title: Sea of Galilee

text: The warm waters of the Sea of Galilee support various flora and fauna, which have supported a significant commercial fishery for more than two millennia. Local flora include various reeds along most of the shoreline as well as phytoplankton. Fauna include zooplankton, benthos and a number of fish species such as "Acanthobrama terraesanctae". The Fishing and Agricultural Division of the Ministry of Water and Agriculture of Israel is listing 10 families of fish living in the lake, with a total of 27 species – 19 native and 8 introduced from elsewhere. Local fishermen talk of three types of fish: "مشط musht" (tilapia), sardine (the Kinneret bleak, "Acanthobrama terraesanctae"), "بني biny" (carp-like), and catfish. The tilapia species include the Galilean tilapia ("Sarotherodon galilaeus"), the blue tilapia ("Oreochromis aureus"), and the redbelly tilapia ("Tilapia zillii"). Fish caught commercially include "Tristramella simonis" and the Galilean tilapia, locally called "St. Peter's fish". In 2005, of tilapia were caught by local fishermen. This dropped to in 2009 due to overfishing.


title: Sea of Galilee

text: A fish species that is unique to the lake, "Tristramella sacra", used to spawn in the marsh and has not been seen since the 1990s droughts. Conservationists fear this species may have become extinct.


title: Sea of Galilee

text: Low water levels in drought years have stressed the lake's ecology. This may have been aggravated by over-extraction of water for either the National Water Carrier to supply other parts of Israel or, since 1994, for the supply of water to Jordan (see ""Water use"" section above). Droughts of the early and mid-1990s dried out the marshy northern margin of the lake. It is hoped that drastic reductions in the amount of water pumped through the National Water Carrier will help restore the lake's ecology over the span of several years. The amount planned to be drawn in 2016 for Israeli domestic water use was expected to be less than 10% of the amount commonly drawn on an annual basis in the decades before the mid-2010s.


title: Sea of Galilee

text: The lake, with its immediate surrounds, has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of black francolins and non-breeding griffon vultures as well as many wintering waterbirds, including marbled teals, great crested grebes, grey herons, great white egrets, great cormorants and black-headed gulls.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The Sargasso Sea () is a region of the Atlantic Ocean bounded by four currents forming an ocean gyre. Unlike all other regions called seas, it has no land boundaries. It is distinguished from other parts of the Atlantic Ocean by its characteristic brown "Sargassum" seaweed and often calm blue water.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The sea is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North Atlantic Current, on the east by the Canary Current, and on the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current, the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the North Atlantic Gyre. It lies between 20° and 35° north and 40° and 70° west and is approximately wide by long. Bermuda is near the western fringes of the sea.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: While all of the above currents deposit marine plants and refuse into the sea, ocean water in the Sargasso Sea is distinctive for its deep blue color and exceptional clarity, with underwater visibility of up to 61 m (200 ft). It is also a body of water that has captured the public imagination, and so is seen in a wide variety of literary and artistic works and in popular culture.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The first known written account of the Sargasso Sea dates to Christopher Columbus in 1492, who wrote about seaweed that he feared would trap his ship and potentially hide shallow waters that could run them aground, as well as a lack of wind that he feared would trap them.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The sea may have been known to earlier mariners, as a poem by the late fourth century author Avienius describes a portion of the Atlantic as being covered with seaweed and windless, citing a now-lost account by the fifth century BC Carthaginian Himilco the Navigator. Columbus himself was aware of this account and thought Himilco had reached the Sargasso Sea, as did several other explorers. However, modern scholars consider this unlikely. According to the Muslim cartographer Muhammad al-Idrisi, the "Mugharrarūn" (, "the adventurers") sent by the Almoravid sultan Ali ibn Yusuf (1084–1143), led by his admiral Ahmad ibn Umar, reached a part of the ocean covered by seaweed, identified by some as the Sargasso Sea.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: In 1609, the English vessel "Sea Venture" was blown to the shore of Bermuda. The sea has also been the site of whaling and fishing.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The 1920–1922 Dana expeditions, led by Johannes Schmidt, determined that the European eel's breeding sites were in the Sargasso Sea. The sea has played a role in a number of other pioneering research efforts, including William Beebe and Otis Barton's 1932 dive where they conducted observations of animals and radio broadcasts, John Swallow's work on the Swallow float in the late 1950s, the discovery of "Prochlorococcus" by a team of researchers in the 1980s, and various oceanographic data gathering programs such as those of Henry Stommel.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: In July 1969, British businessman and amateur sailor Donald Crowhurst disappeared after his yacht became mired in the Sargasso Sea. He had been competing in the "Sunday Times" Golden Globe Race, a single-handed, round-the-world yacht race when his poorly-prepared boat began to take on water. He abandoned his circumnavigation attempt, but reported false positions by radio in an attempt to give the impression that he was still participating. Eventually, Crowhurst wound up drifting in the Sargasso Sea, where he deteriorated psychologically, filling his logbooks with metaphysical speculation and delusional comments. His last entry was July 1, and his yacht was found unoccupied and drifting on July 10. It is unclear whether his death came as the result of suicide or misadventure.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The sea is bounded on the west by the Gulf Stream, on the north by the North Atlantic Current, on the east by the Canary Current, and on the south by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current, the four together forming a clockwise-circulating system of ocean currents termed the North Atlantic Gyre. It lies between 20° to 35° N and 40 and 70 W and is approximately wide by long. Bermuda is near the western fringes of the sea.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Because the Sargasso Sea is bordered by oceanic currents, its precise borders may change. The Canary Current in particular is widely variable, and often the line utilized is one west of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. A 2011 report based the sea's boundaries on several variables including currents, presence of seaweed, and the topography of the ocean floor, and determined that the specific boundaries of the sea were "between 22°–38°N, 76°–43°W and centred on 30°N and 60°W" for a total of around .


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The Sargasso Sea is home to seaweed of the genus "Sargassum", which floats en masse on the surface. The sargassum is not a threat to shipping, and historic incidents of sailing ships being trapped there are due to the often calm winds of the horse latitudes.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The Sargasso Sea plays a role in the migration of catadromous eel species such as the European eel, the American eel, and the American conger eel. The larvae of these species hatch within the sea, and as they grow they travel to Europe or the East Coast of North America. Later in life, the matured eel migrates back to the Sargasso Sea to spawn and lay eggs. It is also believed that after hatching, young loggerhead sea turtles use currents such as the Gulf Stream to travel to the Sargasso Sea, where they use the sargassum as cover from predators until they are mature. The sargassum fish is a species of frogfish specially adapted to blend in among the sargassum seaweed.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: In the early 2000s, the Sargasso Sea was sampled as part of the Global Ocean Sampling survey, to evaluate its diversity of microbial life through metagenomics. Contrary to previous theories, results indicated the area has a wide variety of prokaryotic life.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Owing to surface currents, the Sargasso accumulates a high concentration of non-biodegradable plastic waste. The area contains the huge North Atlantic garbage patch.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Several nations and nongovernmental organizations have united to protect the Sargasso Sea. These organizations include the Sargasso Sea Commission


title: Sargasso Sea

text: established 11 March 2014 by the governments of the Azores (Portugal), Bermuda (United Kingdom), Monaco, the United Kingdom and the United States.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Bacteria that consume plastic have been found in the plastic-polluted waters of the Sargasso Sea; however, it is unknown whether these bacteria ultimately clean up poisons or simply spread them elsewhere in the marine microbial ecosystem. Plastic debris can absorb toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning anything that eats it.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Some human activity in the Sargasso Sea has negatively impacted it, such as over-fishing and shipping.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The Sargasso Sea is often portrayed in literature and the media as an area of mystery. It is often depicted in fiction as a dangerous area where ships are mired in weed for centuries, unable to escape.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Ezra Pound's opens with the line: "Your mind and you are our Sargasso Sea", suggesting that the woman addressed in the poem is a repository of trivia and disconnected facts.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The Sargasso Sea features in classic fantasy stories by William Hope Hodgson, such as his novel "The Boats of the "Glen Carrig"" (1907), Victor Appleton's Don Sturdy novel "Don Sturdy in the Port of Lost Ships: Or, Adrift in the Sargasso Sea", and several related short stories. Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas" describes the Sargasso Sea and gives an account of its formation. Thomas Allibone Janvier's 1898 novel is titled "In the Sargasso Sea".


title: Sargasso Sea

text: "Wide Sargasso Sea" (1966) by Jean Rhys is a rewriting of Charlotte Brontë's "Jane Eyre" from Bertha Mason's point of view.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: The first episode of the Jonny Quest television series, "Mystery of the Lizard Men", involves nefarious activities of foreign agents and was set primarily in the Sargasso Sea.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: In the episode "The time trap," from , an extra-dimensional space filled with lost ships is called a Sargasso Sea.


