title: Majapahit

text: In his book, he mentioned that he visited Java without explaining the exact place he had visited. He said that king of Java ruled over seven other kings (vassals). He also mentioned that in this island was found a lot of clove, cubeb, nutmeg and many other spices. He mentioned that the King of Java had an impressive, grand, and luxurious palace. The stairs and palace interior were coated with gold and silver, and even the roofs were gilded with gold. He also recorded that the Mongol emperors had repeatedly tried to attack Java, but always ended up in failure and managed to be sent back to the mainland. The Javanese kingdom mentioned in this record is Majapahit, and the time of his visit is between 1318 and 1330 during the reign of Jayanegara.


title: Majapahit

text: In "Yingya Shenglan"—a record about Zheng He's expedition (1405–1433)—Ma Huan describes the culture, customs, various social and economic aspects of "Chao-Wa" (Java) during Majapahit period. Ma Huan visited Java during Zheng He's 4th expedition in 1413, during the reign of Majapahit king Wikramawardhana. He describes his travel to Majapahit capital, first, he arrived at the port of "Tu-pan" (Tuban) where he saw large numbers of Chinese settlers migrated from Guangdong and Chou Chang. Then he sailed east to thriving new trading town of "Ko-erh-hsi" (Gresik), "Su-pa-erh-ya" (Surabaya), and then sailing inland into the river by smaller boat to the southwest until reached the river port of "Chang-ku" (Changgu). Continued travel by land to the southwest he arrived in "Man-che-po-I" (Majapahit), where the king stay. There are about 200 or 300 foreign families resides in this place, with seven or eight leaders to serve the king. The climate is constantly hot, like summer.


title: Majapahit

text: He describes the king's costumes; wearing a crown of gold leaves and flowers or sometimes without any headgear; bare-chested without wearing a robe, the bottom parts wears two sashes of embroidered silk. Additional silk rope is looped around the waist as a belt, and the belt is inserted with one or two short blades, called "pu-la-t'ou" ("belati" or more precisely kris dagger), walking barefoot. When travelling outside, the king rides an elephant or an ox-drawn carriage.


title: Majapahit

text: Commoners' clothing for men is without headgear and women arrange their hair like a bun secured with a hairpin. They wore clothing on the upper body and wrapped unstitched fabrics around the bottom part, Men from a boy aged three to elders slipped "pu-la-t'ou" (dagger) in their belt. The dagger, made entirely of steel with intricate motifs smoothly drawn. The handles are made of gold, rhino's horn or ivory carved with a depiction of human or demon, the carving works are exquisite and skilfully made.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit people, men and women, favoured their head. If someone was touched on his head, or if there is a misunderstanding or argument when drunk, they will instantly draw their knives and stab each other.


title: Majapahit

text: The population of the country did not have a bed or chair to sit and to eat they do not use a spoon or chopsticks. Men and women enjoy chewing betel nut mixed with, betel leaves, and white chalk made from ground mussels shells. They eat rice for the meal, first, they took a scoop of water and soak betel in their mouth, then wash their hands and sit down to make a circle; getting a plate of rice soaked in butter (probably coconut milk) and gravy, and eat using hands to lift the rice and put it in their mouth. When receiving guests, they will offer the guests, not the tea, but with betel nut.


title: Majapahit

text: The population consisted of Muslim merchants from the west (Arab and Muslim Indians, but mostly those from Muslim states in Sumatra), Chinese (claimed to be descendants of Tang dynasty), and unrefined locals. The king held annual jousting tournaments. About the marriage rituals; the groom pays a visit to the house of the bride's family, the marriage union is consummated. Three days later, the groom escorts his bride back to his home, where the man's family beat drums and brass gongs, blowing pipes made from coconut shells ("senterewe"), beating a drum made from bamboo tubes (probably a kind of bamboo gamelan or kolintang), and light fireworks. Escorted in front, behind, and around by men holding short blades and shields. While the bride is a matted-hair woman, with an uncovered body and barefooted. She wraps herself in embroidered silk, wears a necklace around her neck adorned with gold beads, and bracelets on her wrist with ornaments of gold, silver and other precious ornaments. Family, friends and neighbours decorate a decorative boat with betel leaf, areca nut, reeds and flowers are sewn, and arrange a party to welcome the couple on such a festive occasion. When the groom arrives home, the gong and drum are sounded, they will drink wine (possibly arrack or tuak) and play music. After a few days, the festivities end.


title: Majapahit

text: About the burial rituals, the dead body was left on the beach or empty land to be devoured by dogs (for lower-class), cremated, or committed into the waters (Javanese: "Larung"). The upper-class performed "suttee", a suicide ritual by widowed wives, concubines or female servants, through self immolation by throwing themselves into flaming cremation fire.


title: Majapahit

text: In this record, Ma Huan also describes a musical troupe travelling during full moon nights. Numbers of people holding shoulders creating an unbroken line while singing and chanting in unison, while the families whose houses being visited would give them copper coins or gifts. He also describes a class of artisans that draws various images on paper and give a theatrical performance. The narrator tells the story of legends, tales and romance drawn upon a screen of rolled paper. This kind of performance is identified as "wayang bébér", an art of story-telling that has survived for many centuries in Java.


title: Majapahit

text: Portuguese diplomat Tomé Pires, who visited the archipelago in 1512, recorded the culture of Java in the late Majapahit era, after his visit to the island between March–June 1513. Pires' account tells about the lords and nobles in Java. They are described as:


title: Majapahit

text: Buddhism, Shaivism, and Vaishnavism were all practised: the king was regarded as the incarnation of the three. The "Nagarakretagama" however, does not mention Islam, but there were certainly Muslim courtiers by this time.


title: Majapahit

text: Hinduism and Buddhism already shaped the Javanese civilisation, religion, and spiritualism since the earlier era, from the 9th century Mataram Kingdom, Kahuripan, Kadiri, to Singhasari kingdom. It seems that both Hinduism and Buddhism are widely practised by Majapahit subjects. Nevertheless, native Javanese shamanism possibly still exist and practised in peripheral rural regions.


title: Majapahit

text: The monarch and most of the royal family adhered to Hinduism, with certain emphasis on the cult of their own preferred main deity, either Shiva, Vishnu, Durga or other deities. The first king of Majapahit, Kertarajasa Jayawardhana was posthumously portrayed as Harihara, the god combination of Shiva and Vishnu, in his mortuary temple in Candi Simping. Mahayana Buddhism however, was also favoured by the royal family and officials of Majapahit. For example, the queen of Majapahit Gayatri Rajapatni and Gajah Mada are known as Buddhists. Gayatri later posthumously portrayed as Prajnaparamita.


title: Majapahit

text: The state religion however, was possibly the "Siwa Buddha", the Javanese syncretism of Shaivism and Buddhism, which emphasise the similarity between Shiva and Buddha which both described as ascetics and spiritual teacher. The spiritual circumstances of Majapahit, seems to promote the harmony between the adherents of Shiva and Buddha. As demonstrated in the manuscript Sutasoma written in 14th-century by Mpu Tantular which promotes the religious tolerance between the Hinduism and Buddhism, specifically promote the syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.


title: Majapahit

text: During the Majapahit period, religious teaching played an important role in the society. The religious education could be done individually within households of kshatriya nobles and brahmana religious elites, or in a centre for religious teaching which resembles ashram or boarding school called "Mandala" or "Kadewaguruan". A "Kadewaguruan" was usually located in remote areas far from habitation places, such as quiet forest, on hills or mountainous region. A "Kadewaguruan" is led by a mahāresi or high priest, who is also known as śiddharesi or dewaguru; hence the education centre is called "Kadewaguruan".


title: Majapahit

text: The literature of Majapahit was the continuation of Javanese Kawi Hindu-Buddhist scholarly tradition that produces "kakawin" poem that has been developed in Java since the 9th century Medang Mataram era, all the way through Kadiri and Singhasari periods. Notable Javanese literary works dated from an earlier period, such as Kadiri's 11th century Kanwa's Arjunawiwaha, 12th-century Dharmaja's Smaradahana, Sedah's Bharatayuddha, Panuluh's Hariwangsa also popular Panji cycles are continuously preserved and rewritten by "Rakawi" (Hindu-Buddhist poet or scholar) in Majapahit era. Notable literary works that were produced in the Majapahit period among others are Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, Tantular's Sutasoma, and Tantu Pagelaran. Popular tale of Sri Tanjung and Damarwulan also dated from Majapahit period. These Old Javanese "kakawins" were written and composed by "Rakawis" (poets) to worship the king of the gods whose incarnation the king represented.


title: Majapahit

text: Nagarakretagama composed by Prapanca in 1365 is a vital source of the premier historical account of Majapahit historiography. While Sutasoma is an important literature for modern Indonesian nationhood, since the national motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", which is usually translated as "Unity in Diversity", was taken from a "pupuh" (canto) of this manuscript.


title: Majapahit

text: Originally, the poem was meant to promote the religious tolerance between the Hindu and Buddhist religions, specifically promote the syncretic Shiva-Buddha doctrine.


title: Majapahit

text: In Yingya Shenglan, Ma Huan describes the writing system used in Majapahit. For the writing, they had known the alphabet using "So-li" (Chola — Coromandel/Southern India) letters. There is no paper or pen, they use "Chiao-chang" ("kajang") or palm leaf ("lontar"), written by scraping it with a sharp knife. They also have a developed language system and grammar. The way the people talk in this country is very beautiful and soft.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit art was the continuation of East Javanese art, style and aesthetically developed since the 11th century during the Kediri and Singhasari period. Unlike the earlier naturalistic, relaxed and flowing figures of classical Central Java-style (Sailendra art c. 8th to 10th century), this East Javanese style demonstrates a stiffer pose, stylised and rendered in wayang-like figures, such as those carved on East Javanese temple's bas-reliefs. The bas-reliefs were projected rather flat from the background. This style was later preserved in Balinese art, especially in its Kamasan style classical paintings and Balinese wayang.


