song and furiously triples the taxes; most of the town cannot pay, and are imprisoned. The Sheriff visits Friar Tuck's church to steal from the poor box; Tuck throws him out and attacks him with a quarterstaff, resulting in Tuck's arrest for "treason". Prince John learns of this, and orders Tuck's execution, hoping to lure Robin into doing something rash to save him.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: The night before the execution, despite the precautions of Prince John, Robin Hood and Little John sneak into the castle. Little John manages to free all of the prisoners, Tuck included, whilst Robin steals all of Prince John's gold. Hiss awakens, and tries to stop them, rousing the castle. Chaos ensues as Robin and the others try to escape to Sherwood Forest, and Robin is forced to return to the castle to rescue Skippy's sister, Tagalong. The Sheriff chases Robin through the building and attacks him with a lit torch, setting the castle ablaze and forcing Robin to jump into the moat. Little John and Skippy anxiously watch as the water is pelted with arrows, and for a moment, it seems as if Robin has been killed, but he eventually emerges unharmed. Hiss chides a despairing Prince John for his failed trap, and points out the castle (belonging to Prince John's mother) is afire, which drives Prince John to insanity.


title: Robin Hood (1973 film)

text: Later, King Richard returns to England, and sentences Prince John, Hiss, and the Sheriff to hard labor in the Royal Rock Pile. He pardons Robin Hood, who marries Maid Marian and leaves Nottingham, with Little John and Skippy in tow.