title: Induction motor

text: In many industrial variable-speed applications, DC and WRIM drives are being displaced by VFD-fed cage induction motors. The most common efficient way to control asynchronous motor speed of many loads is with VFDs. Barriers to adoption of VFDs due to cost and reliability considerations have been reduced considerably over the past three decades such that it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 30–40% of all newly installed motors.<ref name="Motoring Ahead 1/11"></ref>


title: Induction motor

text: With scalar control, only the magnitude and frequency of the supply voltage are controlled without phase control (absent feedback by rotor position). Scalar control is suitable for application where the load is constant.


title: Induction motor

text: Vector control allows independent control of the speed and torque of the motor, making it possible to maintain a constant rotation speed at varying load torque. But vector control is more expensive because of the cost of the sensor (not always) and the requirement for a more powerful controller.


title: Induction motor

text: The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field, windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors, since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90° from the single-phase supply and feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a rotating field on startup. Induction motors using a squirrel-cage rotor winding may have the rotor bars skewed slightly to smooth out torque in each revolution.


title: Induction motor

text: Standardized NEMA & IEC motor frame sizes throughout the industry result in interchangeable dimensions for shaft, foot mounting, general aspects as well as certain motor flange aspect. Since an open, drip proof (ODP) motor design allows a free air exchange from outside to the inner stator windings, this style of motor tends to be slightly more efficient because the windings are cooler. At a given power rating, lower speed requires a larger frame.


title: Induction motor

text: The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. A three-phase motor can be reversed by swapping any two of its phase connections. Motors required to change direction regularly (such as hoists) will have extra switching contacts in their controller to reverse rotation as needed. A variable frequency drive nearly always permits reversal by electronically changing the phase sequence of voltage applied to the motor.


title: Induction motor

text: In a single-phase split-phase motor, reversal is achieved by reversing the connections of the starting winding. Some motors bring out the start winding connections to allow selection of rotation direction at installation. If the start winding is permanently connected within the motor, it is impractical to reverse the sense of rotation. Single-phase shaded-pole motors have a fixed rotation unless a second set of shading windings is provided.


title: Induction motor

text: The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at full load to as low as about 0.20 at no-load, due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors. For economic and other considerations, power systems are rarely power factor corrected to unity power factor.


title: Induction motor

text: Power capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system analysis to avoid harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit reactances. Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and to simplify power system analysis.


title: Induction motor

text: Full-load motor efficiency is around 85–97%, related motor losses being broken down roughly as follows:


title: Induction motor

text: For an electric motor, the efficiency, represented by the Greek letter Eta, is defined as the quotient of the output mechanical power and the input electric power, and calculated using this formula:


title: Induction motor

text: Various regulatory authorities in many countries have introduced and implemented legislation to encourage the manufacture and use of higher efficiency electric motors. There is existing and forthcoming legislation regarding the future mandatory use of premium-efficiency induction-type motors in defined equipment. "For more information, see: Premium efficiency."


title: Induction motor

text: Many useful motor relationships between time, current, voltage, speed, power factor, and torque can be obtained from analysis of the Steinmetz equivalent circuit (also termed T-equivalent circuit or IEEE recommended equivalent circuit), a mathematical model used to describe how an induction motor's electrical input is transformed into useful mechanical energy output. The equivalent circuit is a single-phase representation of a multiphase induction motor that is valid in steady-state balanced-load conditions.


title: Induction motor

text: Paraphrasing from Alger in Knowlton, an induction motor is simply an electrical transformer the magnetic circuit of which is separated by an air gap between the stator winding and the moving rotor winding. The equivalent circuit can accordingly be shown either with equivalent circuit components of respective windings separated by an ideal transformer or with rotor components referred to the stator side as shown in the following circuit and associated equation and parameter definition tables.


title: Induction motor

text: Linear induction motors, which work on the same general principles as rotary induction motors (frequently three-phase), are designed to produce straight line motion. Uses include magnetic levitation, linear propulsion, linear actuators, and liquid metal pumping.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis XVII (born Louis Charles, Duke of Normandy; 27 March 1785 – 8 June 1795) was the younger son of King Louis XVI of France and Queen Marie Antoinette. His older brother, Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, died in June 1789, a little over a month before the start of the French Revolution. At his brother's death he became the new Dauphin (heir apparent to the throne), a title he held until 1791, when the new constitution accorded the heir apparent the title of Prince Royal.


title: Louis XVII

text: When his father was executed on 21 January 1793, during the middle period of the French Revolution, he automatically succeeded as the king of France, Louis XVII, in the eyes of the royalists. France was by then a republic and since Louis-Charles was imprisoned and died in captivity in June 1795, he never actually ruled. Nevertheless, in 1814 after the Bourbon Restoration, his uncle acceded to the throne and was proclaimed Louis XVIII.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis-Charles de France was born at the Palace of Versailles, the second son and third child of his parents, Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette. He was named after his father and his mother's favourite sister Maria Carolina, Queen of Naples and Sicily, who was known as Charlotte in the family, Charles being the masculine version of her name. His younger sister, Sophie, was born a little over a year later. He became the Dauphin on the death of his elder brother, Louis-Joseph, on 4 June 1789.


title: Louis XVII

text: As customary in royal families, Louis-Charles was cared for by multiple people. Queen Marie Antoinette appointed governesses to look after all three of her children. Louis-Charles' original governess was Yolande de Polastron, "duchesse de Polignac", who left France on the night of 16–17 July 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution, at the urging of Louis XVI. She was replaced by the marquise Louise Élisabeth de Tourzel. Additionally, the queen selected Agathe de Rambaud to be the official nurse of Louis-Charles. Alain Decaux wrote: "Madame de Rambaud was officially in charge of the care of the Dauphin from the day of his birth until 10 August 1792; in other words, for seven years. During these seven years, she never left him, she cradled him, took care of him, dressed him, comforted him, and scolded him. Many times, more than Marie Antoinette, she was a true mother for him".


title: Louis XVII

text: Some have suggested that Axel von Fersen, who was romantically linked with Marie Antoinette, was the father of her son. The fact that Louis Charles was born exactly nine months after he returned to court was noted, but this theory was debunked by most scholars, who reject it, observing that the time of his conception corresponded perfectly in the time that Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette had spent a lot of time together. Marie Antoinette, who gained massive weight because of her pregnancies, including this one (she was described as "very fat" by the king of Sweden), retained her charisma with an imposing figure in her court, where she had lot of admirers, but she remained a faithful, strong-willed wife and a stern but loving mother.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 6 October 1789, the royal family was forced by a Parisian mob mostly composed of women to move from Versailles to the Tuileries Palace in Paris, where they spent the next three years as prisoners under the daily surveillance of the national guards who did not spare any humiliation to the family; at that time Marie Antoinette was always surrounded by guards, even in her bedroom at night and these guards were present when the Queen was allowed to see her children.


title: Louis XVII

text: The family lived a secluded life, and Marie Antoinette dedicated most of her time to her two children under the daily surveillance of the national guards who kept her hands behind her back and searched everybody from the Queen to the children to see if any letters were smuggled to the prisoner. In 1790, the queen adopted a foster sibling for him, "Zoë" Jeanne Louise Victoire, as a playmate. On 21 June 1791, the family tried to escape in what is known as the Flight to Varennes, but the attempt failed. After the family was recognized, they were brought back to Paris. When the Tuileries Palace was stormed by an armed mob on 10 August 1792, the royal family sought refuge at the Legislative Assembly.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 13 August, the royal family was imprisoned in the tower of the Temple. At first, their conditions were not extremely harsh, but they were prisoners and were re-styled as the "Capets" by the newborn Republic. On 11 December, at the beginning of his trial, Louis XVI was separated from his family.