title: Sargasso Sea

text: Black Sails series season 3 Episode 2 & 3. A tropical storm has blown the Walrus of Captain Flint into the Sargasso Sea. Thetly experience lack of wind for several days.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Rockstar is a 2011 Indian Hindi-language musical romantic drama film written and directed by Imtiaz Ali and produced by former Eros International head Sunil Lulla and Shree Ashtavinayak Cine Vision chief Dhilin Mehta, starring Ranbir Kapoor and Nargis Fakhri with music composed by A. R. Rahman. The film also features Moufid Aziz, Aditi Rao Hydari, Piyush Mishra, Shernaz Patel, Kumud Mishra in supporting roles, and also Ranbir Kapoor's granduncle Shammi Kapoor, who makes his posthumous silver-screen appearance following his death on 14 August 2011.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar" was released on 11 November 2011. On the day of release, Tibetans in Chennai and Kangra protested against the Central Board of Film Certification asking the film-makers to censor scenes featuring the Tibetan flag. Upon release, "Rockstar" received generally mixed-to-positive reviews, with high praise directed towards Kapoor's performance and Rahman's soundtrack, but received criticism for its story and screenplay. It was one of the top-grossing films of that year, managing to appeal the youngsters in the cities.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: At the 57th Filmfare Awards, "Rockstar" received 10 nominations, including Best Film, Best Director (Ali) and Best Female Debut (Fakhri), and won 5 awards, including Best Actor (Ranbir Kapoor) and Best Music Director (Rahman). Over the years, the film has gone to achieve a cult following.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: A large crowd gathers outside the Verona Arena in Italy to watch the performance of rockstar Jordan. Despite being mobbed, he storms onto the stage in a fit of rage and starts strumming his guitar.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: A flashback reveals the story of Jordan, whose real name is Janardhan Jakhar JJ, a Jat boy from Delhi. He is studying at Hindu College and dreams of being a rockstar like Jim Morrison, for which he is often laughed at by his friends. Khatana, the canteen owner, tells JJ that one thing common among all artists is a life-altering heartbreak. JJ jokingly tells himself that since that hasn't happened yet, he won't be able to reach his idol's status. He watches the dance performance of Heer Kaul, a beautiful girl from St. Stephen's College during a contest, and overhears that she is the "perfect-heartbreaking-machine." Remembering Khatana's words, he decides to propose to her but suffers humiliation, which he sees as the perfect method for enduring the heartbreak needed for stardom. Over time, he and Heer become good friends, often going on adventures and engaging in risky behavior.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Heer marries a man named Jai in Kashmir, after which the couple moves to Prague. During this time, she develops feelings for JJ and coins the nickname "Jordan" for him. JJ finds himself thrown out by his brothers for allegedly stealing family money. He takes refuge for two months in the nearby Nizamuddin Dargah, singing qawwalis, and then moves into Khatana's home. Ustaad Jameel Khan, a renowned classical musician, hears JJ's singing at the Dargah and prompts Dhingra, the owner of "Platinum Records," to sign him. Sheena, a journalist, interviews JJ and hints to him that Dhingra is sending artists to Prague for a Europe tour. JJ volunteers to work there, in the hopes of reuniting with Heer.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Heer, meanwhile, suffers from continuous health problems. She meets JJ in Prague and they reconnect, but when he tries to profess his love for her, Heer, being married, spurns him. Despite this, their relationship gets intimate, and Heer feels guilty. As soon as JJ's Prague tours are over, she leaves him. JJ tries to visit her one last time before departing to India but is arrested on trespassing charges filed by Heer's husband. While JJ is being taken away, he sees Heer collapse. Upon being deported back to India, he is overwhelmed by the attention he receives, and clashes with the media and the Indian police, resulting in a jail term. The event garners enough publicity to make Dhingra decide to release JJ's recordings; the album does well, throwing JJ into the limelight.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: After being released, JJ terminates his contract with Dhingra, embarks on a country-wide tour, and finally morphs fully into "Jordan", the rockstar he had aspired to be. He turns bitter, arrogant, and lonely as time goes on, but remains a highly popular artist.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Jordan meets Heer's younger sister, Mandy, during one of his concerts, and she asks him to help Heer, who has been diagnosed with aplastic anaemia. Jordan's presence causes Heer to somewhat recover and her blood level rise. He starts disregarding his musical obligations to spend more time with her, and Khatana, his manager now, asks Heer to persuade Jordan to attend his concerts. Heer does so, and JJ resumes his tour with his first concert at Kangra, Himachal Pradesh. Upon returning, Heer's health deteriorates again. She slips into a coma and is discovered to be pregnant with Jordan's child. When Mandy informs Jordan of Heer's condition, he leaves one of his shows midway and goes to her hospital bed. He tries to wake her up but she remains non-responsive. Jordan realizes that she will not survive and goes numb. Heer dies offscreen, leaving Jordan in a permanent state of grief, who finally achieves international stardom like his idol.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: The film cuts back to the concert in Verona and while performing, Jordan sees a vision of a smiling Heer walking towards him. The film ends with a line from the poet Rumi's poem; translated, it means: "Away, beyond all concepts of wrong-doing and right-doing, there is a field. I'll meet you there", which the film began with.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Ranbir Kapoor plays the male lead of "Rockstar," with whom Eros International worked previously on "Anjaana Anjaani". His role of Jordan is loosely based on Imtiaz Ali's Jat friend, who lived in a small settlement in Pitam Pura. He had seen Kareena Kapoor's performance in his "Jab We Met" and wanted to cast her in the film. However, the script required some romantic scenes between the leads. As Ranbir and Kareena happened to be cousins, this was touted as a problem. Moreover, the filmmakers did not want to replace Ranbir with any other actor as the character he portrayed was reportedly suitable only for him. They then made a joint decision to replace Kapoor with Nargis Fakhri, after initially approaching Sonam Kapoor and Diana Penty for the replacement. The film marked Shammi Kapoor's last appearance in a feature film; he died on 14 August 2011.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: The shooting for "Rockstar" began in May 2010. A major part of the shooting took place in Kashmir at Kulgam, Kupwara , Pahalgam and Srinagar, while the last phase was shot in Delhi at places like the Kotla Mubarakpur, Nizamuddin Dargah, Greater Kailash, Munirka, Indira Gandhi International Airport, Amity School (deleted scenes),


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Connaught Place, Shri Ram College of Commerce, BL Kapoor Hospital, Rajendra Nagar, St. Stephen's College and Hindu College, which was Imtiaz Ali's alma mater.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Foreign sequences were shot at Wenceslas Square, Charles Bridge and the Old Town in parts of Prague and in Liberec (at Dr. Beneš Square, in front of the Liebieg Villa). The film was shot in reverse as the crew didn't want to break the continuity of Ranbir's hairstyle. The climax with long hair was shot first. Kapoor had to transform himself into a rockstar: he practiced guitar at A. R. Rahman's studio in Chennai for many days, read Kurt Cobain's biography and familiarised himself with Jats.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar"'s costumes were designed by Aki Narula and Manish Malhotra, who dressed Ranbir in "small-town denim-and-sweater combination and later, Pathani-style kurtas with arm bands", thus completing the rockstar look. Nargis Fakhri, who plays the role of a Kashmiri Pandit girl, wore a traditional Kashmiri Pandit wedding outfit in the wedding scene, which included Pandit Pheran, Dejhor (ear ornament) and Taranga (head cap worn underneath the veil). This also happens to be the first time in Bollywood that a Kashmiri Pandit wedding was shown.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: The music for the film is composed and scored by A. R. Rahman. This also marks the first Imtiaz Ali film since his debut "Socha Na Tha", to have the same composer for both film score and songs.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: The soundtrack features 14 tracks, with all lyrics penned by Irshad Kamil. The recording of the album took place in Chennai, London and Mumbai. Mohit Chauhan had lent his voice for nine songs. The audio rights were bought by T-Series. Upon release on 30 September 2011, it received highly positive reviews from critics. "Sadda Haq" became the most popular song of the album and was named as a "youth anthem".


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar" released on 11 November 2011 and saw a good advance opening at multiplexes closer to educational institutions. The film released in 2,500 screens, and saw cinema halls running 14 to 15 shows in a day.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Raja Sen of Rediff gave the film 4 stars out of 5 and wrote, ""Rockstar" is a simple, unspectacular tale, sometimes even predictable, but director Imtiaz Ali masterfully weaves in details that draw us in." Aniruddha Guha of "DNA" too gave the film 4 out of 5 saying that the film was "like an effective crescendo that leaves you wanting more." Nikhat Kazmi of "The Times of India" also gave the film 4 out of 5 and stated that "The highpoint of "Rockstar" is its high tension, high-on-passion romance between two unlikely people". Sukanya Verma of Rediff rated it 3.5 stars out of 5 and said, ""Rockstar" is flawed but fabulous." Mayank Shekhar of "Hindustan Times" also gave a rating of 3.5 out of 5 and noted "The canvas is wide like early Sanjay Leela Bhansali's; bird's view of the stunning bridge is very Mani Ratnam; witty, earthy dialogues are so Vishal Bhardwaj. Director Imitiaz Ali manages to retain a personal, auteur's touch in a genre vastly commercial, mainstream. This is a rare feat." Taran Adarsh of Bollywood Hungama gave the film 3 out of 5 stars, and said "On the whole, "Rockstar" does not live up to the confidence and expectations from the otherwise very skilled and accomplished film-maker Imtiaz Ali." Hrithik Sharma of "El Viaje Reviews" included it into his select list of Bollywood classics and says that ""Rockstar" is a unique cocktail of 50% drama, 40% romance and 10% comedy. What stands out is the music by A. R. Rahman. Each song in the film is a masterpiece and fits very well into the plot. Cinematography is realistic but pre-possessing indeed. The film gets a 10 on 10 in this department. There are certain scenes in the film that may seem unrelated to the plot but those would be the scenes that would stay with you longer." Rajeev Masand of "CNN-IBN" also gave 3 stars out of 5, commenting "Imtiaz Ali's "Rockstar" is a far-from-perfect film, but it has honesty and depth, which is mostly missing in Hindi movies today."


