title: Icelandic language

text: Icelandic retains many grammatical features of other ancient Germanic languages, and resembles Old Norwegian before much of its fusional inflection was lost. Modern Icelandic is still a heavily inflected language with four cases: nominative, accusative, dative and genitive. Icelandic nouns can have one of three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine or neuter. There are two main declension paradigms for each gender: strong and weak nouns, and these are further divided into subclasses of nouns, based primarily on the "genitive singular" and "nominative plural" endings of a particular noun. For example, within the strong masculine nouns, there is a subclass (class 1) that declines with "-s" (') in the genitive singular and "-ar" (') in the nominative plural. However, there is another subclass (class 3) of strong masculine nouns that always declines with "-ar" (') in the genitive singular and "-ir" (') in the nominative plural. Additionally, Icelandic permits a quirky subject, that is, certain verbs have subjects in an oblique case (i.e. other than the nominative).


title: Icelandic language

text: Nouns, adjectives and pronouns are declined in the four cases and for number in the singular and plural.


title: Icelandic language

text: Verbs are conjugated for tense, mood, person, number and voice. There are three voices: active, passive and middle (or medial), but it may be debated whether the middle voice is a voice or simply an independent class of verbs of its own, as every middle-voice verb has an active-voice ancestor, but sometimes with drastically different meaning, and the middle-voice verbs form a conjugation group of their own. Examples are ' ("come") vs. ' ("get there"), ' ("kill") vs. ' ("perish ignominiously") and ' ("take") vs. ' ("manage to"). In each of these examples, the meaning has been so altered, that one can hardly see them as the same verb in different voices. Verbs have up to ten tenses, but Icelandic, like English, forms most of them with auxiliary verbs. There are three or four main groups of weak verbs in Icelandic, depending on whether one takes a historical or a formalistic view: ', ', and "", referring to the endings that these verbs take when conjugated in the first person singular present.


title: Icelandic language

text: Almost all Icelandic verbs have the ending -a in the infinitive, some with ', two with ' (', ') one with ' (': "wash") and one with ' (the Danish borrowing ' which is probably withdrawing its presence). Many transitive verbs (i.e. they require an object), can take a reflexive pronoun instead. The case of the pronoun depends on the case that the verb governs. As for further classification of verbs, Icelandic behaves much like other Germanic languages, with a main division between weak verbs and strong, and the strong verbs, of which there are about 150 to 200, are divided into six classes plus reduplicative verbs. They still make up some of the most frequently used verbs. (', "to be", is the example "par excellence", having two subjunctives and two imperatives in addition to being made up of different stems.) There is also a class of auxiliary verbs, called the ' verbs (4 or 5, depending who is counting) and then the oddity " ("to cause"), called the only totally irregular verb in Icelandic although every form of it is caused by common and regular sound changes.


title: Icelandic language

text: The basic word order in Icelandic is subject–verb–object. However, as words are heavily inflected, the word order is fairly flexible, and every combination may occur in poetry; SVO, SOV, VSO, VOS, OSV and OVS are all allowed for metrical purposes. However, as with most Germanic languages, Icelandic usually complies with the V2 word order restriction, so the conjugated verb in Icelandic usually appears as the second element in the clause, preceded by the word or phrase being emphasised. For example:


title: Icelandic language

text: In the above examples, the conjugated verbs ' and ' are always the second element in their respective clauses, see verb-second word order.


title: Icelandic language

text: A distinction between formal and informal address (T–V distinction) had existed in Icelandic from the 17th century, but use of the formal variant weakened in the 1950s and rapidly disappeared. It no longer exists in regular speech, but may occasionally be found in pre-written speeches addressed to the bishop and members of parliament.


title: Icelandic language

text: Early Icelandic vocabulary was largely Old Norse. The introduction of Christianity to Iceland in the 11th century brought with it a need to describe new religious concepts. The majority of new words were taken from other Scandinavian languages; " ("church"), for example. Numerous other languages have influenced Icelandic: French brought many words related to the court and knightship; words in the semantic field of trade and commerce have been borrowed from Low German because of trade connections. In the late 18th century, language purism began to gain noticeable ground in Iceland and since the early 19th century it has been the linguistic policy of the country (see linguistic purism in Icelandic). Nowadays, it is common practice to coin new compound words from Icelandic derivatives.


title: Icelandic language

text: Icelandic personal names are patronymic (and sometimes matronymic) in that they reflect the immediate father or mother of the child and not the historic family lineage. This system, which was formerly used throughout the Nordic area and beyond, differs from most Western systems of family name. In most Icelandic families, the ancient tradition of patronymics is still in use; i.e. a person uses their father's name (usually) or mother's name (increasingly in recent years) in the genitive form followed by the morpheme -son ("son") or -dóttir ("daughter") in lieu of family names.


title: Icelandic language

text: In 2019, changes were announced to the laws governing names. Icelanders who are officially registered with non-binary gender will be permitted to use the suffix ("child of") instead of or .


title: Icelandic language

text: As Icelandic shares its ancestry with English and both are Germanic languages, there are many cognate words in both languages; each have the same or a similar meaning and are derived from a common root. The possessive, though not the plural, of a noun is often signified with the ending "", as in English. Phonological and orthographical changes in each of the languages will have changed spelling and pronunciation. A few examples are given below.


title: Icelandic language

text: A core theme of Icelandic language ideologies is grammatical, orthographic and lexical purism for Icelandic. This is evident in general language discourses, in polls, and in other investigations into Icelandic language attitudes. The general consensus on Icelandic language policy has come to mean that language policy and language ideology discourse are not predominantly state or elite driven; but rather, remain the concern of lay people and the general public. The Icelandic speech community is perceived to have a protectionist language culture; however, this is deep-rooted ideologically primarily in relation to the forms of the language, while Icelanders in general seem to be more “pragmatic” as to domains of language use.


title: Icelandic language

text: During the 19th century, a movement was started by writers and other educated people of the country to rid the language of foreign words as much as possible and to create a new vocabulary and adapt the Icelandic language to the evolution of new concepts, thus avoiding the use of borrowed neologisms as are found in many other languages. Many old words which had fallen into disuse were recycled and given new senses in the modern language, and neologisms were created from Old Norse roots. For example, the word ' ("electricity"), literally means "amber power", calquing the derivation of the Greek root "electr-" from Greek ' ("amber"). Similarly, the word ' ("telephone") originally meant "cord", and ' ("computer") is a portmanteau of ' ("digit; number") and ' ("seeress; prophetess").


title: Icelandic language

text: The Icelandic alphabet is notable for its retention of two old letters that no longer exist in the English alphabet: Þ, þ (, modern English "thorn") and Ð, ð (, anglicised as "eth" or "edh"), representing the voiceless and voiced "th" sounds (as in English "thin" and "this"), respectively. The complete Icelandic alphabet is:


title: Icelandic language

text: The letters with diacritics, such as ' and ', are for the most part treated as separate letters and not variants of their derivative vowels. The letter ' officially replaced ' in 1929, although it had been used in early manuscripts (until the 14th century) and again periodically from the 18th century. The letter "" was formerly in the Icelandic alphabet, but it was officially removed in 1973.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: Google Cloud Platform (GCP), offered by Google, is a suite of cloud computing services that runs on the same infrastructure that Google uses internally for its end-user products, such as Google Search, Gmail, Google Drive, and YouTube. Alongside a set of management tools, it provides a series of modular cloud services including computing, data storage, data analytics and machine learning. Registration requires a credit card or bank account details.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: Google Cloud Platform provides infrastructure as a service, platform as a service, and serverless computing environments.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: In April 2008, Google announced App Engine, a platform for developing and hosting web applications in Google-managed data centers, which was the first cloud computing service from the company. The service became generally available in November 2011. Since the announcement of App Engine, Google added multiple cloud services to the platform.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: Google Cloud Platform is a part of Google Cloud, which includes the Google Cloud Platform public cloud infrastructure, as well as Google Workspace (G Suite), enterprise versions of Android and ChromeOS, and application programming interfaces (APIs) for machine learning and enterprise mapping services.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: Google lists over 100 products under the Google Cloud brand. Some of the key services are listed below.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: As of Q3 2022, Google Cloud Platform is available in 34 regions and 103 zones. A region is a specific geographical location where users can deploy cloud resources.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: A zone is a deployment area for Google Cloud Platform resources within a region. Zones should be considered a single failure domain within a region.


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: Most of the regions have three or more zones. As of Q3 2022, Google Cloud Platform is available in the following regions and zones:


title: Google Cloud Platform

text: For those familiar with other notable cloud service providers, a comparison of similar services may be helpful in understanding Google Cloud Platform's offerings.


title: Time complexity

text: In computer science, the time complexity is the computational complexity that describes the amount of computer time it takes to run an algorithm. Time complexity is commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm, supposing that each elementary operation takes a fixed amount of time to perform. Thus, the amount of time taken and the number of elementary operations performed by the algorithm are taken to be related by a constant factor.


title: Time complexity

text: Since an algorithm's running time may vary among different inputs of the same size, one commonly considers the worst-case time complexity, which is the maximum amount of time required for inputs of a given size. Less common, and usually specified explicitly, is the average-case complexity, which is the average of the time taken on inputs of a given size (this makes sense because there are only a finite number of possible inputs of a given size). In both cases, the time complexity is generally expressed as a function of the size of the input. Since this function is generally difficult to compute exactly, and the running time for small inputs is usually not consequential, one commonly focuses on the behavior of the complexity when the input size increases—that is, the asymptotic behavior of the complexity. Therefore, the time complexity is commonly expressed using big O notation, typically etc., where is the size in units of bits needed to represent the input.


title: Time complexity

text: Algorithmic complexities are classified according to the type of function appearing in the big O notation. For example, an algorithm with time complexity formula_1 is a "linear time algorithm" and an algorithm with time complexity formula_2 for some constant formula_3 is a "polynomial time algorithm".


title: Time complexity

text: The following table summarizes some classes of commonly encountered time complexities. In the table, , i.e., polynomial in "x".