title: Majapahit

text: The statues of Hindu gods and Buddhist deities in Majapahit art were also the continuations of its previous Singhasari art. The statues of East Javanese period tends to be a stiffer and frontal-formal pose, compared to the statues of Central Javanese art (c. 9th century) that are more Indianized style, relaxed in tribhanga pose. The stiffer pose of Majapahit gods statues is probably in accordance with the statue's function as the deified portrayal self of the dead Majapahit monarch. The carving, however, is richly decorated, especially with a fine floral carving of lotus plants carved on the stela behind the statue. Examples of Majapahit statues are the Harihara statue from Simping temple, believed to be the deified portrayal of King Kertarajasa, the statue of Parwati believed to be the portrayal of Queen Tribhuwana, and a statue of the queen Suhita discovered at Jebuk, Kalangbret, Tulungagung, East Java.


title: Majapahit

text: Clay pottery and brick masonry are a popular feature in Majapahit art and architecture. The Majapahit Terracotta art also flourished in this period. Significant numbers of terracotta artefacts were discovered in Trowulan. The artefacts range from human and animal figurines, jars, vessels, water containers, piggy banks, bas reliefs, architectural ornaments, roof pinnacles, floor tiles, to pipes and roof tiles.


title: Majapahit

text: One of the most interesting findings is the Majapahit piggy bank. Several boar-shaped piggy banks have been discovered in Trowulan. It is probably the origin of Javanese-Indonesian word to refer for saving or money container. The word "celengan" in Javanese and Indonesian means both "savings" and "piggy bank". It was derived from the word "celeng" which means "wild boar", the suffix "-an" was added to denote its likeness. One important specimen is stored in the National Museum of Indonesia, it has been reconstructed since this large piggy bank has been found broken to pieces.


title: Majapahit

text: Terracotta money boxes also have been found in different shapes, such as tubular or boxes, with slits to slip coins. Another important terracotta artefact is the head figurine of a man popularly thought to be the depiction of Gajah Mada, although it is not certain about who was depicted in these figurines.


title: Majapahit

text: In his book "Yingya Shenglan", Ma Huan also describes the Majapahit cities: most of them do not have walls surrounding the city or the suburbs. He describes the king's palace in Majapahit. The king's residence is surrounded with thick red brick walls more than three "chang" high (about ), with length of more than 200 paces () and on the wall there are two layers of gates, the palace is very well guarded and clean. The king's palace was a two-storey building, each of them 3 or 4 "chang" high (). It had wooden plank floors and exposed mats made from rattan or reeds (presumably palm leaves), where people sat cross-legged. The roof was made of hardwood shingles (Javanese:"sirap") laid as tiles.


title: Majapahit

text: The houses of commoners had thatched roofs (nipa palm leaves). Every family has a storage shed made of bricks, about 3 or 4 "Ch'ih" () above the ground, where they kept the family property, and they lived on top of this building, to sit and sleep.


title: Majapahit

text: The Majapahit temple architecture follows the east Javanese styles, in contrast to earlier central Javanese style. This east Javanese temple style is also dated back from Kediri period c. 11th century. The shapes of Majapahit temples tend to be slender and tall, with a roof constructed from multiple parts of stepped sections formed a combined roof structure curved upward smoothly creating the perspective illussion that the temple is perceived taller than its actual height. The pinnacle of the temples are usually cube (mostly Hindu temples), sometimes dagoba cylindrical structures (Buddhist temples). Although some of the temples dated from Majapahit period used andesite or sandstone, the red bricks is also a popular construction material.


title: Majapahit

text: Although brick had been used in the "candi" of Indonesia's classical age, it was Majapahit architects of the 14th and 15th centuries who mastered it. Making use of a vine sap and palm sugar mortar, their temples had a strong geometric quality. The example of Majapahit temples are Brahu temple in Trowulan, Pari in Sidoarjo, Jabung in Probolinggo, and Surawana temple near Kediri. Jabung temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Bajrajinaparamitapura, despite some parts of its roof and pinnacles are now missing, it is one of the most well-preserved Majapahit temple architecture. Another example includes Gunung Gangsir temple near Pasuruan. Some of the temples are dated from the earlier period but renovated and expanded during Majapahit era, such as Penataran, the largest temple in East Java dated back to Kediri era. This temple was identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. Another notable temple of Eastern Javanese style is Jawi temple in Pandaan — also visited by King Hayam Wuruk, the temple was mentioned in Nagarakretagama as Jajawa, and was dedicated as a mortuary temple for his great grandfather, King Kertanegara of Singhasari.


title: Majapahit

text: Some of the typical architectural styles are believed to be developed during Majapahit era; such as tall and slender roofed red brick gate commonly called as "kori agung" or "paduraksa", and also split gate of "candi bentar". The large split gate of Wringin Lawang located at Jatipasar, Trowulan, Mojokerto, East Java, is one of the oldest and the largest surviving "candi bentar" dated from Majapahit era. The "candi bentar" took shape of typical Majapahit temple structure – consists of three parts; foot, body and tall roof — evenly split into two mirroring structures to make a passage in the centre for people to walk through. This type of split gate has no doors and provides no real defensive purpose but narrowing the passage. It probably only served the ceremonial and aesthetic purpose, to create the sense of grandeur, before entering the next compound through tall roof "paduraksa" gate with enclosed door. The example of "kori agung" or "paduraksa" style gate is the elegant Bajang Ratu gate richly decorated with Kala demon, cyclops and also the bas-relief telling the story of Sri Tanjung. Those typical Majapahit architectural style has deeply influenced the Javanese and Balinese architecture of later period. The current prevalence of Majapahit style pendopo pavilion, candi bentar and paduraksa gates was owed to the influence of Majapahit aesthetics on Javanese and Balinese architecture.


title: Majapahit

text: In later period near the fall of Majapahit, the art and architecture of Majapahit witnessed the revival of indigenous native Austronesian megalithic architectural elements, such as Sukuh and Cetho temples on western slopes of Mount Lawu. Unlike previous Majapahit temples that demonstrate typical Hindu architecture of high-rise towering structure, the shape of these temples are step pyramid, quite similar to Mesoamerican pyramids. The stepped pyramid structure called "Punden Berundak" (stepped mounds) is a common megalithic structure during Indonesian prehistoric era before the adoption of Hindu-Buddhist culture.


title: Majapahit

text: The "Daoyi Zhi", which was written ca. 1339 AD, mentioned about Java's wealth and prosperity of the period:"The fields of Java are rich and its soil is level and well watered, therefore grain and rice are abundant, twice as much as in other countries. The people do not steal, and what is dropped on the road is not taken up. The common saying: "prosperous Java" means this country. Men and women wrap up their head and wear long clothes."Also in "Yingya Shenglan", Ma Huan reported the Javanese economy and market. Rice is harvested twice a year, and its grain is small. They also harvest white sesame and lentils, but there is no wheat. This land produces sapan wood (useful to produce red dye), diamonds, sandalwood, incense, "puyang" pepper, cantharides (green beetles used for medicine), steel, turtles, tortoiseshell, strange and rare birds; such as a large parrot as big as a hen, red and green parrots, five-colored parrots, (all of them can imitate the human voice), also guinea fowl, ' bird hanging upside down ', five-coloured pigeon, peacock, 'betel tree bird', pearl bird, and green pigeons. The beasts here are strange: there are white deer, white monkey, and various other animals. Pigs, goats, cattle, horses, poultries, and there are all types of ducks, however donkeys and geese are not found.


title: Majapahit

text: For the fruits, there are all kinds of bananas, coconut, sugarcane, pomegranate, lotus, "mang-chi-shi" ("manggis" or mangosteen), watermelon and "lang Ch'a" ("langsat" or lanzones). "Mang-chi-shi" — is something like a pomegranate, peel it like an orange, it has four lumps of white flesh, sweet and sour taste and very delicious. "Lang-ch'a" is a fruit similar to Loquat, but larger contained three blocky white flesh with a sweet and sour taste. Sugarcane has white stems, large and coarse, with roots reaching 3 "chang" (30 feet 7 inches). In addition, all types of squash and vegetables are there, just a shortage of peach, plum and leek.


title: Majapahit

text: Taxes and fines were paid in cash. Javanese economy had been partly monetised since the late 8th century, using gold and silver coins. Previously, the 9th-century Wonoboyo hoard discovered in Central Java shows that ancient Javan gold coins were seed-shaped, similar to corn, while the silver coins were similar to buttons. In about the year 1300, in the reign of Majapahit's first king, an important change took place: the indigenous coinage was completely replaced by imported Chinese copper cash. About 10,388 ancient Chinese coins weighing about 40 kg were even unearthed from the backyard of a local commoner in Sidoarjo in November 2008. Indonesian Ancient Relics Conservation Bureau (BP3) of East Java verified that those coins dated as early as Majapahit era. The reason for using the foreign currency is not given in any source, but most scholars assume it was due to the increasing complexity of Javanese economy and a desire for a currency system that used much smaller denominations suitable for use in everyday market transactions. This was a role for which gold and silver are not well suited. These "kepeng" Chinese coins were thin rounded copper coins with a square hole in the centre of it. The hole was meant to tie together the money in a string of coins. These small changes—the imported Chinese copper coins—enabled Majapahit further invention, a method of savings by using a slitted earthenware coin container. These are commonly found in Majapahit ruins, the slit in the small opening to put the coins in. The most popular shape is boar-shaped "celengan" (piggy bank).


title: Majapahit

text: Some idea of the scale of the internal economy can be gathered from scattered data in inscriptions. The Canggu inscriptions dated 1358 mentions 78 ferry crossings in the country (mandala Java). Majapahit inscriptions mention a large number of occupational specialities, ranging from gold and silversmiths to drink vendors and butchers. Although many of these occupations had existed in earlier times, the proportion of the population earning an income from non-agrarian pursuits seems to have become even greater during the Majapahit era.


title: Majapahit

text: The great prosperity of Majapahit was probably due to two factors. Firstly, the northeast lowlands of Java were suitable for rice cultivation, and during Majapahit's prime numerous irrigation projects were undertaken, some with government assistance. Secondly, Majapahit's ports on the north coast were probably significant stations along the route to obtain the spices of Maluku, and as the spices passed through Java they would have provided an important source of income for Majapahit.


