title: Gluten-free diet

text: Coeliac disease affects approximately 1–2% of the general population all over the world and is on the increase, but most cases remain unrecognized, undiagnosed and untreated, exposing patients to the risk of long-term complications. People may develop severe disease symptoms and be subjected to extensive investigations for many years before a proper diagnosis is achieved. Untreated coeliac disease may cause malabsorption, reduced quality of life, iron deficiency, osteoporosis, obstetric complications (stillbirth, intrauterine growth restriction, preterm birth, low birthweight, and small for gestational age), an increased risk of intestinal lymphomas and greater mortality. Coeliac disease is associated with some autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 1, thyroiditis, gluten ataxia, psoriasis, vitiligo, autoimmune hepatitis, dermatitis herpetiformis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and more.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Coeliac disease with "classic symptoms", which include gastrointestinal manifestations such as chronic diarrhea and abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite, and impaired growth, is currently the least common presentation form of the disease and affects predominantly to small children generally younger than two years of age.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Coeliac disease with "non-classic symptoms" is the most common clinical type and occurs in older children (over two years old), adolescents and adults. It is characterized by milder or even absent gastrointestinal symptoms and a wide spectrum of non-intestinal manifestations that can involve any organ of the body, and very frequently may be completely asymptomatic both in children (at least in 43% of the cases) and adults.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Following a lifelong gluten-free diet is the only medically-accepted treatment for people with coeliac disease.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Non-coeliac gluten sensitivity (NCGS) is described as a condition of multiple symptoms that improves when switching to a gluten-free diet, after coeliac disease and wheat allergy are excluded. People with NCGS may develop gastrointestinal symptoms, which resemble those of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) or a variety of nongastrointestinal symptoms.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Gastrointestinal symptoms may include any of the following: abdominal pain, bloating, bowel habit abnormalities (either diarrhoea or constipation), nausea, aerophagia, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and aphthous stomatitis. A range of extra-intestinal symptoms, said to be the only manifestation of NCGS in the absence of gastrointestinal symptoms, have been suggested, but remain controversial. These include: headache, migraine, "brain fog", fatigue, fibromyalgia, joint and muscle pain, leg or arm numbness, tingling of the extremities, dermatitis (eczema or skin rash), atopic disorders such as asthma, rhinitis, other allergies, depression, anxiety, iron-deficiency anemia, folate deficiency or autoimmune diseases. NCGS has also been controversially implicated in some neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, eating disorders, autism, peripheral neuropathy, ataxia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Above 20% of people with NCGS have IgE-mediated allergy to one or more inhalants, foods or metals, among which most common are mites, graminaceae, parietaria, cat or dog hair, shellfish and nickel. Approximately, 35% of people with NCGS have other food intolerances, mainly lactose intolerance.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: The pathogenesis of NCGS is not yet well understood. For this reason, it is a controversial syndrome and some authors still question it. There is evidence that not only gliadin (the main cytotoxic antigen of gluten), but also other proteins named ATIs which are present in gluten-containing cereals (wheat, rye, barley, and their derivatives) may have a role in the development of symptoms. ATIs are potent activators of the innate immune system. FODMAPs, especially fructans, are present in small amounts in gluten-containing grains and have been identified as a possible cause of some gastrointestinal symptoms in persons with NCGS. As of 2019, reviews have concluded that although FODMAPs may play a role in NCGS, they only explain certain gastrointestinal symptoms, such as bloating, but not the extra-digestive symptoms that people with NCGS may develop, such as neurological disorders, fibromyalgia, psychological disturbances, and dermatitis.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: After exclusion of coeliac disease and wheat allergy, the subsequent step for diagnosis and treatment of NCGS is to start a strict gluten-free diet to assess if symptoms improve or resolve completely. This may occur within days to weeks of starting a GFD, but improvement may also be due to a non-specific, placebo response. Recommendations may resemble those for coeliac disease, for the diet to be strict and maintained, with no transgression. The degree of gluten cross contamination tolerated by people with NCGS is not clear but there is some evidence that they can present with symptoms even after consumption of small amounts. It is not yet known whether NCGS is a permanent or a transient condition. A trial of gluten reintroduction to observe any reaction after 1–2 years of strict gluten-free diet might be performed.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: A subgroup of people with NCGS may not improve by eating commercially available gluten-free products, which are usually rich of preservatives and additives, because chemical additives (such as sulphites, glutamates, nitrates and benzoates) might have a role in evoking functional gastrointestinal symptoms of NCGS. These people may benefit from a diet with a low content of preservatives and additives.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: NCGS, which is possibly immune-mediated, now appears to be more common than coeliac disease, with prevalence rates between 0.5 and 13% in the general population.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: People can also experience adverse effects of wheat as result of a wheat allergy. Gastrointestinal symptoms of wheat allergy are similar to those of coeliac disease and non-coeliac gluten sensitivity, but there is a different interval between exposure to wheat and onset of symptoms. Other symptoms such as dermal reactions like as rashes or hyperpigmentation may also occur in some people. Wheat allergy has a fast onset (from minutes to hours) after the consumption of food containing wheat and could be anaphylaxis.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: The management of wheat allergy consists of complete withdrawal of any food containing wheat and other gluten-containing cereals. Nevertheless, some people with wheat allergy can tolerate barley, rye or oats.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Gluten ataxia is an autoimmune disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten. With gluten ataxia, damage takes place in the cerebellum, the balance center of the brain that controls coordination and complex movements like walking, speaking and swallowing, with loss of Purkinje cells. People with gluten ataxia usually present gait abnormality or incoordination and tremor of the upper limbs. Gaze-evoked nystagmus and other ocular signs of cerebellar dysfunction are common. Myoclonus, palatal tremor, and opsoclonus-myoclonus may also appear.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Early diagnosis and treatment with a gluten-free diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression. The effectiveness of the treatment depends on the elapsed time from the onset of the ataxia until diagnosis, because the death of neurons in the cerebellum as a result of gluten exposure is irreversible.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Gluten ataxia accounts for 40% of ataxias of unknown origin and 15% of all ataxias. Less than 10% of people with gluten ataxia present any gastrointestinal symptom, yet about 40% have intestinal damage.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Since the beginning of the 21st century, the gluten-free diet has become the most popular fad diet in the United States and other countries. Clinicians worldwide have been challenged by an increasing number of people who do not have coeliac disease nor wheat allergy, with digestive or extra-digestive symptoms which improved removing wheat/gluten from the diet. Many of these persons began a gluten-free diet on their own, without having been previously evaluated. Another reason that contributed to this trend was the publication of several books that demonize gluten and point to it as a cause of type 2 diabetes, weight gain and obesity, and a broad list of diseases ranging from depression and anxiety to arthritis and autism. The book that has had the most impact is "Grain Brain: The Surprising Truth About Wheat, Carbs, and Sugar—Your Brain's Silent Killers", by the American neurologist David Perlmutter, published in September 2013. Another book that has had great impact is "Wheat Belly: Lose the Wheat, Lose the Weight, and Find Your Path Back to Health", by the cardiologist William Davis, which refers to wheat as a "chronic poison" and became a "New York Times" bestseller within a month of publication in 2011. The gluten-free diet has been advocated and followed by many celebrities to lose weight, such as Miley Cyrus, Gwyneth Paltrow, and Kourtney Kardashian, and are used by some professional athletes, who believe the diet can improve energy and health. It became popular in the US, as the popularity of low-carbohydrate diets faded.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Estimates suggest that in 2014, 30% of people in the US and Australia were consuming gluten-free foods, with a growing number, calculated from surveys that by 2016 approximately 100 million Americans would consume gluten-free products. Data from a 2015 Nielsen survey of 30,000 adults in 60 countries around the world conclude that 21% of people prefer to buy gluten-free foods, being the highest interest among the younger generations. In the US, it was estimated that more than half of people who buy foods labeled gluten-free do not have a clear reaction to gluten, and they do so "because they think it will help them lose weight, because they seem to feel better or because they mistakenly believe they are sensitive to gluten." Although gluten is highly immunologically reactive and humans appear not to have evolved to digest it well, a gluten-free diet is not a healthier option for the general population, other than people with gluten-related disorders or other associated conditions which improve with a gluten-free diet in some cases, such as irritable bowel syndrome and certain autoimmune and neurological disorders. There is no published experimental evidence to support that the gluten-free diet contributes to weight loss.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In a review of May 2015 published in "Gastroenterology", Fasano et al. conclude that, although there is an evident "fad component" to the recent rise in popularity of the gluten-free diet, there is also growing and unquestionable evidence of the existence of non-coeliac gluten sensitivity.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In some cases, the popularity of the gluten-free diet may harm people who must eliminate gluten for medical reasons. For example, servers in restaurants may not take dietary requirements seriously, believing them to be merely a preference. This could prevent appropriate precautions in food handling to prevent gluten cross-contamination. Medical professionals may also confuse medical explanations for gluten intolerance with patient preference. On the other hand, the popularity of the gluten-free diet has increased the availability of commercial gluten-free replacement products and gluten-free grains.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Gluten-free commercial replacement products, such as gluten-free cakes, are more expensive than their gluten-containing counterparts, so their purchase adds a financial burden. They are also typically higher in calories, fat, and sugar, and lower in dietary fibre. In less developed countries, wheat can represent an important source of protein, since it is a substantial part of the diet in the form of bread, noodles, bulgur, couscous, and other products.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In the British National Health Service, gluten-free foods have been supplied on prescription. For many patients, this meant at no cost. When it was proposed to alter this in 2018, the Department of Health and Social Care made an assessment of the costs and benefits. The potential annual financial saving to the service was estimated at £5.3 million, taking into account the reduction in cost spending and the loss of income from prescription charges. The proposed scenario was actually that patients could still be prescribed gluten-free breads and mixes but would have to buy any other gluten-free products themselves. The savings would only amount to £700,000 a year. Local initiatives by clinical commissioning groups had already reduced the cost of gluten-free foods to the NHS by 39% between 2015 and 2017.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Healthcare professionals recommend against undertaking a gluten-free diet as a form of self-diagnosis, because tests for coeliac disease are reliable only if the person has been consuming gluten recently. There is a consensus in the medical community that people should consult a physician before going on a gluten-free diet, so that a medical professional can accurately test for coeliac disease or any other gluten-induced health issues.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism, there is no good evidence that a gluten-free diet is of benefit in reducing the symptoms of autism.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In a 2013 double-blind, placebo-controlled challenge (DBPC) by Biesiekierski et al. in a few people with irritable bowel syndrome, the authors found no difference between gluten or placebo groups and the concept of non-celiac gluten sensitivity as a syndrome was questioned. Nevertheless, this study had design errors and an incorrect selection of participants, and probably the reintroduction of both gluten and whey protein had a nocebo effect similar in all people, and this could have masked the true effect of gluten/wheat reintroduction.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In a 2015 double-blind placebo cross-over trial, small amounts of purified wheat gluten triggered gastrointestinal symptoms (such as abdominal bloating and pain) and extra-intestinal manifestations (such as foggy mind, depression and aphthous stomatitis) in self-reported non-celiac gluten sensitivity. Nevertheless, it remains elusive whether these findings specifically implicate gluten or other proteins present in gluten-containing cereals.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: In a 2018 double-blind, crossover research study on 59 persons on a gluten-free diet with challenges of gluten, fructans or placebo, intestinal symptoms (specifically bloating) were borderline significantly higher after challenge with fructans, in comparison with gluten proteins (P=0.049). Although the differences between the three interventions was very small, the authors concluded that fructans (the specific type of FODMAP found in wheat) are more likely to be the cause of gastrointestinal symptoms of non-celiac gluten sensitivity, rather than gluten. In addition, fructans used in the study were extracted from chicory root, so it remains to be seen whether the wheat fructans produce the same effect.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: A gluten-free diet is a diet that strictly excludes gluten, proteins present in wheat (and all wheat varieties such as spelt and kamut), barley, rye, oat, and derivatives of these grains such as malt and triticale, and foods that may include them, or shared transportation or processing facilities with them. The inclusion of oats in a gluten-free diet remains controversial. Oat toxicity in people with gluten-related disorders depends on the oat cultivar consumed because the immunoreactivities of toxic prolamins are different among oat varieties. Furthermore, oats are frequently cross-contaminated with the other gluten-containing cereals. Pure oat (labelled as "pure oat" or "gluten-free oat") refers to oats uncontaminated with any of the other gluten-containing cereals. Some cultivars of pure oat could be a safe part of a gluten-free diet, requiring knowledge of the oat variety used in food products for a gluten-free diet. Nevertheless, the long-term effects of pure oats consumption are still unclear and further studies identifying the cultivars used are needed before making final recommendations on their inclusion in the gluten-free diet.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Other grains, although gluten-free in themselves, may contain gluten by cross-contamination with gluten-containing cereals during grain harvesting, transporting, milling, storing, processing, handling or cooking.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Processed foods commonly contain gluten as an additive (as emulsifiers, thickeners, gelling agents, fillers, and coatings), so they would need specific labeling. Unexpected sources of gluten are, among others, processed meat, vegetarian meat substitutes, reconstituted seafood, stuffings, butter, seasonings, marinades, dressings, confectionary, candies, and ice cream.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Cross-contamination in the home is also a consideration for those who have gluten-related disorders. There can be many sources of cross-contamination, as for example when family members prepare gluten-free and gluten-containing foods on the same surfaces (countertops, tables, etc.) or share utensils that have not been cleaned after being used to prepare gluten-containing foods (cutting boards, colanders, cutlery, etc.), kitchen equipment (toaster, cupboards, etc.) or certain packaged foods (butter, peanut butter, etc.).