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to be constant time (also written as formula_4 time) if the value of formula_5 (the complexity of the algorithm) is bounded by a value that does not depend on the size of the input. For example, accessing any single element in an array takes constant time as only one operation has to be performed to locate it. In a similar manner, finding the minimal value in an array sorted in ascending order; it is the first element. However, finding the minimal value in an unordered array is not a constant time operation as scanning over each element in the array is needed in order to determine the minimal value. Hence it is a linear time operation, taking formula_6 time. If the number of elements is known in advance and does not change, however, such an algorithm can still be said to run in constant time.


title: Time complexity

text: Despite the name "constant time", the running time does not have to be independent of the problem size, but an upper bound for the running time has to be independent of the problem size. For example, the task "exchange the values of and if necessary so that formula_7" is called constant time even though the time may depend on whether or not it is already true that formula_7. However, there is some constant such that the time required is always "at most" .


title: Time complexity

text: If formula_9 is formula_10, where is any constant value, this is equivalent to and stated in standard notation as formula_9 being formula_12.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to take logarithmic time when formula_13. Since formula_14 and formula_15 are related by a constant multiplier, and such a multiplier is irrelevant to big O classification, the standard usage for logarithmic-time algorithms is formula_16 regardless of the base of the logarithm appearing in the expression of .


title: Time complexity

text: Algorithms taking logarithmic time are commonly found in operations on binary trees or when using binary search.


title: Time complexity

text: An formula_16 algorithm is considered highly efficient, as the ratio of the number of operations to the size of the input decreases and tends to zero when increases. An algorithm that must access all elements of its input cannot take logarithmic time, as the time taken for reading an input of size is of the order of .


title: Time complexity

text: An example of logarithmic time is given by dictionary search. Consider a dictionary which contains entries, sorted by alphabetical order. We suppose that, for formula_18, one may access the th entry of the dictionary in a constant time. Let formula_19 denote this th entry. Under these hypotheses, the test to see if a word is in the dictionary may be done in logarithmic time: consider formula_20, where formula_21 denotes the floor function. If formula_22, then we are done. Else, if formula_23, continue the search in the same way in the left half of the dictionary, otherwise continue similarly with the right half of the dictionary. This algorithm is similar to the method often used to find an entry in a paper dictionary.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to run in polylogarithmic time if its time formula_9 is formula_25 for some constant . Another way to write this is formula_26.


title: Time complexity

text: For example, matrix chain ordering can be solved in polylogarithmic time on a parallel random-access machine, and a graph can be determined to be planar in a fully dynamic way in formula_27 time per insert/delete operation.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to run in sub-linear time (often spelled sublinear time) if formula_28. In particular this includes algorithms with the time complexities defined above.


title: Time complexity

text: Typical algorithms that are exact and yet run in sub-linear time use parallel processing (as the NC matrix determinant calculation does), or alternatively have guaranteed assumptions on the input structure (as the logarithmic time binary search and many tree maintenance algorithms do). However, formal languages such as the set of all strings that have a 1-bit in the position indicated by the first formula_29 bits of the string may depend on every bit of the input and yet be computable in sub-linear time.


title: Time complexity

text: The specific term "sublinear time algorithm" is usually reserved to algorithms that are unlike the above in that they are run over classical serial machine models and are not allowed prior assumptions on the input. They are however allowed to be randomized, and indeed must be randomized for all but the most trivial of tasks.


title: Time complexity

text: As such an algorithm must provide an answer without reading the entire input, its particulars heavily depend on the access allowed to the input. Usually for an input that is represented as a binary string formula_30 it is assumed that the algorithm can in time formula_12 request and obtain the value of formula_32 for any .


title: Time complexity

text: Sub-linear time algorithms are typically randomized, and provide only approximate solutions. In fact, the property of a binary string having only zeros (and no ones) can be easily proved not to be decidable by a (non-approximate) sub-linear time algorithm. Sub-linear time algorithms arise naturally in the investigation of property testing.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to take linear time, or formula_1 time, if its time complexity is formula_1. Informally, this means that the running time increases at most linearly with the size of the input. More precisely, this means that there is a constant such that the running time is at most formula_35 for every input of size . For example, a procedure that adds up all elements of a list requires time proportional to the length of the list, if the adding time is constant, or, at least, bounded by a constant.


title: Time complexity

text: Linear time is the best possible time complexity in situations where the algorithm has to sequentially read its entire input. Therefore, much research has been invested into discovering algorithms exhibiting linear time or, at least, nearly linear time. This research includes both software and hardware methods. There are several hardware technologies which exploit parallelism to provide this. An example is content-addressable memory. This concept of linear time is used in string matching algorithms such as the Boyer–Moore algorithm and Ukkonen's algorithm.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to run in quasilinear time (also referred to as log-linear time) if formula_36 for some positive constant ; linearithmic time is the case formula_37. Using soft O notation these algorithms are formula_38. Quasilinear time algorithms are also formula_39 for every constant formula_40 and thus run faster than any polynomial time algorithm whose time bound includes a term formula_41 for any formula_42.


title: Time complexity

text: In many cases, the formula_44 running time is simply the result of performing a formula_51 operation times (for the notation, see ). For example, binary tree sort creates a binary tree by inserting each element of the -sized array one by one. Since the insert operation on a self-balancing binary search tree takes formula_16 time, the entire algorithm takes formula_44 time.


title: Time complexity

text: Comparison sorts require at least formula_54 comparisons in the worst case because formula_55, by Stirling's approximation. They also frequently arise from the recurrence relation formula_56.


title: Time complexity

text: For example, simple, comparison-based sorting algorithms are quadratic (e.g. insertion sort), but more advanced algorithms can be found that are subquadratic (e.g. shell sort). No general-purpose sorts run in linear time, but the change from quadratic to sub-quadratic is of great practical importance.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to be of polynomial time if its running time is upper bounded by a polynomial expression in the size of the input for the algorithm, that is, for some positive constant "k". Problems for which a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm exists belong to the complexity class P, which is central in the field of computational complexity theory. Cobham's thesis states that polynomial time is a synonym for "tractable", "feasible", "efficient", or "fast".


title: Time complexity

text: In some contexts, especially in optimization, one differentiates between strongly polynomial time and weakly polynomial time algorithms. These two concepts are only relevant if the inputs to the algorithms consist of integers.


title: Time complexity

text: Strongly polynomial time is defined in the arithmetic model of computation. In this model of computation the basic arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and comparison) take a unit time step to perform, regardless of the sizes of the operands. The algorithm runs in strongly polynomial time if:


title: Time complexity

text: Any algorithm with these two properties can be converted to a polynomial time algorithm by replacing the arithmetic operations by suitable algorithms for performing the arithmetic operations on a Turing machine. The second condition is strictly necessary: given the integer formula_60 (which takes up space proportional to "n" in the Turing machine model), it is possible to compute formula_61 with "n" multiplications using repeated squaring. However, the space used to represent formula_61 is proportional to formula_60, and thus exponential rather than polynomial in the space used to represent the input. Hence, it is not possible to carry out this computation in polynomial time on a Turing machine, but it is possible to compute it by polynomially many arithmetic operations.


title: Time complexity

text: However, for the first condition, there are algorithms that run in a number of Turing machine steps bounded by a polynomial in the length of binary-encoded input, but do not take a number of arithmetic operations bounded by a polynomial in the number of input numbers. The Euclidean algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor of two integers is one example. Given two integers formula_64 and formula_65, the algorithm performs formula_66 arithmetic operations on numbers with


title: Time complexity

text: at most formula_66 bits. At the same time, the number of arithmetic operations cannot be bounded by the number of integers in the input (which is constant in this case, there are always only two integers in the input). Due to the latter observation, the algorithm does not run in strongly polynomial time. Its real running time depends "logarithmically" on the magnitudes of formula_64 and formula_65 (that is, on their length in bits) and not only on the number of integers in the input.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm that runs in polynomial time but that is not strongly polynomial is said to run in weakly polynomial time.


title: Time complexity

text: A well-known example of a problem for which a weakly polynomial-time algorithm is known, but is not known to admit a strongly polynomial-time algorithm, is linear programming. Weakly polynomial time should not be confused with pseudo-polynomial time, which depends "linearly" on the magnitude of values in the problem and is not truly polynomial time.


title: Time complexity

text: The concept of polynomial time leads to several complexity classes in computational complexity theory. Some important classes defined using polynomial time are the following.


title: Time complexity

text: P is the smallest time-complexity class on a deterministic machine which is robust in terms of machine model changes. (For example, a change from a single-tape Turing machine to a multi-tape machine can lead to a quadratic speedup, but any algorithm that runs in polynomial time under one model also does so on the other.) Any given abstract machine will have a complexity class corresponding to the problems which can be solved in polynomial time on that machine.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is defined to take superpolynomial time if "T"("n") is not bounded above by any polynomial. Using little omega notation, it is "ω"("n") time for all constants "c", where "n" is the input parameter, typically the number of bits in the input.


title: Time complexity

text: For example, an algorithm that runs for 2 steps on an input of size "n" requires superpolynomial time (more specifically, exponential time).