title: Louis XVII

text: At his birth, Louis-Charles, a "Fils de France" ("Son of France"), was given the title of Duke of Normandy, and, on 4 June 1789, when Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, his elder brother, died, the four-year-old became Dauphin of France, a title he held until September 1791, when France became a constitutional monarchy. Under the new constitution, the heir-apparent to the throne of France, formerly referred to as the "Dauphin", was restyled the "Prince Royal". Louis-Charles held that title until the fall of the monarchy on 21 September 1792. At the death of his father on 21 January 1793, royalists and foreign powers intent on restoring the monarchy held him to be the new king of France, with the title of Louis XVII. From his exile in Hamm, in today's North Rhine-Westphalia, his uncle, the Count of Provence and future Louis XVIII, who had emigrated on 21 June 1791, appointed himself Regent for the young imprisoned king.


title: Louis XVII

text: Immediately following Louis XVI's execution, plots were hatched for the escape of the prisoners from the Temple, the chief of these plots were engineered by the , the Baron de Batz, and Lady Atkyns. Others said to be involved in his escape(s) are Paul Barras and Josephine Beauharnais.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 3 July, Louis-Charles was separated from his mother and put in the care of Antoine Simon, a cobbler who had been named his guardian by the Committee of Public Safety.


title: Louis XVII

text: The tales told by royalist writers of the cruelty inflicted by Simon and his wife on the child have not been proved. Louis Charles' sister, Marie Therese, wrote in her memoires about the "monster Simon", as did Alcide Beauchesne. Antoine Simon's wife Marie-Jeanne, in fact, took great care of the child's person. Stories survive narrating how he was encouraged to eat and drink to excess and learned the language of the gutter. The foreign secretaries of Britain and Spain also heard accounts from their spies that the boy was raped by prostitutes in order to infect him with venereal diseases to supply the Commune with manufactured "evidence" against the Queen. However, the scenes related by of the physical torment of the child are not supported by any testimony, though he was at this time seen by a great number of people.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 6 October, Pache, Chaumette, Jacques Hébert and others visited the boy and secured his signature to charges of sexual molestation against his mother and his aunt. The next day he met his elder sister Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte for the last time.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 19 January 1794, the Simons left the Temple, after securing a receipt for the safe transfer of their ward, who was declared to be in good health. A large part of the Temple records from that time onward disappeared under the Bourbon Restoration, making ascertaining of the facts impossible. Two days after the departure of the Simons, Louis-Charles is said by the Restoration historians to have been put in a dark room that was barricaded like the cage of a wild animal. The story recounts that food was passed through the bars to the boy, who survived despite the accumulated filth of his surroundings.


title: Louis XVII

text: Robespierre visited Marie-Thérèse on 11 May, but no one, according to the legend, entered the boy's room for six months until Barras visited the prison after the 9th Thermidor (27 July 1794). Barras's account of the visit describes the child as suffering from extreme neglect, but conveys no idea of the alleged walling-in.


title: Louis XVII

text: The boy made no complaint to Barras of any ill treatment. He was then cleaned and re-clothed. His room was cleaned, and during the day he was visited by his new attendant, (1770–1807), a creole from Martinique. From 8 November onward, Laurent had assistance from a man named Gomin.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis-Charles was then taken out for fresh air and walks on the roof of the Tower. From about the time of Gomin's arrival, he was inspected, not by delegates of the Commune, but by representatives of the civil committee of the 48 sections of Paris. From the end of October onward, the child maintained silence, explained by Laurent as a determination taken on the day he made his deposition against his mother. On 19 December 1794, he was visited by three commissioners from the Committee of Public Safety — , J. B. C. Mathieu and  — but they failed to get the boy to say anything at all.


title: Louis XVII

text: On 31 March 1795, was appointed to be the child's guardian in place of Laurent. In May that year the boy was seriously ill, and a doctor, P. J. Desault, who had visited him seven months earlier, was summoned. However, on 1 June, Desault himself died suddenly, not without suspicion of poison, and it was some days before doctors Philippe-Jean Pelletan and Jean-Baptiste Dumangin were called.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis-Charles died on 8 June 1795. The next day an autopsy was conducted by Pelletan. In the report it was stated that a child apparently about 10 years of age, "which the commissioners told us was the late Louis Capet's son", had died of a scrofulous infection of long standing. "Scrofula" as it was previously known, is nowadays called "Tuberculous cervical lymphadenitis" referring to a lymphadenitis (chronic lymph node swelling or infection) of the neck (cervical lymph nodes) lymph nodes associated with tuberculosis. During the autopsy, the physician Dr. Pelletan was shocked to see the countless scars which covered the boy's body, evidently the result of the physical mistreatment which the child had suffered while imprisoned in the Temple.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis-Charles was buried on 10 June in the Sainte Marguerite cemetery, but no stone was erected to mark the spot. A skull was found there in 1846 and identified as his, though later re-examination in 1893 showed it to be from a teenager and therefore unlikely to be his.


title: Louis XVII

text: Following a tradition of preserving royal hearts, Louis-Charles's heart was removed and smuggled out during the autopsy by the overseeing physician, Philippe-Jean Pelletan. Thus, Louis-Charles' heart was not interred with the rest of the body. Dr. Pelletan stored the smuggled heart in distilled wine in order to preserve it. However, after 8 to 10 years the distilled wine had evaporated, and the heart was from that time kept dry.


title: Louis XVII

text: After the Restoration in 1815, Dr. Pelletan attempted to give the heart to Louis-Charles's uncle, Louis XVIII; the latter refused because he could not bring himself to believe that was the heart of his nephew. Dr. Pelletan then donated the heart to the Archbishop of Paris, Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen.


title: Louis XVII

text: Following the Revolution of 1830, and the plundering of the Archbishop's palace, Pelletan's son found the relic among the ruins and placed it in the crystal urn in which it is still kept today. After the younger Pelletan's death in 1879, it passed to Éduard Dumont. Dumont died in 1895, and the heart came into the possession of Dumont's cousin, the French historian Paul Cottin (1856-1932).


title: Louis XVII

text: Cottin offered it to Don Carlos de Bourbon, a pretender to the throne of Spain, nephew of the Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria-Este. The offer was accepted and the relic was held near Vienna, Austria at the castle of Frohsdorf. In 1909, Carlos's son, Jaime, Duke of Madrid, inherited the heart, and gave it to his sister, the Infanta Beatriz of Spain. It later passed to Jaime’s daughter, the princess Beatrice de Bourbon (1874–1961), wife of Prince Fabrizio Massimo (1868–1944), and in 1938, to the princess Infanta Maria das Neves of Portugal, legitimist heir to the throne of France.


title: Louis XVII

text: Finally two granddaughters of Don Carlos offered the heart to the Duc de Bauffremont, president of the Memorial of the Basilica of St Denis in Paris. He in turn put the heart and its crystal urn in the basilica's necropolis of the Kings of France, the burial place of Louis-Charles's parents and other members of the French royal family.


title: Louis XVII

text: There it rested undisturbed until December 1999, when public notaries witnessed the removal of a section of the muscle of the heart's aorta and its transfer into a sealed envelope, and subsequently the opening of the same sealed envelope in the laboratory for it to be tested.


title: Louis XVII

text: It was in 2000 that the historian Philippe Delorme arranged for DNA testing of the heart as well as bone samples from one of the many historical claimants to Louis-Charles's identity, namely, Karl Wilhelm Naundorff, a German clockmaker. Ernst Brinkmann of Münster University and Belgian genetics professor Jean-Jacques Cassiman of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, conducted mitochondrial DNA tests using a strand of the hair of the boy's mother, Marie-Antoinette, and other samples from her sisters Maria Johanna Gabriela and Maria Josepha, their mother, Empress Maria Theresa, and two living direct descendants in the strict maternal line of Maria Theresa, namely Queen Anne of Romania and her brother, Prince André de Bourbon Parme, maternal relatives of Louis XVII. The tests proved both that Naundorff was not the dauphin, and the heart was that of Louis-Charles.


title: Louis XVII

text: Of these results, historian Jean Tulard wrote: "This [mummified] heart is ... almost certainly that of Louis XVII. We can never be 100 per cent sure but this is about as sure as it gets".


title: Louis XVII

text: In the light of this conclusion, French Legitimists organized the heart's solemn burial in the St Denis Basilica on 8 June 2004. The burial took place in connection with a Mass and during the ceremony 12-year-old Prince Amaury de Bourbon-Parme carried the heart and placed it in a niche beside the tombs of Louis-Charles' parents, Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette.