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Restaurants prove to be another source of cross-contamination for those following a strict gluten-free diet. A study conducted by Columbia University Medical Center found that 32% of foods labeled gluten-free at restaurants contain above 20 parts per million of gluten, meaning that it contains enough gluten that it is no longer considered gluten-free by the Codex Alimentarius. Cross-contamination occurs in these areas frequently because of a general lack of knowledge about the needed level of caution and the prevalence of gluten in restaurant kitchens. If cooks are unaware of the severity of their guest's diet restrictions or of the important practices needed to limit cross-contamination, they can unknowingly deliver contaminated food. However, some restaurants utilize a training program for their employees to educate them about the gluten-free diet. The accuracy of the training varies. One resource to find these safer restaurants is an app and website called "Find Me Gluten Free" that allows people following a gluten-free diet to rate the safety of different restaurants from their point of view and describe their experience to help future customers.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Easily locating gluten-free items is one of the main difficulties in following a gluten-free diet. To assist in this process, many restaurants and grocery stores choose to label food items. Restaurants often add a gluten-free section to their menu, or specifically mark gluten-free items with a symbol of some kind. Grocery stores often have a gluten-free aisle, or they will attach labels on the shelf underneath gluten-free items. Though the food is labeled gluten-free in this way, it doesn't necessarily mean that the food is safe for those with gluten-related disorders, as a compilation of studies suggest.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: The gluten-free diet includes naturally gluten-free food, such as meat, fish, seafood, eggs, milk and dairy products, nuts, legumes, fruit, vegetables, potatoes, pseudocereals (in particular amaranth, buckwheat, chia seed, quinoa), only certain cereal grains (corn, rice, sorghum), minor cereals (including fonio, Job's tears, millet, teff, called "minor" cereals as they are "less common and are only grown in a few small regions of the world"), some other plant products (arrowroot, mesquite flour, sago, tapioca) and products made from these gluten-free foods. Most Indian cuisine options, particularly South Indian cuisine, are for the most part inherently gluten-free and in fact most Indian vegetarian options are inherently vegan.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: An unbalanced selection of food and an incorrect choice of gluten-free replacement products may lead to nutritional deficiencies. Replacing flour from wheat or other gluten-containing cereals with gluten-free flours in commercial products may lead to a lower intake of important nutrients, such as iron and B vitamins and a higher intake of sugars and saturated fats. Some gluten-free commercial replacement products are not enriched or fortified as their gluten-containing counterparts, and often have greater lipid / carbohydrate content. Children especially often over-consume these products, such as snacks and biscuits. These nutritional complications can be prevented by a correct dietary education. Pseudocereals (quinoa, amaranth, and buckwheat) and some minor cereals are healthy alternatives to these prepared products and have higher biological and nutritional value. Advances towards higher nutrition-content gluten-free bakery products, improved for example in terms of fiber content and glycemic index, have been made by using not exclusively corn starch or other starches to substitute for flour. In this aim, for example the dietary fibre inulin (which acts as a prebiotic) or quinoa or amaranth wholemeal have been as substitute for part of the flour. Similarly, xanthan gum can be used in up to gram quantities per serving in some gluten-free baked goods and can be fermented by specific microbiomes in the gastrointestinal tract. Such substitution has been found to also yield improved crust and texture of bread. It is recommended that anyone embarking on a gluten-free diet check with a registered dietitian to make sure they are getting the required amount of key nutrients like iron, calcium, fiber, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and folate. Vitamins often contain gluten as a binding agent. Experts have advised that it is important to always read the content label of any product that is intended to be swallowed.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Up to 30% of people with known coeliac disease often continue having or redeveloping symptoms. Also, a lack of symptoms or negative blood antibodies levels are not reliable indicators of intestinal recuperation. Several studies show an incomplete recovery of small bowel despite a strict gluten-free diet, and about 79% of such people have persistent villous atrophy. This lack of recovery is mainly caused by inadvertent exposure to gluten. People with poor basic education and understanding of the gluten-free diet often believe that they are strictly following the diet, but are making regular errors. In addition, some people often deliberately continue eating gluten because of limited availability, inferior taste, higher price, and inadequate labelling of gluten-free products. Poor compliance with the regimen is also influenced by age at diagnosis (adolescents), ignorance of the consequences of the lack of a strict treatment and certain psychological factors. Ongoing gluten intake can cause severe disease complications, such as various types of cancers (both intestinal and extra-intestinal) and osteoporosis.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: The term "gluten-free" is generally used to indicate a supposed harmless level of gluten rather than a complete absence. The exact level at which gluten is harmless is uncertain and controversial. A 2008 systematic review tentatively concluded that consumption of less than 10 mg (10 ppm) of gluten per day is unlikely to cause histological abnormalities, although it noted that few reliable studies had been done.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Regulation of the label gluten-free varies by country. Most countries derive key provisions of their gluten-free labelling regulations from the Codex Alimentarius international standards for food labelling as a standard relating to the labelling of products as gluten-free. It only applies to foods that would normally contain gluten. Gluten-free is defined as 20 ppm (= 20 mg/kg) or less. It categorizes gluten-free food as:


title: Gluten-free diet

text: The Codex Standard suggests the enzyme-linked Immunoassay (ELISA) R5 Mendez method for indicating the presence of gluten, but allows for other relevant methods, such as DNA. The Codex Standard specifies that the gluten-free claim must appear in the immediate proximity of the name of the product, to ensure visibility.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: There is no general agreement on the analytical method used to measure gluten in ingredients and food products. The ELISA method was designed to detect w-gliadins, but it suffered from the setback that it lacked sensitivity for barley prolamins. The use of highly sensitive assays is mandatory to certify gluten-free food products. The European Union, World Health Organization, and Codex Alimentarius require reliable measurement of the wheat prolamins, gliadins rather than all-wheat proteins.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: All food products must be clearly labelled whether they contain gluten or they are gluten-free. Since April 2016, the declaration of the possibility of cross-contamination is mandatory when the product does not intentionally add any allergenic food or its derivatives, but the Good Manufacturing Practices and allergen control measures adopted are not sufficient to prevent the presence of accidental trace amounts. When a product contains the warning of cross-contamination with wheat, rye, barley, oats and their hybridised strains, the warning "contains gluten" is mandatory. The law does not establish a gluten threshold for the declaration of its absence.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Health Canada considers that foods containing levels of gluten not exceeding 20 ppm as a result of contamination, meet the health and safety intent of section B.24.018 of the Food and Drug Regulations when a gluten-free claim is made. Any intentionally added gluten, even at low levels must be declared on the packaging and a gluten-free claim would be considered false and misleading. Labels for all food products sold in Canada must clearly identify the presence of gluten if it is present at a level greater than 10 ppm.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: All foods containing gluten as an ingredient must be labelled accordingly as gluten is defined as one of the 14 recognised EU allergens.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Until 2012 anyone could use the gluten-free claim with no repercussion. In 2008, Wellshire Farms chicken nuggets labelled gluten-free were purchased and samples were sent to a food allergy laboratory where they were found to contain gluten. After this was reported in the "Chicago Tribune", the products continued to be sold. The manufacturer has since replaced the batter used in its chicken nuggets. The U.S. first addressed gluten-free labelling in the 2004 Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA). The Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau published interim rules and proposed mandatory labelling for alcoholic products in 2006. The FDA issued their Final Rule on August 5, 2013.