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Sumit Bhattacharya of Rediff gave a rating of 2.5 out of 5, saying that ""Rockstar" is what is called a one-time watch", and highlighted that the film "is more "Devdas" than "Jim Morrison"". Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" too gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars, and said ""Rockstar" has a Sufi soul. If only it had been set free and allowed to go the whole hog!" Komal Nahta of Koimoi again gave the film 2.5 out of 5, and said, ""Rockstar" will meet with a mixed response: one section of the audience (mainly youngsters in the cities) will love it while another section (mainly the single-screen audience and public of smaller cities) will find it ordinary." Kaveree Bamzai of "India Today" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and said "AR Rahman's music is the soul of the film. What is missing is the spine, leaving just a jelly in place." Yahoo! gave the film 1 star out of 5, and said ""Rockstar" drives home an unscientific hypothesis that people who’ve endured sufferings/heart break etc will reach their creative best." A reviewer from Reuters commented that Rahman and Kapoor are the stars of the film while saying ""Rockstar" works on so many levels, but it fails miserably on so many more.". Anuj Kumar of The Hindu said "Imtiaz Ali's latest is yet another good-looking product where a promising new-age director fails to translate his thought into something convincing."


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Major parts of the song "Sadda Haq" were shot at the Norbulingka monastery in McLeod Ganj, Dharamsala and people waving the free Tibet flag in the backdrop were shown in the song video. This triggered a dispute between Central Board of Film Certification and Imtiaz Ali when the Board asked Ali to blur the flag before the film hit theatres, but the director refused to do it. Imtiaz Ali said, "I am not concerned at all. I have been out of India for long and don’t know what is going on, but I don’t see anything controversial in the intention portrayal in the movie. The purpose of the movie is not to make any social message, its more about personal freedom rather than a geographical issue." However, he had to remove the sequence from the video to get the film's censor done. Later an official from the Board stated: "The Censor Board chief explained to them that all the cuts were made by the director voluntarily, and he had the option of appealing to a review board which he didn’t do. There were certain discussions between (Imtiaz) Ali and the Board regarding retaining a kiss between two actors (Kapoor and Fakhri), but there has been no disagreement regarding deleting the flag from the frames." The controversy sparked protests among the Tibetan diaspora in Dharamsala and Chennai. Later television broadcasts blotted out a "Free Tibet" banner featured in the song.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: Upon release, "Rockstar" had a very good opening. The film opened to a good response at multiplexes with bookings averaging around 60–70%, and single screens witnessed a lower capacity at around 30–40%.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: It collected nett on its opening day, thus becoming the second highest opener in a non-festival season after "Ready". The good opening was attributed to the multiplexes across cities, the "star power" of Ranbir Kapoor as well as the youthful theme of the film. The film showed growth on Saturday by grossing nett, therefore taking its two-day net total to . A similar growth was seen on Sunday, and hence the first weekend collection ended at nett, the majority of which was collected from Mumbai, Pune, Delhi and Bangalore.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar" opened well on Monday collecting around nett, with 40% drop as compared to the first day collections, thus taking the four-day total to nett. The film collection saw another noticeable fall on Tuesday as it collected around nett, with five days collection totalling to nett. At the end of first week, the film had a good collection by grossing nett, though the film had found appreciation only with a small section of the audience. In the process, it was ranked ninth in the list of all-time first week domestic collections.


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar" grossed nett on second Friday, with a 75% drop as compared to the first day. On Saturday, the film collected nett, and nett on Sunday, taking the second weekend collection totalled at , representing a 70% drop from its first weekend. As of ten days, the film had collected approximately nett. "Rockstar" made nett in the second week, declining by 67% and taking the two-week collection totalled at nett. The film on week three managed to earn , and hence taking three weeks collections to . By the end of its fifth week, the film netted .


title: Rockstar (2011 film)