title: Louis XVII

text: It was the first time in over a century that a royal ceremony had taken place in France, complete with the fleur-de-lis standard and a royal crown.


title: Louis XVII

text: As rumors quickly spread that the body buried was not that of Louis-Charles and that he had been spirited away alive by sympathizers, the legend of the "Lost Dauphin" was born. When the Bourbon monarchy was restored in 1814, some one hundred claimants came forward. Would-be royal heirs continued to appear across Europe for decades afterward.


title: Louis XVII

text: Karl Wilhelm Naundorff was a German clockmaker whose story rested on a series of complicated intrigues. According to him, Barras determined to save the dauphin in order to please Joséphine de Beauharnais, the future empress, having conceived the idea of using the dauphin's existence as a means of dominating the comte de Provence in the event of a restoration. The dauphin was concealed in the fourth storey of the Tower, a wooden figure being substituted for him. Laurent, to protect himself from the consequences of the substitution, replaced the wooden figure with a deaf mute, who was presently exchanged for the scrofulous child of the death certificate. The deaf mute was also concealed in the Temple. It was not the dead child, but the dauphin who left the prison in the coffin, to be retrieved by friends before it reached the cemetery.


title: Louis XVII

text: Naundorff arrived in Berlin in 1810, with papers giving the name Karl Wilhelm Naundorff. He said he was escaping persecution and settled at Spandau in 1812 as a clockmaker, marrying Johanna Einert in 1818. In 1822 he removed to Brandenburg an der Havel, and in 1828 to Crossen, near Frankfurt (Oder). He was imprisoned from 1825 to 1828 for coining, though apparently on insufficient evidence, and in 1833 came to push his claims in Paris, where he was recognized as the dauphin by many persons formerly connected with the court of Louis XVI. Expelled from France in 1836, the day after bringing a suit against the duchess of Angoulême for the restitution of the dauphin's private property, he lived in exile until his death at Delft on 10 August 1845, and his tomb was inscribed "Louis XVII., roi de France et de Navarre (Charles Louis, duc de Normandie)". The Dutch authorities who had inscribed on his death certificate the name of Charles Louis de Bourbon, duc de Normandie (Louis XVII) permitted his son to bear the name de Bourbon, and when the family appealed in 1850–51, and again in 1874, for the restitution of their civil rights as heirs of Louis XVI, no less an advocate than Jules Favre pled their cause.


title: Louis XVII

text: Baron de Richemont's tale that Jeanne Simon, who was genuinely attached to him, smuggled him out in a basket, is simple and more credible, and does not necessarily invalidate the story of the subsequent operations with the deaf mute and the scrofulous patient, Laurent in that case being deceived from the beginning, but it renders them extremely unlikely.


title: Louis XVII

text: Richemont, alias "Henri Éthelbert-Louis-Hector Hébert", began to put forward his claims in Paris in 1828. He died in 1853.


title: Louis XVII

text: Reverend Eleazer Williams was a Protestant missionary from Wisconsin of Mohawk Native American descent. While at the house Francis Vinton, William began shaking and trembling upon seeing a portrait of Antoine Simon, a member of the sans-culottes, saying of the portrait that it had "haunted me, day, and night, as long as I can remember." Simon was rumored to have physically abused the dauphin while he was imprisoned at the Temple. Francis Vinton was convinced by Eleazar William's reaction that Williams was Louis-Charles. Williams claimed he had no recollection of how he escaped his imprisonment at the Temple, or of his early years in France.


title: Louis XVII

text: Williams was a missionary to Native Americans when, according to him, the prince de Joinville, son of Louis-Philippe, met him, and after some conversation asked him to sign a document abdicating his rights in favor of Louis-Philippe, in return for which he, the dauphin (alias Eleazar Williams), was to receive the private inheritance which was his. This Eleazar Williams refused. Williams's story is generally regarded as false. However, other elements published in 1897 provide some grounds for doubt.


title: Louis XVII

text: Louis XVII's remains were not interred with ceremony. "At seven o'clock the police commissary ordered the body to be taken up, and that they should proceed to the cemetery. It was the season of the longest days, and therefore the interment did not take place in secrecy and at night, as some misinformed narrators have said or written; it took place in broad daylight, and attracted a great concourse of people before the gates of the Temple palace." Added, "The funeral entered the cemetery of Sainte Marguerite, not by the church, as some accounts assert, but by the old gate of the cemetery. The interment was made in the corner, on the left, at a distance of eight or nine feet from the enclosure wall, and at an equal distance from a small house, which subsequently served as a school. The grave was filled up,—no mound marked its place, and not even a trace remained of the interment! Not till then did the commissaries of police and the municipality withdraw, and enter the house opposite the church to draw up the declaration of interment."


title: Louis XVII

text: Strangely, the account of the substitution in the Temple deceived royalists and republicans alike. Lady Atkyns was trying by every possible means to get the dauphin out of his prison when he may already have been in safe hands. A child was in fact delivered to her agents, but he was a deaf mute. When the partisans of Richemont or Naundorff come to recount details of the post-Temple careers of their heroes, their assertions become in most cases so uncritical as to be unconvincing.


title: Louis XVII

text: By 1900, there were over 100 pretenders who had presented themselves to be the "lost dauphin". The popularity of the false dauphins peaked in the wake of the 1830 Revolution, and waned over the course of the century. Unlike the deaths of his parents, which were a national spectacle, the dauphin's death was a matter of administrative and medical record, and consequently easier to repudiate. The myth of the substitution of Louis-Charles before death was popularized and encouraged by Jean-Joseph Regnault Warin's immensely popular novel "Le Cimetière de la Madeleine" in 1800. Pretenders increased in regularity after the accession of King Louis XVIII during the Bourbon Restoration. Following the Revolution of 1830, claims by pretenders were treated with heightened seriousness in France because of their ability to serve as critiques of King Louis-Philippe. The possibility of a Bourbon claimant being able to challenge Louis-Phillppe's legitimacy, was certainly the reason for the aggressive pursuit of the pretenders through the courts.


title: Louis XVII

text: Royalists were able to reverse the child abuse claims with which the Revolution had charged Marie-Antoinette during her trial, directing them at the Revolution itself, for harming Louis-Charles.


title: Louis XVII

text: From 29 June to 1 October 2018 the Museum of the French Revolution showed an exhibition on Louis XVII.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Religious practices in ancient Greece encompassed a collection of beliefs, rituals, and mythology, in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. The application of the modern concept of "religion" to ancient cultures has been questioned as anachronistic. The ancient Greeks did not have a word for 'religion' in the modern sense. Likewise, no Greek writer known to us classifies either the gods or the cult practices into separate 'religions'. Instead, for example, Herodotus speaks of the Hellenes as having "common shrines of the gods and sacrifices, and the same kinds of customs."


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Most ancient Greeks recognized the twelve major Olympian gods and goddesses—Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, and either Hestia or Dionysus—although philosophies such as Stoicism and some forms of Platonism used language that seems to assume a single transcendent deity. The worship of these deities, and several others, was found across the Greek world, though they often have different epithets that distinguished aspects of the deity, and often reflect the absorption of other local deities into the pan-Hellenic scheme.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The religious practices of the Greeks extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts of Ionia in Asia Minor, to Magna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such as Massalia (Marseille). Early Italian religions such as the Etruscan religion were influenced by Greek religion and subsequently influenced much of the ancient Roman religion.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: "There was no centralization of authority over Greek religious practices and beliefs; change was regulated only at the civic level. Thus, the phenomenon we are studying is not in fact an organized “religion.” Instead we might think of the beliefs and practices of Greeks in relation to the gods as a group of closely related “religious dialects” that resembled each other far more than they did those of non-Greeks."