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm that uses exponential resources is clearly superpolynomial, but some algorithms are only very weakly superpolynomial. For example, the Adleman–Pomerance–Rumely primality test runs for time on "n"-bit inputs; this grows faster than any polynomial for large enough "n", but the input size must become impractically large before it cannot be dominated by a polynomial with small degree.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm that requires superpolynomial time lies outside the complexity class P. Cobham's thesis posits that these algorithms are impractical, and in many cases they are. Since the P versus NP problem is unresolved, it is unknown whether NP-complete problems require superpolynomial time.


title: Time complexity

text: Quasi-polynomial time algorithms are algorithms that run longer than polynomial time, yet not so long as to be exponential time. The worst case running time of a quasi-polynomial time algorithm is formula_70 for some fixed For formula_71 we get a polynomial time algorithm, for formula_72 we get a sub-linear time algorithm.


title: Time complexity

text: Quasi-polynomial time algorithms typically arise in reductions from an NP-hard problem to another problem. For example, one can take an instance of an NP hard problem, say 3SAT, and convert it to an instance of another problem B, but the size of the instance becomes formula_70. In that case, this reduction does not prove that problem B is NP-hard; this reduction only shows that there is no polynomial time algorithm for B unless there is a quasi-polynomial time algorithm for 3SAT (and thus all of NP). Similarly, there are some problems for which we know quasi-polynomial time algorithms, but no polynomial time algorithm is known. Such problems arise in approximation algorithms; a famous example is the directed Steiner tree problem, for which there is a quasi-polynomial time approximation algorithm achieving an approximation factor of formula_74 ("n" being the number of vertices), but showing the existence of such a polynomial time algorithm is an open problem.


title: Time complexity

text: Other computational problems with quasi-polynomial time solutions but no known polynomial time solution include the planted clique problem in which the goal is to find a large clique in the union of a clique and a random graph. Although quasi-polynomially solvable, it has been conjectured that the planted clique problem has no polynomial time solution; this planted clique conjecture has been used as a computational hardness assumption to prove the difficulty of several other problems in computational game theory, property testing, and machine learning.


title: Time complexity

text: The complexity class QP consists of all problems that have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. It can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.


title: Time complexity

text: In complexity theory, the unsolved P versus NP problem asks if all problems in NP have polynomial-time algorithms. All the best-known algorithms for NP-complete problems like 3SAT etc. take exponential time. Indeed, it is conjectured for many natural NP-complete problems that they do not have sub-exponential time algorithms. Here "sub-exponential time" is taken to mean the second definition presented below. (On the other hand, many graph problems represented in the natural way by adjacency matrices are solvable in subexponential time simply because the size of the input is the square of the number of vertices.) This conjecture (for the k-SAT problem) is known as the exponential time hypothesis. Since it is conjectured that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms, some inapproximability results in the field of approximation algorithms make the assumption that NP-complete problems do not have quasi-polynomial time algorithms. For example, see the known inapproximability results for the set cover problem.


title: Time complexity

text: The term sub-exponential time is used to express that the running time of some algorithm may grow faster than any polynomial but is still significantly smaller than an exponential. In this sense, problems that have sub-exponential time algorithms are somewhat more tractable than those that only have exponential algorithms. The precise definition of "sub-exponential" is not generally agreed upon, and we list the two most widely used ones below.


title: Time complexity

text: A problem is said to be sub-exponential time solvable if it can be solved in running times whose logarithms grow smaller than any given polynomial. More precisely, a problem is in sub-exponential time if for every there exists an algorithm which solves the problem in time "O"(2). The set of all such problems is the complexity class SUBEXP which can be defined in terms of DTIME as follows.


title: Time complexity

text: This notion of sub-exponential is non-uniform in terms of "ε" in the sense that "ε" is not part of the input and each ε may have its own algorithm for the problem.


title: Time complexity

text: Some authors define sub-exponential time as running times in formula_77. This definition allows larger running times than the first definition of sub-exponential time. An example of such a sub-exponential time algorithm is the best-known classical algorithm for integer factorization, the general number field sieve, which runs in time about where the length of the input is . Another example was the graph isomorphism problem, which the best known algorithm from 1982 to 2016 solved in However, at STOC 2016 a quasi-polynomial time algorithm was presented.


title: Time complexity

text: It makes a difference whether the algorithm is allowed to be sub-exponential in the size of the instance, the number of vertices, or the number of edges. In parameterized complexity, this difference is made explicit by considering pairs formula_78 of decision problems and parameters "k". SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems that run in time sub-exponential in "k" and polynomial in the input size "n":


title: Time complexity

text: More precisely, SUBEPT is the class of all parameterized problems formula_78 for which there is a computable function formula_81 with formula_82 and an algorithm that decides "L" in time formula_83.


title: Time complexity

text: The exponential time hypothesis (ETH) is that 3SAT, the satisfiability problem of Boolean formulas in conjunctive normal form with at most three literals per clause and with "n" variables, cannot be solved in time 2. More precisely, the hypothesis is that there is some absolute constant such that 3SAT cannot be decided in time 2 by any deterministic Turing machine. With "m" denoting the number of clauses, ETH is equivalent to the hypothesis that "k"SAT cannot be solved in time 2 for any integer . The exponential time hypothesis implies P ≠ NP.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to be exponential time, if "T"("n") is upper bounded by 2, where poly("n") is some polynomial in "n". More formally, an algorithm is exponential time if "T"("n") is bounded by "O"(2) for some constant "k". Problems which admit exponential time algorithms on a deterministic Turing machine form the complexity class known as EXP.


title: Time complexity

text: Sometimes, exponential time is used to refer to algorithms that have "T"("n") = 2, where the exponent is at most a linear function of "n". This gives rise to the complexity class E.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to be factorial time if "T(n)" is upper bounded by the factorial function "n!". Factorial time is a subset of exponential time (EXP) because formula_86 for all formula_87. However, it is not a subset of E.


title: Time complexity

text: An example of an algorithm that runs in factorial time is bogosort, a notoriously inefficient sorting algorithm based on trial and error. Bogosort sorts a list of "n" items by repeatedly shuffling the list until it is found to be sorted. In the average case, each pass through the bogosort algorithm will examine one of the "n"! orderings of the "n" items. If the items are distinct, only one such ordering is sorted. Bogosort shares patrimony with the infinite monkey theorem.


title: Time complexity

text: An algorithm is said to be double exponential time if "T"("n") is upper bounded by 2, where poly("n") is some polynomial in "n". Such algorithms belong to the complexity class 2-EXPTIME.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Real Club Deportivo Mallorca, S.A.D. (, , "Royal Sporting Club Mallorca"), commonly known as Real Mallorca or just Mallorca is a Spanish professional football club based in Palma on the island of Majorca in the Balearic Islands. Founded on 5 March 1916, they currently compete in La Liga, holding home games at the Visit Mallorca Stadium with a 23,142-seat capacity.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: The club had its peak in the late 1990s and early 2000s, reaching a best-ever 3rd place in La Liga in 1999 and 2001 and winning the Copa del Rey in 2003 following final defeats in 1991 and 1998. Mallorca also won the 1998 Supercopa de España and reached the 1999 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Founded on 5 March 1916, what would later become RCD Mallorca was registered at the Spanish Football Federation under the name of Alfonso XIII Foot-Ball Club.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Weeks after its establishment, the club wasted little time forming the directors of Alfonso XIII FBC, headed by engineer Adolfo Vázquez Humasqué and eight other football fans. Their first stadium, the Buenos Aires field, was inaugurated with a competitive fixture against FC Barcelona just 20 days after registering further fast-tracked development. Despite the fixture ending in a disappointing 8–0 defeat, it was not long before King Alfonso XIII himself requested the royal adoption of ‘Real’ in the team's title, therefore becoming Real Sociedad Alfonso XIII Foot-Ball Club.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: In 1917, the Catalan Federation granted Real Sociedad Alfonso XIII admission into the second-tier league championship as an unofficial champion of the Balearic Islands. Booking a place in the final, Los Bermellones went on to record their first title with a resounding 3–1 victory over Futbol Club Palafrugell, in Barcelona.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Until the 1930s, the board of directors managed to organise fixtures against peninsular clubs such as RCD Espanyol and Real Murcia, while also hosting rare exhibitions against foreign sides including: Ajax in 1923, Uruguay's national team in 1925, Chilean outfit Colo-Colo in 1927 and one of the Czech Republic's oldest teams, Prague Meteor, in 1930.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: In 1931, following the establishment of the Second Spanish Republic which prohibited any form of reference to monarchy, the club was renamed to Club Deportivo Mallorca.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Although major fixtures and competitions across Spain were soon interrupted by the outbreak of the Civil War in 1936, the squad enjoyed a highly successful spell by winning every possible championship they entered into, as football on the island remained resistant to the deferral experienced throughout the country. When the war finally ended, matches with teams from the Peninsula were quick to resume and the Second Division was inaugurated, based on five groups of eight teams each.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: It was during a period in the Second Division that, on 22 September 1945, the time had come to wave goodbye to Buenos Aires Field and up sticks to Es Fortí, a 16,000-maximum capacity stadium which would be called home for over half a century and undergo several expansions. A line-up featuring forward Sebastián Pocoví, defender Saturnino Grech and goalkeeper Antoni Ramallets beat Jerez 3–0 on the opening game of the new campaign the following day, with Carlos Sanz scoring Es Fortí's first goal in front of packed-out terraces. The title Es Fortí was short-lived however, with the board later changing the name of the stadium to Lluís Sitjar, in honour of the man who had driven the construction of the field.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: During the 1949–1950 season, the Balearic club recovered their "Real" title, becoming Real Club Deportivo Mallorca


title: RCD Mallorca

text: In 1990–91, Mallorca reached the Copa del Rey final for the first time, losing by one goal to Atlético Madrid.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Argentine Héctor Cúper was hired as manager in 1997. In his first season, the club reached the 1998 Copa del Rey Final, and lost on penalties to FC Barcelona after a 1–1 draw in Mestalla. However, as Barcelona also won the league, Mallorca were their opponents in the 1998 Supercopa de España and won 3–1 on aggregate for their first major honour. Barcelona's double also meant Mallorca entered the 1998–99 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, the final staging of the tournament – they lost the final 2–1 to Italy's S.S. Lazio at Villa Park.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: In 1999, Mallorca also finished a best-ever 3rd and qualified for the first time to the UEFA Champions League, but were eliminated on the away goals rule by Molde FK of Norway before the group stage. Luis Aragonés matched 3rd place in 2001, before leaving for an Atlético Madrid still in the second tier. On 28 June 2003, Mallorca won the Copa del Rey with a 3–0 win over Recreativo de Huelva in the final in Elche; the goals were scored by Walter Pandiani and Samuel Eto'o (two).