text: "Rockstar" managed to gross $3.3 million from all overseas markets overall and was termed as below the mark. The film collected £ in the UK$, in North America$, in UAE and $ in Australia.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Osamu Tezuka (, born , "Tezuka Osamu"; – 9 February 1989) was a Japanese manga artist, cartoonist, and animator. Born in Osaka Prefecture, his prolific output, pioneering techniques, and innovative redefinitions of genres earned him such titles as , and . Additionally, he is often considered the Japanese equivalent to Walt Disney, who served as a major inspiration during Tezuka's formative years. Though this phrase praises the quality of his early manga works for children and animations, it also blurs the significant influence of his later, more literary, gekiga works.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka began what was known as the manga revolution in Japan with his "New Treasure Island" published in 1947. His output would spawn some of the most influential, successful, and well-received manga series including the children mangas "Astro Boy", "Princess Knight" and "Kimba the White Lion", and the adult-oriented series "Black Jack", "Phoenix", and "Buddha", all of which won several awards.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka died of stomach cancer in 1989. His death had an immediate impact on the Japanese public and other cartoonists. A museum was constructed in Takarazuka dedicated to his memory and life works, and Tezuka received many posthumous awards. Several animations were in production at the time of his death along with the final chapters of "Phoenix," which were never released.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka was born in Toyonaka, Osaka. He was the eldest of three children. The Tezuka family were prosperous and well-educated; his father Yutaka worked in management at Sumitomo Metals, his grandfather Taro was a lawyer, and his great-grandfather Ryoan and great-great-grandfather Ryosen were doctors. His mother's family had a long military history.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Later in life, he gave his mother credit for inspiring confidence and creativity through her stories. She frequently took him to the Takarazuka Grand Theater, which often headlined the Takarazuka Revue, an all-female musical theater troupe. Their romantic musicals aimed at a female audience, had a large influence of Tezuka's later works, including his costume designs. Not only that, but the performers' large, sparkling eyes also had an influence on Tezuka's art style. He said that he had a profound "spirit of nostalgia" for Takarazuka.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: When Tezuka was young, his father showed him Walt Disney films and he became a Disney movie buff, seeing the films multiple times in a row, most famously seeing "Bambi" more than 80 times. Tezuka started to draw comics around his second year of elementary school, in large part inspired by Disney animation; he drew so much that his mother would have to erase pages in his notebook in order to keep up with his output. Tezuka was also inspired by the works by Suihō Tagawa and Unno Juza. Later in life, he would state that the most important influence on his desire to be an animator was not Disney but the experience of watching the Chinese animation "Princess Iron Fan" as a child.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Around his fifth year, he found a ground beetle, known as "Osamushi" in Japanese. It so resembled his own name that he adopted "Osamushi" as his pen name. Tezuka continued to develop his manga skills throughout his school career. During this period he created his first adept amateur works.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: During high school in 1944, Tezuka was drafted to work for a factory, supporting the Japanese war effort during World War II; he simultaneously continued writing manga. In 1945, Tezuka was accepted into Osaka University and began studying medicine. During this time, he also began publishing his first professional works.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka came to the realization that he could use manga as a means of helping to convince people to care for the world. After World War II, at age 17, he published his first professional work, "Diary of Ma-chan", which was serialized in the elementary school children's newspaper "Shokokumin Shinbun" in early 1946.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka began talks with fellow manga creator Shichima Sakai, who pitched Tezuka a story based on Robert Louis Stevenson's classic adventure novel, "Treasure Island". Sakai promised Tezuka a publishing spot from Ikuei Shuppan if he would work on the manga. Tezuka finished the manga, only loosely basing it on the original work. "Shin Takarajima" ("New Treasure Island") was published and became an overnight success, which began the golden age of manga, a craze comparable to American comic book Golden Age at the same time.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: With the success of "New Treasure Island," Tezuka traveled to Tokyo in search of a publisher for more of his work. Kobunsha turned Tezuka down, but Shinseikaku agreed to publish "The Strange Voyage of Dr. Tiger" and Domei Shuppansha agreed to publish "The Mysterious Dr. Koronko".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: While still in medical school Tezuka published his first masterpieces: a trilogy of science fiction epics called "Lost World" (1948), "Metropolis" (1949), and "Nextworld" (1951). These works featured early steampunk elements.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Soon afterward, Tezuka published his first major success, "Kimba the White Lion", which was serialized in "Manga Shonen" from 1950 to 1954.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In 1951 Tezuka graduated from the Osaka School of Medicine and published "Ambassador Atom", the first appearance of the Astro Boy character. That same year Tezuka joined a group known as the Tokyo Children Manga Association, consisting of other manga artists such as Baba Noboru, Ota Jiro, Furusawa Hideo, Eiichi Fukui, Irie Shigeru, and Negishi Komichi.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: By 1952, "Ambassador Atom" had proven to be an only mild success in Japan; however, one particular character became extremely popular with young boys: a humanoid robot named Atom. Tezuka received several letters from many young boys. Expecting success with a series based around Atom, Tezuka's producer suggested that he be given human emotions. One day, while working at a hospital, Tezuka was punched in the face by a frustrated American G.I. This encounter gave Tezuka the idea to include the theme of Atom's interaction with aliens. On 4 February 1952, "Tetsuwan Atom" began serialization in "Weekly Shonen Magazine". The character Atom and his adventures became an instant phenomenon in Japan.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Due to the success of "Tetsuwan Atom", in 1953 Tezuka published the shōjo manga "Ribon no Kishi" ("Princess Knight"), serialized in "Shojo Club" from 1953 to 1956.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In 1954 Tezuka first published what he would consider his life's work, "Phoenix", which originally appeared in "Mushi Production Commercial Firm".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka's first work to be adapted for animation was "Saiyuki", a retelling of the Chinese story of "Journey to the West". Produced by Toei Animation, Tezuka was officially credited as the director of the film. However, later crew accounts would prove that the manga artist was difficult to motivate to do work. Most of the direction was done by Yabushita Taiji instead. Tezuka was eventually given the task of storyboarding the film, so that he didn't actually have to animate anything and something in the production could get done. He did not follow Toei's deadlines, and after a year of working on the project and several weeks of threats from Toei's producers, he finally delivered his 500-page storyboard so the animators could do their job in the autumn of 1959. That said, the crew found the storyboard to be entirely unpractical, lacking pacing and a clear plot for a 90-minute film, instead something that would be better told through an open-ended weekly comic like what Tezuka had been producing. This ran counter to Toei's "climax method" that had the goal of a big finish at the end for audiences to leave the cinema remembering. The script for the film was credited to Uekusa Keinosuke. The film was released as "Alakazam the Great" in 1960.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: That said, many of the animators were initially shocked at the amount they had to produce in such a short amount of time—amounting to a frame a day, thinking it undoable. However, Tezuka's simplified art style made the entire animation process much more efficient.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka did not enjoy his time at Toei, and he especially did not like that he felt he had no control over "his" story or the ending. This film is recognized as a massive turning point in animation history. It introduced the use of simplified art style and limited animation as labor and cost savers. It introduced Tsukioka Sadao, one of Tezuka's assistants, to Toei where he would later become the director of the studio's first TV series, and it introduced Tezuka to the animators he would later poach for his own studio.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In 1961, Tezuka entered the animation industry in Japan by founding the production company Mushi Productions as a rival of Toei Animation. His initial staff was composed of animators he had met while working on Saiyuki that he convinced to join by paying the animators more than double what Toei was paying them as well as paying for food. Their first film was "Tales from a Certain Street Corner" ("Aru Machikado no Monogatari"). An 'anti-Disney', experimental film. Just like on "Saiyuki", Tezuka would often fall behind his own deadlines, and the staff would have to pick up the slack only for Tezuka to take credit for it later. "Tales from a Certain Street Corner" was shown at a single special screening and featured many "tricks" that would be later standardized as labor-saving measures in the anime industry such as repeated and reversed animation cycles of characters dancing, frames being held for a long period of time. This same screening also featured the first screening of Tezuka's "Astro Boy" initial two episodes eight weeks before its original broadcast on the 5 or 6 November 1962 at the Yamaha Hall.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: "Astro Boy" was first broadcast on New Year's Day 1963; this series would create the first successful model for animation production in Japan and would also be the first Japanese animation dubbed into English for an American audience and also created the market for children's merchandise. This is in large part because Tezuka was able to undercut his competitors, cutting costs to 2.5 million yen per episode by using techniques that would later be adopted by the television anime industry at large such as shooting on threes, stop images, repetition, sectioning, combined use, and short shots. None of these methods were invented by Tezuka or Mushi Pro, but were instead refined there. During production, the staff also found that while the short cuts were initially obvious, the use of soundscaping helped to mitigate it.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: The only reason "Astro Boy" was able to survive its inception is because Tezuka was able to sell the foreign rights to NBC Enterprises (an important distinction from NBC itself which was the entity Tezuka believed he was selling to). The American company ordered 52 episodes, a crucial investment because Mushi Pro only had four episodes in the can and only enough resources for one episode more. In the American localization, even more over the top sound effects were used to mitigate the obviously cheap animation. The use of sound would be further utilized and exemplified in other anime to follow, leading to many of the "stock" anime sound effects modern audiences are now used to.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Selling to an American market was very restrictive, though. They were not to include any indication that the show was made in Japan, they were not to have any arc that lasted more than an episode, all street signs had to be in English, there could be no religious references, "adult" themes, or nudity. Tezuka agreed to this, claiming that it would fit better with the sci-fi setting by giving the sense of a "placelessness". However, he would soon be disappointed by the American market when a Mushi Pro representative went to discuss the next year's episode order only to find out that the Americans didn't need anymore, believing that 52 episodes were more than enough to cycle through indefinitely.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Other series were subsequently adapted to animation, including "Jungle Emperor" (1965), the first Japanese animated series produced in full color. "Jungle Emperor" was also successfully sold to NBC Enterprises who almost made Mushi Pro clothe the wild animals featured. They were finally able to negotiate "than animals were permitted to be 'naked' in natural settings, and that the depiction of black characters was permissible, as long as they were presented as 'civilized'; evil characters could still only be white."