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Ancient Greek theology was polytheistic, based on the assumption that there were many gods and goddesses, as well as a range of lesser supernatural beings of various types. There was a hierarchy of deities, with Zeus, the king of the gods, having a level of control over all the others, although he was not almighty. Some deities had dominion over certain aspects of nature. For instance, Zeus was the sky-god, sending thunder and lightning, Poseidon ruled over the sea and earthquakes, Hades projected his remarkable power throughout the realms of death and the Underworld, and Helios controlled the sun. Other deities ruled over abstract concepts; for instance Aphrodite controlled love. All significant deities were visualized as "human" in form, although often able to transform themselves into animals or natural phenomena.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: While being immortal, the gods were certainly not all-good or even all-powerful. They had to obey fate, known to Greek mythology as the Moirai, which overrode any of their divine powers or wills. For instance, in mythology, it was Odysseus' fate to return home to Ithaca after the Trojan War, and the gods could only lengthen his journey and make it harder for him, not stop him.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The gods acted like humans and had human vices. They interacted with humans, sometimes even spawning children with them. At times certain gods would be opposed to others, and they would try to outdo each other. In the "Iliad", Aphrodite, Ares and Apollo support the Trojan side in the Trojan War, while Hera, Athena and Poseidon support the Greeks (see theomachy).


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Some gods were specifically associated with a certain city. Athena was associated with Athens, Apollo with Delphi and Delos, Zeus with Olympia and Aphrodite with Corinth. But other gods were also worshipped in these cities. Other deities were associated with nations outside of Greece; Poseidon was associated with Ethiopia and Troy, and Ares with Thrace.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Identity of names was not a guarantee of a similar cultus; the Greeks themselves were well aware that the Artemis worshipped at Sparta, the virgin huntress, was a very different deity from the Artemis who was a many-breasted fertility goddess at Ephesus. Though worship of the major deities spread from one locality to another, and though most larger cities had temples to several major gods, the identification of different gods with different places remained strong to the end.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Ancient sources for Greek religion tell a good deal about cult but very little about creed, in no small measure because the Greeks in general considered what one believed to be much less importance than what one did.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Greeks believed in an underworld inhabited by the spirits of the dead. One of the most widespread areas of this underworld was ruled by Hades, a brother of Zeus, and was also known as Hades (originally called 'the place of Hades'). Other well-known realms are Tartarus, a place of torment for the damned, and Elysium, a place of pleasures for the virtuous. In the early Mycenaean religion all the dead went to Hades, but the rise of mystery cults in the Archaic age led to the development of places such as Tartarus and Elysium.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: A few Greeks, like Achilles, Alcmene, Amphiaraus Ganymede, Ino, Melicertes, Menelaus, Peleus, and a great number of those who fought in the Trojan and Theban wars, were considered to have been physically immortalized and brought to live forever in either Elysium, the Islands of the Blessed, heaven, the ocean, or beneath the ground. Such beliefs are found in the most ancient Greek sources, such as Homer and Hesiod. This belief remained strong even into the Christian era. For most people at the moment of death there was, however, no hope of anything but continued existence as a disembodied soul.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Some Greeks, such as the philosophers Pythagoras and Plato, also embraced the idea of reincarnation, though this was only accepted by a few. Epicurus taught that the soul was simply atoms which were dissolved at death, so one ceased to exist on dying.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Greek religion had an extensive mythology. It consisted largely of stories of the gods and how they interacted with humans. Myths often revolved around heroes and their actions, such as Heracles and his twelve labors, Odysseus and his voyage home, Jason and the quest for the Golden Fleece and Theseus and the Minotaur.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Many species existed in Greek mythology. Chief among these were the gods and humans, though the Titans (who predated the Olympian gods) also frequently appeared in Greek myths. Lesser species included the half-man-half-horse centaurs, the nature-based nymphs (tree nymphs were dryads, sea nymphs were Nereids) and the half-man, half-goat satyrs. Some creatures in Greek mythology were monstrous, such as the one-eyed giant Cyclopes, the sea beast Scylla, whirlpool Charybdis, Gorgons, and the half-man, half-bull Minotaur.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: There was no set Greek cosmogony, or creation myth. Different religious groups believed that the world had been created in different ways. One Greek creation myth was told in Hesiod's "Theogony". It stated that at first there was only a primordial deity called Chaos, after which came various other primordial gods, such as Gaia, Tartarus and Eros, who then gave birth to more gods, the Titans, who then gave birth to the first Olympians.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The mythology largely survived and was expanded to form the later Roman mythology. The Greeks and Romans were literate societies, and much mythology, although initially shared orally, was written down in the forms of epic poetry (such as the "Iliad", the "Odyssey" and the "Argonautica") and plays (such as Euripides' "The Bacchae" and Aristophanes' "The Frogs"). The mythology became popular in Christian post-Renaissance Europe, where it was often used as a basis for the works of artists like Botticelli, Michelangelo and Rubens.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: One of the most important moral concepts to the Greeks was aversion to hubris. Hubris constituted many things, from rape to desecration of a corpse, and was a crime in Athens. Although pride and vanity were not considered sins themselves, the Greeks emphasized moderation. Pride only became hubris when it went to extremes, like any other vice. The same was thought of eating and drinking. Anything done to excess was not considered proper. Ancient Greeks placed, for example, importance on athletics and intellect equally. In fact many of their competitions included both. Pride was not evil until it became all-consuming or hurtful to others.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Greeks had no religious texts they regarded as "revealed" scriptures of sacred origin, but very old texts including Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey", and the Homeric hymns (regarded as later productions today), Hesiod's "Theogony" and "Works and Days", and Pindar's Odes were regarded as authoritative and perhaps inspired; they usually begin with an invocation to the Muses for inspiration. Plato even wanted to exclude the myths from his ideal state described in the "Republic" because of their low moral tone.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: While some traditions, such as Mystery cults, upheld certain texts as canonic within their praxis, such texts were respected but not necessarily accepted as canonic outside their circle. In this field, of particular importance are certain texts referring to Orphic cults: multiple copies, ranging from 450 BC–250 AD, have been found in various parts of the Greek world. Even the words of the oracles never became a sacred text. Other texts were specially composed for religious events, and some have survived within the lyric tradition; although they had a cult function, they were bound to performance and never developed into a common, standard prayer form comparable to the Christian Pater Noster. An exception to this rule were the already named Orphic and Mystery rituals, which, in this, set themselves aside from the rest of the Greek religious system. Finally, some texts called () (sacred texts) by the ancient sources, originated from outside the Greek world, or were supposedly adopted in remote times, representing yet more different traditions within the Greek belief system.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The lack of a unified priestly class meant that a unified, canonic form of the religious texts or practices never existed; just as there was no unified, common sacred text for the Greek belief system, there was no standardization of practices. Instead, religious practices were organized on local levels, with priests normally being magistrates for the city or village, or gaining authority from one of the many sanctuaries. Some priestly functions, like the care for a particular local festival, could be given by tradition to a certain family. To a large extent, in the absence of "scriptural" sacred texts, religious practices derived their authority from tradition, and "every omission or deviation arouses deep anxiety and calls forth sanctions".