title: RCD Mallorca

text: Mallorca was relegated from La Liga on the last day of the 2012–13 season. In January 2016, with the team at risk of relegation to the third tier, American investor Robert Sarver and former NBA player Steve Nash bought the club for just over €20 million.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: On 4 June 2017, Mallorca fell into the third tier for the first time since 1981, with one game of the season still to play. A year later, they bounced back in the 2017–18 season after winning the play-off final against CF Rayo Majadahonda, under new manager Vicente Moreno. In June 2019, Mallorca secured a second consecutive promotion to the 2019–20 La Liga, following a 3–2 win on aggregate over Deportivo de La Coruña in the 2019 Segunda División play-offs – having lost the first game 2–0. However, they were relegated a year later. A year later, Mallorca bounced back to the top tier following an Almería defeat to Cartagena.


title: RCD Mallorca

text: The following players have been selected by their country in the World Cup Finals, while playing for Mallorca.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: In statistics, the Mann–Whitney "U" test (also called the Mann–Whitney–Wilcoxon (MWW/MWU), Wilcoxon rank-sum test, or Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney test) is a nonparametric test of the null hypothesis that, for randomly selected values "X" and "Y" from two populations, the probability of "X" being greater than "Y" is equal to the probability of "Y" being greater than "X".


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Nonparametric tests used on two "dependent" samples are the Sign test and the Wilcoxon signed-rank test.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Although Mann and Whitney developed the Mann–Whitney "U" test under the assumption of continuous responses with the alternative hypothesis being that one distribution is stochastically greater than the other, there are many other ways to formulate the null and alternative hypotheses such that the Mann–Whitney "U" test will give a valid test.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Under more strict assumptions than the general formulation above, e.g., if the responses are assumed to be continuous and the alternative is restricted to a shift in location, i.e., , we can interpret a significant Mann–Whitney "U" test as showing a difference in medians. Under this location shift assumption, we can also interpret the Mann–Whitney "U" test as assessing whether the Hodges–Lehmann estimate of the difference in central tendency between the two populations differs from zero. The Hodges–Lehmann estimate for this two-sample problem is the median of all possible differences between an observation in the first sample and an observation in the second sample.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Otherwise, if both the dispersions and shapes of the distribution of both samples differ, the Mann-Whitney "U" test fails a test of medians. It is possible to show examples where medians are numerically equal while the test rejects the null hypothesis with a small p-value.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann–Whitney "U" test / Wilcoxon rank-sum test is not the same as the Wilcoxon "signed"-rank test, although both are nonparametric and involve summation of ranks. The Mann–Whitney "U" test is applied to independent samples. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is applied to matched or dependent samples.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Let formula_1 be an i.i.d. sample from formula_2, and formula_3 an i.i.d. sample from formula_4, and both samples independent of each other. The corresponding Mann-Whitney U statistic is defined as:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The "U" statistic is equivalent to the area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC) that can be readily calculated.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Note that this is the same definition as the common language effect size from the section above. i.e.: the probability that a classifier will rank a randomly chosen positive instance higher than a randomly chosen negative one (assuming 'positive' ranks higher than 'negative').


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Because of its probabilistic form, the "U" statistic can be generalised to a measure of a classifier's separation power for more than two classes:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Where "c" is the number of classes, and the "R" term of AUC considers only the ranking of the items belonging to classes "k" and "ℓ" (i.e., items belonging to all other classes are ignored) according to the classifier's estimates of the probability of those items belonging to class "k". AUC will always be zero but, unlike in the two-class case, generally , which is why the "M" measure sums over all ("k","ℓ") pairs, in effect using the average of AUC and AUC.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The test involves the calculation of a statistic, usually called "U", whose distribution under the null hypothesis is known. In the case of small samples, the distribution is tabulated, but for sample sizes above ~20, approximation using the normal distribution is fairly good. Some books tabulate statistics equivalent to "U", such as the sum of ranks in one of the samples, rather than "U" itself.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann–Whitney "U" test is included in most modern statistical packages. It is also easily calculated by hand, especially for small samples. There are two ways of doing this.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: For comparing two small sets of observations, a direct method is quick, and gives insight into the meaning of the "U" statistic, which corresponds to the number of wins out of all pairwise contests (see the tortoise and hare example under Examples below). For each observation in one set, count the number of times this first value wins over any observations in the other set (the other value loses if this first is larger). Count 0.5 for any ties. The sum of wins and ties is "U" (i.e.: formula_9) for the first set. "U" for the other set is the converse (i.e.: formula_10).


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The maximum value of "U" is the product of the sample sizes for the two samples (i.e.: formula_14). In such a case, the "other" "U" would be 0.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Suppose that Aesop is dissatisfied with his classic experiment in which one tortoise was found to beat one hare in a race, and decides to carry out a significance test to discover whether the results could be extended to tortoises and hares in general. He collects a sample of 6 tortoises and 6 hares, and makes them all run his race at once. The order in which they reach the finishing post (their rank order, from first to last crossing the finish line) is as follows, writing T for a tortoise and H for a hare:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: In practice some of this information may already have been supplied and common sense should be used in deciding whether to repeat it. A typical report might run,


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: However it would be rare to find such an extensive report in a document whose major topic was not statistical inference.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: where "m" and "σ" are the mean and standard deviation of "U", is approximately a standard normal deviate whose significance can be checked in tables of the normal distribution. "m" and "σ" are given by


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The formula for the standard deviation is more complicated in the presence of tied ranks. If there are ties in ranks, "σ" should be adjusted as follows:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: where the left side is simply the variance and the right side is the adjustment for ties, "t" is the number of ties for the "k"th rank, and "K" is the total number of unique ranks with ties.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: If the number of ties is small (and especially if there are no large tie bands) ties can be ignored when doing calculations by hand. The computer statistical packages will use the correctly adjusted formula as a matter of routine.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Note that since , the mean used in the normal approximation is the mean of the two values of "U". Therefore, the absolute value of the "z"-statistic calculated will be same whichever value of "U" is used.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: One method of reporting the effect size for the Mann–Whitney "U" test is with "f", the common language effect size. As a sample statistic, the common language effect size is computed by forming all possible pairs between the two groups, then finding the proportion of pairs that support a direction (say, that items from group 1 are larger than items from group 2). To illustrate, in a study with a sample of ten hares and ten tortoises, the total number of ordered pairs is ten times ten or 100 pairs of hares and tortoises. Suppose the results show that the hare ran faster than the tortoise in 90 of the 100 sample pairs; in that case, the sample common language effect size is 90%. This sample value is an unbiased estimator of the population value, so the sample suggests that the best estimate of the common language effect size in the population is 90%.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: A statistic called "ρ" that is linearly related to "U" and widely used in studies of categorization (discrimination learning involving concepts), and elsewhere, is calculated by dividing "U" by its maximum value for the given sample sizes, which is simply . "ρ" is thus a non-parametric measure of the overlap between two distributions; it can take values between 0 and 1, and it is an estimate of , where "X" and "Y" are randomly chosen observations from the two distributions. Both extreme values represent complete separation of the distributions, while a "ρ" of 0.5 represents complete overlap. The usefulness of the "ρ" statistic can be seen in the case of the odd example used above, where two distributions that were significantly different on a Mann–Whitney "U" test nonetheless had nearly identical medians: the ρ value in this case is approximately 0.723 in favour of the hares, correctly reflecting the fact that even though the median tortoise beat the median hare, the hares collectively did better than the tortoises collectively.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: A method of reporting the effect size for the Mann–Whitney "U" test is with a measure of rank correlation known as the rank-biserial correlation. Edward Cureton introduced and named the measure. Like other correlational measures, the rank-biserial correlation can range from minus one to plus one, with a value of zero indicating no relationship.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: There is a simple difference formula to compute the rank-biserial correlation from the common language effect size: the correlation is the difference between the proportion of pairs favorable to the hypothesis ("f") minus its complement (i.e.: the proportion that is unfavorable ("u")). This simple difference formula is just the difference of the common language effect size of each group, and is as follows:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: For example, consider the example where hares run faster than tortoises in 90 of 100 pairs. The common language effect size is 90%, so the rank-biserial correlation is 90% minus 10%, and the rank-biserial .