title: Gluten-free diet

text: When a food producer voluntarily chooses to use a gluten-free claim for a product, the food bearing the claim in its labelling may not contain:


title: Gluten-free diet

text: Any food product that inherently does not contain gluten may use a gluten-free label where any unavoidable presence of gluten in the food bearing the claim in its labelling is below 20 ppm gluten.


title: Killing Fields

text: The Killing Fields (, ) are a number of sites in Cambodia where collectively more than one million people were killed and buried by the Khmer Rouge regime (the Communist Party of Kampuchea) during its rule of the country from 1975 to 1979, immediately after the end of the Cambodian Civil War (1970–1975). The mass killings are widely regarded as part of a broad state-sponsored genocide (the Cambodian genocide).


title: Killing Fields

text: Analysis of 20,000 mass grave sites by the DC-Cam Mapping Program and Yale University indicates at least 1,386,734 victims of execution. Estimates of the total deaths resulting from Khmer Rouge policies, including death from disease and starvation, range from 1.7 to 2.5 million out of a 1975 population of roughly 8 million. In 1979, Vietnam invaded Democratic Kampuchea and toppled the Khmer Rouge regime, ending the genocide.


title: Killing Fields

text: The Cambodian journalist Dith Pran coined the term "killing fields" after his escape from the regime.


title: Killing Fields

text: The Khmer Rouge regime arrested and eventually executed almost everyone suspected of connections with the former government or with foreign governments, as well as professionals and intellectuals. Ethnic Vietnamese, ethnic Thai, ethnic Chinese, ethnic Cham, Cambodian Christians, and Buddhist monks were the demographic targets of persecution. As a result, Pol Pot has been described as "a genocidal tyrant". Martin Shaw described the Cambodian genocide as "the purest genocide of the Cold War era".


title: Killing Fields

text: Ben Kiernan estimates that about 1.7 million people were killed. Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely" figure of 2.2 million. After five years of researching some 20,000 grave sites, he concludes that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution". A United Nations investigation reported 2–3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million had been killed. Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed, while Marek Sliwinski suggests that 1.8 million is a conservative figure. Even the Khmer Rouge acknowledged that 2 million had been killed—though they attributed those deaths to a subsequent Vietnamese invasion. By late 1979, UN and Red Cross officials were warning that another 2.25 million Cambodians faced death by starvation due to "the near destruction of Cambodian society under the regime of ousted Prime Minister Pol Pot", who were saved by international aid after the Vietnamese invasion.


title: Killing Fields

text: The judicial process of the Khmer Rouge regime, for minor or political crimes, began with a warning from the Angkar, the government of Cambodia under the regime. People receiving more than two warnings were sent for "re-education," which meant near-certain death. People were often encouraged to confess to Angkar their "pre-revolutionary lifestyles and crimes" (which usually included some kind of free-market activity; having had contact with a foreign source, such as a U.S. missionary, international relief or government agency; or contact with any foreigner or with the outside world at all), being told that Angkar would forgive them and "wipe the slate clean." They were then taken away to a place such as Tuol Sleng or Choeung Ek for torture and/or execution.


title: Killing Fields

text: The executed were buried in mass graves. In order to save ammunition, the executions were often carried out using poison, spades or sharpened bamboo sticks.


title: Killing Fields

text: Inside the Buddhist Memorial Stupa at Choeung Ek, there is evidence of bayonets, knives, wooden clubs, hoes for farming and curved scythes being used to kill victims, with images of skulls, damaged by these implements, as evidence.


title: Killing Fields

text: In some cases the children and infants of adult victims were killed by having their heads bashed against the trunks of Chankiri trees, and then were thrown into the pits alongside their parents. The rationale was "to stop them growing up and taking revenge for their parents' deaths."


title: Killing Fields

text: Some victims were required to dig their own graves; their weakness often meant that they were unable to dig very deep. The soldiers who carried out the executions were mostly young men or women from peasant families.


title: Killing Fields

text: In 1997 the Cambodian government asked for the UN's assistance in setting up a genocide tribunal. It took nine years to agree to the shape and structure of the court—a hybrid of Cambodian and international laws—before the judges were sworn in, in 2006. The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007. On 19 September 2007 Nuon Chea, second in command of the Khmer Rouge and its most senior surviving member, was charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity. He faced Cambodian and foreign judges at the special genocide tribunal and was convicted on 7 August 2014 and received a life sentence. On 26 July 2010 Kang Kek Iew (aka Comrade Duch), director of the S-21 prison camp, was convicted of crimes against humanity and sentenced to 35 years' imprisonment. His sentence was reduced to 19 years, as he had already spent 11 years in prison. On 2 February 2012, his sentence was extended to life imprisonment by the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia. He died on 2 September 2020.


title: Killing Fields

text: The best known monument of the Killing Fields is at the village of Choeung Ek. Today, it is the site of a Buddhist memorial to the victims, and Tuol Sleng has a museum commemorating the genocide. The memorial park at Choeung Ek has been built around the mass graves of many thousands of victims, most of whom were executed after interrogation at the S-21 Prison in Phnom Penh. The majority of those buried at Choeung Ek were Khmer Rouge killed during the purges within the regime. Many dozens of mass graves are visible above ground, many which have not been excavated yet. Commonly, bones and clothing surface after heavy rainfalls due to the large number of bodies still buried in shallow mass graves. It is not uncommon to run across the bones or teeth of the victims scattered on the surface as one tours the memorial park. If these are found, visitors are asked to notify a memorial park officer or guide.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Battle of Shiloh (also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing) was fought on April 6–7, 1862, in the American Civil War. The fighting took place in southwestern Tennessee, which was part of the war's Western Theater. The battlefield is located between a church named Shiloh and Pittsburg Landing, which is on the Tennessee River. Two Union armies combined to defeat the Confederate Army of Mississippi. Major General Ulysses S. Grant was the Union commander, while General Albert Sidney Johnston was the Confederate commander.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Confederate army hoped to defeat Grant's Army of the Tennessee before it could be reinforced and resupplied. Although it made considerable gains with a surprise attack during the first day of the battle, Johnston was mortally wounded and Grant's army was not eliminated. Overnight, Grant's Army of the Tennessee was reinforced by one of its divisions stationed farther north, and it was also joined by portions of the Army of the Ohio. This second Union army was commanded by Major General Don Carlos Buell. The Union forces conducted an unexpected counterattack in the morning, which reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. The exhausted Confederate troops withdrew further south, and a modest Union pursuit started and ended on the next day.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Though victorious, the Union army had more casualties than the Confederates, and Grant was heavily criticized. Decisions made on the battlefield by leadership on both sides were questioned, often by those that were not present for the fighting. The battle was the costliest engagement of the Civil War up to that point, and its nearly 24,000 casualties made it one of the bloodiest battles in the entire war.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: During February 1862, a Union army led by Ulysses S. Grant won two battles that were the most significant Union victories, at that time, of the American Civil War. The battles were the Battle of Fort Henry and the Battle of Fort Donelson, and they occurred in Tennessee on the Tennessee River and the Cumberland River, respectively. Those rivers were vital to the Confederacy as transportation routes, and they also connected the city of Nashville, an ironworks, and major agricultural areas. Nashville was a converging point for railroads, a major producer of gunpowder, and a major supply depot. The Union army increased its firepower in those battles by receiving assistance from U.S. Navy gunboats. The steam-powered gunboats were flat-bottomed, armored, and carried up to 13 artillery pieces. Grant was rewarded for his success by a promotion to major general, making him senior to all generals in the Western Theater (between the Appalachian Mountains and Mississippi River) with the exception of Major General Henry Halleck.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Continuing their push into Confederate territory, Union troops arrived at the Tennessee River town of Savannah, Tennessee, on March 11. By mid-March, a large number of Union troops were camped there and at landings further south, and additional Union troops under the command of Don Carlos Buell were moving from Nashville to join the force on the river. Union leadership realized that its troops were too spread out, so it was decided to concentrate troops at Pittsburg Landing. Pittsburg Landing is upriver (south) of Savannah, and it had a road that led to Corinth, Mississippi. About inland from the landing was a log church named Shiloh. The Hebrew word "shiloh" translates to "place of peace". The region that would become the Shiloh battlefield was somewhat shaped like a triangle, with the sides formed by various creeks and the Tennessee River. The land was mostly wooded, with scattered cotton fields, peach orchards, and a few small structures.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Confederate Army's February 6 loss at Fort Henry caused it to abandon Kentucky and parts of Tennessee. The last Confederate troops in Nashville moved south on February 23. General Albert Sidney Johnston, Confederate commander of the Western Theater, made the decision to make the controversial abandonment. Although Confederate politicians were unhappy with Johnston's performance and the abandonment, the consolidation of troops further south was a wise choice because the Union forces on the Tennessee River could cut off Confederate retreats from posts in Kentucky and major portions of Tennessee. Confederate leadership decided to consolidate forces in Corinth, Mississippi, which is just south of the Tennessee–Mississippi border. The town of Corinth had a strategic value because it was at the intersection of two railroads, including one that was part of the rail network used to move Confederate supplies and troops between Tennessee and Virginia. By the end of March, over 40,000 Confederate troops were concentrated at Corinth.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Union plan was to combine Grant's and Buell's armies and continue its southward offensive. If the combined armies could move south and capture Corinth, they would have a good starting point for the capture of Memphis, Vicksburg, and large portions of Confederate territory. While most of Grant's army camped near the river at Pittsburg Landing in early April, one division was downstream (north) at Crump's Landing, and army headquarters remained further north in Savannah. Buell's army was moving south from Nashville to Savannah, and no advancement beyond the Pittsburg Landing-Shiloh area was allowed until the two armies combined. On April 4, Confederate cavalry was seen by a Union patrol near Shiloh, but Union leadership was not concerned.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Confederate leaders realized they could soon be outnumbered. They had 42,000 men at Corinth, and 15,000 more on the way, while the not–yet–combined Union force could be as large as 75,000 men. Instead of waiting to be attacked by a larger force, they decided to surprise the Union Army on April 4 before the second Union Army arrived from Nashville. Inexperience and bad weather caused their 20-mile (32km) march north to be "a nightmare of confusion and delays", and the Confederate Army was not deployed into position until the afternoon of April 5. The army spent the night of April 5 on the south side of the Union campsites. The plan was to attack the Union left, pushing it northwest against the swampy land adjacent to Snake and Owl creeks. Confederate troops along the Tennessee River would prevent Union reinforcements and resupply.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The two Union armies in the Battle of Shiloh were part of the Department of the Mississippi, which was commanded by Major General Henry Halleck. Although Halleck hoped to lead the two armies in an eventual attack on Corinth, he was not present at Shiloh. The combined armies present for the battle totaled to 66,812 men. They had 119 artillery pieces available for the battle. The majority of the Union soldiers were armed with either a .69 caliber model 1841 rifled musket or a .69 caliber model 1842 smoothbore musket, although a few regiments had more modern weapons such as the .58 caliber Springfield Model 1855. A few regiments, or sometimes a few companies within a regiment, had Enfield or Austrian rifles. The armies and their divisions were organized as follows:


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Army of the Tennessee had the most Union men present at the battle, and it was commanded by Major General Ulysses S. Grant. In February 1862, a smaller version of Grant's army, with the assistance of gunboats under the command of Flag-Officer Andrew H. Foote, was the victor in the Battle of Fort Henry and the Battle of Fort Donelson. For the Battle of Shiloh, Grant's army had 48,894 men in six divisions. Two new divisions (4th and 5th) were added to Grant's three in early March. A 6th Division was created from reinforcement units at the beginning of April. The divisions (and gunboats) were as follows:


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The other Union army at the Battle of Shiloh was the Army of the Ohio, which was commanded by Major General Don Carlos Buell. Portions of this army did not participate in the battle. One portion remained in Nashville, and another portion moved toward Murfreesboro and northern Alabama. Another division, plus part of a second one, did not arrive in time to participate in the battle. The number of men present at the battle totaled to 17,918. Although none of the regiments in Buell's army had participated in a major battle, all were well-trained and well-equipped. The divisions in the battle were:


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Confederate army at the Battle of Shiloh was called the Army of Mississippi, and it was commanded by General Albert Sidney Johnston. This army was created by combining the scattered divisions of Johnston's army with troops from Mobile and New Orleans. Johnston's second in command was General Pierre G. T. Beauregard. This army had 117 artillery pieces for the battle. Including one regiment that arrived on April 7, Johnston had 44,699 men present for duty. The forces at the battle were:


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Most of the Confederate troops did not have combat experience, and regiments were smaller than normal. Bragg's Second Corps was the largest of four corps, although it was smaller than the normal size. One of the reasons for the four small corps (instead of fewer corps that were larger) was size deception, as a typical corps had about 20,000 men. Small arms included flintlocks, shotguns, squirrel rifles, and percussion muskets. A few thousand of the highly accurate Enfield rifles were distributed to Johnston's men before the battle. The Confederate supply of Enfield rifles increased when they were seized from Union troops in the battle. Only one-third of the cavalry possessed any weapons at the start of the battle. Confederate cavalry was much more effective than their Union counterpart, and enabled Johnston to know the positions of both Union armies.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Early Sunday morning on April 6, five of Grant's six divisions were camped between the Shiloh Church area and the Tennessee River. Sherman's division was the first to occupy the Shiloh area, so his four brigades were camped near the main approaches to Pittsburg Landing. Colonel David Stuart's brigade was on the Union left (east side of battlefield) near the Hamburg-Savannah Road and a ford. To the west in the Shiloh Church area, Sherman's other three brigades formed the Union right. They covered the Pittsburg–Corinth Road and the Owl Creek Bridge over the Hamburg–Purdy Road. In between Sherman and Stuart was Prentiss's division, and between the Shiloh Church area and the Tennessee River were the divisions of McClernand and Hurlbut. To the north and closest to Pittsburg Landing was W.H.L. Wallace's division. Lew Wallace's division was at Crump's Landing, downstream (north) of the Union campsites, to guard against a Confederate attack from behind. Grant was further north at his headquarters in Savannah. Nelson's division from Buell's army had reached Savannah, but Buell's other divisions were still marching.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Shiloh camps did not form a defensive line, and no entrenchments were made because nobody expected a fight at that location. The divisions of Sherman and Prentiss were the most forward (closest to Corinth) of the group. Only a few pickets were in place—despite a small skirmish taking place on April 4. After hearing reports concerning sightings of Confederate soldiers in the Shiloh area, Colonel Everett Peabody, commander of the First Brigade from Prentiss's division, became concerned. Around midnight on April 5, Peabody ordered Major James E. Powell to take three companies of the 25th Missouri Infantry Regiment, and two companies of the 12th Michigan Infantry Regiment, on a reconnaissance (a.k.a. scout) to Seay Field where the sighting had been made. Prentiss was not informed, and Powell's men advanced from their camp southwest down a farm road that led to the Pittsburg-Corinth Road.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Confederate Third Brigade of Hardee's Third Corps was southwest of Powell's patrol. The brigade was commanded by Brigadier General S. A. M. Wood, and he had sent forward 280 skirmishers from Major Aaron B. Hardcastle's Third Mississippi Battalion. Hardcastle kept most of his men in the southeast corner of James J. Fraley's 40-acre (16 ha) cotton field, while two sets of pickets were positioned closer to the Union camps. Around 5:00am (April 6), Confederate pickets fired at Powell's men before returning to the battalion. When Powell advanced within of Hardcastle's main force, the Confederates opened fire. The Battle of Shiloh began with these two small forces fighting for over an hour. The battle has also been called the "Battle of Pittsburg Landing".