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In the late 60s and 70s, it was clear that the rise of Mushi Pro was a short one and it was sliding into bankruptcy. Tezuka's financial model was unsustainable and the company was deeply in debt. In two desperate attempts to earn enough money to pay investors, Tezuka turned to the adult film market and produced A Thousand and One Nights (1969 film) and Cleopatra (1970 film). Both attempts failed.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka stepped down as acting director in 1968 to found a new animation studio, Tezuka Productions, and continued experimenting with animation late into his life. In 1973, Mushi Productions collapsed financially; the fallout would produce several influential animation production studios, including Sunrise.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In 1967, in response to the magazine "Garo" and the "gekiga" movement, Tezuka created the magazine "COM". By doing so, he radically changed his art from a cartoony, Disney-esque slapstick style towards a more realistic drawing style; at the time the themes of his books became focused on an adult audience. A common element in all these books and short stories is the very dark and immoral nature of the main characters. The stories are also filled with explicit violence, erotic scenes, and crime.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: The change of his manga from aimed at children to more 'literary' "gekiga" manga started with the "yōkai" manga "Dororo" in 1967. This "yōkai" manga was influenced by the success of and a response to Shigeru Mizuki's "GeGeGe no Kitarō". Simultaneously, he also produced "Vampires" that, like "Dororo", also introduced a stronger, more coherent storyline and a shift in the drawing style. After these two he began his true first "gekiga" attempt with "Swallowing the Earth". Dissatisfied with the result, he soon after produced "I.L.". His work "Phoenix" began in 1967.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Besides the well-known series "Phoenix", "Black Jack" and "Buddha", which are drawn in this style, he also produced a vast amount of one-shots or shorter series, such as "Ayako", "Ode to Kirihito", "Alabaster", "Apollo's Song", "Barbara", "MW", "The Book of Human Insects", and a large number of short stories that were later collectively published in books such as "Under the Air", "Clockwork Apple", "The Crater", "Melody of Iron and Other Short Stories", and "Record of the Glass Castle".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka would become a bit milder in narrative tone in the 1980s with his follow-up works such as "Message to Adolf", "Midnight", "Ludwig B" (unfinished), and "Neo Faust".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka died of stomach cancer on 9 February 1989 in Tokyo. His last words were: "I'm begging you, let me work!", spoken to a nurse who had tried to take away his drawing equipment.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In 2014, it was reported that Tezuka's daughter, , opened a drawer to her father's desk which had been locked since his death. In it she found a half-eaten piece of chocolate, a handwritten essay about Katsuhiro Otomo in regard to his good work on "Akira", sketches from his various projects, and a large number of erotic sketches of anthropomorphic animals.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka is known for his imaginative stories and stylized Japanese adaptations of Western literature. Tezuka's "cinematic" page layouts were influenced by Milt Gross' early graphic novel "He Done Her Wrong." He read this book as a child, and its style characterized many manga artists who followed in Tezuka's footsteps. His work, like that of other manga creators, was sometimes gritty and violent.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: A key component of Tezuka’s style is his extensive use of quotations — which include his allusions to popular works and adoptions of trends. For instance, he incorporated multiple varieties of depth into one frame — mirroring a breakthrough technique in the realm of Hollywood film: deep-focus cinematography. Tezuka’s "Metropolis" is an exemplar for his use of this technique (as well as the cinematic "pans and close-ups and zooms" that created the illusion of motion in his scenes). Nonetheless: Tezuka’s dyadic visual jokes — which involve the arrival of creatures at emotionally-charged scenes — disrupt the tension, reminding the reader of “the framework of fiction” and promoting a safe “mode of identification” with the narrative.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka’s quotations of real trends mark a key aspect of his style: adaptation in response to the socio-cultural situation and interests of his audience. He involved the “kiss-scene” motif due to its rising popularity in Japanese film. Tezuka juxtaposed this with elements more customary to Japan — for instance, the “glorification of self-sacrifice”: instead of the usual happy ending, one or more of his characters would meet their demise but specifically for the sake of others. Aside from these borrowed motifs: a signature characteristic of Tezuka’s style is the Star System, which refers to his casting of characters into different roles across a body of comics. His characters were modified to appear in different works, similar to how actors modify their personality and appearance to suit different performances. Influenced by film, he created bipartite characters that were constituted by the performer (or the stock character) and the performance (or the role played by the stock character). In doing so, Tezuka created space for intertextual history, references and commentary. The Star System utilized “the crossover between celebrity, actor and character” and also enabled Tezuka to involve intertexuality.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: He invented the distinctive "large eyes" style of Japanese animation, drawing inspiration from Western cartoons and animated films of the time such as "Betty Boop", "Mickey Mouse," and other Disney movies.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: While the start of Tezuka’s professional career involved four-panel comics like "The Diary of Mā-chan" and "A Man from Mars", it was the "akahon" format of "New Treasure Island", a comic book numbering 200 pages, that attached him to fame. The "akahon" is characterized by the use of "senkashi" paper and “bright red covers” — both of which enabled easy circulation. Tezuka departed from the typical expectations of "akahon" by introducing complexity in "The Mysterious Underground Man" and morality in "Magic House" and "Vampire Devils". Moreover, he used "romaji" (English) titles alongside the Japanese equivalents, as well as a subtle color palette and intricate composition — all of which were unlike other "akahon". Later: Tezuka’s style, which favoured "akahon", had to be reeinvented to serve the demands of serialized magazines. He created the “single charismatic hero” — an example of which is Atom — to capture and keep the readership’s attention through the episodic narratives.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka's complete oeuvre includes over 700 volumes, with more than 150,000 pages. Tezuka's creations include "Astro Boy" ("Mighty Atom" in Japan), "Black Jack", "Princess Knight", "Phoenix" ("Hi no Tori" in Japan), "Kimba the White Lion" ("Jungle Emperor" in Japan), "Unico", "Message to Adolf", "The Amazing 3," "Buddha, and Dororo". His "life's work" was "Phoenix"—a story of life and death that he began in the 1950s and continued until his death.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In addition, Tezuka headed the animation production studio Mushi Production ("Bug Production"), which pioneered TV animation in Japan.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka was a descendant of Hattori Hanzō, a famous ninja and samurai who faithfully served Tokugawa Ieyasu during the Sengoku period in Japan.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka's childhood nickname was "gashagasha-atama": "messy head" ("gashagasha" is slang for messy, "atama" means head). As a child, Tezuka's arms swelled up and he became ill. He was treated and cured by a doctor, which made him also want to be a doctor. At a crossing point, he asked his mother whether he should look into doing manga full-time or whether he should become a doctor. At the time, being a manga author was not a particularly rewarding job. The answer his mother gave was: "You should work doing the thing you like most of all." Tezuka decided to devote himself to manga creation on a full-time basis. He graduated from Osaka University and obtained his medical degree, but he would later use his medical and scientific knowledge to enrich his sci-fi manga, such as "Black Jack".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka enjoyed insect collecting and entomology (even adding the character 'bug' to his pen name), Disney, and baseball — in fact, he licensed the "grown up" version of his character Kimba the White Lion as the logo for the Seibu Lions of the Nippon Professional Baseball League. A fan of Superman, Tezuka was honorary chairman of Japan's Superman Fan Club.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka met Walt Disney in person at the 1964 New York World's Fair. In a 1986 entry in his personal diary, Tezuka stated that Disney wanted to hire him for a potential science fiction project.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In January 1965, Tezuka received a letter from American film director Stanley Kubrick, who had watched "Astro Boy" and wanted to invite Tezuka to be the art director of his next movie, "" (which was eventually released in 1968). Although flattered by Kubrick's invitation, Tezuka could not afford to leave his studio for a year to live in England, so he had to turn down the offer. Although he was not able to work on "2001", he loved the film, and would play its soundtrack at maximum volume in his studio to keep him awake during long nights of work.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Stamps were issued in Tezuka's honor in 1997. Also, beginning in 2003, the Japanese toy company Kaiyodo began manufacturing a series of figurines of Tezuka's creations, including Princess Knight, Unico, the Phoenix, Dororo, Marvelous Melmo, Ambassador Magma, and many others. To date, three series of the figurines have been released.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka's legacy has continued to be honored among manga artists and animators. He guided many well-known manga artists, such as Shotaro Ishinomori and Go Nagai. Artists that have cited Tezuka as an influence include Monkey Punch, Katsuhiro Otomo, Akira Toriyama and Naoki Urasawa. From 2003 to 2009, Urasawa and Takashi Nagasaki adapted an arc of "Astro Boy" into the murder mystery series "Pluto".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Tezuka was a personal friend (and apparent artistic influence) of Brazilian comic book artist Mauricio de Sousa. In 2012, Maurício published a two-issue story arc in the "Monica Teen" comic book featuring some of Tezuka's main characters, including Astro Boy, Black Jack, Sapphire, and Kimba, joining Monica and her friends in an adventure in the Amazon rainforest against a smuggling organization chopping down hundreds of trees. This was the first time that Tezuka Productions allowed overseas artists to use Tezuka's characters.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: In October 2019, a project was announced called Tezuka 2020, which is AI-illustrated manga in his style. At first, the illustrations were distorted and horrifying, but after studying actual human faces, the illustrations looked more like his. After looking through thousands of AI-generated pictures, one stood out, and the illustrator Urumu Tsunogai created the new protagonist. In 2020, an AI writer-artist made by Kioxia was tasked to make a new "Tezuka" manga called "", which takes place in a futuristic apocalyptic society, which was released in the magazine ""Morning"" on 27 February 2020. It is part of the project, which will also be drawn by physical human beings such as Shigeto Ikehara, Kenichi Kiriki, and Urumu Tsunogai. Tezuka's son held a ceremony on 26 February 2020, to introduce people to the manga. The publisher of the magazine already confirmed that a sequel is in production. The manga was published in English on June 4, 2020 under the name Phaedo.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: The city of Takarazuka, Hyōgo, where Tezuka grew up, opened a museum in his memory. was inaugurated on 25 April 1994, and has three floors (15069.47 ft²). In the basement there is an "Animation Workshop" in which visitors can make their own animation, and a mockup of the city of Takarazuka and a replica of the table where Osamu Tezuka worked.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: Outside of the building's entrance, there are imitations of the hands and feet of several characters from Tezuka (as in a true walk of fame) and on the inside, the entry hall, a replica of Princess Knight's furniture. On the same floor is a permanent exhibition of manga and a room for the display of anime. The exhibition is divided into two parts: Osamu Tezuka and the city of Takarazuka and Osamu Tezuka, the author.


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: The second floor contains, along with several exhibitions, a manga library with five hundred works of Tezuka (some foreign editions are also present), a video library, and a lounge with decor inspired by "Kimba the White Lion".


title: Osamu Tezuka

text: There is also a glass sculpture that represents the planet Earth and is based on a book written by Tezuka in his childhood called "Our Earth of Glass".