title: Majapahit

text: The Nagarakretagama states that the fame of the ruler of Wilwatikta (a synonym for Majapahit) attracted foreign merchants from far and wide, including Indians, Khmers, Siamese, and Chinese among others. While in the later period, "Yingya Shenglan" mentioned that large numbers of Chinese traders and Muslim merchants from the west (from Arab and India, but mostly from Muslim states in Sumatra and Malay peninsula) are settling in Majapahit port cities, such as Tuban, Gresik and Hujung Galuh (Surabaya). A special tax was levied against some foreigners, possibly those who had taken up semi-permanent residence in Java and conducted some type of enterprise other than foreign trade. The Majapahit Empire had trading links with Chinese Ming dynasty, Đại Việt and Champa in today Vietnam, Cambodia, Siamese Ayutthayan, Burmese Martaban and the south Indian Vijayanagara Empire.


title: Majapahit

text: During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java. This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places. Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia.


title: Majapahit

text: During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit employed a well-organised bureaucratic structure for administrative purposes. The hierarchy and structure relatively remain intact and unchanged throughout Majapahit history. The king is the paramount ruler, as the chakravartin he is considered the universal ruler and believed to be the living god on earth. The king holds the highest political authority and legitimacy.


title: Majapahit

text: The law and order of Majapahit kingdom follows the regulations related to the criminal code of law which became the guidelines for people's lives at that time. This rule of law can be found in a manuscript called "Kutaramanawa Dharmashastra" or translated as "the Book of Religious Legislation". According to the historian Slamet Muljana's notes in the book "Perundang-undangan Madjapahit" (1967), there is no definite record regarding the time when this criminal law was drafted. However, based on some evidence, it can be concluded that this book of law written in old Javanese was originated from the Majapahit period during the reign of King Rajasanagara.


title: Majapahit

text: In Majapahit, the punishment for the crime of murder was death. According to the manuscript Kidung Sorandaka, it was said that Demung Sora, a minister of Majapahit court, was sentenced to death penalty under the "Astadusta" provisions for his crime on killing Mahisa Anabrang. "Astadusta" is a part of the "Kutaramanawa Dharmashastra" which regulates the punishment for murder. Overall, this criminal code consists of 19 sections that regulate various aspects of life. In addition to the punishment for the crime of murders which are summarised in the "Astadusta" section, there are also rules regarding buying and selling, debts, marriage, and pawnbroker. The punishments handed down included the death penalty, mutilation of the guilty body parts, fines and compensation. Additional penalties included ransom, confiscation, and money compensation for medication and drugs.


title: Majapahit

text: According to the Chinese description in "Yingya Shenglan", when the one being stabbed was wounded and dead, the murderer will flee and hide for three days, then he will not lose his life. But if he was caught during the fight, he will instantly be stabbed to death (execution by stabbing). The country of Majapahit knows no caning for major or minor punishment. They tied the guilty men on his hands in the back with rattan rope and paraded them, and then stabbed the offender in the back where there is a floating rib which resulted in instant death. Judicial executions of this kind were frequent.


title: Majapahit

text: During his daily administration, the king is assisted by bureaucratic state officials that also included the close relatives of the kings that hold certain esteemed titles. The royal order or edict usually transmitted from the king to the high officials well to their subordinates. The officials in Majapahit courts are:


title: Majapahit

text: Within the ministers of "Rakryan Mantri ri Pakira-kiran" there is the most important and the highest minister titled "Rakryan Mapatih" or "Patih Hamangkubhumi". This position is analogous to prime minister, and together with the king, they determine the important state policies, including war or peace. Among the Dharmmadhyaksa officials, there is "Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan" (State's highest Hindu Shivaist priest) and "Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan" (State's highest Buddhist priest), both are the authorities of the religious law of each dharmic faiths.


title: Majapahit

text: There is also the board of advisors which consists of the elders within the royal family called "Bhattara Saptaprabhu". This council consists of seven influential elders—mostly directly related to the king. They are the "Bhres" (Duke or Duchess) acted as regional kings, the rulers of Majapahit provinces. This council congregates, offers advice, considered the king, and often formed an assembly to judge a certain important case in the court. Example of their office was, their sentence to temporarily suspend Mahamantri Gajah Mada, as a punishment since he was held responsible for the shamefully disastrous Bubat incident. The council also sentenced the execution of Raden Gajah (Narapati) for decapitating Bhre Wirabhumi in Regreg war.


title: Majapahit

text: During its formation, Majapahit traditional realm only consists of lesser vassal kingdoms (provinces) in eastern and central Java. This region is ruled by provincial kings called "Paduka Bhattara" with the title "Bhre". This title is the highest position below the monarch and similar to duke or duchess. Usually, this position reserved for the close relatives of the king. They have to administer their provinces, collect taxes, send annual tributes to the capital, and manage the defences of their borders.


title: Majapahit

text: During the reign of Hayam Wuruk (1350–1389) there were 12 provinces of Majapahit, administered by king's close relatives:


title: Majapahit

text: When Majapahit entered the thalassocracy imperial phase during the administration of Gajah Mada, several overseas vassal states were included within the Majapahit sphere of influence, as a result, the new larger territorial concept was defined:


title: Majapahit

text: Nagarakretagama mentioned more than 80 places in the archipelago described as the vassal states. In Canto 13, several lands on Sumatra are mentioned, and some possibly correspond to contemporary areas: Jambi, Palembang, Teba (either Tebo in Jambi or Toba areas by Lake Toba), and Dharmasraya. Also mentioned are Kandis, Kahwas, Minangkabau, Siak, Rokan, Kampar and Pane, Kampe, Haru (coastal North Sumatra, today around Medan) and Mandailing. Tamiyang (Aceh Tamiang Regency), negara Perlak (Peureulak) and Padang Lawas, are noted in the west, together with Samudra (Samudra Pasai) and Lamuri, Batan (Bintan), Lampung, and Barus. Also listed are the states of Tanjungnegara (believed to be on Borneo): Kapuas Katingan, Sampit, Kota Lingga, Kotawaringin, Sambas, and Lawas.


title: Majapahit

text: In Nagarakretagama Canto 14 more lands are noted: Kadandangan, Landa, Samadang, Tirem, Sedu (Sibu in Sarawak), Barune (Brunei), Kalka, Saludung (either Serudong River in Sabah or Seludong in Manila), Solot (Sulu), Pasir, Barito, Sawaku, Tabalung, and Tanjung Kutei. In Hujung Medini (Malay Peninsula), Pahang is mentioned first. Next Langkasuka, Saimwang, Kelantan and Trengganu, Johor, Paka, Muar, Dungun, Tumasik (Temasek, where Singapore is today), Kelang (Klang Valley) and Kedah, Jerai (Gunung Jerai), Kanjapiniran, all are united.


title: Majapahit

text: Also in Canto 14 are territories east of Java: Badahulu and Lo Gajah (part of today's Bali). Gurun and Sukun, Taliwang, Sapi (Sape town, east end of Sumbawa island, by the Sape Strait) and Dompo, Sang Hyang Api, Bima. Sheran and Hutan Kadali (Buru island). Gurun island, and Lombok Merah. Together with prosperous Sasak (central, north and east Lombok) are already ruled. Bantayan with Luwu. Further east are Udamakatraya (Sangir and Talaud). Also mentioned are Makassar, Buton, Banggai, Kunir, Galiao with Selayar, Sumba, Solot, Muar. Also Wanda(n) (Banda island), Ambon or Maluku islands, Kai Islands, Wanin (Onin peninsula, today Fakfak Regency, West Papua), Sran, Timor and other islands.


title: Majapahit

text: The true nature of Majapahit suzerainty is still a subject of study and even has sparked controversy. Nagarakretagama describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala consists of 98 tributaries stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea. Some scholars have discounted this claim as merely a sphere of limited influence, or even just a statement of geographical knowledge.


title: Majapahit

text: Nevertheless, the Javanese overseas prestige and influence during the lifetime of Hayam Wuruk was undoubtedly considerable. Majapahit fleets must have periodically visited many places in the archipelago to acquire formal submission, or the splendour of Majapahit court might have attracted regional rulers to send a tribute, without any intention to submit to Majapahit's order.


title: Majapahit

text: All of those three categories—the "Negara Agung, Mancanegara" and "Nusantara", were within the sphere of influence of the Majapahit empire.


title: Majapahit

text: The model of political formations and power diffusion from its core in the Majapahit capital city that radiates through its overseas possessions was later identified by historians as "mandala" model. The term mandala derived from Sanskrit "circle" to explain the typical ancient Southeast Asian polity that was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative integration. The territories belongs within Majapahit Mandala sphere of influence were those categorised as Mancanegara and Nusantara. These areas usually have their indigenous rulers, enjoy substantial autonomy and have their political institution intact without further integration into Majapahit administration. The same mandala model also applied to previous empires; Srivijaya and Angkor, and also Majapahit's neighbouring mandalas; Ayutthaya and Champa.


title: Majapahit

text: Foreign or overseas territories are mentioned in Nagarakretagama canto 15 stanza 1. These territories include Syangka (Siam), Ayodyapura (Ayutthaya), Dharmmanagari (Ligor), Marutma (Martaban or Mergui), Rajapura (Rajpuri in the south of Siam), Singhanagari (Singhapuri on the branch of the river Menam), Campa, and Kamboja (Cambodia). The relationship between Majapahit and these territories is called "kachaya", which means "to be exposed to light". It is interpreted as protected or sheltered. The term "protected area" in the modern state system is referred to as a protectorate.


title: Majapahit

text: In addition, in canto 83 stanza 4 and 93 stanza 1 are mentioned the places that became the origin of merchants and scholars. The regions are Jambudwipa (India), Cina, Karnataka (South India), and Goda (Gauḍa). What is different is Yawana (Arabs, see explanation), as said "anyat i yawana mitreka satata" (the other is Yawana who is a permanent ally).


title: Majapahit

text: The question whether Majapahit is considered an empire or not is actually depends on the definition of the word and concept of "empire" itself. Majapahit did not performed direct administration of its overseas possessions, they did not maintain permanent military occupation, and did not imposes its political and cultural norms over a wide area; thus it is not sufficiently considered an empire in a traditional sense. However, if being an empire means the projection of military power at will, formal acknowledgement of overlordship by vassals, and the regular tribute delivery to the capital, then Java's relationship to the rest of archipelagic realm can well be considered an imperial one; thus Majapahit can be considered an empire.