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Greek ceremonies and rituals were mainly performed at altars. These were typically devoted to one or a few gods, and supported a statue of the particular deity. Votive deposits were left at the altar, such as food, drinks, as well as precious objects. Sometimes animal sacrifices were performed here, with most of the flesh taken for eating and the offal burnt as an offering to the gods. Libations, often of wine, would be offered to the gods as well, not only at shrines, but also in everyday life, such as during a symposium.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: One ceremony was pharmakos, a ritual involving expelling a symbolic scapegoat such as a slave or an animal, from a city or village in a time of hardship. It was hoped that by casting out the ritual scapegoat, the hardship would go with it.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Worship in Greece typically consisted of sacrificing domestic animals at the altar with hymn and prayer. The altar was outside any temple building, and might not be associated with a temple at all. The animal, which should be perfect of its kind, was decorated with garlands and the like, and led in procession to the altar; a girl with a basket on her head containing the concealed knife led the way. After various rituals, the animal was slaughtered over the altar. As it fell, all the women present "[cried] out in high, shrill tones". Its blood was collected and poured over the altar. It was butchered on the spot and various internal organs, bones and other inedible parts burnt as the deity's portion of the offering, while the meat was removed to be prepared for the participants to eat; the leading figures tasted it on the spot. The temple usually kept the skin to sell to tanners. That humans got more use from the sacrifice than the deity did not escape the Greeks, and was often the subject of humor in Greek comedy.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The animals used were, in order of preference, bulls or oxen, cows, sheep (the most common sacrifice), goats, pigs (with piglets being the cheapest mammal), and poultry (but rarely other birds or fish). Horses and asses are seen on some vases in the Geometric style (900–750 BC), but are very rarely mentioned in literature; they were relatively late introductions to Greece, and it has been suggested that Greek preferences in this matter were established earlier. The Greeks liked to believe that the animal was glad to be sacrificed, and interpreted various behaviors as showing this. Divination by examining parts of the sacrificed animal was much less important than in Roman or Etruscan religion, or Near Eastern religions, but was practiced, especially of the liver, and as part of the cult of Apollo. Generally, the Greeks put more faith in observing the behavior of birds.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: For a smaller and simpler offering, a grain of incense could be thrown on the sacred fire, and outside the cities farmers made simple sacrificial gifts of plant produce as the "first fruits" were harvested. The libation, a ritual pouring of fluid, was part of everyday life, and libations with a prayer were often made at home whenever wine was drunk, with just a part of the cup's contents, the rest being drunk. More formal ones might be made onto altars at temples, and other fluids such as olive oil and honey might be used. Although the grand form of sacrifice called the hecatomb (meaning 100 bulls) might in practice only involve a dozen or so, at large festivals the number of cattle sacrificed could run into the hundreds, and the numbers feasting on them well into the thousands.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The evidence of the existence of such practices is clear in some ancient Greek literature, especially Homer's epics. Throughout the poems, the use of the ritual is apparent at banquets where meat is served, in times of danger or before some important endeavor to gain the gods' favor. For example, in the "Odyssey" Eumaeus sacrifices a pig with prayer for his unrecognizable master Odysseus. But in the "Iliad", which partly reflects very early Greek civilization, not every banquet of the princes begins with a sacrifice.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: These sacrificial practices share much with recorded forms of sacrificial rituals known from later. Furthermore, throughout the poem, special banquets are held whenever gods indicated their presence by some sign or success in war. Before setting out for Troy, this type of animal sacrifice is offered. Odysseus offers Zeus a sacrificial ram in vain. The occasions of sacrifice in Homer's epic poems may shed some light onto the view of gods as members of society, rather than external entities, indicating social ties. Sacrificial rituals played a major role in forming the relationship between humans and the divine.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: It has been suggested that the Chthonic deities, distinguished from Olympic deities by typically being offered the holocaust mode of sacrifice, where the offering is wholly burnt, may be remnants of the native Pre-Hellenic religion, and that many of the Olympian deities may come from the Proto-Greeks who overran the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula in the late third millennium BC.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Various religious festivals were held in ancient Greece. Many were specific only to a particular deity or city-state. For example, the festival of Lykaia was celebrated in Arcadia in Greece, which was dedicated to the pastoral god Pan. Like the other Panhellenic Games, the ancient Olympic Games were a religious festival, held at the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia. Other festivals centered on Greek theatre, of which the Dionysia in Athens was the most important. More typical festivals featured a procession, large sacrifices and a feast to eat the offerings, and many included entertainments and customs such as visiting friends, wearing fancy dress and unusual behavior in the streets, sometimes risky for bystanders in various ways. Altogether the year in Athens included some 140 days that were religious festivals of some sort, though they varied greatly in importance.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: One rite of passage was the amphidromia, celebrated on the fifth or seventh day after the birth of a child. Childbirth was extremely significant to Athenians, especially if the baby was a boy.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The main Greek temple building sat within a larger precinct or temenos, usually surrounded by a peribolos fence or wall; the whole is usually called a "sanctuary". The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous example, though this was apparently walled as a citadel before a temple was ever built there. The tenemos might include many subsidiary buildings, sacred groves or springs, animals dedicated to the deity, and sometimes people who had taken sanctuary from the law, which some temples offered, for example to runaway slaves.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The earliest Greek sanctuaries probably lacked temple buildings, though our knowledge of these is limited, and the subject is controversial. A typical early sanctuary seems to have consisted of a tenemos, often around a sacred grove, cave, rock (baetyl) or spring, and perhaps defined only by marker stones at intervals, with an altar for offerings. Many rural sanctuaries probably stayed in this style, but the more popular were gradually able to afford a building to house a cult image, especially in cities. This process was certainly under way by the 9th century, and probably started earlier.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since the sacrifices and rituals dedicated to the respective deity took place outside them, at altars within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. As the centuries passed both the inside of popular temples and the area surrounding them accumulated statues and small shrines or other buildings as gifts, and military trophies, paintings and items in precious metals, effectively turning them into a type of museum.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Some sanctuaries offered oracles, people who were believed to receive divine inspiration in answering questions put by pilgrims. The most famous of these by far was the female priestess called the Pythia at the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, and that of Zeus at Dodona, but there were many others. Some dealt only with medical, agricultural or other specialized matters, and not all represented gods, like that of the hero Trophonius at Livadeia.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The temple was the house of the deity it was dedicated to, who in some sense resided in the cult image in the "cella" or main room inside, normally facing the only door. The cult image normally took the form of a statue of the deity, typically roughly life-size, but in some cases many times life-size. In early days these were in wood, marble or terracotta, or in the specially prestigious form of a chryselephantine statue using ivory plaques for the visible parts of the body and gold for the clothes, around a wooden framework. The most famous Greek cult images were of this type, including the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, and Phidias's Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon in Athens, both colossal statues, now completely lost. Fragments of two chryselephantine statues from Delphi have been excavated. Bronze cult images were less frequent, at least until Hellenistic times. Early images seem often to have been dressed in real clothes, and at all periods images might wear real jewelry donated by devotees.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The acrolith was another composite form, this time a cost-saving one with a wooden body. A xoanon was a primitive and symbolic wooden image, perhaps comparable to the Hindu lingam; many of these were retained and revered for their antiquity, even when a new statue was the main cult image. Xoana had the advantage that they were easy to carry in processions at festivals. The Trojan Palladium, famous from the myths of the Epic Cycle and supposedly ending up in Rome, was one of these. The sacred boulder or baetyl is another very primitive type, found around the Mediterranean and Ancient Near East.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example, the bronze Piraeus Athena ( high, including a helmet). The image stood on a base, from the 5th century often carved with reliefs.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: It used to be thought that access to the "cella" of a Greek temple was limited to the priests, and it was entered only rarely by other visitors, except perhaps during important festivals or other special occasions. In recent decades this picture has changed, and scholars now stress the variety of local access rules. Pausanias was a gentlemanly traveller of the 2nd-century AD who declares that the special intention of his travels around Greece was to see cult images, and usually managed to do so.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: It was typically necessary to make a sacrifice or gift, and some temples restricted access either to certain days of the year, or by class, race, gender (with either men or women forbidden), or even more tightly. Garlic-eaters were forbidden in one temple, in another women unless they were virgins; restrictions typically arose from local ideas of ritual purity or a perceived whim of the deity. In some places visitors were asked to show they spoke Greek; elsewhere Dorians were not allowed entry. Some temples could only be viewed from the threshold. Some temples are said never to be opened at all. But generally Greeks, including slaves, had a reasonable expectation of being allowed into the "cella". Once inside the "cella" it was possible to pray to or before the cult image, and sometimes to touch it; Cicero saw a bronze image of Heracles with its foot largely worn away by the touch of devotees. Famous cult images such as the Statue of Zeus at Olympia functioned as significant visitor attractions.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The role of women in sacrifices is discussed above. In addition, the only public roles that Greek women could perform were priestesses: either "hiereiai", meaning "sacred women", or , a term for lesser attendants. As priestesses, they gained social recognition and access to more luxuries than other Greek women who worked or stayed in the home. They were mostly from local elite families; some roles required virgins, who typically only served for a year or so before marriage, while other roles went to married women. Women who voluntarily chose to become priestesses received an increase in social and legal status to the public, and after death, they received a public burial site. Greek priestesses had to be healthy and of a sound mind, the reasoning being that the ones serving the gods had to be as high-quality as their offerings. This was also true of male Greek priests.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: It is contested whether there were gendered divisions when it came to serving a particular god or goddess, who was devoted to what god, gods and/or goddesses could have both priests and priestesses to serve them. Gender specifics did come into play when it came to who would perform certain acts of sacrifice or worship. Per the significance of the male or female role to a particular god or goddess, a priest would lead the priestess or the reverse. In some Greek cults priestesses served both gods and goddesses; Pythia, or female Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, and that at Didyma were priestesses, but both were overseen by male priests. The festival of Dionosyus was practiced by both and the god was served by women and female priestesses known as the Gerarai or the venerable ones.