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar (para-aramid) is a strong, heat-resistant synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in 1965, the high-strength material was first used commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires. It is typically spun into ropes or fabric sheets that can be used as such, or as an ingredient in composite material components.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar has many applications, ranging from bicycle tires and racing sails to bulletproof vests, all due to its high tensile strength-to-weight ratio; by this measure it is five times stronger than steel. It is also used to make modern marching drumheads that withstand high impact; and for mooring lines and other underwater applications.


title: Kevlar

text: A similar fiber called Twaron with the same chemical structure was developed by Akzo in the 1970s; commercial production started in 1986, and Twaron is now manufactured by Teijin.


title: Kevlar

text: Poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide (K29) – branded Kevlar – was invented by the American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in anticipation of a gasoline shortage. In 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light, but strong, tires. The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-phenylene-terephthalate and polybenzamide, formed liquid crystals while in solution, something unique to those polymers at the time.


title: Kevlar

text: The solution was "cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity" and usually was thrown away. However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the spinneret, to test her solution, and was amazed to find that the fiber did not break, unlike nylon. Her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her discovery and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose. By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced. However, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar. Kevlar 149 was invented by Dr. Jacob Lahijani of Dupont in the 1980s.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine ("para"-phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric acid as a byproduct. The result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients the polymer chains in the fiber's direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) was the solvent initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of "N"-methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride. As this process had been patented by Akzo (see above) in the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar production is expensive because of the difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning.


title: Kevlar

text: The ultraviolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as "UV degradation", and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight.


title: Kevlar

text: When Kevlar is spun, the resulting fiber has a tensile strength of about , and a relative density of 1.44 (0.052 lb/in). The polymer owes its high strength to the many inter-chain bonds. These inter-molecular hydrogen bonds form between the carbonyl groups and N"H" centers. Additional strength is derived from aromatic stacking interactions between adjacent strands. These interactions have a greater influence on Kevlar than the van der Waals interactions and chain length that typically influence the properties of other synthetic polymers and fibers such as ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene. The presence of salts and certain other impurities, especially calcium, could interfere with the strand interactions and care is taken to avoid inclusion in its production. Kevlar's structure consists of relatively rigid molecules which tend to form mostly planar sheet-like structures rather like silk protein.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic temperatures (): in fact, it is slightly stronger at low temperatures. At higher temperatures the tensile strength is immediately reduced by about 10–20%, and after some hours the strength progressively reduces further. For example: enduring for 500 hours, its strength is reduced by about 10%; and enduring for 70 hours, its strength is reduced by about 50%.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low thermal conductivity and high strength relative to other materials for suspension purposes. It is most often used to suspend a paramagnetic salt enclosure from a superconducting magnet mandrel in order to minimize any heat leaks to the paramagnetic material. It is also used as a thermal standoff or structural support where low heat leaks are desired.


title: Kevlar

text: A thin Kevlar window has been used by the NA48 experiment at CERN to separate a vacuum vessel from a vessel at nearly atmospheric pressure, both in diameter. The window has provided vacuum tightness combined with reasonably small amount of material (only 0.3% to 0.4% of radiation length).


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor such as combat helmets, ballistic face masks, and ballistic vests. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces, use Kevlar as a key component in their construction. Other military uses include bulletproof face masks and spall liners used to protect the crews of armoured fighting vehicles. "Nimitz"-class aircraft carriers use Kevlar reinforcement in vital areas. Civilian applications include: high heat resistance uniforms worn by firefighters, body armour worn by police officers, security, and police tactical teams such as SWAT.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps and other articles of clothing designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat. Kevlar-based protective gear is often considerably lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made of more traditional materials.


title: Kevlar

text: It is used for motorcycle safety clothing, especially in the areas featuring padding such as the shoulders and elbows. In the sport of fencing it is used in the protective jackets, breeches, plastrons and the bib of the masks. It is increasingly being used in the "peto", the padded covering which protects the picadors' horses in the bullring. Speed skaters also frequently wear an under-layer of Kevlar fabric to prevent potential wounds from skates in the event of a fall or collision.


title: Kevlar

text: In "kyudo", or Japanese archery, it may be used for bow strings, as an alternative to the more expensive hemp. It is one of the main materials used for paraglider suspension lines. It is used as an inner lining for some bicycle tires to prevent punctures. In table tennis, plies of Kevlar are added to custom ply blades, or paddles, in order to increase bounce and reduce weight. Tennis racquets are sometimes strung with Kevlar. It is used in sails for high performance racing boats.


title: Kevlar

text: In 2013, with advancements in technology, Nike used Kevlar in shoes for the first time. It launched the Elite II Series, with enhancements to its earlier version of basketball shoes by using Kevlar in the anterior as well as the shoe laces. This was done to decrease the elasticity of the tip of the shoe in contrast to the nylon conventionally used, as Kevlar expanded by about 1% against nylon which expanded by about 30%. Shoes in this range included LeBron, HyperDunk and Zoom Kobe VII. However these shoes were launched at a price range much higher than average cost of basketball shoes. It was also used in the laces for the Adidas F50 adiZero Prime football boot.


title: Kevlar

text: Several companies, including Continental AG, manufacture cycle tires with Kevlar to protect against punctures.


title: Kevlar

text: Folding-bead bicycle tires, introduced to cycling by Tom Ritchey in 1984, use Kevlar as a bead in place of steel for weight reduction and strength. A side effect of the folding bead is a reduction in shelf and floor space needed to display cycle tires in a retail environment, as they are folded and placed in small boxes.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar has also been found to have useful acoustic properties for loudspeaker cones, specifically for bass and mid range drive units. Additionally, Kevlar has been used as a strength member in fiber optic cables such as the ones used for audio data transmissions.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar can be used as an acoustic core on bows for string instruments. Kevlar's physical properties provide strength, flexibility, and stability for the bow's user. To date, the only manufacturer of this type of bow is CodaBow.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is also presently used as a material for tailcords (a.k.a. tailpiece adjusters), which connect the tailpiece to the endpin of bowed string instruments.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is sometimes used as a material on marching snare drums. It allows for an extremely high amount of tension, resulting in a cleaner sound. There is usually a resin poured onto the Kevlar to make the head airtight, and a nylon top layer to provide a flat striking surface. This is one of the primary types of marching snare drum heads. Remo's Falam Slam patch is made with Kevlar and is used to reinforce bass drum heads where the beater strikes.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is used in the woodwind reeds of Fibracell. The material of these reeds is a composite of aerospace materials designed to duplicate the way nature constructs cane reed. Very stiff but sound absorbing Kevlar fibers are suspended in a lightweight resin formulation.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar is sometimes used in structural components of cars, especially high-value performance cars such as the Ferrari F40.


title: Kevlar

text: The chopped fiber has been used as a replacement for asbestos in brake pads. Aramids such as Kevlar release less airborne fibres than asbestos brakes and do not have the carcinogenic properties associated with asbestos.


title: Kevlar

text: Wicks for fire dancing props are made of composite materials with Kevlar in them. Kevlar by itself does not absorb fuel very well, so it is blended with other materials such as fiberglass or cotton. Kevlar's high heat resistance allows the wicks to be reused many times.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar fiber is used in rope and in cable, where the fibers are kept parallel within a polyethylene sleeve. The cables have been used in suspension bridges such as the bridge at Aberfeldy, Scotland. They have also been used to stabilize cracking concrete cooling towers by circumferential application followed by tensioning to close the cracks. Kevlar is widely used as a protective outer sheath for optical fiber cable, as its strength protects the cable from damage and kinking. When used in this application it is commonly known by the trademarked name Parafil.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar was used by scientists at Georgia Institute of Technology as a base textile for an experiment in electricity-producing clothing. This was done by weaving zinc oxide nanowires into the fabric. If successful, the new fabric will generate about 80 milliwatts per square meter.


title: Kevlar

text: A retractable roof of over of Kevlar was a key part of the design of the Olympic Stadium, Montreal for the 1976 Summer Olympics. It was spectacularly unsuccessful, as it was completed 10 years late and replaced just 10 years later in May 1998 after a series of problems.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar can be found as a reinforcing layer in rubber bellows expansion joints and rubber hoses, for use in high temperature applications, and for its high strength. It is also found as a braid layer used on the outside of hose assemblies, to add protection against sharp objects.


title: Kevlar

text: Some cellphones (including the Motorola RAZR Family, the Motorola Droid Maxx, OnePlus 2 and Pocophone F1) have a Kevlar backplate, chosen over other materials such as carbon fiber due to its resilience and lack of interference with signal transmission.


title: Kevlar

text: The Kevlar fiber/epoxy matrix composite materials can be used in marine current turbines (MCT) or wind turbines due to their high specific strength and light weight compared to other fibers.


title: Kevlar

text: Aramid fibers are widely used for reinforcing composite materials, often in combination with carbon fiber and glass fiber. The matrix for high performance composites is usually epoxy resin. Typical applications include monocoque bodies for F1 racing cars, helicopter rotor blades, tennis, table tennis, badminton and squash rackets, kayaks, cricket bats, and field hockey, ice hockey and lacrosse sticks.


title: Kevlar

text: Kevlar 149, the strongest fiber and most crystalline in structure, is an alternative in certain parts of aircraft construction. The wing leading edge is one application, Kevlar being less prone than carbon or glass fiber to break in bird collisions.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: Emmanuel Lewis (born March 9, 1971) is an American actor, best known for playing the title character in the 1980s television sitcom "Webster".


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: Lewis was born in Brooklyn, New York, and graduated from Midwood High School in 1989. He earned a bachelor's degree from Clark Atlanta University in 1997. He would only attend the fall semester so he could continue his career in the winter, spring and summer.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: Lewis is a practitioner of taekwondo. His height has only changed by since his childhood appearances in "Webster", making him relatively short. He has no known condition that would explain his height. He is also a Freemason.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: For his role on the television series "Webster", Lewis was nominated for four Young Artist Awards. In 1984, he was nominated for Best Young Actor in a Comedy Series for "Webster" and lost to Rick Schroder of "Silver Spoons". In 1985, he was nominated for the same award, but it went to Billy Jayne of "It's Not Easy". In 1986, he was nominated for Best Young Actor Starring in a Television Series, but was bested by Marc Price who won for his performance in "Family Ties". In 1987, he was nominated for Exceptional Performance by a Young Actor Starring in a Television Comedy or Drama Series, which Kirk Cameron of "Growing Pains" won.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: Lewis appeared as himself on a TV child stars episode of "The Weakest Link" in 2001. He was voted-off in the third round.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: He had cameo appearances in the 2007 film "Kickin' It Old Skool" and a 2013 episode of "Between Two Ferns with Zach Galifianakis".