title: Majapahit

text: In later period, Majapahit's hold on its overseas possessions began to wane. According to Waringin Pitu inscription (dated 1447) it was mentioned that Majapahit's core realm was consisted of 14 provinces, that administrated by the ruler titled "Bhre". The provinces written in the inscription are:


title: Majapahit

text: The inscription, however, did not mention Majapahit's vassals in other areas around the period, such as :


title: Majapahit

text: The army of Majapahit is divided into 2 main types, namely "prajurit" (professional soldier) and levy taken up from peasants. The main weapon was spears. Cavalry exist in limited numbers, were mainly used for scouting and patrol, and were probably mainly armed with lances. After the Mongol attack, the use of horses became more widespread, especially for war. Chariots are used for transporting the soldiers to the battlefield. War elephants were used mainly for transport, or as a mount for nobility and soldiers of higher rank.


title: Majapahit

text: Gunpowder technology entered Java in the Mongol invasion of Java (1293 A.D.). Majapahit under "Mahapatih" (prime minister) Gajah Mada utilized gunpowder technology obtained from the Yuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet. During the following years, the Majapahit army have begun producing cannons known as cetbang. Early cetbang (also called eastern-style cetbang) resembled Chinese cannons and hand cannons. Eastern-style cetbangs were mostly made of bronze and were front-loaded cannons. It fires arrow-like projectiles, but round bullets and co-viative projectiles can also be used. These arrows can be solid-tipped without explosives, or with explosives and incendiary materials placed behind the tip. Near the rear, there is a combustion chamber or room, which refers to the bulging part near the rear of the gun, where the gunpowder is placed. The cetbang is mounted on a fixed mount, or as a hand cannon mounted on the end of a pole. There is a tube-like section on the back of the cannon. In the hand cannon type cetbang, this tube is used as a place to stick poles.


title: Majapahit

text: Because of the close maritime relations of the Nusantara archipelago with the territory of west India, after 1460 new types of gunpowder weapons entered the archipelago through Arab intermediaries. This weapon seems to be cannon and gun of Ottoman tradition, for example the prangi, which is a breech-loading swivel gun. It resulted in a new type of cetbang, called "western-style cetbang". It can be mounted as a fixed or swivel gun, small-sized ones can be easily installed on small vessels. In naval combat, this gun is used as an anti-personnel weapon, not anti-ship. In this age, even to the 17th century, Nusantaran soldiers fought on a platform called "balai" and performed boarding actions. Loaded with scatter shots (grapeshot, case shot, or nails and stones) and fired at close range, the cetbang would have been effective at this type of fighting.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit had elite troops called "Bhayangkara". The main task of these troops is for protecting the king and nobilities, but they may also be deployed to the battlefield if required. The Hikayat Banjar noted the "Bhayangkara" equipments in the Majapahit palace:


title: Majapahit

text: "Maka kaluar dangan parhiasannya orang barbaju-rantai ampat puluh sarta padangnya barkupiah taranggos sakhlat merah, orang mambawa astenggar ampat puluh, orang mambawa parisai sarta padangnya ampat puluh, orang mambawa dadap sarta sodoknya sapuluh, orang mambawa panah sarta anaknya sapuluh, yang mambawa tumbak parampukan barsulam amas ampat puluh, yang mambawa tameng Bali bartulis air mas ampat puluh."<br>


title: Majapahit

text: So came out with their ornaments men with chain mail numbered forty alongside their swords and red "kopiah" [skull cap], men carrying "astengger" [arquebus] numbered forty, men carrying shield and swords numbered forty, men carrying "dadap" [a type of shield] and "sodok" [broad-bladed spear-like weapon] numbered ten, men carrying bows and arrows numbered ten, (men) who carried "parampukan" spears embroidered with gold numbered forty, (men) who carried Balinese shields with golden water engraving numbered forty.<br>— Hikayat Banjar, 6.3


title: Majapahit

text: Military forces in various parts of Southeast Asia were lightly armored. As was common in Southeast Asia, most of the Javanese forces were composed of temporarily conscripted commoners (levy) led by the warrior and noble castes. The richer (higher rank) soldiers wore armor called "kawaca". Irawan Djoko Nugroho argues that it may be shaped like a long tube and is made of cast copper. In contrast, the common infantry wore a scale armor called "siping-siping". Other kinds of armor used in Majapahit-era Java was "waju rante" (chain mail armor) and "karambalangan" (a layer of metal worn in front of the chest). In Kidung Sunda canto 2 stanza 85 it is explained that the "mantri"s (ministers or officers) of Gajah Mada wore armor in the form of chain mail or breastplate with gold decoration and dressed in yellow attire, while Kidung Sundayana canto 1 stanza 95 mentioned that Gajah Mada wore golden embossed "karambalangan", armed with gold-layered spear, and with a shield full of diamond decoration.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit also pioneered the use of firearm in the archipelago. Even though the knowledge of making gunpowder-based weapons has been known after the failed Mongol invasion of Java, and the predecessor of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak), was recorded as being used by Java in 1413, the knowledge of making "true" firearms came much later, after the middle of the 15th century. It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, most probably the Arabs. The precise year of introduction is unknown, but it may be safely concluded to be no earlier than 1460.


title: Majapahit

text: Tomé Pires' 1513 account tells the army of Gusti Pati (Patih Udara), viceroy of "Batara Vojyaya" (probably Brawijaya or Ranawijaya), numbered 200,000 men, 2,000 of which are horsemen and 4,000 musketeers. Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, "spingarde" (arquebus), "schioppi" (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place is considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.


title: Majapahit

text: The first true cavalry (organized units of cooperative horsemen) in Java may have appeared during the 12th century AD. The old Javanese manuscript "kakawin Bhomāntaka" mentioned early Javanese horse lore and horsemanship. The manuscript may reflect the conflict (allegorically) between the newly formed Javanese cavalry and the well-established elite infantry of Javanese armies. In the 14th century AD, Java became an important horse breeder and the island was even listed among horse suppliers to China. During the Majapahit period, the quantity and quality of Javanese horse breeds steadily grew. In 1513 CE Tomé Pires praised the highly decorated horses of Javanese nobility, complemented by gold-studded stirrups and lavishly decorated saddles that were "not found anywhere else in the world". The Sumbawa pony seems to have been derived from the Javanese domesticated horse introduced by Majapahit in 14th century CE.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit had a naval troops that was distinguished from ground troop units, which is called "wwang jaladhi". Naval troops get preferential treatment in terms of facilities. Majapahit Majapahit navy personnel were large, as noted Nagarakretagama canto 16 stanza 5:


title: Majapahit

text: The main warship of the Majapahit navy was the jong. The jongs were large transport ships that could carry 100–2000 tons of cargo and 50–1000 people. They are about 26.36–80.51 m in LOD (deck length) and 28.99–88.56 m in LOA (overall length). A jong from 1420 nearly crossed the Indian Ocean. A type of large nine-decked jong that was recorded in "Kidung" "Panji Wijayakrama-Rangga Lawe" (c. 1334) is called "jong sasangawangunan", it carried 1000 fighting men with red sails. The exact number of jong fielded by Majapahit is unknown, but the largest number of jong deployed in an expedition is about 400 jongs when Majapahit attacked Pasai. The average jong used by Majapahit would be about 76.18–79.81 m LOA, carrying 600–700 men, with 1200–1400 tons deadweight. Before the Battle of Bubat in 1357, the Sunda king and the royal family arrived in Majapahit after sailing across the Java Sea in a fleet of 200 large ships and 2000 smaller vessels. The royal family boarded a nine-decked hybrid Sino-Southeast Asian junk (Old Javanese: "Jong sasanga wangunan" "ring Tatarnagari tiniru"). This hybrid junk incorporated Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkheads, and the addition of a central rudder. Besides that, other types of vessels used by Majapahit navy are malangbang, kelulus, pelang, jongkong, cerucuh, and tongkang. In the 16th century lancaran and penjajap are also used. Modern depictions of the Majapahit navy often depict outrigger ships, in reality, these ships were from 8th century Borobudur ship bas relief. Research by Nugroho concluded that the main vessels used by Majapahit did not use outriggers, and using Borobudur engraving as the basis for reconstructing Majapahit ship is wrong.


title: Majapahit

text: During Majapahit era Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book "Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese" stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania.


title: Majapahit

text: The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon. In the Majapahit era, compasses and magnets were used, and cartography (mapping science) was developed. In 1293 AD Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader, suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affair in Java. The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.


title: Majapahit

text: When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca (1511), the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gom, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda."


title: Majapahit

text: For several centuries — since the era of Srivijaya and Medang Mataram (circa 10th century), the classic rivalry between Sumatran Malay states and Javanese kingdoms has shaped the dynamics of geopolitics in the region.


title: Majapahit

text: Their activities in guarding the sea in pursuit of their economic interest, plus their military activities to safeguard this interests, has led to conflicts between Malays and Javanese. Since early of its formation, Majapahit inherited the foreign outlook of its predecessor entity – Singhasari kingdom, in which its last king Kertanegara projected his influence abroad by launching Pamalayu expedition (1275–1293) to incorporate Malay polities in Sumatra and Malay Peninsula within Javanese sphere of influence. Previously, Singhasari seeks to dominate trade route, especially Malacca strait, and also saw the outreach of Mongolian-Chinese Yuan influence into Southeast Asia as the threat to their interest. During its formation, the returning Pamalayu expedition in 1293 has brought Malayu Kingdoms in Jambi and Dharmasraya under Javanese suzerainty. Therefore, Java often considers itself as the overlord of most of the polities in the Indonesian archipelago.