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: There were segregated religious festivals in Ancient Greece; the Thesmophoria, Plerosia, Kalamaia, Adonia, and Skira were festivals that were only for women. The Thesmophoria festival and many others represented agricultural fertility, which was considered to be closely connected to women. It gave women a religious identity and purpose in Greek religion, in which the role of women in worshipping goddesses Demeter and her daughter Persephone reinforced traditional lifestyles. The festivals relating to agricultural fertility were valued by the polis because this is what they traditionally worked for; women-centered festivals that involved private matters were less important. In Athens the festivals honoring Demeter were included in the calendar and promoted by Athens. They constructed temples and shrines like the Thesmophorion, where women could perform their rites and worship.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Those who were not satisfied by the public cult of the gods could turn to various mystery religions that operated as cults into which members had to be initiated in order to learn their secrets.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Here, they could find religious consolations that traditional religion could not provide: a chance at mystical awakening, a systematic religious doctrine, a map to the afterlife, a communal worship, and a band of spiritual fellowship.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Some of these mysteries, like the mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace, were ancient and local. Others were spread from place to place, like the mysteries of Dionysus. During the Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire, exotic mystery religions became widespread, not only in Greece, but all across the empire. Some of these were new creations, such as Mithras, while others had been practiced for hundreds of years before, like the Egyptian mysteries of Osiris.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Mainstream Greek religion appears to have developed out of Proto-Indo-European religion and although very little is known about the earliest periods there are suggestive hints that some local elements go back even further than the Bronze Age or Helladic period to the farmers of Neolithic Greece. There was also clearly cultural evolution from the Late Helladic Mycenaean religion of the Mycenaean civilization. Both the literary settings of some important myths and many important sanctuaries relate to locations that were important Helladic centers that had become otherwise unimportant by Greek times.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Mycenaeans perhaps treated Poseidon, to them a god of earthquakes as well as the sea, as their chief deity, and forms of his name along with several other Olympians are recognizable in records in Linear B, while Apollo and Aphrodite are absent. Only about half of the Mycenaean pantheon seems to survive the Greek Dark Ages. The archaeological evidence for continuity in religion is far clearer for Crete and Cyprus than the Greek mainland.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Greek religious concepts may also have absorbed the beliefs and practices of earlier, nearby cultures, such as Minoan religion, and other influences came from the Near East, especially via Cyprus. Herodotus, writing in the 5th century BC, traced many Greek religious practices to Egypt.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Great Goddess hypothesis, that a Stone Age religion dominated by a female Great Goddess was displaced by a male-dominated Indo-European hierarchy, has been proposed for Greece as for Minoan Crete and other regions, but has not been in favor with specialists for some decades, though the question remains too poorly evidenced for a clear conclusion; at the least the evidence from Minoan art shows more goddesses than gods. The Twelve Olympians, with Zeus as sky father, certainly have a strong Indo-European flavor; by the time of the epic works of Homer all are well-established, except for Dionysus, but several of the Homeric Hymns, probably composed slightly later, are dedicated to him.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Archaic and Classical Greece saw the development of flourishing cities and of stone-built temples to the gods, which were rather consistent in design across the Greek world. Religion was closely tied to civic life, and priests were mostly drawn from the local elite. Religious works led the development of Greek sculpture, though apparently not the now-vanished Greek painting. While much religious practice was, as well as personal, aimed at developing solidarity within the "polis", a number of important sanctuaries developed a "Panhellenic" status, drawing visitors from all over the Greek world. These served as an essential component in the growth and self-consciousness of Greek nationalism.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The mainstream religion of the Greeks did not go unchallenged within Greece. As Greek philosophy developed its ideas about ethics, the Olympians were found wanting. Several notable philosophers criticized belief in the gods. The earliest of these was Xenophanes, who chastised the gods' human vices and their anthropomorphic depiction. Plato wrote that there was one supreme god, whom he called the "Form of the Good", which he believed was the emanation of perfection in the universe. Plato's disciple Aristotle also disagreed that polytheistic deities existed, because he could not find enough empirical evidence for it. He believed in a Prime Mover, which had set creation going but was not connected to or interested in the universe.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: In the Hellenistic period between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the Roman conquest of Greece (146 BC), Greek religion developed in various ways, including expanding over at least some of Alexander's conquests. The new dynasties of diadochi, kings and tyrants often spent lavishly on temples, often following Alexander in trying to insinuate themselves into religious cult; this was much easier for the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt, where the traditional ancient Egyptian religion had long had deified monarchs. The enormous raised Pergamon Altar (now in Berlin) and the Altar of Hieron in Sicily are examples of unprecedentedly large constructions of the period.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: New cults of imported deities such as Isis from Egypt, Atargatis from Syria, and Cybele from Anatolia became increasingly important, as well as several philosophical movements such as Platonism, stoicism, and Epicureanism; both tended to detract from the traditional religion, although many Greeks were able to hold beliefs from more than one of these groups. Serapis was essentially a Hellenistic creation, if not devised then spread in Egypt for political reasons by Ptolemy I Soter as a hybrid of Greek and local styles of deity. Various philosophical movements, including the Orphics and Pythagoreans, began to question the ethics of animal sacrifice, and whether the gods really appreciated it; from the surviving texts Empedocles and Theophrastus (both vegetarians) were notable critics. Hellenistic astrology developed late in the period, as another distraction from the traditional practices. Although traditional myths, festivals and beliefs all continued, these trends probably reduced the grip on the imagination of the traditional pantheon, especially among the educated, but also in the general population.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: When the Roman Republic conquered Greece in 146 BC, it took much of Greek religion (along with many other aspects of Greek culture such as literary and architectural styles) and incorporated it into its own. The Greek gods were equated with the ancient Roman deities; Zeus with Jupiter, Hera with Juno, Poseidon with Neptune, Aphrodite with Venus, Ares with Mars, Artemis with Diana, Athena with Minerva, Hermes with Mercury, Hephaestus with Vulcan, Hestia with Vesta, Demeter with Ceres, Hades with Pluto, Tyche with Fortuna, and Pan with Faunus. Some of the gods, such as Apollo and Bacchus, had earlier been adopted by the Romans. There were also many deities that existed in the Roman religion before its interaction with Greece that were not associated with a Greek deity, including Janus and Quirinus.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Romans generally did not spend much on new temples in Greece other than those for their Imperial cult, which were placed in all important cities. Exceptions include Antoninus Pius (r. 138–161 AD), whose commissions include the Baalbec Temple of Bacchus, arguably the most impressive survival from the imperial period (though the Temple of Jupiter-Baal next to it was larger). It could be said the Greek world was by this time well furnished with sanctuaries. Roman governors and emperors often pilfered famous statues from sanctuaries, sometimes leaving contemporary reproductions in their place. Verres, governor of Sicily from 73 to 70 BC, was an early example who, unusually, was prosecuted after his departure.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: After the huge Roman conquests beyond Greece, new cults from Egypt and Asia became popular in Greece as well as the western empire.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The initial decline of Greco-Roman polytheism was due in part to its syncretic nature, assimilating beliefs and practices from a variety of foreign religious traditions as the Roman Empire expanded. Greco-Roman philosophical schools incorporated elements of Judaism and Early Christianity, and mystery religions like Christianity and Mithraism also became increasingly popular. Constantine I became the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity, and the Edict of Milan in 313 AD enacted official tolerance for Christianity within the Empire. Still, in Greece and elsewhere, there is evidence that pagan and Christian communities remained essentially segregated from each other, with little mutual cultural influence. Urban pagans continued to use the civic centers and temple complexes, while Christians set up their own, new places of worship in suburban areas. Contrary to some older scholarship, newly converted Christians did not simply continue worshiping in converted temples; rather, new Christian communities formed as older pagan communities declined and were eventually suppressed and disbanded.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: The Roman Emperor Julian, a nephew of Constantine, initiated an effort to end the ascension of Christianity within the empire and reorganize a syncretic version of Greco-Roman polytheism that he termed "Hellenism". Later known as “The Apostate”, Julian had been raised Christian but embraced his ancestors' paganism in early adulthood. Taking notice of how Christianity ultimately flourished under suppression, Julian pursued a policy of marginalization but not destruction towards the Church; tolerating and at times lending state support to other prominent faiths (particularly Judaism) when he believed doing so would be likely to weaken Christianity. Julian's Christian training influenced his decision to create a single organized version of the various old pagan traditions, with a centralized priesthood and a coherent body of doctrine, ritual, and liturgy based on Neoplatonism. On the other hand, Julian forbade Christian educators from utilizing many of the great works of philosophy and literature associated with Greco-Roman paganism. He believed Christianity had benefited significantly from not only access to but influence over classical education.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Julian's successor Constantinus reversed some of his reforms, but Jovian, Valentinian I, and Valens continued Julian's policy of religious toleration within the Empire, garnering them both praise from pagan writers. Official persecution of paganism in the Eastern Empire began under Theodosius I in 381 AD. Theodosius strictly enforced anti-pagan laws, had priesthoods disbanded, temples destroyed, and actively participated in Christian actions against pagan holy sites. He enacted laws that prohibited worship of pagan gods not only in public, but also within private homes. The last Olympic Games were held in 393 AD, and Theodosius likely suppressed any further attempts to hold the games. Western Empire Emperor Gratian, under the influence of his adviser Ambrose, ended the widespread, unofficial tolerance that had existed in the Western Roman Empire since the reign of Julian. In 382 AD, Gratian appropriated the income and property of the remaining orders of pagan priests, disbanded the Vestal Virgins, removed altars, and confiscated temples.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Despite official suppression by the Roman government, worship of the Greco-Roman gods persisted in some rural and remote regions into the early Middle Ages. A claimed temple to Apollo, with a community of worshipers and associated sacred grove, survived at Monte Cassino until 529 AD, when it was forcefully converted to a Christian chapel by Saint Benedict of Nursia, who destroyed the altar and cut down the grove. Other pagan communities, namely the Maniots, persisted in the Mani Peninsula of Greece until at least the 9th century.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Greek religion and philosophy have experienced a number of revivals, firstly in the arts, humanities and spirituality of Renaissance Neoplatonism, which many believed had effects in the real world. During the period (14th–17th centuries) when ancient Greek literature and philosophy gained widespread appreciation in Europe, this new popularity did not extend to ancient Greek religion, especially the original theist forms, and most new examinations of Greek philosophy were written in a solidly Christian context.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: Early revivalists, with varying degrees of commitment, were the Englishmen John Fransham (1730–1810), interested in Neoplatonism, and Thomas Taylor (1758–1835), who produced the first English translations of many Neoplatonic philosophical and religious texts.