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: An alternative formula for the rank-biserial can be used to calculate it from the Mann–Whitney "U" (either formula_9 or formula_10) and the sample sizes of each group:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: This formula is useful when the data are not available, but when there is a published report, because "U" and the sample sizes are routinely reported. Using the example above with 90 pairs that favor the hares and 10 pairs that favor the tortoise, "U" is the smaller of the two, so . This formula then gives , which is the same result as with the simple difference formula above.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann–Whitney "U" test tests a null hypothesis of that the probability distribution of a randomly drawn observation from one group is the same as the probability distribution of a randomly drawn observation from the other group against an alternative that those distributions are not equal (see Mann–Whitney U test#Assumptions and formal statement of hypotheses). In contrast, a t-test tests a null hypothesis of equal means in two groups against an alternative of unequal means. Hence, except in special cases, the Mann–Whitney U test and the t-test do not test the same hypotheses and should be compared with this in mind.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann–Whitney "U" test will give very similar results to performing an ordinary parametric two-sample "t"-test on the rankings of the data.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann-Whitney U test is not valid for testing the null hypothesis formula_26 against the alternative hypothesis formula_27), without assuming that the distributions are the same under the null hypothesis (i.e., assuming formula_28). To test between those hypotheses, better tests are available. Among those are the Brunner-Munzel and the Fligner–Policello test. Specifically, under the more general null hypothesis formula_26, the Mann–Whitney "U" test can have inflated type I error rates even in large samples (especially if the variances of two populations are unequal and the sample sizes are different), a problem the better alternatives solve. As a result, it has been suggested to use one of the alternatives (specifically the Brunner-Munzel test) if it cannot be assumed that the distributions are equal under the null hypothesis.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: If one desires a simple shift interpretation, the Mann–Whitney "U" test should "not" be used when the distributions of the two samples are very different, as it can give erroneous interpretation of significant results. In that situation, the unequal variances version of the "t"-test may give more reliable results.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: Similarly, some authors (e.g., Conover) suggest transforming the data to ranks (if they are not already ranks) and then performing the "t"-test on the transformed data, the version of the "t"-test used depending on whether or not the population variances are suspected to be different. Rank transformations do not preserve variances, but variances are recomputed from samples after rank transformations.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Brown–Forsythe test has been suggested as an appropriate non-parametric equivalent to the "F"-test for equal variances.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: A more powerful test is the Brunner-Munzel test, outperforming the Mann-Whitney "U" test in case of violated assumption of exchangeability.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann-Whitney "U" test is a special case of the Proportional odds model, allowing for covariate-adjustment.


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The Mann–Whitney "U" test is related to a number of other non-parametric statistical procedures. For example, it is equivalent to Kendall's tau correlation coefficient if one of the variables is binary (that is, it can only take two values).


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: In many software packages, the Mann–Whitney "U" test (of the hypothesis of equal distributions against appropriate alternatives) has been poorly documented. Some packages incorrectly treat ties or fail to document asymptotic techniques (e.g., correction for continuity). A 2000 review discussed some of the following packages:


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: The statistic appeared in a 1914 article by the German Gustav Deuchler (with a missing term in the variance).


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: In a single paper in 1945, Frank Wilcoxon proposed both the one-sample signed rank and the two-sample rank sum test, in a test of significance with a point null-hypothesis against its complementary alternative (that is, equal versus not equal). However, he only tabulated a few points for the equal-sample size case in that paper (though in a later paper he gave larger tables).


title: Mann–Whitney U test

text: A thorough analysis of the statistic, which included a recurrence allowing the computation of tail probabilities for arbitrary sample sizes and tables for sample sizes of eight or less appeared in the article by Henry Mann and his student Donald Ransom Whitney in 1947. This article discussed alternative hypotheses, including a stochastic ordering (where the cumulative distribution functions satisfied the pointwise inequality ). This paper also computed the first four moments and established the limiting normality of the statistic under the null hypothesis, so establishing that it is asymptotically distribution-free.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Phillip Bryan Schofield (born 1 April 1962) is an English television presenter who works for ITV. He is currently the co-presenter of ITV's "This Morning" (2002–present) and "Dancing on Ice" (2006–2014, 2018–present) alongside Holly Willoughby. Schofield gained national attention working for the BBC, first as a continuity presenter for Children's BBC on weekdays from 1985 to 1987. His other television work includes "Going Live!" (1987–1993), "All Star Mr & Mrs" (2008–2016), "The Cube" (2009–2015, 2020–present), "Text Santa" (2011–2015), and "5 Gold Rings" (2017–2020).


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Schofield was born on 1 April 1962 in Oldham, Lancashire. He grew up in Newquay, Cornwall, where he attended Trenance Infant School and Newquay Tretherras School. When he was 15, his first foray into media was a Sunday show on Hospital Radio Plymouth.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: After many years of writing letters to the BBC, at 17, Schofield took up the position of bookings clerk and tea boy for BBC Radio at Broadcasting House in London, where he was, at the time, the youngest employee.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Aged 19, Schofield moved with his family to New Zealand, where he made his television debut as the initial presenter of the youth music programme "Shazam!" on 23 February 1982. He also spent two years working for the Auckland-based radio station Radio Hauraki.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In 1985, he returned to Britain, where he became the first in-vision continuity presenter for Children's BBC on weekdays for two years from September 1985 in what was known as the 'Broom Cupboard'. He left to present "Going Live!" on Saturday mornings between September 1987 and April 1993. From 1988 to 1991, he was the host of the "Smash Hits Poll Winners Party", a pop-magazine awards show.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In the early 1990s, Schofield moved to adult-orientated television with various programmes for ITV, such as "Schofield's Quest", "Schofield's TV Gold" and "Ten Ball". From 1994 to 1997, he presented "Talking Telephone Numbers" for five series and in 1996 he hosted a show about remarkable coincidences called "One in a Million". He co-authored the book that came out of the series.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: He was the subject of "This Is Your Life" in 1998, when he was surprised by Michael Aspel at the curtain call of the musical "Doctor Dolittle" at the Hammersmith Apollo in London.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In the following decade, Schofield presented the "National Lottery Winning Lines" programme for BBC One between June 2001 and October 2004. And between 2002 and 2006, he co-hosted the BBC quiz show "Test the Nation" with Anne Robinson. In July 2006, he signed an exclusive two-year contract with ITV, reported to have been worth £5 million. The exclusive deal also meant he could no longer present "Test the Nation" and was replaced by Danny Wallace.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Since 2002, Schofield has been a presenter on the ITV daytime show "This Morning" replacing John Leslie with Fern Britton until 2009 and with Holly Willoughby who replaced Britton in September that year. In May 2008, Schofield's father, Brian, died from a long-standing heart condition, which led to Schofield taking a break from presenting "This Morning". John Barrowman stood in for him until his return.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Starting in 2005, Schofield presented two series of "Have I Been Here Before?", a daytime programme where a celebrity attempted to use regression to get in touch with a previous life.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Since 2006, he has presented "The British Soap Awards". Between 2006 and 2008, he hosted the programme with Fern Britton but since 2009, alone.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: During the run of the ITV reality show "I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!", he co-hosted the spin-off series "I'm a Celebrity, Get Me out of Here! Exclusive" with Sheree Murphy. The show lasted one series. In 2006, Schofield presented two episodes of the ITV game show "It's Now or Never", before the network cancelled the show, due to poor ratings.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Schofield presented "Dancing on Ice" on ITV with Holly Willoughby from 2006 until 2011 and Christine Bleakley from 2012 until 2014. It was announced in the summer of 2013 that "Dancing on Ice" was to come to an end following the 2014 series. Schofield returned to co-present the show in 2018 following ITV's choice to reboot the series after four years away.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Since April 2008, he and Fern Britton hosted a revival of the ITV game show "Mr. and Mrs.", renamed as "All Star Mr & Mrs". In 2010, the show took a break but returned in 2012 without Britton.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: From 2009 until 2015, he presented the primetime game show "The Cube". Schofield returned to present the show in 2020 following ITV's choice to reboot the series after five years away. He also hosted "A Night of Heroes: The Sun Military Awards" with Amanda Holden from 2009 until 2014.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In 2010 and 2011, Schofield hosted the annual comedy show "The Comedy Annual" on ITV. From 2011 until 2015, He co-hosted the Christmas charity show "Text Santa" on ITV with Christine Lampard in 2011, 2014 and 2015 and Holly Willoughby in 2012 and 2013.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In April 2011 and June 2012, Schofield co-hosted ITV's coverage of the Royal Wedding and the Queen's Diamond Jubilee with Julie Etchingham.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In March 2014, Schofield narrated the one-off ITV2 show "Educating Joey Essex". The show was commissioned for a full series which was aired throughout 2014. The show was commissioned for a seven-part second series, filming began in April 2016, and the series aired in summer 2016 with the first episode titled "The Queen's 90th Birthday".


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In December 2014, he undertook a live 24-hour TV marathon to raise money for Text Santa, where, as well as appearing on "This Morning", he appeared on various other programmes throughout the day, including being a guest panellist on "Loose Women".


title: Phillip Schofield

text: He presented two series of the primetime game show "You're Back in the Room" for ITV in 2015 and 2016.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In 2016, he travelled to South Africa with his wife, as part of a series of short clips for "This Morning". Following this, ITV aired three 30 minute episodes in a primetime slot, called "Schofield's South African Adventure". Since March 2017, he has presented "5 Gold Rings", a new game show format for ITV. In 2017, Schofield presented three-part factual series "How To Spend It Well at Christmas with Phillip Schofield" in which he tested the latest must-have festive gifts.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: While working as presenter of "Going Live!", Schofield was also broadcasting on BBC Radio 1 with a Sunday show (also called "Going Live"). When Radio 1 started to broadcast in FM stereo in 1988, Schofield was one of the presenters chosen to help with the launch.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Schofield first performed on the West End stage in 1991, taking over the role of Joseph in "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat" from Jason Donovan. The second musical he performed in was the title role of "Doctor Dolittle" at the Hammersmith Apollo in London, before touring the UK in 2000. Schofield reprised his role as Joseph for an episode of "Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway" in March 2018.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: While appearing in "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat", Schofield was approached to record a cover of "Close Every Door" to be released as a single. The single was released in December 1992 on Polydor Records and peaked at number 27 on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Schofield collects Bordeaux wines, an interest kindled by friend Jason Donovan. Asked in 1992 to introduce a compilation video for Donovan, Schofield refused to accept payment. Stock, Aitken and Waterman sent him two cases of Burgundy with a set of tasting notes; he joined the Wine Society two years later.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: In 2013, Schofield began writing for the Waitrose "Weekend" newspaper, and has been the face of wine in their UK stores ever since. Schofield has a separate Twitter account about wine called @SchofeOnWine.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: On 8 November 2012, Schofield interviewed then prime minister David Cameron on "This Morning", and presented him with a list he had obtained from the internet of five people named as paedophiles in connection with the North Wales child abuse scandal. The names of several former senior Conservative politicians were visible on the list. Schofield was widely criticised for his action, with broadcaster Jonathan Dimbleby describing his behaviour as "cretinous". Cameron responded by warning against a witchhunt, "particularly about people who are gay". ITV's director of television, Peter Fincham, said that Schofield was "wrong" in confronting Cameron and said that the broadcaster had agreed to co-operate fully with government regulator Ofcom's investigation into the matter. The investigation was initiated after Ofcom received 415 complaints from viewers. Schofield later apologised, blaming a misjudged camera angle. Schofield and ITV later paid £125,000 compensation to settle a libel suit from one of those falsely accused, Lord McAlpine.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: On 17 September 2022, Schofield and presenter Holly Willoughby drew criticism for not joining The Queue with the public, when filming for "This Morning" at the lying in state of Queen Elizabeth II in Westminster Hall. ITV said that Schofield was escorted from the press gallery by government staff, and did not file past the Queen's coffin. Social media users contrasted this against the actions of other celebrities such as David Beckham and Susanna Reid, who queued for many hours with members of the general public.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: Schofield has dual British and New Zealand citizenship. He married his long-term partner Stephanie Lowe in March 1993; the couple have two daughters.