title: Majapahit

text: During the reign of Majapahit's first two monarch — Wijaya and Jayanegara, the kingdom struggled to consolidate its rule, plagued by several rebellions. However, it was not until the reign of its third monarch — Queen Tribhuwana Tunggadewi, and her son, Hayam Wuruk — that the kingdom began to project its power overseas. Majapahit's confidence for dominance was stemmed for their economic and demographic comparative advantage; agrarian as well as a maritime nation; their large rice production, immense human resources, well-organized society, also their mastery in shipbuilding, navigation and military technology; are excellent relatively compared to their neighbours. These strengths were used by Gajah Mada to expand the kingdom's influence and building a maritime empire. This rather imperialistic outlook has projected in the way he forcefully dealt with Majapahit's neighbours; the Pabali (conquest of Bali, 1342–1343) and the Pasunda Bubat (1356). Majapahit pulled Bali into their orbit as a vassal state. While the disastrous diplomacy with the Sunda kingdom has led to the enmity among them.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit overlordship upon Malay states of Sumatra was demonstrated by the rule of Adityawarman of Malayupura. Adityawarman, the cousin of King Jayanegara, was raised within Majapahit palace and rose to become a senior minister in Majapahit court. He was sent to led Majapahit military expansion to conquer east coast region in Sumatra. Adityawarman then founded the royal dynasty of Minangkabau in Pagarruyung and presided over the central Sumatra region to take control of the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.


title: Majapahit

text: Within Indonesian archipelago, Majapahit saw itself as the centre of a huge mandala. This notion is demonstrated by its three-tier administrative hierarchy; Nagara Agung, Mancanegara, and Nusantara.


title: Majapahit

text: In Sumatran front, Majapahit did capture Palembang, Jambi and Dharmasraya, invade Pasai, and it also saw the settlement of Tumasik, that later become Kingdom of Singapura, as its rebellious colony, and thus deal with them accordingly.


title: Majapahit

text: In later years after the era of Hayam Wuruk, Majapahit has lost their grips on some of their overseas possessions. This led to the thrive and the rise of several polities previously held under Majapahit domination, such as Brunei and Malacca. The rise of Malacca in the 15th century, in particular, is important, because it represents Majapahit eventual failure to control Malacca strait. Previously Majapahit tried to contain the rise of a potential regional rival; a Malay polity in par with Srivijaya, by punishing a rebellion in Palembang and capturing Singapura. In this sense, Malacca was indeed the rival of Majapahit in the competition to dominate the archipelagic realm. Despite this perceived rivalry, in practice, however, the two kingdoms had some close and intense economic and cultural relations. At that time, the trade link between Majapahit ports of Hujung Galuh and Tuban with the port of Melaka must be thriving.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit true rival for domination, however, was the powerful Ming Chinese. After the fall of Yuan, the Ming Emperor eager to project his power into Southeast Asia. On the other hand, Majapahit saw this archipelagic realm as theirs and unwelcome to any perceived Chinese interference. After Majapahit was weakened by Paregreg civil war, and incessant conflicts among its nobles, the arrival of the formidable Ming treasure voyages led by Zheng He upon Majapahit shores has pushed Majapahit prestige and power to the side. Ming on the other hand, actively support the rise of Malacca. This Ming protection has made Majapahit unwilling and unable to push Malacca anymore.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit ultimate nemesis, however, was located very close at home; the Demak Sultanate on the northern coast of Central Java. Ming support to Malacca, and Malacca active proselytizing of Islam, has led to the thriving and rise of Muslim traders community in the archipelago, including in Majapahit ports on the north coast of Java. This in turn gradually corroded the prestige of Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingship, and after several generations, led to the fall of once-mighty Majapahit empire.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit was the largest empire ever to form in Southeast Asia. Although its political power beyond the core area in east Java was diffuse, constituting mainly ceremonial recognition of suzerainty, Majapahit society developed a high degree of sophistication in both commercial and artistic activities. Its capital was inhabited by a cosmopolitan population among whom literature and art flourished.


title: Majapahit

text: Numbers of local legends and folklores in the region had mentioned about the Majapahit kingdom. Other than Javanese sources, some regional legends mentioning Majapahit kingdom or its general Gajah Mada also can be found; from Aceh, Minangkabau, Palembang, Malay Peninsula, Sunda, Brunei, Bali to Sumbawa. Most of them mentioned about the incoming Javanese forces to their land, which was probably a local testament of the empire's expansive nature that once dominating the archipelago. The Hikayat Raja Pasai, a 14th-century Aceh chronicle tell a Majapahit naval invasion against Samudra Pasai in 1350. The chronicle described that the Majapahit invasion was a punishment for Sultan Ahmad Malik Az-Zahir's crime on ruining a royal marriage between Pasai Prince Tun Abdul Jalil and Raden Galuh Gemerencang, a Majapahit princess — that led to the death of the royal couple.


title: Majapahit

text: In West Sumatra, the legend of Minangkabau mentioned an invading foreign prince — associated with Javanese Majapahit kingdom — being defeated in a buffalo fight. In West Java, the Pasunda Bubat tragedy caused a myth to revolve around Indonesians, which forbids marriage between a Sundanese and a Javanese, as it would be unsustainable and only bring misery to the couple. In Malay peninsula, the Malay annals mentioned the legend of the fall of Singapura to Majapahit forces in 1398 was due to the betrayal of Sang Rajuna Tapa that opened the fortified city gate. In Brunei, the folk legend of Lumut Lunting and Pilong-Pilongan islands in Brunei Bay also connected to Majapahit.


title: Majapahit

text: Several Javanese legends were originated or become popular during the Majapahit period. The Panji cycles, the tale of Sri Tanjung, and the epic of Damarwulan, are popular tales in Javanese and Balinese literatures. The tales of Panji was dated from the older period during Kediri kingdom, while the tale of Sri Tanjung and the epic of Damarwulan took place during the Majapahit period. These tales remained a popular theme in Javanese culture of later period during Mataram Sultanate, and often became the source of inspiration for wayang shadow puppet performance, ketoprak and topeng dance drama. The Panji tales, in particular, have spread from East Java to become a source of inspiration for literature and dance drama throughout the region, as far as Malay peninsula, Cambodia and Siam where he is known as Raden Inao or Enau () of Kurepan.


title: Majapahit

text: Majapahit had a momentous and lasting influence on Indonesian art and architecture. The empire's expansion circa 14th-century contributed to the diffusion Javanese cultural influence throughout the archipelago, which can be seen as a form of Javanisation. It was probably during this period that some of the Javanese cultural elements, such as gamelan and kris, being expanded and introduced to islands outside of Java. The descriptions of the architecture of the capital's pavilions ("pendopo") in the "Nagarakretagama" evoke the Javanese Kraton also the Balinese temples and palace compounds of today. The Majapahit architectural style that often employs terracotta and red brick heavily influenced the architecture of Java and Bali in the later period. The Majapahit style "candi bentar" split gate, the "kori" or "paduraksa" towering red-brick gate, and also "pendopo" pavilion have become ubiquitous in Javanese and Balinese architectural features, as seen in Menara Kudus Mosque, Keraton Kasepuhan and Sunyaragi park in Cirebon, Mataram Sultanate royal cemetery in Kota Gede, Yogyakarta, and various palaces and temples in Bali.


title: Majapahit

text: The vivid, rich and festive Balinese culture is considered one of Majapahit's legacy. The Javanese Hindu civilisation since the era of Airlangga to the era of Majapahit kings has profoundly influenced and shaped the Balinese culture and history. The ancient links and Majapahit legacy is observable in many ways; architecture, literature, religious rituals, dance-drama and artforms. The aesthetics and style of bas-reliefs in Majapahit East Javanese temples were preserved and copied in Balinese temples. It is also because, after the fall of the empire, many Majapahit nobles, artisans and priests had taken refuge either in the interior mountainous region of East Java or across the narrow strait to Bali. Indeed, in some ways, the Kingdom of Bali was the successor of Majapahit. Large numbers of Majapahit manuscripts, such as Nagarakretagama, Sutasoma, Pararaton and Tantu Pagelaran, were being well-kept in royal libraries of Bali and Lombok and provides the glimpse and valuable historical records on Majapahit. The Majapahit Hindu-Javanese culture has shaped the culture of Bali, that led to popular expression; "without Java, there is no Bali". Yet in return, Bali is credited as the last stronghold to safeguard and preserve the ancient Hindu Javanese civilisation.


title: Majapahit

text: In weaponry, the Majapahit expansion is believed to be responsible for the widespread use of the keris dagger in Southeast Asia; from Java, Bali, Sumatra, Malaysia, Brunei to Southern Thailand. Although it has been suggested that the keris, and native daggers similar to it, predate Majapahit, nevertheless the empire expansion contributed to its popularity and diffusion in the region around the year 1492. For example, Kris of Knaud, one of the oldest surviving kris is dated to 1264 Saka (which correspondents to 1342). The Malay legend of Kris Taming Sari is also attributed to Majapahit origin.


title: Majapahit

text: For Indonesians in later centuries, Majapahit became a symbol of past greatness. The Islamic sultanates of Demak, Pajang, and Mataram sought to establish their legitimacy to the Majapahit. The Demak claimed a line of succession through Kertabumi, as its founder Raden Patah, in court chronicles was said to be the son of Kertabumi with Putri Cina, a Chinese princess, who had been sent away before her son was born. Sultan Agung's conquest of Wirasaba (present-day Mojoagung) in 1615—during that time just a small town without significant strategic and economic value—led by the sultan himself, may probably have had such symbolic importance as it was the location of the former Majapahit capital. Central Javanese palaces have traditions and genealogy that attempt to prove links back to the Majapahit royal lines—usually in the form of a grave as a vital "link" in Java – where legitimacy is enhanced by such a connection. Bali, in particular, was heavily influenced by Majapahit and the Balinese consider themselves to be the true heirs of the kingdom.


title: Majapahit

text: Modern Indonesian nationalists, including those of the early 20th-century Indonesian National Revival, have invoked the Majapahit Empire. Indonesian founding fathers—especially Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin, built a historical construct around Majapahit to argue for the ancient unified realm, as a predecessor of modern Indonesia. The memory of its greatness remains in Indonesia and is sometimes seen as a precedent for the current political boundaries of the Republic. Many of modern Indonesian national symbols derived from Majapahit Hindu-Buddhist elements. The Indonesian national motto, ""Bhinneka Tunggal Ika"", is a quotation from an Old Javanese poem ""Kakawin Sutasoma"", written by a Majapahit poet, Mpu Tantular.