title: Ancient Greek religion

text: More recently, a revival has begun with contemporary Hellenism, as it is often called. In Greece, the term is "Hellenic Ethnic Religion" (). Modern Hellenism reflects Neoplatonic and Platonic speculation (represented in Porphyry, Libanius, Proclus, and Julian), as well as classical cult practice. But it has far fewer followers than Greek Orthodox Christianity. According to estimates reported by the U.S. State Department in 2006, there were perhaps as many as 2,000 followers of the ancient Greek religion out of a total Greek population of 11 million, but Hellenism's leaders place that figure at 100,000.


title: Megan Ganz

text: Megan Ann Ganz (born June 1, 1984) is an American comedy writer and former associate editor of "The Onion". She has been a writer and executive producer on the FXX series "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia" since 2017. She previously wrote for the NBC series "Community" for three years from 2010 to 2013, and left to write for "Modern Family" from 2013 to 2015. She also wrote for the Fox comedy series "The Last Man on Earth", and co-created the Apple TV+ comedy series "Mythic Quest" alongside Rob McElhenney and Charlie Day.


title: Megan Ganz

text: Ganz was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan. She was born at 4:20. In 2002 she graduated from Hackett Catholic Central High School in Kalamazoo, Michigan.


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2006, she graduated with honors from the University of Michigan, where she was editor-in-chief of "The Every Three Weekly".


title: Megan Ganz

text: After completing her junior year at the university, she interned at "Mad" magazine in New York City. Ganz had planned to move back to Michigan after her internship was over, but "Mad"s editor-in-chief John Ficarra encouraged her to remain in New York and pursue comedy writing. She returned to New York and became assistant editor at "The Onion" and was later promoted to associate editor.


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2008 Ganz was featured on an episode of "This American Life" along with other "Onion" staff members. An agent from United Talent Agency heard the broadcast and suggested that she move into television writing. In summer 2009 Ganz left her job at "The Onion" and moved to Los Angeles to become a writer for the Comedy Central sketch show "Important Things with Demetri Martin".


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2010, she began writing for the NBC comedy series "Community". In 2013, after the shortened season 4 of "Community" had wrapped, Ganz joined the writing staff of the ABC series "Modern Family". In 2015, Ganz created and produced an animated action-comedy pilot called "Cassius and Clay" which was expected to be paired with "Archer" on FXX, but the show never progressed beyond the pilot stage.


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2016, Ganz announced on her Instagram that she had been hired as a writer for "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia", where she has since been promoted to executive producer.


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2019, Apple TV+ announced Ganz as co-creator, along with Rob McElhenney and Charlie Day, of the new comedy series "Mythic Quest", which premiered February 7, 2020 on the streaming platform.


title: Megan Ganz

text: Ganz cites Dave Barry, Kaitlin Olson, Louis Sachar, "Mad", Charles Schulz, and Bill Watterson as influences.


title: Megan Ganz

text: Ganz began dating British comedian Humphrey Ker in 2013. The couple were engaged in late 2014, and married on May 30, 2015.


title: Megan Ganz

text: In 2018, during a Twitter exchange with "Community" creator and executive producer Dan Harmon, Ganz accused Harmon of having engaged in inappropriate behavior toward her during their time on the show together. Harmon detailed his behavior on an episode of his podcast, "Harmontown", in which he went into detail about his wrongdoings which included making advances on her and then mistreating her after she turned him down. Ganz said that she felt vindicated by the admission and accepted his apology, urging her Twitter followers to listen to this episode of "Harmontown", and calling it a "master class in how to apologize", ultimately forgiving him. The exchange, the apology and Ganz's thoughts about them were covered in episode 674 of "This American Life" in which she was interviewed.


title: Megan Ganz

text: Ganz has been nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for "Modern Family" twice, winning in 2014, and nominated in 2015.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: 8HP is ZF Friedrichshafen AG's trademark name for its eight-speed automatic transmission models (8-speed transmission with Hydraulic converter and Planetary gearsets) for longitudinal engine applications, designed and built by ZF's subsidiary in Saarbrücken. It had its debut in the BMW 7 Series (F01) 760Li saloon fitted with the V12 engine, and since then each new BMW model in all Series down to the 1 Series in rear-wheel-drive and all-wheel-drive versions have had the option to be equipped with it.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: One of its main aims is to improve vehicle fuel economy, and it can achieve an 11% saving compared to the ZF 6-speed transmission and 14% versus modern 5-speed transmissions. Due to changes in internal design, the shift times have reduced to 200 milliseconds; additionally, the unit brings the ability to shift in a non-sequential manner - going from gear 8 to gear 2 in extreme situations. In the 8HP70 version, it has a torque handling limit of , and weighs .