title: Phillip Schofield

text: On 7 February 2020, Schofield came out as gay via a statement posted on one of his Instagram stories, followed up in an interview on "This Morning", stating that "with the strength and support of my wife and my daughters, I have been coming to terms with the fact that I am gay". He has said he thought he was bisexual when he married his wife in 1993, but realised later that he was gay.


title: Under Siege

text: Under Siege is a 1992 American action thriller film directed by Andrew Davis, written by J. F. Lawton, and starring Steven Seagal as a former Navy SEAL who must stop a group of mercenaries, led by Tommy Lee Jones, after they commandeer the U.S. Navy battleship .


title: Under Siege

text: Released on October 9, 1992, "Under Siege" was both a critical and commercial success, receiving two Academy Award nominations for sound production and grossing over $156 million at the global box office. It is often considered Steven Seagal's best film to date. It was followed in 1995 by a sequel, "", which was not as well received.


title: Under Siege

text: The battleship arrives at Pearl Harbor, where then-President George H. W. Bush announces that the ship will be decommissioned in California. Casey Ryback, a Chief Petty Officer assigned as a culinary specialist, prepares meals in celebration of the birthday of Commanding Officer Captain Adams, against the orders of Executive Officer Commander Krill, who is having food and entertainment brought by helicopter. Krill provokes a brawl with Ryback. Unable to imprison Ryback in the brig without clearance from the captain, Krill detains Ryback in a freezer and places Marine Private Nash on guard. A helicopter lands on the ship's deck with a musical band and a group of caterers (who are in fact a band of mercenaries led by disillusioned former CIA operative William "Bill" Strannix), and also with "Playboy" Playmate Jordan Tate.


title: Under Siege

text: Strannix's forces seize control of the ship with Krill's help. Several officers are killed, including Captain Adams. The surviving ship's company are imprisoned in the forecastle, except for some stragglers in unsecured areas. Ryback hears the gunshots and persuades Nash to call the bridge, inadvertently alerting Strannix of this loose end. Strannix sends two mercenaries to eliminate Ryback and Nash. Nash is killed, but Ryback slays the assassins, runs into Tate, who was sedated during the takeover, and reluctantly allows her to tag along.


title: Under Siege

text: Strannix and his men seize control of the ship's weapon systems, shooting down a jet sent to investigate, and plan on covering their escape by using missiles to obliterate tracking systems in Pearl Harbor. Strannix intends to sell the ship's Tomahawks by unloading them onto a submarine he previously stole from North Korea, as revenge for the CIA trying to assassinate him prior to the events of the film.


title: Under Siege

text: Strannix contacts Admiral Bates at the Pentagon to make demands, but then learns that Ryback has escaped. Krill discovers that Ryback is a former Navy SEAL with extensive training in counterterrorism tactics; Captain Adams kept him on as a cook after Ryback was demoted for striking a superior officer because a mission in Panama went wrong due to inadequate intel, and Krill was unaware of this beforehand as Ryback's file was kept in the captain's personal safe. Ryback contacts Bates and is told that the Navy plans to send a SEAL team to retake the ship. Ryback moves throughout the ship, eliminating any hijackers he comes across. To keep the missile-theft plan in place, Krill activates the fire suppression system in the forecastle, leaving the crew members to drown. The terrorists correctly assume this will force Ryback to refocus his efforts to rescue his crew mates, and set up an ambush in anticipation.


title: Under Siege

text: Ryback and Tate come upon six imprisoned sailors. Together, they overcome the ambush and shut off the water in the forecastle. Ryback shuts down "Missouri"s weapon systems to allow the incoming Navy SEALs to land, but the submarine crew shoots down the helicopter carrying the Navy SEALs with shoulder-fired surface-to-air missiles. The Pentagon responds by ordering an air strike that will sink "Missouri". Strannix regains control of the ship's weapon systems and loads the Tomahawks onto the submarine. With the aid of a retired World War II gunner's mate among the rescued sailors, Ryback uses the battleship's 16 inch guns to attack the submarine, killing Krill and everyone on board.


title: Under Siege

text: His plan foiled, Strannix launches two retaliatory nuclear-tipped Tomahawks towards Honolulu. As the sailors recapture the ship, Ryback finds his way into the control room, where he encounters Strannix; Ryback recognizes Strannix as his former superior officer from multiple operations they participated in while deployed abroad and the two engage in a knife fight. Ryback gains the upper hand and kills Strannix, then uses the launch code disk needed to destroy the Tomahawk missiles. A jet destroys one of the missiles, and the other is deactivated just in time; the Navy calls off its airstrike.


title: Under Siege

text: The remaining crew members are freed as the ship sails towards San Francisco harbor. A funeral ceremony for Captain Adams is held on the deck of "Missouri", showing Ryback saluting the captain's casket in his formal dress uniform with full decorations.


title: Under Siege

text: The film was based on an original spec script by J. F. Lawton called "Dreadnought" which sold for $1 million.


title: Under Siege

text: Warners wanted Steven Seagal to star in the film but he turned it down at first. Seagal later said he had problems with the role of a character "who is at first a bimbo jumping out of a cake and gets paired up with me." But he said that in revisions of the script, the role became a character "who gradually reveals her intelligence."


title: Under Siege

text: Lawton said "We are trying to make him [Seagal] more mainstream...getting him out of the pure action genre and into an acting role." The writer added "I'm trying to bring the budget within a reasonable range. The original script was almost irresponsible, with things like battleships getting blown up...the way it was, "Dreadnought" would have cost $100 million-plus to make. Now we're looking at the $30 million range... It was Steven's idea to fit the Pearl Harbor Memorial into the film, because all these incredible ships would be there—a spectacular sight."


title: Under Siege

text: Director Andrew Davis had previously made "Above the Law" with Steven Seagal. Davis later said "Terry Semel wanted us to get back together again saying that Seagal was only in the movie 41 minutes. Tommy Lee is in the movie longer than Steven. It was fine, it was fine. It worked out well. We had a nice time down in Mobile and had a lot of fun making the movie, and that was the movie that got me "The Fugitive" so it was worth it."


title: Under Siege

text: The film makes extensive use of the Introvision process, a variation of front projection that allows realistic three-dimensional interaction of foreground characters with projected backgrounds without the heavy cost of traditional bluescreen effects. The technique was also used in the films "Outland", "Megaforce", "Army of Darkness" and Andrew Davis' later film, "The Fugitive".


title: Under Siege

text: "Most people are surprised that the film is as sophisticated as it is," Davis said. "It appeals to people who have a point of view about nuclear weapons and the story thrusts you into an incredible situation that is not far-fetched."


title: Under Siege

text: The original title "Dreadnought" did not test well with audiences, the marketing department wanted to give the film a three word title like other Seagal films and came up with the title "Last to Surrender". Lawton and Seagal both hated the title, and Seagal fought to have it changed, and the film ended up with the title "Under Siege".


title: Under Siege

text: On its opening weekend, "Under Siege" made $15,760,003 from 2,042 theaters, with a $7,717 average. From there, it went on to make $83,563,139. Worldwide, it made $156,563,139. At the time, it was the most successful film that had not been screened for any critics prior to its release.


title: Under Siege

text: Reviewers praised Tommy Lee Jones and Gary Busey's performances as the film's villains. Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 79% based on reviews from 28 critics. The site's consensus states: "A well-directed action thriller that makes the most of its confined setting, "Under Siege" marks a high point for early '90s action—and its star's spotty filmography." This is one of the few Steven Seagal films to receive a fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes, along with "Executive Decision" and "Machete", being called ""Die Hard" on a battleship" by film critics.


title: Under Siege

text: It was also the only Seagal movie to receive an Academy Award nomination, earning two nominations for Best Sound Effects Editing (John Leveque and Bruce Stambler) and for Best Sound (Donald O. Mitchell, Frank A. Montaño, Rick Hart and Scott D. Smith). It did not win in either category.


title: Under Siege

text: Harrison Ford saw a rough cut of the film and approved director Andrew Davis for "The Fugitive" (1993).


title: Under Siege

text: A sequel, "", was released on July 15, 1995, with Seagal, Romano, Mancuso and Dye reprising their roles.


title: Under Siege

text: In November 2021, a reboot of the original was in development for HBO Max, with Timo Tjahjanto and Umair Aleem attached to direct and write the film.