title: Majapahit

text: The Indonesian coat of arms, "Garuda Pancasila", also derives from Javanese Hindu elements. The statue and relief of Garuda have been found in many temples in Java such as Prambanan from the ancient Mataram era, and the Panataran as well as the Sukuh temple dated from the Majapahit era. The notable statue of Garuda is the statue of the king Airlangga depicted as Vishnu riding Garuda.


title: Majapahit

text: In its propaganda from the 1920s, the Communist Party of Indonesia presented its vision of a classless society as a reincarnation of a romanticised Majapahit. It was invoked by Sukarno for nation building and by the New Order as an expression of state expansion and consolidation. Like Majapahit, the modern state of Indonesia covers vast territory and is politically centred on Java.


title: Majapahit

text: Palapa, the series of communication satellites owned by Telkom Indonesia, an Indonesian telecommunication company, was named after "Sumpah Palapa", the famous oath taken by Gajah Mada, who swore that he would not taste any spice as long as he had not succeeded in unifying Nusantara (Indonesian archipelago). This ancient oath of unification signifies the Palapa satellite as the modern means to unify the Indonesian archipelago by way of telecommunication. The name was chosen by the president Suharto, and the program was started in February 1975.


title: Majapahit

text: Pura Kawitan Majapahit was built in 1995 as a homage to honour the empire that inspires the nation. Majapahit is often regarded as the antecedent of the modern state of Indonesia. This Hindu temple complex is located within Trowulan just north of Segaran pool.


title: Majapahit

text: During the last half-year of 2008, the Indonesian government sponsored a massive exploration on the site that is believed to be the place where the palace of Majapahit once stood. Jero Wacik, the Indonesian Minister of Culture and Tourism stated that the Majapahit Park would be built on the site and completed as early as 2009, to prevent further damage caused by home-made brick industries that developed in the surrounding area. Nevertheless, the project leaves a huge attention to some historians, since constructing the park's foundation in Segaran site located in south side of Trowulan Museum will inevitably damage the site itself. Ancient bricks which are historically valuable were found scattered on the site. The government then argued that the method they were applying were less destructive since digging method were used instead of drilling.


title: Majapahit

text: The rulers of Majapahit was the dynastic continuity of the Singhasari kings, which started by Sri Ranggah Rajasa, the founder of Rajasa dynasty in the late 13th century.


title: Majapahit

text: Celebrated as 'the golden era of the archipelago', the Majapahit empire has inspired many writers and artists (and continues to do so) to create their works based on this era or to describe and mention it. The impact of the Majapahit theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Sunflowers (original title, in French: Tournesols) is the title of two series of still life paintings by the Dutch painter Vincent van Gogh. The first series, executed in Paris in 1887, depicts the flowers lying on the ground, while the second set, made a year later in Arles, shows a bouquet of sunflowers in a vase. In the artist's mind, both sets were linked by the name of his friend Paul Gauguin, who acquired two of the Paris versions. About eight months later van Gogh hoped to welcome and impress Gauguin again with "Sunflowers", now part of the painted "Décoration for the Yellow House" that he prepared for the guestroom of his home in Arles, where Gauguin was supposed to stay. After Gauguin's departure, van Gogh imagined the two major versions as wings of the "Berceuse Triptych", and finally, he included them in his Les XX in Bruxelles exhibit.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Little is known of Van Gogh's activities during the two years he lived with his brother, Theo, in Paris, 1886–1888. The fact that he had painted "Sunflowers" already is only revealed in the spring of 1889, when Gauguin claimed one of the Arles versions in exchange for studies he had left behind after leaving Arles for Paris. Van Gogh was upset and replied that Gauguin had absolutely no right to make this request: "I am definitely keeping my sunflowers in question. He has two of them already, let that hold him. And if he is not satisfied with the exchange he has made with me, he can take back his little Martinique canvas, and his self-portrait sent to me from Brittany, at the same time giving me back both my portrait and the two sunflower canvases which he has taken to Paris. So if he ever broaches this subject again, I've told you just how matters stand."


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: The two "Sunflowers" in question show two buttons each; one of them was preceded by a small study, and a fourth large canvas combines both compositions.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: These were Van Gogh's first paintings with ""nothing but sunflowers""—yet, he had already included sunflowers in still life and landscape earlier.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: In a letter to Theo dating from 21 or 22 August 1888, Vincent wrote: "I'm painting with the gusto of a Marseillais eating bouillabaisse, which won’t surprise you when it's a question of painting large sunflowers." At this time he had three paintings on the go, and intended to do more; as he explained to his brother: "in the hope of living in a studio of our own with Gauguin, I'd like to do a decoration for the studio. Nothing but large sunflowers".


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: The versions of the paintings provided by van Gogh in his announcement of his sunflower series do not precisely match every detail supplied by him. The first version differs in size, is painted on a size 20 canvas—not on a size 15 canvas as indicated—and all the others differ in the number of flowers depicted from van Gogh's announcement. The second was evidently enlarged and the initial composition altered by insertion of the two flowers lying in the foreground, center and right. Neither the third nor the fourth shows the dozen or 14 flowers indicated by the artist, but more—fifteen or sixteen.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: These alterations are executed "wet-in-wet" and therefore considered genuine rework—even the more so as they are copied to the "repetitions" of January 1889; there is no longer a trace of later alterations, at least in this aspect


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: The fourth version of the painting was attacked on October 14, 2022 by environmental activists from the Just Stop Oil campaign, who threw tomato soup at it, while it was on display at National Gallery in London, before gluing their hands to the wall. The painting was covered with plexiglass, and it was unharmed with the exception of minor damage to the frame. The two activists were arrested and the painting was put back on display later that day.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Both "repetitions" of the 4th version are no longer in their original state. In the Amsterdam version, a strip of wood was added at the top—probably by van Gogh himself. The Tokyo version, however, was enlarged on all sides with strips of canvas, which were added at a later time—presumably by the first owner, Émile Schuffenecker. The series is perhaps van Gogh's best known and most widely reproduced. In the 2000s debate arose regarding the authenticity of one of the paintings, and it has been suggested that this version may have been the work of Émile Schuffenecker or of Paul Gauguin. Most experts, however, conclude that the work is genuine.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: In January 1889, when Vincent had just finished the first repetitions of the "Berceuse" and the "Sunflowers" pendants, he told Theo: "I picture to myself these same canvases between those of the sunflowers, which would thus form torches or candelabra beside them, the same size, and so the whole would be composed of seven or nine canvases."


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: A definite hint for the arrangement of the triptych is supplied by Van Gogh's sketch in a letter of July 1889.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Van Gogh began painting in late summer of 1888 and continued into the following year. One went to decorate his friend Paul Gauguin's bedroom. The paintings show sunflowers in all stages of life, from full bloom to withering. The paintings were considered innovative for their use of the yellow spectrum, partly because newly invented pigments made new colours possible.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: In a letter to Theo, Vincent wrote: "It's a type of painting that changes its aspect a little, which grows in richness the more you look at it. Besides, you know that Gauguin likes them extraordinarily. He said to me about them, among other things:


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: ‘that — ... that's... the flower’. You know that Jeannin has the peony, Quost has the hollyhock, but I have the sunflower, in a way."


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: On March 30, 1987, Japanese insurance magnate Yasuo Goto paid the equivalent of US$39,921,750 for van Gogh's "Still Life: Vase with Fifteen Sunflowers" at auction at Christie's London, at the time a record-setting amount for a work of art. The price was over three times the previous record of about $12million paid for Andrea Mantegna's "Adoration of the Magi" in 1985. The record was broken a few months later with the purchase of another Van Gogh, "Irises", by Alan Bond for $53.9million at Sotheby's, New York on November 11, 1987.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: While it is uncertain whether Yasuo Goto bought the painting himself or on behalf of his company, the Yasuda Fire and Marine Insurance Company of Japan, the painting currently resides at Seiji Togo Yasuda Memorial Museum of Modern Art in Tokyo. After the purchase, a controversy arose whether this is a genuine van Gogh or an Émile Schuffenecker forgery.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Two Paris versions van Gogh exchanged with Gauguin in December 1887 or January 1888, were both sold to Ambroise Vollard: one in January 1895 and the other in April 1896. The first canvas resided for a short time with Félix Roux, but was reacquired by Vollard and sold to Degas, then from his estate to Rosenberg, then to Hahnloser and bequested to the Kunstmuseum Bern. The second was acquired by the Dutch collector Hoogendijk at the sale of his collection by Kann, who ceded the painting to Richard Bühler and then via Thannhauser to the Metropolitan Museum in New York.


title: Sunflowers (Van Gogh series)