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: In Japan, he is known as a singer and has released two singles; his debut single, "City Connection," reached Number 2 on the Oricon chart.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: On November 9, 2014, Lewis appeared on Ken Reid's "TV Guidance Counselor" podcast. The episode was recorded live at the Davis Square Theater in Somerville, Massachusetts, as part of the 2014 Boston Comedy Festival.


title: Emmanuel Lewis

text: "City Connection", a song performed by Lewis, was very popular in Japan in 1981, reaching number 2 on the Oricon chart.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: The frenulum of prepuce of penis, often known simply as the frenulum, is a highly erogenous elastic band of tissue under the glans penis that connects the foreskin to the vernal mucosa, and helps contract the foreskin over the glans. Along with the ridged bands at the tip of the foreskin, it is considered to be the most sensitive part of the penis to fine-touch.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: In the event of frenulum breve or frenular chordee, or to ensure that the glans can be freely and completely exposed, the frenulum may be partially or totally removed in a procedure known as frenulectomy.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: The frenulum and the associated tissue delta on the underside of the penis below the corona has been described in sexuality textbooks as "very reactive" and "particularly responsive to touch that is light and soft". The "underside of the shaft of the penis, meaning the part below the corona" is a "source of distinct pleasure". Crooks and Baur observe that two extremely sensitive specific locations that many men find particularly responsive to stimulation are the corona, and the frenulum. Repeated stimulation of this structure will cause orgasm and ejaculation.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: For those with spinal cord injuries preventing sensations from reaching the brain, the frenulum just below the glans can be stimulated to produce orgasm and peri-ejaculatory response. It is often a way for those with spinal cord injuries to engage in sexual activities and subsequently feel pleasure.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: Frenulum breve is a condition in which the frenulum is short and restricts the movement of the foreskin, which may or may not interfere with normal sexual activity. The condition can be treated by frenuloplasty, frenectomy, or circumcision. Frenulum breve may contribute to frenular chordee, where the glans is pulled toward the vernal body of the penis. Frenulum breve may also be treated by manually expanding the shaft skin by stretching in castration.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: It is possible for the frenulum to tear during sexual activities. The frenular artery, a branch of the dorsal artery, may be severed, causing significant bleeding.


title: Frenulum of prepuce of penis

text: As a treatment for frenulum breve or frenular chordee a frenectomy can be performed to excise the frenulum from the penis. This is a form of genital frenectomy. This procedure results in a smooth surface. A less invasive treatment which often retains the natural appearance and function of the frenulum to some degree is a frenuloplasty which involves a (partial) incision of the frenulum and realigning the edges to gain more length.


title: 4G

text: 4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G and preceding 5G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.


title: 4G

text: However, in December 2010, the ITU expanded its definition of 4G to include Long Term Evolution (LTE), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), and Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+).


title: 4G

text: The first-release WiMAX standard was commercially deployed in South Korea in 2006 and has since been deployed in most parts of the world.


title: 4G

text: The first-release LTE standard was commercially deployed in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden in 2009, and has since been deployed throughout most parts of the world. However, it has been debated whether the first-release versions should be considered 4G. The 4G wireless cellular standard was defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and specifies the key characteristics of the standard, including transmission technology and data speeds.


title: 4G

text: Each generation of wireless cellular technology has introduced increased bandwidth speeds and network capacity. 4G has speeds of up to 100 Mbit/s, whereas 3G had a peak speed of 14 Mbit/s.


title: 4G

text: As of 2021, 4G technology constitutes 58% of the worldwide mobile telecommunication technologies market.


title: 4G

text: In November 2008, the International Telecommunication Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s)(=12.5 megabytes per second) for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).


title: 4G

text: Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of the network refers to the deployment of a new non-backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced compliant versions and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed".


title: 4G

text: (LTE-A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards compatible versions of the above two systems, standardized during the spring 2011, and promising speeds in the order of 1 Gbit/s. Services were expected in 2013.


title: 4G

text: As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but instead relies on all-Internet Protocol (IP) based communication such as IP telephony. As seen below, the spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems is abandoned in all 4G candidate systems and replaced by OFDMA multi-carrier transmission and other frequency-domain equalization (FDE) schemes, making it possible to transfer very high bit rates despite extensive multi-path radio propagation (echoes). The peak bit rate is further improved by smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) communications.


title: 4G

text: In the field of mobile communications, a "generation" generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak bit rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz, and higher capacity for many simultaneous data transfers (higher system spectral efficiency in bit/second/Hertz/site).


title: 4G

text: New mobile generations have appeared about every ten years since the first move from 1981 analog (1G) to digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in 2001, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and a minimum peak bit rate of 200 kbit/s, in 2011/2012 to be followed by "real" 4G, which refers to all-Internet Protocol (IP) packet-switched networks giving mobile ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access.


title: 4G

text: While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on the work of other standard bodies such as IEEE, WiMAX Forum, and 3GPP.


title: 4G

text: In the mid-1990s, the ITU-R standardization organization released the IMT-2000 requirements as a framework for what standards should be considered 3G systems, requiring 2000 kbit/s peak bit rate. In 2008, ITU-R specified the IMT Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G systems.


title: 4G

text: The fastest 3G-based standard in the UMTS family is the HSPA+ standard, which has been commercially available since 2009 and offers 21 Mbit/s downstream (11 Mbit/s upstream) without MIMO, i.e. with only one antenna, and in 2011 accelerated up to 42 Mbit/s peak bit rate downstream using either DC-HSPA+ (simultaneous use of two 5 MHz UMTS carriers) or


title: 4G

text: 2x2 MIMO. In theory speeds up to 672 Mbit/s are possible, but have not been deployed yet. The fastest 3G-based standard in the CDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which is available since 2010 and offers 15.67 Mbit/s downstream.


title: 4G

text: This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced ("International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced"), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements:


title: 4G

text: In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates. Basically all proposals are based on two technologies:


title: 4G

text: Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE were largely considered a stopgap solution that would offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m specification) and LTE Advanced was deployed. The latter's standard versions were ratified in spring 2011.


title: 4G

text: The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008. LTE Advanced was standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP specification.


title: 4G

text: Some sources consider first-release LTE and Mobile WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or near-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100Mbit/s for mobile.


title: 4G

text: Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which according to some sources are pre-4G versions, commonly referred to as 3.9G, which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards, but today can be called 4G according to ITU-R. Vodafone Netherlands for example, advertised LTE as 4G, while advertising LTE Advanced as their '4G+' service. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands from 3G technologies; that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are forwards compatible with IMT-2000 compliant versions of the same standards.


title: 4G

text: As of October 2010, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced) for inclusion in the ITU's International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced program (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that will be available several years from now.


title: 4G

text: LTE Advanced (Long Term Evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2013. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology, but rather an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost effective for vendors to offer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrums and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced data speeds.


title: 4G

text: The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced (WiMAX 2) evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception.


title: 4G

text: The pre-4G 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology is often branded "4G – LTE", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used — and more if multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.


title: 4G

text: The physical radio interface was at an early stage named "High Speed OFDM Packet Access" (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).


title: 4G

text: The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals, Stockholm (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on December 14, 2009, and branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by Samsung. As of November 2012, the five publicly available LTE services in the United States are provided by MetroPCS, Verizon Wireless, AT&T Mobility, U.S. Cellular, Sprint, and T-Mobile US.


title: 4G

text: T-Mobile Hungary launched a public beta test (called "friendly user test") on 7 October 2011, and has offered commercial 4G LTE services since 1 January 2012.


title: 4G

text: In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices, slated to go nationwide by 2012. KT Telecom closed its 2G service by March 2012 and completed nationwide LTE service in the same frequency around 1.8 GHz by June 2012.


title: 4G

text: In the United Kingdom, LTE services were launched by EE in October 2012, by O2 and Vodafone in August 2013, and by Three in December 2013.


title: 4G

text: The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.


title: 4G

text: In June 2006, the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.


title: 4G

text: Sprint has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of 29 September 2008, branding it as a "4G" network even though the current version does not fulfill the IMT Advanced requirements on 4G systems.


title: 4G

text: In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access were offered by a Russian company Scartel, and was also branded 4G, Yota.


title: 4G

text: In the latest version of the standard, WiMax 2.1, the standard has been updated to be not compatible with earlier WiMax standard, and is instead interchangeable with LTE-TDD system, effectively merging WiMax standard with LTE.