title: William Katt

text: William Theodore Katt (born February 16, 1951) is an American actor and musician best known as the star of the television series "The Greatest American Hero". He first became known for playing Tommy Ross, the ill-fated prom date of Carrie White in the original film version of "Carrie" (1976) and subsequently starred in films such as "First Love" (1977), "Big Wednesday" (1978) and "" (1979). Between 1985 and 1988, he starred in nine "Perry Mason" television films alongside his mother Barbara Hale, who reprised her role as Della Street from the television series "Perry Mason".


title: William Katt

text: Katt was born in Los Angeles to actors Bill Williams (birth name Herman August Wilhelm Katt) and Barbara Hale. He grew up in the San Fernando Valley and began acting as a teenager, sometimes appearing with his parents. He graduated from Army & Navy Academy, Carlsbad, California.


title: William Katt

text: Katt attended Orange Coast College before pursuing a career as a musician. Inspired by his father, he then started an acting career, appearing in summer stock theatre and in small television roles. His earliest film credits include the role of a jock, Tommy Ross in Brian De Palma's 1976 horror film adaptation "Carrie", which allowed Katt to make a name for himself. In 1978, he appeared as Barlow, a young surfer, in the John Milius drama film "Big Wednesday" opposite Jan-Michael Vincent and Gary Busey. His mother in that film was his real-life mother, Barbara Hale. The following year he took the role of Sundance Kid in the 1979 film "". The role in "Big Wednesday" made him so well known in the surfing community that in 2004 he presented one of the Association of Surfing Professionals awards at their annual World Championship Tour ceremony to wild applause from the crowd of professional surfers. Katt explained in a 1979 interview with critic Roger Ebert that he was holding out only for parts that were personally interesting to him.


title: William Katt

text: In December 1975, Katt auditioned for the part of Luke Skywalker in 1977's science fiction blockbuster "", and footage of his audition has been featured in many "Star Wars" documentaries. He was seriously considered for the role, which went to Mark Hamill, and Katt instead starred that year in "First Love", playing a college student who experiences his first romantic relationship.


title: William Katt

text: In 1981, Katt was cast as the title role in a filmed version of the Broadway musical comedy "Pippin", which received mixed reviews. He won his best remembered role that year, however, as Ralph Hinkley, a mild-mannered schoolteacher given a superpowered suit by aliens on the popular television series "The Greatest American Hero", a role he played until the show was canceled in 1983. Also starring veteran actor Robert Culp, the show retains a cult fanbase. Its theme song, "Believe It or Not", penned by Mike Post, also became a hit in the music charts. In 1982, due to the success of the first season of "The Greatest American Hero", Katt signed to MCA and released a soft rock album, "Secret Smiles" under the name Billy Katt.


title: William Katt

text: After "The Greatest American Hero", Katt starred in "" (1985), about explorers searching for apatosaurs in Africa, and the cult horror/comedy film "House" (1986); he later reprised his role for the third sequel, "House IV", in 1992. Between 1985 and 1988, Katt starred in nine Perry Mason television films, playing the role of private detective Paul Drake Jr., son of Paul Drake, a fictional private detective in the "Perry Mason" television series and the Perry Mason series of detective stories written by Erle Stanley Gardner; Katt co-starred with his mother Barbara Hale, who reprised her role of Della Street from the "Perry Mason" television series. Katt starred in the 1989 TV series "Top of the Hill" and made a guest appearance on the first episode of the short-lived 1991 series "Good Sports".


title: William Katt

text: Katt continues to appear on television and in supporting film roles, and does voice acting as well. He appeared in an episode of "House" in 2006. In recent years, he has returned to genre work, with appearances in "Andromeda" and "Justice League" and roles in the award-winning film "" (2006), "The Man from Earth" (2007), and "" (2007).


title: William Katt

text: Katt briefly appeared in "Heroes" season 3 in "The Butterfly Effect" as a nosy reporter investigating Ali Larter's character. He portrayed Jack Matheson in the thriller film "Mirrors 2". In 2010 during season 6, Katt guest starred as C.J. Payne's musician birth-father in the episode "Who's Your Daddy Now?" in the Tyler Perry comedy "House of Payne".


title: William Katt

text: Katt also has written a "Greatest American Hero" comic book and contributed to that series' Facebook page.


title: William Katt

text: In 2013, Katt played himself in the spoof film "Paranormal Movie" directed by Kevin Farley. In 2014, he appeared in "The Unwanted". In 2020, he appeared in "The 2nd".


title: William Katt

text: Katt married Deborah Kahane in 1979 and they have two sons, Clayton and Emerson. They divorced in 1992.


title: William Katt

text: He married Danielle Hirsch in 1993 and has a daughter with her, Dakota, as well as a stepson, Andrew.


title: William Katt

text: External audio interview. https://www.spreaker.com/user/10945005/cbc-ep-358-william-katt-gah-commentary


title: Richemont

text: Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A., commonly known as Richemont, is a Switzerland-based luxury goods holding company founded in 1988 by South African businessman Johann Rupert. Through its various subsidiaries, Richemont produces and sells jewellery, watches, leather goods, pens, firearms, clothing, and accessories. Richemont is publicly traded as CFR on the SIX Swiss Exchange and the JSE.


title: Richemont

text: The brands it owns include A. Lange & Söhne, Azzedine Alaïa, Baume & Mercier, Buccellati, Cartier, Chloé, Dunhill, IWC Schaffhausen, Giampiero Bodino, Jaeger-LeCoultre, Montblanc, Officine Panerai, Piaget, Peter Millar, Purdey, Roger Dubuis, Vacheron Constantin and Van Cleef & Arpels.


title: Richemont

text: , Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. was the sixth-largest corporation by market capitalization in the Swiss Market Index. As of 2017, Richemont was the third-largest luxury goods company in the world after LVMH and Estée Lauder Companies.


title: Richemont

text: Johann Rupert founded Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. when he spun off the international assets of Rembrandt Group Ltd. (now Remgro Limited), a South Africa-based company founded in the 1940s by his father, Anton Rupert. The division, originally founded on 5 March 1979 as Intercontinental Mining and Resources S.A., was later renamed IMR Group S.A. on 31 March 1987 and finally Richemont S.A. on 17 August 1988. The spin-off was completed on 20 September 1988. The luxury goods investments of Rembrandt Group combined with Rothmans International formed the initial group of Richemont subsidiaries.


title: Richemont

text: In March 2007, Richemont and Polo Ralph Lauren Inc. announced the formation of a 50/50 joint venture, the Polo Ralph Lauren Watch and Jewelry Company SÀRL.


title: Richemont

text: , Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. is the sixth largest corporation by market capitalization in the Swiss Market Index. As of 2014, Richemont is the second-largest luxury goods company in the world after LVMH.


title: Richemont

text: Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. organizes its business activities into three operating divisions: Jewellery Maisons, Specialist Watchmakers and Other Businesses.


title: Richemont

text: The Specialist Watchmakers group is composed of A. Lange & Söhne, Baume & Mercier, IWC Schaffhausen, Jaeger-LeCoultre, Officine Panerai, Piaget, Roger Dubuis, Vacheron Constantin and the joint venture with the Ralph Lauren Watch & Jewelry Co.


title: Richemont

text: The Other Businesses division includes Azzedine Alaïa, Chloé,Delvaux, Dunhill, Montblanc, Peter Millar, and Purdey.


title: Richemont

text: The largest significant shareholder of Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A. is Compagnie Financière Rupert, a Swiss company that holds shares controlled and principally owned by Johann Rupert. Compagnie Financière Rupert owns 522,000,000 Class "B" shares of Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A., representing 9.1% of the equity and 50% of the voting rights. Johann Rupert and Compagnie Financière Rupert also hold 2,836,664 class "A" shares or "A" share equivalents as of the end of March 2016.


title: Richemont

text: The following companies are wholly owned subsidiaries of Compagnie Financière Richemont S.A., unless otherwise noted.


title: Richemont

text: Richemont acquired British clothing retailer Hackett Limited in 1992. On 2 June 2005, Richemont announced its sale to Spanish investment company Torreal S.C.R., S.A.


title: Richemont

text: In 1998, Richemont bought a controlling stake in Shanghai Tang. In July 2017, Richemont announced that it had sold Shanghai Tang to a group of investors headed by Italian entrepreneur Alessandro Bastagli.


title: Richemont

text: In 2000, the Group sold its minority stake in Vivendi, representing its exit from all previous media interests, which had included NetHold and Canal+.


title: Richemont

text: Richemont and Mimi So formed a joint venture in 2004, Richemont's first investment in an American brand. In 2007, Richemont requested to become the majority partner of the joint venture. Mimi So declined and purchased Richemont's stake in the venture.


title: Richemont

text: In 2008, Richemont spun off all of its non-luxury goods businesses, principally Richemont's stake in British American Tobacco, into a newly formed, separately traded holding company, Reinet Investments S.C.A.


title: Richemont

text: In 2015, the Net-a-Porter Group was merged with the YOOX Group in an all-share transaction. Richemont is the largest shareholder in the enlarged group.


title: Richemont

text: In October 2014, the first blocking order against trademark-infringing consumer goods was passed against the major British Internet service providers by Richemont, Cartier International and Montblanc to block several domains selling trademark-infringing products.


title: Light novel

text: A light novel (, Hepburn: "raito noberu") is a style of young adult novel primarily targeting high school and middle school students. The term "light novel" is a "wasei-eigo", or a Japanese term formed from words in the English language. Light novels are often called or, in English, LN. The average length of a light novel is about 50,000 words, and is published in the "bunkobon" format (A6, 10.5 cm×14.8 cm or 4.1"x5.8"). Light novels are subject to dense publishing schedules, with new installations being published in 3–9-month intervals.