text: Two of van Gogh's "Sunflowers" paintings never left the artist's estate: the study for one of the Paris versions (F377) and the repetition of fourth version (F458). Both are in the possession of the Vincent van Gogh Foundation, established 1962 by Vincent Willem van Gogh, the artist's nephew, and on permanent loan to the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: The Duke is a 2020 British comedy-drama film directed by Roger Michell, with a screenplay by Richard Bean and Clive Coleman. Dealing with the 1961 theft of the "Portrait of the Duke of Wellington", the film stars Jim Broadbent, Helen Mirren, Fionn Whitehead, Anna Maxwell Martin and Matthew Goode. It was Michell's penultimate film before his death on 22 September 2021.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: The film was awarded 5 stars from "The Guardian" and "The Daily Telegraph" following its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival. It was released in cinemas in the UK on 25 February 2022.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Sixty-year-old self-educated working class Kempton Bunton appears in Court Number 1 at the Old Bailey, pleading not guilty to charges of stealing Goya's portrait of the Duke of Wellington and its frame from the National Gallery in London. Six months earlier, in spring 1961, he sends a script to the BBC from his native Newcastle upon Tyne. Soon afterwards he is jailed at Durham for thirteen days for watching TV without a licence. Although he can afford one, he refuses to do so as part of his campaign against pensioners having to pay for it, part of his wider strong beliefs about supporting the common man.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Kempton's son Jackie meets him on his release and on their way home they visit the grave of Marion, Jackie's sister, who had been killed in a bicycle accident aged only 18. Kempton's wife Dorothy works as a housekeeper and babysitter for a local councillor and his wife, Jackie aims to become a boat builder and move away and his elder brother Kenny lives in Leeds, working in construction but also involved in low-level crime. Kempton himself is sacked from his job as a taxi driver due to being over-talkative to passengers and giving a free ride to an impoverished disabled World War One veteran. He gets Dorothy to allow him a two-day trip to London to drum up press and parliamentary attention for his campaign and BBC interest in his scripts, on the condition that if he does not get that attention he will give up writing and campaigning and get a job. An unseen man with a north-east English accent steals the painting and after Kempton's return to Newcastle he and Jackie make a false back to a wardrobe to hide it.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Kempton sends a series of ransom notes to the government, saying that he will return the painting on the condition that the elderly be exempted from paying for a TV licence. Kenny and his separated lover Pammy come to visit his parents and she spots the painting in the wardrobe, revealing this to Kempton in private in hopes of getting half the £5,000 reward offered. Panicked, Kempton abandons a suggested Daily Mirror plan to raise money for his campaign via an exhibition of the painting and instead walks into the National Gallery to return it and confess to the theft. Though the case seems hopeless, his barrister Jeremy Hutchinson defends him on the grounds that he had no intent to deprive the Gallery of it permanently, but instead simply 'borrowed' it to further his campaign, an impression Kempton bolsters by voluble testimony when questioned by Hutchinson.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Back in Newcastle during the early stages of the trial, Jackie reveals to his mother that it had in fact been him who stole it for his father to use in his campaign, with his father covering up for him and taking the blame. The jury acquits Kempton of all charges except the theft of the £80 picture frame, which Jackie had removed from the painting at his London lodgings and then lost. After his three-month sentence, Kempton and Dorothy forgive each other over how they had mishandled their grief at Marion's death. Their reconciliation is evident when they are sitting together in a cinema watching the James Bond film Dr. No and chuckle when they see the scene which shows Sean Connery spotting the "stolen" Goya painting of the Duke of Wellington.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Four years later Jackie admits his guilt to the police, but they and the Director of Public Prosecutions fear that a new trial could lead to Kempton being called as a witness and again becoming an embarrassing cause célèbre. They therefore agree that if Jackie does not go public they will not prosecute. Text at the end of the film states that the frame was never recovered and that no plays by Bunton were ever produced, but that forty years later TV licences were made free to people over age 75.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: It was announced in October 2019 that a film about the 1961 theft was in development, with Broadbent as Bunton and Mirren as his wife and Roger Michell set to direct. Fionn Whitehead was added the following month.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: Filming began in November 2019, with Goode joining the cast. Location shooting took place in Bradford and Leeds, and the production team also used Prime Studios in Leeds.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 4 September 2020. It was also selected to screen at the Telluride Film Festival in September 2020, prior to its cancellation due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Shortly after, Sony Pictures Classics acquired the Latin America, Scandivanian and US distribution rights to the film. Pathé's distribution arm will release the film in France and Switzerland.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: The film was originally scheduled to be released in the United Kingdom by 20th Century Fox via Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures on 6 November 2020, but Pathé later delayed it to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 7 June 2021, it was announced that Pathé would release the film on 3 September 2021, after announcing a new distribution deal with Warner Bros. Pictures. On 23 July, Pathé announced that the film release would be again delayed, this time to 25 February 2022.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: "The Duke" was released as a rental home premiere and is available on iTunes, Curzon, Amazon Prime Video, Sky Store, Google Play and Microsoft Store.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: It was then available on Blu-ray and DVD on June 13, 2022 by Pathé through Warner Bros. Home Entertainment.


title: The Duke (2020 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, 97% of 129 reviews are positive, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A sweet swan song for director Roger Michell, "The Duke" offers a well-acted and engaging dramatization of an entertainingly improbable true story." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 74 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Robert Fuller (born Leonard Leroy Lee, July 29, 1933) is an American horse rancher and retired actor. He began his career on television, guest-starring primarily on Western programs, while appearing in several movies, including: "The Brain from Planet Arous"; "Teenage Thunder" (both in 1957); "Return of the Seven" (1966); "Incident at Phantom Hill" (1969); and "The Hard Ride" (1971).


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In his five decades of television, Fuller was known for his deep, raspy voice and was familiar to television viewers throughout the 1960s and 1959 from his co-star roles on the popular 1960s Western series, as Jess Harper, former gunslinger, on "Laramie" and Cooper Smith on "Wagon Train," and was also well known for his starring role as Dr. Kelly Brackett in the 1970s medical/action drama "Emergency!"


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller was born as Leonard Leroy Lee on July 29, 1933, in Troy, New York, the only child of Elizabeth Lee, a dance instructor. Before his birth, Betty married Robert Simpson Sr., a Naval Academy officer. In 1939, at the age of 6, he and his family moved to Key West, Florida, where, already known by the nickname of "Buddy," he took the name Robert Simpson Jr. The early highlights of his life were acting and dancing. His parents owned a dancing school in Florida. His family also moved to Chicago, Illinois, where they lived for one year, before moving back to Florida. Simpson Jr., as he was then still formally known, attended the Miami Military School for fifth and sixth grade, and Key West High School for ninth grade. He dropped out in 1948, at the age of 14, due to the fact that he disliked school and was doing poorly there. In 1950, at the age of 16, he traveled with his family to Hollywood, California, where his first job was as a stunt man. He also worked at Grauman's Chinese Theatre, beginning as a doorman and working his way up to Assistant Manager by age 18. At the urging of friends, Simpson Jr. joined the Screen Actors Guild, embarked on a career in acting, and changed his name from Robert Simpson Jr. to Robert Fuller, the name by which he was known at his most prominent.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller's first small role was as an extra in the 1952 film "Above and Beyond". This part led to much extra work on many projects, one of which was in "I Love Melvin." In 1953, he again had another minor part in "Gentlemen Prefer Blondes," which starred Marilyn Monroe and the Doris Day classic, Calamity Jane. Fuller's career then went on hold for service in the United States Army. He served a tour of duty in Korea and returned to the United States in 1955. Though he had been considering giving up acting, Fuller, at the suggestion of his best friend, Chuck Courtney, attended Richard Boone's acting classes. Boone suggested that Fuller study under the tutelage of Sanford Meisner at New York City's Neighborhood Playhouse. Fuller's first speaking role was in "Friendly Persuasion" in 1956, where he worked with his future "Laramie" co-star John Smith and another close friend, Doug McClure.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In the 1956 episode "The Comeback" in the religion anthology series, "Crossroads," Fuller played the part of a former soldier. In the story line, Don DeFore, as the Reverend C. E. "Stoney" Jackson, offers spiritual insight to assist Lou Brissie (Chuck Connors) who is recovering from wounds sustained in World War II to enable him to return to professional baseball. Grant Withers appeared as Coach Whitey Martin and "Crossroads" regular Robert Carson appeared as a coach.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller became an immensely popular character actor, guest-starring in dozens of television programs including "Buckskin," "The Big Valley," "Official Detective," "The Californians," "The Restless Gun," "The Lawless Years" (as Cutie Jaffe on May 7, 1959), "U.S. Marshal," "Panic!," "M Squad," "The Adventures of Rin Tin Tin," "The Monroes" and the "Lux Playhouse." He also appeared in the series "Strange Intruder" as a villain who dies in the third episode. In 1959, he portrayed a character accused of arson in Broderick Crawford's syndicated series, "Highway Patrol." He also made appearances in ABC's "The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp" and Mickey Spillane's syndicated "Mike Hammer."


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On February 24, 1959, Fuller guest-starred in the episode "Blind Is the Killer," in NBC's "Cimarron City" television series. This appearance propelled him into a lead role seven months later in "Laramie," one of the comparatively few network programs set in Wyoming. Fuller appeared as Joe Cole, a young gunfighter seeking a reputation, who found his target in Cimarron City Mayor Matt Rockford, played by George Montgomery. Cole temporarily blinded Rockford with glass from a broken whisky bottle. The two were ultimately reconciled after each had a chance to prove his courage. John Smith, Fuller's co-star on "Laramie," was a regular in "Cimarron City," and the two appeared together briefly in this episode, which also featured Dennis McCarthy as Dr. "Doc" Hodges, who successfully treated Rockford's eyes.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In the summer of 1959, Fuller guest-starred as young outlaw, Buck Harmon, in the episode "The Friend" on the ABC/Warner Brothers western series, "Lawman." In the story line, Harmon is estranged from his minister father, played by Robert F. Simon. When the outlaw gang comes into Laramie, Buck switches sides to help his old friend, Deputy Johnny McKay (Peter Brown). In the shootout, Harmon is gunned down, but his father is spared. That same year Fuller also appeared as Davey Carey in another Lawman episode titled "The Souvenir."


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 1959, Patrick Kelly called Fuller to his office to offer him an opportunity to co-star opposite Academy Award-winner Ray Milland, in the CBS detective series, "Markham." Fuller quickly turned down the role because he wanted to appear in westerns. He was David Dortort's second choice for the role of Lorne Greene's youngest cocky, impish son, Joseph "Little Joe" Cartwright, on NBC's "Bonanza," but he lost the role to another young and then unknown actor--Michael Landon, whose career was made by that role. At about the same time, Fuller landed the co-starring role of Jess Harper on "Laramie," which ran from 1959 to 1963, and Fuller was cast opposite another of his best friends, John Smith. Being the unknown, struggling actor that he was, Fuller was asked to do a screen test for the character of Slim Sherman, and John Smith had originally been cast as Jess Harper. Fuller insisted that he would be better cast as Harper, and after the screen test, he won the role of Jess, while Smith got the part of Slim.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: "Laramie" was eventually aired in more than 70 countries. When "Laramie" ended its run, Fuller jumped to another western, "Wagon Train," alongside John McIntire (a veteran film actor, a two-time guest-star on "Laramie," and a future star of "The Virginian)," Frank McGrath and Terry Wilson. According to an August 17, 2009 interview for "On Screen and Beyond," Fuller noted that he was not brought into the show to replace Robert Horton (an actor Fuller met in 1954, when he and friend James Drury were under contract at MGM, and befriended for 62 years until Horton's death in March 2016) in the role of the wagon train scout. He resembled Horton and the two shared the same birthday, but Horton was nine years Fuller's senior. While Horton had worn a dark cowboy hat, Fuller usually wore a light one. Horton had already departed from the cast a season earlier, and McIntire had carried the series for a year. Fuller stepped in the following year, where he remained in the series (which switched to ABC in 1962) until it ended its run after two additional seasons.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Over the next six years, Fuller appeared in a handful of nondescript films. It seemed his career was stalling as the Western was slowly being retired from the American film industry. The one exception was his role as Vin in "Return of the Seven" (1966) which was a modest, if lackluster, sequel to "The Magnificent Seven."