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Around 5:30am, Confederate leaders heard the commotion at Fraley Field, and Johnston ordered a general attack. Johnston instructed Beauregard to stay in the rear and direct men and supplies as needed. Johnston rode to the front to lead the men on the battle line, and this arrangement effectively ceded control of the battle to Beauregard. On the Union side, Powell sent a message to Colonel Peabody that he was being driven back by an enemy force of several thousand. Hearing the fighting, Prentiss soon learned that Peabody had sent out a patrol without authorization. Prentiss was outraged and accused Peabody of provoking a major engagement in violation of Grant's orders. However, he soon understood that he was facing a large Confederate force and sent reinforcements. Peabody's patrol, with Powell leading, partially ruined the planned Confederate surprise and gave thousands of Union soldiers time (although brief) to prepare for battle. Although Peabody's patrol had alerted the Union army, some Union leaders were not convinced that they were under attack. Sherman was not convinced until he was slightly wounded, and one of his orderlies shot dead, after a 7:00am ride to investigate the commotion near Rea Field.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: After Johnston's 5:30 order for a general attack, it took an hour before all Confederate troops were ready. Another hour was lost skirmishing at Seay Field (close to Fraley Field). This reduced the Confederate advantage from the unexpected attack. The Confederate army alignment was another issue that helped reduce the attack's effectiveness. The corps of Hardee and Bragg began the assault with their divisions in one line that was nearly wide. At about 7:30am Beauregard ordered the corps of Polk and Breckinridge forward on the left and right of the line, which only extended the line and diluted the effectiveness of the two attacking corps. It became impossible to control the intermingled units, so the corps commanders decided to divide the battlefield, and each commander led their battlefield portion instead of their own corps. The attack went forward as a frontal assault. Johnston and Beauregard did not put more strength on the east side, which meant they did not focus on their objective of turning the Union left.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Sherman and Prentiss were the commanders of the first two Union divisions attacked, and those happened to be the most inexperienced of Grant's six divisions. Sherman, who had been negligent in preparing for an attack, performed with "coolness and courage" while he inspired his raw troops. Facing artillery fire and a frontal attack from the corps of Hardee, Bragg, and Polk, Sherman's men performed reasonably well—if they fought. An inexperienced colonel from the 53rd Ohio Infantry Regiment yelled "retreat and save yourselves", and many from his regiment simply ran away. Eventually, at least two companies of the calmer men from this regiment attached to another regiment. Sherman slowly moved the division back to a position behind Shiloh Church. He became supported on his left by the Third Brigade from McClernand's division.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Prentiss had his camps northeast of Seay Field. On his right, his brigade commanded by Peabody was attacked by two Confederate brigades, and Peabody was wounded four times before being killed. By 8:30am, the remnants of Peabody's brigade were pushed north, and the Confederate army occupied his camp. Further east, Prentiss's other brigade was attacked by brigades commanded by Brigadier General Adley H. Gladden and Brigadier General James R. Chalmers. Around 8:45am, Gladden was mortally wounded from cannon fire. The Confederate troops suffered considerable casualties, especially from artillery fire. However, the Confederate troops pushed on, and captured the remaining 6th Division camp sometime near 9:00am. The Confederate soldiers had seen many of the Union soldiers running away from the front line, and now possessed the Union camps of Sherman and Prentiss. Looting became a problem, as Confederate soldiers found clothing, rifles, and food. Confederate leaders found it difficult to control their forces. They paused their attack, which enabled Prentiss to move further north.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: East of McClernand, Hurlbut had all three brigades ready for action at 8:00am. After being notified that Sherman was facing a strong attack on his left, Hurlbut sent his Second Brigade, commanded by Colonel James C. Veatch, to assist Sherman. Shortly after that first message, Hurlbut was advised that Prentiss was in trouble. Hurlbut brought his remaining two brigades south on the Hamburg-Savanah Road near Wicker Field, and he encountered a large number of panic-stricken men from Prentiss's division who were fleeing north. Unable to stop the retreat, he settled his brigades further south near a peach orchard.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Grant was in Savannah having breakfast at his Cherry Mansion headquarters when he heard the distant sounds of artillery fire. He was on crutches as he recovered from a fall from his horse, and he was waiting for more of Buell's army to arrive in Savannah. Grant ordered Bull Nelson to march his division along the east side of the river to a point opposite Pittsburg Landing, where it could be ferried over to the battlefield. Grant then took his steamboat, "Tigress", south to Crump's Landing, where he told Lew Wallace to get his division ready to move. Grant proceeded to Pittsburg Landing, arriving around 9:00am. The landing was beginning to accumulate men who had fled their posts, and Grant ordered a colonel to halt all stragglers. He then rode inland and confirmed that the Confederates had launched a full-scale attack instead of a probing action. He sent a message to Crump's Landing, ordering Lew Wallace to bring his division to the battlefield.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: After the beginning of the battle, Brigadier General W.H.L. Wallace sent his Second Brigade, commanded by Brigadier General John McArthur, to fill a gap on the Union left between Hurlbut's position at a peach orchard and Stuart's brigade at the extreme Union left. McArthur had only two of his regiments, since the others had been sent to assist Sherman and guard the Snake River bridge that led to Crump's Landing. His two–regiment force was bolstered by Battery A from the 1st Illinois Light Artillery Regiment. Wallace's First and Third brigades, commanded by Colonel James M. Tuttle and Colonel Thomas W. Sweeny, respectively, moved into positions near Duncan Field and what is now called the "Sunken Road"—between the divisions of McClernand and Hurlbut. From 9:30am to 10:30am, most of the fighting at this position was the exchange of artillery fire.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On the extreme Union left, Stuart's brigade had heard musket firing early in the morning, but did not believe they were under attack until they heard distant artillery fire. At 9:30am Johnston received reports that Union soldiers were deploying on the Confederate right flank. To remedy this potential problem, he sent two brigades from Bragg's Corps, and called up Breckenridge's Reserve Corps. What his scouts had actually found was the camp belonging to Stuart's Brigade. Stuart was near the Hamburg-Savannah Road close to Lick Creek. Around 9:40am Stuart began receiving artillery fire, and twenty minutes later his men were attacked by Confederate infantry.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Shortly after 10:00am, the remnants of Sherman's division established a new position further north from Shiloh Church. This position was near a crossroads of the Hamburg–Purdy Road with the Pittsburg–Corinth Road. By this time, Sherman's Third Brigade (three Ohio regiments) was eliminated, as its last intact regiment ran away. Colonel Jesse Hildebrand, the brigade commander, remained on the field as a volunteer aide for McClernand's headquarters. Sherman's First Brigade, commanded by Colonel John A. McDowell was west on the Hamburg–Purdy Road and cut off. Colonel Ralph P. Buckland's Fourth Brigade was fragmented and ammunition was low.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Sherman prepared a defense with the men he had left, including Colonel Julius Raith's Third Brigade from McClernand's division that had reinforced Sherman's left earlier. Sherman also had the 6th Indiana Artillery Battery commanded by Captain Frederick Behr, and part of a battery from McClerndon. For the first time, the Union army had a continuous front. From west to east were the remnants of Sherman's division, McClernand, W.H.L. Wallace, the remnants of Prentiss's division, Hurlbut, McArthur's brigade from W.H.L. Wallace's division, and Stuart's brigade from Sherman's division. Hurlbut was near a peach orchard, Prentiss was near the Sunken Road, and W.H.L. Wallace was adjacent to Duncan Field at the Sunken Road.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: After a failed attack and the addition of more men, the Confederates attacked Sherman and McClernand again at 11:00am. This Confederate attacking force consisted of portions of seven brigades. The Union losses in this attack included Colonel Raith, who was mortally wounded, and Behr's battery which fled to the rear after Behr was shot dead. On the Confederate side, Wood's brigade took heavy losses, but routed the brigade of Colonel C. Carroll Marsh from McClernand's division. Wood's men then defeated Veatch's brigade, but Wood was thrown from his horse and temporarily out of action. At that time, his brigade became scattered and disorganized. By 11:20am, the Confederate army controlled the Hamburg-Purdy Road. Benefitting from the exhaustion and disorganization of the Confederate force, Sherman and McClernand fell back about north of the crossroads. Sherman's separated First Brigade (McDowell) linked with McClernand around 11:30am.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Sunken Road was an old wagon track called "an abandoned road" in the only time it was mentioned in the "Official Records". From west to east, it ran from Duncan Field to a peach orchard (eventually known as "the Peach Orchard") at the Hamburg-Savanah Road. The old wagon track was so worn and washed–over that it had an embankment that ranged from a few inches (7.6 cm) to supposedly . This ready-made entrenchment received the name "Sunken Road" in post-war years. Some historians doubt that the road was actually sunken. Nothing in the "Official Records" mentions it as sunken, and the soldier who wrote in his diary that the road was about three feet deep was is a regiment that was not close enough to the road to see it. When the fighting later became heated in this area—Duncan Field, the Sunken Road, and the woods on the north side of the road—the Confederates began calling it the Hornets Nest.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At the beginning of the day, Prentiss had 7,545 men present for duty. By the time he moved back to Barnes Field near the Hamburg-Purdy Road, after casualties and men that ran away, he had only 600 men and portions of two batteries. He deployed his men near the divisions of W.H.L. Wallace and Hurlbut, along the Sunken Road. Grant reinforced Prentiss with 600 men from the 23rd Missouri Infantry Regiment, which had disembarked from Pittsburg Landing a few hours earlier. Grant visited the 1,200-man force, and told Prentiss to "hold at all hazards".