title: 4G

text: Just as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX are being vigorously promoted in the global telecommunications industry, the former (LTE) is also the most powerful 4G mobile communications leading technology and has quickly occupied the Chinese market. TD-LTE, one of the two variants of the LTE air interface technologies, is not yet mature, but many domestic and international wireless carriers are, one after the other turning to TD-LTE.


title: 4G

text: IBM's data shows that 67% of the operators are considering LTE because this is the main source of their future market. The above news also confirms IBM's statement that while only 8% of the operators are considering the use of WiMAX, WiMAX can provide the fastest network transmission to its customers on the market and could challenge LTE.


title: 4G

text: TD-LTE is not the first 4G wireless mobile broadband network data standard, but it is China's 4G standard that was amended and published by China's largest telecom operator – China Mobile. After a series of field trials, is expected to be released into the commercial phase in the next two years. Ulf Ewaldsson, Ericsson's vice president said: "the Chinese Ministry of Industry and China Mobile in the fourth quarter of this year will hold a large-scale field test, by then, Ericsson will help the hand." But viewing from the current development trend, whether this standard advocated by China Mobile will be widely recognized by the international market is still debatable.


title: 4G

text: UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it was ending development of the technology, favoring LTE instead. The objective was to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.


title: 4G

text: The iBurst system (or HC-SDMA, High Capacity Spatial Division Multiple Access) was at an early stage considered to be a 4G predecessor. It was later further developed into the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) system, also known as IEEE 802.20.


title: 4G

text: As opposed to earlier generations, 4G systems do not support circuit switched telephony. IEEE 802.20, UMB and OFDM standards lack soft-handover support, also known as cooperative relaying.


title: 4G

text: Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved FDMA, and Multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for the next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithms and frequency domain equalization, resulting in a lower number of multiplications per second. They also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form the spectrum in a flexible way. However, they require advanced dynamic channel allocation and adaptive traffic scheduling.


title: 4G

text: WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the LTE (telecommunication), OFDMA is used for the downlink; by contrast, Single-carrier FDMA is used for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of amplifiers. IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and thus requires energy-inefficient linear amplifiers. Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20 standard. These access schemes offer the same efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this, scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.


title: 4G

text: The other important advantage of the above-mentioned access techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver. This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO environments since the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently require high complexity equalization at the receiver.


title: 4G

text: In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems, improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such as 64QAM are being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution standards.


title: 4G

text: Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes, 4G is based on packet switching "only". This requires low-latency data transmission.


title: 4G

text: As IPv4 addresses are (nearly) exhausted, IPv6 is essential to support the large number of wireless-enabled devices that communicate using IP. By increasing the number of IP addresses available, IPv6 removes the need for network address translation (NAT), a method of sharing a limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices, which has a number of problems and limitations. When using IPv6, some kind of NAT is still required for communication with legacy IPv4 devices that are not also IPv6-connected.


title: 4G

text: The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this, the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called "transmit" or "receive diversity". Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.


title: 4G

text: One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.


title: 4G

text: SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology, which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.


title: 4G

text: The 4G system was originally envisioned by the DARPA, the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. DARPA selected the distributed architecture and end-to-end Internet protocol (IP), and believed at an early stage in peer-to-peer networking in which every mobile device would be both a transceiver and a router for other devices in the network, eliminating the spoke-and-hub weakness of 2G and 3G cellular systems. Since the 2.5G GPRS system, cellular systems have provided dual infrastructures: packet switched nodes for data services, and circuit switched nodes for voice calls. In 4G systems, the circuit-switched infrastructure is abandoned and only a packet-switched network is provided, while 2.5G and 3G systems require both packet-switched and circuit-switched network nodes, i.e. two infrastructures in parallel. This means that in 4G traditional voice calls are replaced by IP telephony.


title: 4G

text: Since 2009, the LTE-Standard has strongly evolved over the years, resulting in many deployments by various operators across the globe. For an overview of commercial LTE networks and their respective historic development see: List of LTE networks. Among the vast range of deployments, many operators are considering the deployment and operation of LTE networks. A compilation of planned LTE deployments can be found at: List of planned LTE networks.


title: 4G

text: 4G introduces a potential inconvenience for those who travel internationally or wish to switch carriers. In order to make and receive 4G voice calls (VoLTE), the subscriber handset must not only have a matching frequency band (and in some cases require unlocking), it must also have the matching enablement settings for the local carrier and/or country. While a phone purchased from a given carrier can be expected to work with that carrier, making 4G voice calls on another carrier's network (including international roaming) may be impossible without a software update specific to the local carrier and the phone model in question, which may or may not be available (although fallback to 2G/3G for voice calling may still be possible if a 2G/3G network is available with a matching frequency band).


title: 4G

text: A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access (BDMA).


title: 4G

text: Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical handoff, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also known as cognitive radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.


title: Romulus

text: Romulus () was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Various traditions attribute the establishment of many of Rome's oldest legal, political, religious, and social institutions to Romulus and his contemporaries. Although many of these traditions incorporate elements of folklore, and it is not clear to what extent a historical figure underlies the mythical Romulus, the events and institutions ascribed to him were central to the myths surrounding Rome's origins and cultural traditions.


title: Romulus

text: The myths concerning Romulus involve several distinct episodes and figures, including the miraculous birth and youth of Romulus and his twin brother, Remus; Remus' murder and the founding of Rome; the Rape of the Sabine Women, and the subsequent war with the Sabines; a period of joint rule with Titus Tatius; the establishment of various Roman institutions; the death or apotheosis of Romulus, and the succession of Numa Pompilius.


title: Romulus

text: According to Roman mythology, Romulus and Remus were the sons of Rhea Silvia by the god Mars. Their maternal grandfather was Numitor, the rightful king of Alba Longa, through whom the twins were descended from both the Trojan hero Aeneas, and Latinus, the king of Latium.


title: Romulus

text: Before the twins' birth, Numitor's throne had been usurped by his brother, Amulius, who murdered Numitor's son or sons, and condemned Rhea Silvia to perpetual virginity by consecrating her a Vestal. When Rhea became pregnant, she asserted that she had been visited by the god Mars. Amulius imprisoned her, and upon the twins' birth, ordered that they be thrown into the Tiber. But as the river had been swollen by rain, the servants tasked with disposing of the infants could not reach its banks, and so exposed the twins beneath a fig tree at the foot of the Palatine Hill.


title: Romulus

text: In the traditional account, a she-wolf happened upon the twins, and suckled them until they were found by the king's herdsman, Faustulus, and his wife, Acca Larentia. The brothers grew to manhood among the shepherds and hill-folk. After becoming involved in a conflict between the followers of Amulius and those of their grandfather Numitor, Faustulus told them of their origin. With the help of their friends, they lured Amulius into an ambush and killed him, restoring their grandfather to the throne. The princes then set out to establish a city of their own.


title: Romulus

text: They returned to the hills overlooking the Tiber, the site where they had been exposed as infants. They could not agree on which hill should house the new city. When an omen to resolve the controversy failed to provide a clear indication, the conflict escalated and Romulus or one of his followers killed Remus. In a variant of the legend, the augurs favoured Romulus, who proceeded to plough a square furrow around the Palatine Hill to demarcate the walls of the future city. When Remus derisively leapt over the "walls" to show how inadequate they were against invaders, Romulus struck him down in anger. In another variant, Remus was killed during a melée, along with Faustulus.


title: Romulus

text: The founding of Rome was commemorated annually on April 21, with the festival of the Parilia. Romulus' first act was to fortify the Palatine, in the course of which he made a sacrifice to the gods. He laid out the city's boundaries with a furrow that he ploughed, performed another sacrifice, and with his followers set to work building the city itself. Romulus sought the assent of the people to become their king. With Numitor's help, he addressed them and received their approval. Romulus accepted the crown after he sacrificed and prayed to Jupiter, and after receiving favourable omens.


title: Romulus

text: Romulus divided the populace into three tribes, known as the "Ramnes", "Titienses", and "Luceres", for taxation and military purposes. Each tribe was presided over by an official known as a tribune, and was further divided into ten curia, or wards, each presided over by an official known as a "curio". Romulus also allotted a portion of land to each ward, for the benefit of the people. Nothing is known of the manner in which the tribes and curiae were taxed, but for the military levy, each curia was responsible for providing one hundred foot soldiers, a unit known as a "century", and ten cavalry. Each Romulean tribe thus provided about one thousand infantry, and one century of cavalry; the three hundred cavalry became known as the Celeres, "the swift", and formed the royal bodyguard.


title: Romulus

text: Choosing one hundred men from the leading families, Romulus established the Roman senate. These men he called "patres", the city fathers; their descendants came to be known as "patricians", forming one of the two major social classes at Rome. The other class, known as the "plebs" or "plebeians", consisted of the servants, freedmen, fugitives who sought asylum at Rome, those captured in war, and others who were granted Roman citizenship over time.


title: Romulus

text: To encourage the growth of the city, Romulus outlawed infanticide, and established an asylum for fugitives on the Capitoline Hill. Here freemen and slaves alike could claim protection and seek Roman citizenship.