title: Light novel

text: Light novels are commonly illustrated in a manga art style and are often adapted into manga and anime. While most light novels are published only as books, some have their chapters first serialized monthly in anthology magazines before being collected and compiled into book format, similar to how manga is published.


title: Light novel

text: Light novels developed from pulp magazines. To please their audience, in the 1970s, most of the Japanese pulp magazines began to put illustrations at the beginning of each story and included articles about popular anime, movies and video games. The direction of light novels evolved as to cater to the newer generations of readers, with light novels becoming fully illustrated in the popular art style. The popular serials then began to be printed in their now known novel format.


title: Light novel

text: Often light novels are chosen to be adapted into manga, anime, and live-action films. Some of them are serialized in literary magazines such as "Faust", "Gekkan Dragon Magazine", "The Sneaker" and "Dengeki hp", or media franchise magazines like "Comptiq" and "Dengeki G's Magazine".


title: Light novel

text: Light novels have a reputation as being "mass-produced and disposable," an extreme example being Kazuma Kamachi who wrote one novel a month for two years straight, and the author turnover rate is very high. As such, publishing companies are constantly searching for new talent with annual contests, many of which earn the winner a cash prize and publication of their novel. The Dengeki Novel Prize is the largest, with over 6,500 submissions (2013) annually. They are all clearly labeled as "light novels" and are published as low-priced paperbacks. For example, the price for "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya" in Japan is ¥540 (including 5% tax), similar to the normal price for trade paperbacks—light novels and general literature—sold in Japan. In 2007 it was estimated (according to a website funded by the Japanese government) that the market for light novels was about ¥20 billion (US$170 million at the exchange rate at the time) and that about 30 million copies were published annually. Kadokawa Corporation's publishing subsidiary, which owns major labels like Kadokawa Sneaker Bunko and Dengeki Bunko, has a 70% to 80% share of the market. In 2009, light novels made ¥30.1 billion in sales, or about 20% of all sales of "bunkobon" format paperback books in Japan.


title: Light novel

text: There are currently many licensed English translations of Japanese light novels available. These have generally been published in the physical dimensions of standard mass market paperbacks or similar to manga "tankōbon", but starting in April 2007, Seven Seas Entertainment was the first English publisher to print light novels in their original Japanese "bunkobon" format. Other United States English-language publishers that license light novels are Tokyopop, Viz Media, DMP, Dark Horse, Yen Press (Kadokawa's American joint-venture with Hachette Book Group), and Del Rey Manga. The founder of Viz Media, Seiji Horibuchi, speculates that the US market for light novels will experience a similar increase in popularity as it has in the Japanese subculture once it becomes recognized by the consumer audience.


title: Light novel

text: Popular literature has a long tradition in Japan. Even though cheap, pulp novels resembling light novels were present in Japan for years prior, the creation of Sonorama Bunko in 1975 is considered by some to be a symbolic beginning. Science fiction and horror writers like Hideyuki Kikuchi or Baku Yumemakura started their careers through such imprints. Another origin is the serialization of "Record of Lodoss War" in the magazine "Comptiq". Kim Morrissy of Anime News Network reported that Keita Kamikita, the system operator of a science fiction and fantasy forum, is usually credited with coining the term "light novel" in 1990. After noticing that the science fiction and fantasy novels that had emerged in the 1980s were also attracting anime and manga fans because of their illustrations by famous manga artists, Kamikita avoided using terms like "young adult" because the novels did not appeal to one particular demographic.


title: Light novel

text: The 1990s saw the smash-hit "Slayers" series which merged fantasy-RPG elements with comedy. Some years later MediaWorks founded a pop-lit imprint called Dengeki Bunko, which produces well-known light novel series to this day. The "Boogiepop series" was their first major hit which soon was animated and got many anime watchers interested in literature.


title: Light novel

text: Dengeki Bunko writers continued to slowly gain attention until the small light novel world experienced a boom around 2006. After the huge success of the "Haruhi Suzumiya" series, the number of publishers and readers interested in light novels suddenly skyrocketed.


title: Light novel

text: Light novels became an important part of the Japanese 2D culture in the late 2000s, with series such as "A Certain Magical Index" selling large amounts of copies with each volume release. The number of light novels series put out every year increases, usually illustrated by the most celebrated artists from pixiv and the most successful works are adapted into manga, anime, games and live-action movies.


title: Light novel

text: Since the mid-2000s, it has become increasing popular for publishers to contact authors of web fiction on their blog or website to publish their work in print form. The material is often heavily edited and may even feature an altered story, which might compel someone who had already read it online to buy the print release as well. The free novel publication website Shōsetsuka ni Narō is a popular source for such material. Popular works like "Sword Art Online", "That Time I Got Reincarnated as a Slime", "Overlord", "" and "KonoSuba" were originally popular web novels that got contacted by a publisher to distribute and publish those stories in print format.


title: Light novel

text: In recent times, there has been a venture to publish more light novels in the United States. The leader of this publisher, Yen Press, is a joint venture between Hachette Book Group and Japanese publisher Kadokawa. Other publishers such as Seven Seas Entertainment, Viz Media (owned by Shogakukan and Shueisha), Vertical (owned by Kodansha USA), One Peace Books, J-Novel Club, Cross Infinite Worlds, Sol Press have all been making an effort to publish more light novels in English. Additionally, light novel authors and authors have been starting to make guest appearances overseas at anime conventions. At the 2019 Anime Expo, one of the biggest Anime conventions of the year, featured creators such as Kumo Kagyu, author of "Goblin Slayer," and Fujino Omori, the author of "Is It Wrong to Pick up Girls in a Dungeon?".


title: Light novel

text: One popular genre in the light novel category is or "different world" stories. In these stories usually feature an ordinary person that is transported from a modern city life to a world of fantasy and adventure. "Sword Art Online," a web novel initially published in 2002, contributed to the popularization of 'Isekai' as a genre. This web novel became extremely popular, forming various adaptations such as an anime, manga, and even various movies and spinoff series. Because of the success of "Sword Art Online", other novels such as "KonoSuba, Overlord" and "" became increasingly more popular. The success of "Sword Art Online" and 'isekai' as a whole contributed to the creation of write-your-own fiction websites in Japan and increasing popularity of light novels in the west as well.


title: Light novel

text: The Kadokawa Group's local subsidiary, Kadokawa Taiwan (), translated and sold Chinese versions of their own light novels, after being established as the first overseas branch in 1999 by Kadokawa Japan. In 2007, Chingwin and Shueisha signed an exclusive contract to publish Super Dash Bunko and Cobalt Bunko under the name Elite Novels. Subsequently, GA Bunko and HJ Bunko, which were slowly starting to gain popularity in Japan, also signed exclusive contracts with local publishers. As time went on, the original exclusive contracts were gradually opened to other publishers.


title: Operation Bagration

text: Operation Bagration (; , Operatsiya Bagration) was the codename for the 1944 Soviet Byelorussian strategic offensive operation (, Belorusskaya nastupatelnaya Operatsiya "Bagration"), a military campaign fought between 22 June and 19 August 1944 in Soviet Byelorussia in the Eastern Front of World War II, just over two weeks after the start of Operation Overlord in the west, causing the Germans to have to fight on two major fronts at the same time. The Soviet Union destroyed 28 of 34 divisions of Army Group Centre and completely shattered the German front line. It was the biggest defeat in German military history, with around 450,000 German casualties, while 300,000 other German soldiers were cut off in the Courland Pocket.


title: Operation Bagration

text: On 22 June 1944, the Red Army attacked Army Group Centre in Byelorussia, with the objective of encircling and destroying its main component armies. By 28 June, the German 4th Army had been destroyed, along with most of the Third Panzer and Ninth Armies. The Red Army exploited the collapse of the German front line to encircle German formations in the vicinity of Minsk in the Minsk Offensive and destroy them, with Minsk liberated on 4 July. With the end of effective German resistance in Byelorussia, the Soviet offensive continued on to Lithuania, Poland and Romania over the course of July and August.


title: Operation Bagration

text: The Red Army successfully used the Soviet deep battle and maskirovka (deception) strategies for the first time to a full extent, albeit with continuing heavy losses. Operation Bagration diverted German mobile reserves to the central sectors, removing them from the Lublin–Brest and Lvov–Sandomierz areas, enabling the Soviets to undertake the Lvov–Sandomierz Offensive and Lublin–Brest Offensive. This allowed the Red Army to reach the Vistula river and Warsaw, which in turn put Soviet forces within striking distance of Berlin, conforming to the concept of Soviet deep operations—striking into the enemy's strategic depths.


title: Operation Bagration

text: Germany's Army Group Centre had previously proven tough to counter as the Soviet defeat in Operation Mars had shown. But by June 1944, despite shortening its front line, it had been exposed following the defeats of Army Group South in the battles that followed the Battle of Kursk, the Battle of Kiev, the Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive and the Crimean Offensive in the late summer, autumn, and winter of 1943–44. In the north, Army Group North was also pushed back, leaving Army Group Center's lines protruding towards the east and at risk of losing contact with neighbouring army groups.


title: Operation Bagration

text: The German High Command expected the next Soviet offensive to fall against Army Group North Ukraine (Field Marshal Walter Model), while it lacked intelligence capabilities to divine the Soviet intentions. The Wehrmacht had redeployed one-third of Army Group Centre's artillery, half of its tank destroyers, and 88 per cent of tanks to the south. The entire operational reserve on the Eastern front (18 Panzer and mechanised divisions, stripped from Army Groups North and Centre) was deployed to Model's sector. Army Group Centre had a total of only 580 tanks, tank destroyers, and assault guns. They were opposed by over 4,000 Soviet tanks and self-propelled guns. German lines were thinly held; for example, the 9th Army sector had 143 soldiers per km of the front.