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Union troops along the Sunken Road were protected by hickory and oak trees. Some Union troops at this location had modern (for 1862) weapons and fences for shelter, while some of the Confederate attacks were across open ground. These factors combined to make frontal assaults difficult for the Confederate attackers. One attack was led by Confederate division commander Benjamin F. Cheatham, and his Second Brigade was thoroughly repulsed. Southeast of the Sunken Road, Stuart still held the Union left. The Confederate brigades commanded by brigadier generals James R. Chalmers and John K. Jackson attacked Stuart's three regiments. The intensity of the fight increased around 11:15am, causing most of the 71st Ohio Infantry Regiment to flee to the rear. Stuart repositioned his remaining two regiments, but eventually they began panicking. Although Stuart restored order, he was wounded and command temporarily fell to Lieutenant Colonel Oscar Malmborg.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: By noon, Sherman and McClernand had been pushed back to Jones Field. However, the three regiments from McDowell's First Brigade had reunited with Sherman and McClernand, and three additional regiments arrived for reinforcement. McClernand's troops began a counterattack with the assistance of McDowell's brigade. The Confederates were pushed back beyond McClernand's morning headquarters, and both sides had numerous casualties. With reinforcements, the Confederate forces began a bayonet charge at about 1:00pm that pushed McClernand and McDowell back to their original counterattack line at Jones Field.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On the Union right, the divisions of Sherman and McClernand (plus Veatch's brigade) were a disorganized group of individual soldiers and portions of regiments. Many soldiers had dropped their equipment and headed to Pittsburg Landing. Still, Sherman and McClernand fought on with the remnants of their divisions.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The situation at the Union center was much better. Prentiss repelled multiple attacks by the brigade commanded by Colonel Randall L. Gibson. Captain Andrew Hickenlooper's 5th Ohio Independent Light Artillery Battery used shrapnel and canister to stop the first charge, and Confederate losses were considerable. After a third try, Gibson's brigade suffered enough casualties (including one colonel hit in the face) that most of the men fell back, and the brigade was not engaged for the rest of the day. Among the Union soldiers killed was Major James Powell, who led the early morning patrol that discovered the Confederate army at Fraley Field. While Prentiss was defending against Gibson, Sweeny repelled Confederate attacks near Duncan Field.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Union left, even more so than the right, was pushed back. Stuart's two remaining Union regiments, temporarily commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Malmborg in the absence of Colonel T. Kilby Smith, made several stands east of Bell Field against two of Bragg's brigades. Fortunately for the Union army, Bragg's hungry men exhausted their ammunition and pillaged food from the Union camps instead of continuing the attack. Around 2:15pm, Smith ordered Stuart's brigade to withdraw, and by 2:30pm Stuart's brigade was done fighting for the day.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: While Stuart was fighting, the adjacent position in the Union line was occupied by McArthur's partial brigade. McArthur's force was attacked around 2:00pm by one of Breckinridge's brigades. Despite reinforcements, McArthur fell back about 300 yards north of the Peach Orchard where he stabilized his line 20 minutes later. On McArthur's right, Hurlbut's division was also under attack, causing it to fall back. Most of the attackers were from Breckinridge's Third Brigade, commanded by Colonel Winfield S. Statham. As the Union troops fell back, they would pause to shoot at the oncoming Confederates. Artillery was also used to slow the attackers.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: General Albert Sidney Johnston rode as much as 40 paces in front of Breckinridge's line. His uniform was torn from bullets in several places, and the heel of one of his boots was gone. After sending an order to Colonel Statham, an object could be heard striking Johnston. Although blood could be seen dripping from his leg, the general did not show concern. Shortly afterwards, he was slumping in his saddle. Asked if he was wounded, Johnston replied "Yes, and I fear seriously." Johnston bled to death from a torn popliteal artery in his right leg. Although a tourniquet might have saved Johnston's life, his personal physician had been sent elsewhere to treat the wounded. Johnston died about south of the Bell Farm at 2:30pm. He was the highest-ranking soldier killed in combat in the American Civil War, and is still (as of 2022) the highest ranking American military officer killed in any action.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: With the death of Johnston, Beauregard officially became the Confederate army's commander. Some historians argue that since Beauregard was directing the army from the rear while Johnston was at the front, Beauregard already had the role of army commander. The Confederate attack on its right (Union left) stalled after Johnston's death, and many exhausted Confederate soldiers drank from what became known as the "Bloody Pond" located between the Peach Orchard and Wicker Field. The lull was caused more by the exhaustion and disorganized condition of the Confederate army than mourning for Johnston or Beauregard's lack of action. Beauregard sent Brigadier General Daniel Ruggles to coordinate an attack on the Hornet's Nest.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At 2:50pm, Lieutenant William Gwin, commander of the USS "Tyler", put his gunboat into action by firing on the Confederate batteries near the Union left. After an hour, Gwin was joined by the USS "Lexington", and the two gunboats positioned themselves about three–fourths of a mile (1.21 km) south of Pittsburg Landing. At first, the shelling (gunboat shells were larger than those used by field artillery) had more of a psychological impact than a destructive one.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On the ground at the Union left, McArthur's partial brigade fought the Confederate brigades commanded by brigadier generals John K. Jackson and John S. Bowen. With Stuart now gone, McArthur was also getting outflanked by Chalmer's Brigade. Between 3:00 and 4:00pm, McArthur moved all the way back to Pittsburg Landing. Hurlbut's line was also falling back, and only one regiment remained by 4:30pm when Hurlbut ordered it to the rear.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Sometime in the late afternoon, Grant assigned Colonel Joseph Dana Webster, a veteran of the Mexican–American War, the task of setting up a defensive position at Pittsburg Landing. Webster used stragglers and noncombatant personnel. He began rounding up artillery pieces, including siege guns and any batteries (or partial batteries) that retreated back to the landing. He eventually assembled about 50 artillery pieces, and they were positioned on a ridge on the east side of the battlefield.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At the Union right, Grant visited Sherman around 3:00pm, and found a difficult situation. The remaining regiments had few men, ammunition was low, and more men were either leaving or serving with other units. Some regiments had so many losses that they were ordered to Pittsburg Landing where they could reform. The Union line at this time was back to Jones Field and the surrounding area. The Confederate army facing Sherman and McClernand was reorganizing, and some of the units were shifted to the Hornet's Nest. After another attack at 4:00pm, Sherman and McClernand fell back further around 5:00pm.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On the Union left, Bragg tried to pursue the retreating Union soldiers, but was harassed by Union gunboats firing with increasing accuracy. The Tennessee River was near high tide, and the Union gunboat leaders had discovered that by elevating their guns and using lower charges, they could hit targets close to the river. The "Tyler" had some direct hits on Chalmer's Brigade beginning at 5:35pm.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The Confederate army spent a considerable amount of time and resources assaulting the Hornet's Nest instead of bypassing it. Historians' estimates of the number of separate infantry charges, including those from earlier in the morning, range from eight to fourteen. An estimated 10,000 Confederate soldiers were involved. At 3:30pm, the Confederate army began moving all available artillery pieces into positions around the Hornet's Nest. Soon they had, at the time, the largest concentration of field artillery (over 50 pieces) ever on the North American continent. This concentration, known as "Ruggles's Battery" was led by Brigadier General Ruggles. In his report, Ruggles claimed responsibility for assembling the batteries, but multiple people may have been involved—including Major Francis A. Shoup (Hardee's artillery chief) and Brigadier General James Trudeau. By 4:00pm, the Confederate artillery was firing on Wallace and Prentiss in the Hornet's Nest. Confederate artillery was concentrated near Duncan Field and to the south near the Eastern Corinth Road. It was not until 4:30pm that all Confederate artillery batteries were engaged, and at least one historian believes their effectiveness has been exaggerated.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Shortly after 4:00pm, Hurlbut was gone from the east side of the Hornet's Nest, and McClernand had fallen back about a half mile (0.8 km) from the west side. Realizing that they were going to be surrounded, Brigadier General W.H.L. Wallace began leading his division north. Around 4:15pm, he was mortally wounded as a portion of his division escaped encirclement. A ravine north of the Sunken Road near Cloud Field became known as "Hell's Hollow", and over 1,000 Union soldiers were captured there. By 4:45pm, most of Wallace's division was removed from the battlefield, and Prentiss was left with about 2,000 men. Around 5:30pm, various Union regiments began surrendering (including Prentiss), and approximately 2,200 Union soldiers were captured. In his memoirs, Grant was critical of Prentiss for not making a timely withdrawal. However, the Hornet's Nest stand by Prentiss and W.H.L. Wallace (who was there longer and had more men under his command) allowed Grant more time to prepare his Last Line.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: By the time the Hornet's Nest fell, Grant's men had a defensive line from Pittsburg Landing to the Hamburg-Savannah Road and further north. Sherman commanded the right of the line, and McClernand took the center. On the left were the remnants of W.H.L. Wallace's division (commanded by Tuttle), plus Hurlbut's division. At the landing were 10,000 to 15,000 stragglers and noncombatants. The line included the artillery assembled by Colonel Webster, and the two gunboats were close by. Grant and Webster rode up and down the line, urging the men to keep firing at their enemy.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The advance of Buell's army, from Nelson's division, had begun arriving around 5:00pm. Its 36th Indiana Infantry Regiment was placed on the east side of Grant's Last Line in time to help defend against an attack. The two navy gunboats helped defend, and the "Lexington" fired 32 rounds into the attacking Confederate force in only 10minutes. The Confederate attack was repulsed, and shortly after 6:00pm Beauregard called off all attacks. Buell and his army, and some in Grant's army, believed they had saved Grant's Army of the Tennessee. Grant had a differing opinion, believing that by 6:00pm the Confederate army was worn out.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: When Beauregard called off all attacks, it was near sunset and he assumed Grant's army could be eliminated on the next day. He had received a telegram saying Buell's army was in Alabama, and did not know Grant was already being reinforced. The Confederate army was badly disorganized, and it had just finished taking prisoners from the Hornet's Nest around 5:30pm. Attacks after dark were rare because of problems with friendly fire, and darkness would occur soon. The exhausted Confederate army already had about 8,000 casualties.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: For many years after the battle, critics believed Beauregard had squandered an opportunity to finish Grant's army. Modern historians, such as Cunningham and Daniel, disagree with that assessment. Cunningham wrote that Beauregard's critics ignore "the existing situation on the Shiloh battlefield"—including Confederate disorganization, time before sunset, and Grant's strong position augmented by gunboats. Daniel wrote that the thought that "the Confederates could have permanently breached or pulverized the Federal line in an additional hour or so of piecemeal night assaults simply lacks plausibility." He mentions that it took the Confederates six hours to conquer the Hornet's Nest, and Grant's Last Line was a stronger position. He also cites exhaustion, low ammunition, and one staff officer's belief that one third of the Confederate army was plundering instead of fighting.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Beauregard spent the evening near Shiloh Church in what had been Sherman's tent. Most of the Confederate army moved back to the original Union camps. Beauregard sent a telegram to Richmond discussing "a complete victory, driving the enemy from every position." Many of the Confederate troops believed that the battle was essentially over, and spent time plundering the camps. Some soldiers took their loot and began walking back to Corinth. Some of the Confederate troops were now armed with better weapons than the ones they had at the beginning of the day. Austrian, Enfield, and Springfield rifles were taken from dead, wounded, captured, or fleeing Union soldiers.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: It began raining at 10:00pm, and at midnight the rain became a storm with thunder and lightning. Because of the exhaustion and the belief that Grant's army was almost finished, the Confederate forces were not reorganized. No plans or orders were made for the next day, and it was thought the various commands would regroup at that time for a "final mop-up action". The original Confederate plan was to push Grant's army away from Pittsburg Landing, and pin it against the northern creeks where it could not move quickly or get resupplied. Instead, Grant had been forced back to a defensible position at Pittsburg Landing where he could be re-enforced and resupplied.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Grant's army had 7,000 men killed and wounded, 3,000 more captured, and 10,000 men who were afraid to fight. Before being reinforced, he had an estimated 18,000 fighters formed on his Last Line. Since most of the Union camps had been captured, these hungry and tired men would have to sleep in the open without blankets, and rain and cold weather added to their misery. At 7:15pm, 5,800 fresh troops from Lew Wallace's division arrived at the battlefield and were positioned next to Sherman. Brigadier General Thomas Crittenden's division from Buell's army began arriving at 9:00pm, and two hours later the entire division was at the landing. Eventually, Buell would have nearly 18,000 men available for the battle. The Union line from west to east consisted of the divisions commanded by Lew Wallace, Sherman, McClernand, Hurlbut, Crittenden, and Nelson. Prentiss' division was effectively destroyed, and Tuttle was behind the line trying to reorganize W.H.L. Wallace's division.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Earlier in the day, Colonel James B. McPherson, Grant's chief engineer, asked Grant if preparations should be started for a retreat. Grant's response was: "Retreat? No! I propose to attack at daylight and whip them." Buell met with Sherman at sunset, and learned that Grant planned to attack at sunrise. An understanding was made that Grant would have the west side of the line, while Buell would plan his own attack on the east side. Despite Grant's seniority, Buell considered himself independent, and Grant chose not to consult with him that evening. Sherman found Grant resting under a tree around midnight, and said: "Well, Grant, we've had the devil's own day, haven't we?" Grant replied: "Yes. Lick'em tomorrow, though."