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 1966, Fuller starred in the Western film "Incident at Phantom Hill". That same year, he portrayed the ill-fated western military Captain William Judd Fetterman in the episode "Massacre at Fort Phil Kearney," near Fort Phil Kearny in Wyoming, one of NBC's "Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre." His co-stars included Richard Egan, Phyllis Avery, Robert Pine, and Carroll O'Connor. He also appeared in the 1969 thriller "What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice?", opposite Ruth Gordon and Geraldine Page, and co-starred with Joel McCrea in the 1976 western "Mustang Country", McCrea's last movie. He also had a role in the 1979 TV action movie "Disaster on the Coastliner", opposite Lloyd Bridges and Raymond Burr.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: After producer Jack Webb saw Fuller in the 1971 movie "The Hard Ride," he insisted Fuller star in his new NBC medical drama, "Emergency!" Fuller was reluctant to play a doctor, especially in a series with a contemporary urban setting, but the persistent Webb convinced him to accept the role of Dr. Kelly Brackett, Chief of Emergency Medicine at the fictitious Rampart General Hospital. In the aforementioned 2009 interview with "On Screen and Beyond", Fuller said that he had twice, politely, rejected the role of Brackett. Webb then reminded Fuller, much less politely, that Western shows had been repeatedly cancelled over the previous five years and that the genre was on the decline. In 1972, he also played the role of Dr. Kelly Brackett on Adam-12 (Episode: Lost and Found).


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller's and Julie London's co-stars on "Emergency!" were previously unknown actors Randolph Mantooth as John Roderick "Johnny" Gage and Kevin Tighe as Roy DeSoto, both playing paramedics. The other cast members got along very well with Fuller, his on-screen appearances were reduced because he had grown unhappy with the direction the show was taking, after feuding with one of the producers, off-camera, while at the same time, he was looking for Westerns.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 1980 Fuller starred in the pilot of a CBS Western series, "Jake's Way", as the title character, along with younger newer actors Ben Lemon, Kristin Griffith and Stephen McNaughton; the series failed to sell. As the 1990s approached, he played supporting roles in more than 20 television shows, including "The Love Boat," "The Fall Guy" (in two episodes which reunited him with Lee Majors, who met Fuller on "The Big Valley"), "Murder, She Wrote" (which reunited him with Eddie Albert, who guest-starred with Fuller on "Laramie"), "Matt Houston," "Tour of Duty," "The Adventures of Brisco County Jr.," "JAG," and "," in an episode which reunited him with his former "Emergency!" co-star Randolph Mantooth ("Malibu Fire"). Toward the end of his acting career, he had a recurring role as Jess' supposed great-great-grandson Wade Harper on "Walker, Texas Ranger" with Chuck Norris and Clarence Gilyard. He also portrayed another character in the same series (in the second part of the episode "Last of a Breed") before being cast as Wade. His film appearances were fewer, consisting of a small role as a doctor in the comedy film "Repossessed" (1990) and a cameo as a poker player in "Maverick" (1994).


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller is an accomplished singer. He did several "bandstand" gigs with Bill Aken's Los Nomadas rock group at holiday festivities in Whiskey Flats, California. While acting as grand marshal for the local Memorial Day parade, he performed a vocal rendition of the 1950s song "Caribbean," singing the same verse over and over. He later told the band that he only knew the first verse of the song. In 1967, he recorded an LP in Munich, Germany. Most of the songs were recorded in German, including "Ein Einsamer Cowboy" ("Lonesome Cowboy"), "Adios Mexicana" ("Goodbye Mexican Girl"), "Uberall Auf Der Welt" ("All Over the World"), "Sind Wie Blumen" ("Girls Are Like Flowers"). Whether the album was successful in Germany is unknown.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Fuller was married for 22 years to Patricia Lee Lyon, whom he wed on December 20, 1962; they had three children: Rob, Christine, and Patrick. The two divorced in 1984; Lyon died of cancer in 1994.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: By the 1990s Fuller had largely retired from the film business. Since May 19, 2001, he has been married to actress Jennifer Savidge, known for her role on NBC's "St. Elsewhere" series. Through Savidge, Fuller also became very good friends with her acting coach, veteran producer and actor Norman Lloyd, who played Dr. Daniel Auschlander.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: Since March 18, 1990, Fuller, along with longtime friend James Drury, has been on the celebrity panel of the annual "Festival of the West," a public/private party where die-hard fans can ask questions about his roles on "Laramie," "Wagon Train," and other Westerns. He also tells the story of his becoming a cowboy. Included at his party are country-Western dancing, lunch, and dinner.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: From October 9 to October 11, 1998, Fuller was reunited with the rest of the surviving "Emergency!" cast, at the Emergency! Convention '98, which took place at the Burbank Airport Hilton in Burbank, California. All of the main actors attended except for Julie London, who had suffered a stroke in 1995. London's husband Bobby Troup attended just four months before his own death. Fuller and the rest of the cast and crew answered fans' questions and reminisced about their time together, during which the cast-mates said they got along well.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On March 10, 2010, Fuller presented James Drury with the "Cowboy Spirit Award" at the "Festival of the West." He also paid tribute to John Smith, who died fifteen years earlier on January 25, 1995, of cirrhosis of the liver and heart problems. In the tribute he recounted many details about Smith's life, especially their on- and off-screen chemistry during their days on "Laramie." Smith had also attended the "Festival of the West" for two seasons before his declining health rendered it impossible for him to appear.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On October 9, 2010, Fuller, James Drury and Don Reynolds participated in the Wild West Toy Show, sponsored by Bob Terry in Azle near Fort Worth, Texas. The event promotes horse riding and the purchase and exchange of Western merchandise.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In September 2012, Fuller, along with several other western celebrities, attended the first-ever Spirit of the Cowboy Western festival held at Chestnut Square in McKinney, Texas. The event is billed as the biggest and best Western festival in North Texas.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In the middle of 2004, Fuller and wife Jennifer Savidge moved from Los Angeles to North Texas to raise horses on a ranch. His neighbor and long-term friend Alex Cord had urged Fuller to move to Cooke County. The two, who are the same age, had met in 1961 on the set of "Laramie" when Cord made his television acting debut.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On July 29, 2013, Fuller celebrated his 80th birthday with his fans and his wife while vacationing on a ranch in Libby, Montana.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 1961, Fuller won the Best Actor Award in Japan and the Japanese Golden Order of Merit, presented by the Empress of Japan. Fuller was the first American ever to earn this award.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: In 1970, he won 5 Ottos, which are the German equivalent of the Emmy Awards. That same year, he won the Buffalo Bill award for Outstanding Western Entertainment.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On Apr. 16, 1974, Fuller won the Outstanding Service Award from the Huntsville Fire Department. This award was for bringing recognition to the firefighting profession and for his support for emergency assistance personnel throughout the nation.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: For his contribution to the television industry, Robert Fuller has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6608 Hollywood Blvd.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On Mar. 18, 2006, a bronze sculpture of Jess Harper on Traveller, was awarded to him by The Robert Fuller Fandom and The National Festival Of The West in recognition of his years of work in the entertainment industry.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On Oct. 12, 2007, he won the Silver Spur Award along with Stuart Whitman, Peter Brown, and Dean Smith, who received a lifetime achievement award.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On April 12, 2008, Fuller was inducted into the National Cowboy and Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City.


title: Robert Fuller (actor)

text: On Oct. 12, 2013, Fuller was the first recipient of the Spirit of the Cowboy Lonestar Legacy Award, a new award which recognized his status in the industry, as a true Western hero.


title: Trisha Yearwood

text: Patricia Lynn Yearwood (born September 19, 1964) is an American singer, actress, author and television personality. She rose to fame with her 1991 debut single "She's in Love with the Boy," which became a number one hit on the "Billboard" country singles chart. Its corresponding self-titled debut album would sell over two million copies. Yearwood continued with a series of major country hits during the early to mid-1990s, including "Walkaway Joe" (1992), "The Song Remembers When" (1993), "XXX's and OOO's (An American Girl)" (1994), and "Believe Me Baby (I Lied)" (1996).


title: Trisha Yearwood

text: Yearwood's 1997 single "How Do I Live" reached number two on the U.S. country singles chart and was internationally successful. It appeared on her first compilation "(Songbook) A Collection of Hits" (1997). The album certified quadruple-platinum in the United States and featured the hits "In Another's Eyes" and "Perfect Love." Yearwood had a string of commercial successes over the next several years including the hit singles "There Goes My Baby" and "I Would've Loved You Anyway." She released her tenth studio record "Jasper County" in 2005, which debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Top Country Albums chart and the top ten of the "Billboard" 200. It would become her fastest-selling album in the United States. Yearwood signed with Big Machine Records in 2007 and released the critically acclaimed "Heaven, Heartache and the Power of Love" the same year.


title: Trisha Yearwood

text: Yearwood spent several years on hiatus from her own musical career to focus on other projects. She published three successful cookbooks, which appeared on The New York Times Best Seller list. In 2012, she began a culinary television series on the Food Network called "Trisha's Southern Kitchen", which later won a Daytime Emmy Award. Yearwood has sold over 15 million records worldwide. Her work has earned her several awards and nominations, including three Grammy Awards, three awards from the Academy of Country Music, and three awards from the Country Music Association. Yearwood has also been a cast member of the Grand Ole Opry since 1999. Since 2005 she has been married to country singer Garth Brooks, with whom she has collaborated on a number of occasions.