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Between midnight and 4:00am, Brigadier General Alexander M. McCook's division from Buell's Army of the Ohio arrived in Savannah. The first unit from this division to arrive at Pittsburg Landing came ashore around 4:00am. Elsewhere, the Confederate 47th Tennessee Infantry Regiment was marching to the battlefield. This poorly-armed regiment of 600 raw recruits was the only reinforcement Beauregard received, and it did not arrive until 8:00am. After deducting casualties and those that had abandoned their posts, Beauregard's Confederate army now numbered less than 20,000 fighters.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On the east side of the Union line, Buell's attack began at 5:00am with Nelson's three brigades. A few hours later, Nelson was joined on his right by Crittenden. The two divisions advanced, dispersed enemy skirmishers, and were gradually joined on Crittenden's right by brigades from McCook's division. McCook did not have all three of his brigades available until close to noon. On the Confederate side, Hardee commanded the right that faced Nelson, with the division commanded by Brigadier General Jones M. Withers as his most organized force. The skirmishers that Nelson had chased off earlier were Colonel Nathan Bedford Forrest's cavalry regiment and small portions of Chalmers's brigade from Withers' division. Behind the skirmishers were Chalmer's brigade and a makeshift brigade of three regiments. A mix of regiments formed the line further west, and several batteries gave artillery support.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At the Davis Wheat Field, a small field between Barnes Field and the Peach Orchard, the brigade commanded by Colonel William B. Hazen, took more than half of the losses Nelson's division received for the whole day. More fighting took place near Sara Bell Field, and after three hours of fighting it became stalemated. Both sides withdrew around noon, putting Nelson back at Wicker Field. During this fighting, Hardee was slightly wounded, although he led a counterattack. West of Nelson, Crittenden and McCook advanced before being forced back to Duncan field. At noon, Buell's army had control of the Hornet's Nest.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Grant's attack began with Lew Wallace's fresh division driving Pond's exhausted brigade away from Jones Field. After a Confederate counterattack by Gibson and Wood, Sherman brought his division to the line and the Confederates were pushed back. McClernand and Hurlbut joined the fight, and all four Union divisions advanced at 10:30am. At that time, Cleburne's brigade of 800 men took significant casualties when they unsuccessfully assaulted the Union force.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Buell attacked again shortly after noon. In about two hours, Nelson and Crittenden reached the Hamburg-Purdy Road. Further west, McCook advanced westward on the Corinth-Pittsburg Landing Road, which caused a gap with Crittenden. The gap was filled by brigades from Grant's army that had been held in reserve. The Confederate army had held off Buell's fresh troops for a total of six hours, but their resistance was close to ending.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On Grant's side of the battlefield, Sherman and McClernand were stopped at noon when Cheatham's Confederate division attacked east of the crossroads and north of Water Oaks Pond. The two Union divisions were driven north about . Despite light opposition at his front, Lew Wallace put his division in a defensive position, and did not resume the offensive until Sherman and McClernand had pushed back Cheatham's attackers. Bragg formed another line by Water Oaks Pond, and a two–hour fight ensued with Beauregard personally leading various Confederate units.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: McCook's westward advance (instead of south), which began at 1:30pm, meant that Bragg had Lew Wallace, Sherman, and McClernand on his front—and McCook on his right flank. After Bragg fell back south of the Hamburg-Purdy Road, Beauregard counterattacked using a force that was mostly Wood's brigade. Near Water Oaks Pond, this force pushed McCook back until McCook regrouped and repulsed the attackers. Soon Beauregard and Bragg were forced back, and Union troops crossed the Hamburg-Purdy Road at 2:30pm.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: All morning, Beauregard hoped that the arrival of 20,000 men under the command of Brigadier General Earl Van Dorn would change the battle momentum back to favoring the Confederates. He was eventually notified that Van Dorn was still far away, so preparations for a withdrawal to Corinth began about 1:00pm. At about 2:00pm, Breckenridge began forming his corps into a rear guard position near Shiloh Church. Confederate batteries around Shiloh Church began a bombardment campaign to deceive the Union soldiers into thinking the Confederate army was still present. Around 3:30pm, the last of the Confederate artillery was hauled away toward Corinth.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Grant and Buell did not pursue the Confederate army, and have been criticized for their decisions. One historian called this the "final Federal Blunder", and believed that Lew Wallace's fresh division should have been sent in pursuit. It started to rain at 6:30pm, and the rain turned to hail as the temperature dropped. The battle was over with a huge number of casualties on both sides.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At 10:00am on April 8, Union forces commanded by Sherman and Wood began a pursuit of the Confederate forces. Breckinridge's covering force included about 350 cavalrymen commanded by Colonel Forrest. This group was a mixture of Forrest's men, John Hunt Morgan's Kentucky Cavalry, Texas Rangers, and the 1st Mississippi Cavalry (Adams' Cavalry). They were armed with revolvers and shotguns, and were instructed to fire only when they were within 20 steps of the enemy. On the left, two brigades from Wood's Union division skirmished with Wirt Adams's Cavalry Regiment and then returned to camp. On the right, a group led by Forrest attacked Sherman's men as they were clearing fallen timber near a small creek, causing some of them to run for their lives. Unofficial Union casualties were 15 killed, 25 wounded, and 53 taken prisoner. Among the few Confederate wounded was Forrest, who escaped after being shot at close range. Sherman ended the pursuit, and Breckinridge continued south.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Multiple sources list Union casualties as 13,047, with 1,754 killed, 8,408 wounded, and 2,885 missing or captured. Grant's army had 10,944 casualties, while Buell's had 2,103. Without counting those captured or missing, the brigades commanded by Sweeny, Veatch, and Colonel Nelson G. Williams all had over 600 killed or wounded. The report in the "Official Records" lists two brigade commanders as killed or mortally wounded, five wounded (including Sweeny), and one captured. One historian believes that the high number of officer losses caused casualty figures to be understated, and that they really total closer to 14,500.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Confederate casualties totaled to 10,699, with 1,728 killed, 8,012 wounded, and 959 missing or captured. Additional sources agree with those figures. The Confederate totals do not include reporting for cavalry or the 47th Tennessee Infantry Regiment that arrived for the second day of the battle. Similar to the understatement for Union casualties, one historian believes Confederate casualties were probably closer to 12,000. Using the commonly quoted statistics, Cleburne's brigade had 790 wounded and 188 killed, which was more killed and more wounded than any brigade in any of the armies at the battle. In addition to the wounding of Johnston (mortal) and Hardee (slight), Beauregard's report mentions six casualties for major generals and brigadier generals—one killed, three severely wounded, one slightly wounded, and one injured when his horse was shot. Another Confederate soldier killed was Samuel B. Todd, brother of President Abraham Lincoln's wife, Mary Todd Lincoln.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: At the time, the battle was the largest fought in America. The high number of casualties helped convince many Union leaders that the war was not going to end quickly in the west. About 20,000 men were killed or wounded at Shiloh, while a similar count for earlier major battles at Manassas (a.k.a. Bull Run), Wilson's Creek, Fort Donelson, and Pea Ridge "combines" to only 12,000. Shiloh's total casualties of 23,746 (which may be understated) puts it in the top ten (6th or 7th) in the American Civil War.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Initially, news on the battle was positive for Grant. That changed a week later, especially when a "somewhat exaggerated" newspaper report was released. Whitelaw Reid was the article writer, although he used a pen name. The article said that Grant was surprised, and falsely claimed that Union soldiers were bayoneted in their tents. The article's only hero was Buell, who saved Grant. Self-serving accounts from some of Buell's officers also swayed public opinion, and rumors circulated that Grant was drunk.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: Some of the more "savage denunciations" of Grant came from politicians representing Ohio and Iowa—home states of many of the men who ran away when fighting started. One politician complained to Lincoln, saying Grant was an incompetent drunk that was a political liability. Lincoln's response was "I can't spare this man; he fights." Sherman, who could have been one of the battle's scapegoats and did not get along with the press, received more praise than criticism. Halleck praised his performance and requested a promotion for him, noting that Sherman had "three horses killed under him" and was wounded twice. Halleck arrived at Pittsburg Landing on April 11 and took personal command—as he had planned earlier. On April30, he named Grant as his second-in-command. This was a meaningless position, but Halleck's solution to the Grant criticism was a de facto suspension that satisfied the critics.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: On April 8, Confederate president Jefferson Davis reported to the Confederate congress that according to the latest accounts, Johnston had gained a complete victory. A last-minute addition to his speech was mentioning Johnston's death. Before the battle, the public wanted Johnston removed because of the loss of most of Tennessee. Now he was a hero. Over the next few days, more information about the battle became available. The initial perception was that only "untoward events" had saved the Union army from destruction, and the withdrawal to Corinth was part of a strategic plan. Eventually, critics began to blame Beauregard for the defeat, citing the lack of a twilight attack on the first day of the battle.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The loss of Albert Sidney Johnston dealt a severe blow to Confederate morale, and President Davis believed that Johnston's death was the "turning point of our fate" in the Western Theater. With the loss at Shiloh, the likelihood of the Confederacy regaining control of the upper Mississippi Valley was severely diminished, and the large number of casualties represented the start of an unwinnable war of attrition. The victory at Shiloh also placed the Union army in a strategic position to infiltrate and capture key points in the south. Halleck led a reinforced Union army to Corinth, and the Confederates abandoned it on May 30. New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Memphis were overrun by Union navy forces over the next three months. By July, Halleck was promoted to chief of staff in Washington, and Grant became commander of the now larger District of West Tennessee. Grant would lead a Siege of Vicksburg, causing nearly 30,000 Confederate troops to surrender on July 4, 1863.


title: Battle of Shiloh

text: The War Department established the Pittsburg Landing National Cemetery in 1866, and its name was changed to Shiloh National Cemetery in 1889. Shiloh National Military Park was established by the United States Congress on December27, 1894. Originally under the administration of the War Department, the park was transferred to the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior in 1933. A private organization, the American Battlefield Trust, has been involved with saving more than of the battlefield. Sites such as the Bloody Pond, Hornet's Nest, and Pittsburg Landing are part of the park. The Shiloh Church at the park is a nearly exact representation of the original, constructed using 150-year-old timber. Additional points in the park include Fraley Field, the Peach Orchard, Ruggles' Battery, Grant's Last Line, and the site of Johnston's death. In 2022, the park consisted of over .


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Anthony Leon "P. J." Tucker Jr. (born May 5, 1985) is an American professional basketball player for the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played college basketball for the Texas Longhorns. He was the 2008 Israeli Basketball Premier League MVP, and Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP. He won an NBA championship with the Milwaukee Bucks in 2021, and also won championships overseas in the Israeli Super League in 2008 with the Hapoel Holon, the German League and the German Cup in 2012 with Brose Bamberg.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Tucker attended William G. Enloe High School in Raleigh, where he was named North Carolina Player of the Year in 2003 and his jersey number was later retired. In three seasons at the University of Texas at Austin, he scored 1,169 points, including a career-high 594 in the 2005–06 season. He also had 714 rebounds, 170 assists (including 107 in 2005–06), and 116 steals throughout his career with the Longhorns. After being unable to play most of his sophomore season due to poor academics, Tucker was named a second-team All-American and the Big 12 Player of the Year in his junior year.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Tucker was selected by the Toronto Raptors with the 35th pick in the 2006 NBA Draft and signed a two-year deal with them on July 26, 2006.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On January 5, 2007, the Raptors announced that Tucker had been sent to the Colorado 14ers of the NBA Development League. Colorado, led by head coach Joe Wolf, had been designated as Toronto's D-League affiliate for the 2006–07 season. On February 6, 2007, the Raptors recalled Tucker to the NBA. On March 6, 2007, Tucker was sent back to the 14ers.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On March 24, 2007, Tucker was waived by the Raptors in order to free a roster spot for Luke Jackson. He played a total of 83 minutes during his rookie season with the Raptors.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: In the 2007–08 season with Hapoel Holon from Israeli Premier League, Tucker won the MVP trophy and led his team to the league title. Holon broke Maccabi Tel Aviv's 14-year streak as Israeli champions. He was the 2008 Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: For the 2008–09 season, Tucker signed with a BC Donetsk team that was just promoted to the Ukrainian Basketball Super League. He led the team to a current third place in the league at its first appearance there, as well as become a Ukrainian SuperLeague All-Star. A season ending knee injury didn't prevent Tucker from finishing the season with the highest average of points per game in the league. On October 7, 2009, Tucker renewed his contract with Donetsk for the 2009–10 season.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: After Donetsk bankrupted, Tucker returned to Israel in March 2010 and signed for Bnei HaSharon until the end of the season.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: In August 2010, Tucker signed with Aris BC for the 2010–11 season, but he was released in March 2011.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: In July 2011, Tucker signed a one-year deal with Brose Baskets Bamberg of Germany. He went on to help Brose Baskets win the 2012 championship; he also won the Finals MVP award.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: During the summer of 2012, Tucker signed a contract to play for Spartak St. Petersburg of Russia, but he soon opted out of it to play for the Phoenix Suns' NBA Summer League team, and on August 1, 2012, he signed a two-year deal with the Suns, with a team option in his second year. In his first game back in the NBA, Tucker recorded 10 points, 2 rebounds, 1 steal and 1 block in an 87–85 loss to the Golden State Warriors. On November 23, 2012, he scored a then career-high 15 points in a 111–108 overtime win over the New Orleans Hornets. Tucker made his first start for the Suns on December 31 against the Oklahoma City Thunder, as he started the majority of the Suns' games for the rest of the 2012–13 NBA season.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On February 8, 2014, Tucker recorded 16 points, a career-high 15 rebounds and 4 steals in a 122–109 win over the Warriors, becoming the first Suns player to have 15 points, 15 rebounds and 4 steals in a game since Shawn Marion in 2007. On February 25, he tied his career high with a 15-rebound effort against the Minnesota Timberwolves. On April 6, Tucker scored a career-high 22 points in a 122–115 win over the Thunder.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On June 27, 2014, the Suns extended Tucker a qualifying offer, making him a restricted free agent. On July 23, he re-signed with the Suns to a three-year, $16.5 million contract. In August 2014, he was suspended for the first three games of the 2014–15 season without pay for pleading guilty to driving while under the extreme influence in May 2014. He returned from suspension on November 4, 2014, to face the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On December 31, 2015, Tucker tied his then-career high of 22 points in a loss to the Thunder. On January 26, 2016, he recorded a career-high eight assists in a loss to the Philadelphia 76ers. On March 14, he scored a career-high 23 points in a 107–104 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves. He topped that mark on April 7, scoring 24 points in a 124–115 win over the Houston Rockets. He played in all 82 games for the Suns in 2015–16, the only player to do so.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On September 15, 2016, Tucker underwent a successful low back microdiscectomy procedure and was subsequently ruled out for six to eight weeks. He returned in time for the start of the regular season, but was assigned a bench role for the first time since the 2012–13 season. He returned to the starting lineup in late November following an injury to T. J. Warren. On November 27, 2016, he scored a season-high 21 points against the Denver Nuggets. Tucker reassumed his bench role in late December following Warren's return from injury; he continued coming off the bench for the Suns throughout the season until the All-Star break.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On February 23, 2017, Tucker was traded back to the Toronto Raptors in exchange for Jared Sullinger, second-round draft picks in 2017 and 2018 and cash considerations. The next day, in his first game as a Raptor since 2007, Tucker had a game-high 10 rebounds and nine points in a 107–97 win over the Boston Celtics. On April 15, 2017, after playing 418 games over seven seasons, Tucker made his playoff debut in the Raptors' 97–83 loss to the Milwaukee Bucks in Game 1 of their first-round playoff series. The Raptors went on to defeat the Bucks in six games to move on to the second round, where they faced the Cleveland Cavaliers. There they were swept 4–0 by the Cavaliers. In Game 4 of the series, a 109–102 loss, Tucker had 14 points and 12 rebounds in his first career playoff start.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On July 6, 2017, Tucker signed a four-year, $32 million contract with the Houston Rockets. In his debut for the Rockets in their season opener on October 17, 2017, Tucker scored 20 points in a 122–121 win over the Golden State Warriors. He hit two free throws with 44.1 seconds left to make it 122–121. On March 30, 2018, he scored 18 points and made a career-high five 3-pointers in a 104–103 win over the Suns. In Game 5 of the Rockets' first-round playoff series against the Minnesota Timberwolves, Tucker scored a playoff career-high 15 points in a 122–104 series-clinching win. In Game 5 of the Rockets' second-round series against the Utah Jazz, Tucker set a then new playoff career high with 19 points in a 112–102 series-clinching win. In Game 2 of the Western Conference Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Tucker set a new playoff career high with 22 points in a 127–105 win, helping the Rockets tie the series at 1–1. The Rockets went on to lose to the Warriors in seven games.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On January 7, 2019, Tucker set a career high with seven 3-pointers and scored a season-high 21 points in a 125–113 win over the Denver Nuggets.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On March 11, 2021, as the trade deadline approached, Tucker had mutually agreed with coach Stephen Silas to no longer play until both parties can find an amicable solution. This comes after James Harden left the Rockets earlier in the season. Prior to his exit, he posted career lows in points per game (4.4), field goal percentage (36.6%) and 3-point percentage (31.4%) in the 2020/21 season.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On March 19, 2021, Tucker was traded to the Milwaukee Bucks with Rodions Kurucs in exchange for D. J. Augustin and D. J. Wilson; the teams also exchanged draft picks. Specifically, Houston pushed back the 2022 first-round pick Milwaukee owed them to the unprotected 2023 draft. Furthermore, the Rockets got the right to swap their 2021 second-round pick for the Bucks' 2021 first-round pick, according to ESPN's Adrian Wojnarowski. Tucker made his debut in a 120–113 win against San Antonio Spurs with zero points, three rebounds, and one block in 13 minutes on March 20, 2021.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On June 10, 2021, Tucker played a key role in the Bucks 86–83 win over the Brooklyn Nets, in which Tucker played the main part in holding Kevin Durant to an uncharacteristically low 11 of 28 field goal attempts made (37.5%). In Game 4, Tucker scored 13 points and added 7 rebounds in a 107–96 victory. The Bucks would go on to win the series in 7 games.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: In Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the Atlanta Hawks, Tucker had only 5 points (but including a 3-point shot late in the 4th quarter to help seal the win) and 8 rebounds in a 118–107 victory. The win meant Tucker and the Bucks would advance to their first NBA Finals since 1974 and his first trip to the finals respectively.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On July 20, 2021, Tucker and the Bucks defeated the Phoenix Suns in game 6 of the 2021 NBA Finals. This marks his first NBA Championship and the first championship since 1971 for the Milwaukee Bucks. In the series, Tucker averaged 31.3 minutes, 4.0 points, 3.8 rebounds, 1.2 assists, 1.0 steals, while primarily switching between guarding Devin Booker and Jae Crowder.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Despite only playing 43 games over 1 calendar year during his Bucks tenure, 23 of which were in the postseason, Tucker was a fan-favorite in Milwaukee.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: On August 7, 2021, Tucker signed with the Miami Heat. On December 13, in a loss against the Cavaliers, Tucker tied his career-high 23 points, grabbed 9 rebounds, and recorded 5 assists.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Tucker's full name is Anthony Leon Tucker Jr., but his dad called him "Pop Junior", giving him the nickname P. J. He spent part of his childhood living in Germany while his father served in the Army.


title: P. J. Tucker

text: Tucker is a self-proclaimed "sneakerhead" and owns thousands of pairs of sneakers, stored in several locations across the country. On August 22, 2016, "SLAM" named Tucker the solidified number 1 sneakerhead in the NBA, due to not only his number of shoes, but also their quality. Some of his shoes include rare "player edition" pairs of sneakers made for former NBA players such as Shawn Marion, Michael Finley, Josh Howard, and Eddie Jones, as well as some rare Terror Squad pairs designed by the rapper Fat Joe.