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: Future development will see two four-wheel drive versions available, with a version destined for Volkswagen Group applications using a Torsen centre differential. It will be able to encompass a torque range from to , and will be available for use in middle-class cars through to large luxury sport utility vehicles.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: Chrysler Group LLC initially received the 8HP 8-speed automatic transmissions from the ZF plant in Saarbrücken, Germany. By 2013, in parallel with Chrysler Group, ZF had set up a new transmission production plant in Gray Court, South Carolina. ZF Friedrichshafen and Chrysler Group have reached a supply and license agreement for the 8HP. Chrysler Group is licensed to produce the 8HP at the company’s Kokomo Transmission Plant and the Kokomo Casting plant, production began in 2013. This transmission is marketed by Chrysler under their own brand name, the Torqueflite 8.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: 2nd generation 8HP products were released starting in 2014. Efficiency improvements over the original design include a wider ratio spread of 7.8:1, reduced drag torque from the shift elements, reduction in required oil pump pressure, and broadened use of the coasting and start-stop systems. ZF estimated fuel economy improvement over 1st generation 8HP kits to be 3%. Refinements were also made with respect to vibration.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: 3rd generation 8HP products were released starting in 2018. Major improvements are total spread of 8.6 and a fuel economy improvement of 2.5% compared to the 2nd generation. There are several options in maximum torque available, also the gearbox is available with mild hybrid and plug in hybrid options: With 15 kW and 200 NM supporting boosting and recuperation in combination with 48 Volt technology up to 90 kW and 250 NM for usage with higher voltage.


title: ZF 8HP transmission

text: Below is a table of reference gear ratios as provided with the ZF 8HP transmission, though actual implementations may differ depending on the tuning and specifications of individual vehicle manufacturers such as BMW and Audi. Differences in gear ratios have a measurable, direct impact on vehicle dynamics, performance, waste emissions as well as fuel mileage.


title: David Hahn

text: David Charles Hahn (October 30, 1976 – September 27, 2016), sometimes called the "Radioactive Boy Scout" or "Jimmy Neutron", was an American nuclear radiation enthusiast who built a homemade neutron source at the age of seventeen.


title: David Hahn

text: A scout in the Boy Scouts of America, Hahn conducted his experiments in secret in a backyard shed at his mother's house in Commerce Township, Michigan. Hahn's goal was to build and demonstrate a homemade breeder reactor. While he never managed to build a reactor, in August 1994 Hahn's progress attracted the attention of local police when they found material in his vehicle that troubled them during a stop for a separate matter. When Hahn warned them that the material was radioactive, the police contacted federal authorities. His mother's property was cleaned up by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) ten months later as a Superfund cleanup site. Hahn attained Eagle Scout rank shortly after his lab was dismantled.


title: David Hahn

text: While the incident was not widely publicized initially, it became better known following a 1998 "Harper's Magazine" article by journalist Ken Silverstein. Hahn was also the subject of Silverstein's 2004 book "The Radioactive Boy Scout". As an adult, Hahn served in the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. He was subsequently treated for mental illness, and his death at age 39 was related to drug and alcohol use.


title: David Hahn

text: Hahn was fascinated by chemistry and spent years conducting amateur chemistry experiments, which sometimes caused small explosions and other mishaps. He was inspired in part by reading "The Golden Book of Chemistry Experiments" and tried to collect samples of every element in the periodic table, including the radioactive ones. He later received a merit badge in Atomic Energy and became fascinated with the idea of creating a breeder reactor in his home. Hahn diligently amassed radioactive material by collecting small amounts from household products, such as americium from smoke detectors, thorium from camping lantern mantles, radium from clocks, and tritium from gunsights. His "reactor" was a bored-out block of lead, and he used lithium from $1,000 worth of purchased batteries to purify the thorium ash using a Bunsen burner.


title: David Hahn

text: Hahn ultimately hoped to create a breeder reactor, using low-level isotopes to transform samples of thorium and uranium into fissile isotopes.


title: David Hahn

text: His homemade neutron source was often incorrectly referred to as a reactor, but it did emit measurable levels of radiation, likely exceeding 1,000 times normal background radiation. Alarmed, Hahn began to dismantle his experiments, but in a chance encounter, police discovered his activities, which triggered a Federal Radiological Emergency Response Team involving the FBI and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. On June 26, 1995, the EPA, having designated Hahn's mother's property a Superfund hazardous materials cleanup site, dismantled the shed and its contents and buried them as low-level radioactive waste in Utah. Unknown to officials, his mother, fearful that she would lose her house if the full extent of the radiation were known, had already collected the majority of the radioactive material and thrown it away in the conventional garbage. Hahn refused medical evaluation for radiation exposure. EPA scientists believed that Hahn's life expectancy may have been shortened due to his exposure to radioactivity, particularly since he spent long periods in the small, enclosed shed with large amounts of radioactive material and only minimal safety precautions, but he refused their recommendation that he be examined at the Enrico Fermi Nuclear Generating Station.


title: David Hahn

text: Hahn became depressed after the scandal, a problem exacerbated by the breakup with his then-girlfriend and the suicide of his mother in early 1996. While he did graduate from high school, he lacked any direction or plans thereafter. His father and stepmother first encouraged him to attend Macomb Community College. He enrolled in a metallurgy program there, but frequently skipped classes. He was then encouraged to join the military, so he enlisted in the Navy, assigned to the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier as an undesignated seaman (pay grade E-3). After a four-year tour, he achieved interior communications specialist with a rank of petty officer, third class (pay grade E-4).


title: David Hahn

text: After his time on USS "Enterprise," Hahn enlisted in the Marine Corps and was stationed in North Carolina. After a few years, Hahn achieved the rank of lance corporal (E-3). Shortly after returning from a rotation in Japan, he was honorably discharged on medical grounds and returned to Michigan.


title: David Hahn

text: On April 23, 2007, the FBI received a lead regarding Hahn's alleged possession of a second neutron source in his freezer. Contacted via telephone, Hahn insisted that he was not in possession of radioactive material. The FBI decided no imminent terrorist threat was present but decided to attempt a personal interview. During an interview at an FBI office on May 16, 2007, investigators' questions touched on a variety of topics, such as flyers that Hahn had distributed promoting his book and upcoming film; theft of tires and rims from a vehicle prior to his Navy service; a diagnosis of paranoid schizophrenia; and a few less significant topics. FBI agents then interviewed an individual (whose identity was not released) who stated that Hahn was using cocaine heavily, was not taking his prescribed medication, was paranoid about people who he claimed "had the ability to 'shock' his genitals with their minds", and had possibly been visited by prostitutes. The individual also stated that he believed that Hahn was still trying to build a reactor and was collecting radium. He stated that he did not believe Hahn had any intentions of hurting anyone but was concerned about his mental state.


title: David Hahn

text: On August 1, 2007, Hahn was charged with larceny in Clinton Township, Michigan for allegedly removing a number of smoke detectors from the halls of his apartment building. His intention was to obtain americium from them. In his mug shot, his face was covered with sores, which investigators believed could have been from exposure to radioactive materials, psoriasis, or possible drug use. During a Circuit Court hearing, Hahn pleaded guilty to attempted larceny of a building. The court's online docket said prosecutors recommended that he be sentenced to time served and enter an inpatient treatment facility. Under terms of the plea, the original charge of larceny of a building would be dismissed at sentencing, scheduled for October 4. He was sentenced to 90 days in jail for attempted larceny. Court records stated that his sentence would be delayed by six months while Hahn underwent medical treatment in the psychiatric unit of Macomb County Jail.


title: David Hahn

text: On September 27, 2016, at the age of 39, Hahn died in his hometown of Shelby Charter Township, Michigan. His death was ruled an accidental result of intoxication from the combined effects of alcohol, diphenhydramine, and fentanyl.


title: David Hahn

text: The incident received scant media attention at the time, but was widely disseminated after writer Ken Silverstein published an article about the incident in "Harper's Magazine" in 1998. In 2004 he expanded it into a book, "The Radioactive Boy Scout", which was optioned for a feature film in 2016.


title: David Hahn

text: In 1999, University of Chicago physics majors Justin Kasper and Fred Niell, as part of a scavenger hunt that had as one of its items "a breeder reactor built in a shed," successfully built a similar nuclear reactor that produced trace amounts of plutonium.


title: David Hahn

text: A television documentary, "The Nuclear Boy Scout", aired on Channel 4 in the United Kingdom in 2003. In it, Hahn reenacted some of his methods for the camera.


title: David Hahn

text: Hahn's experiments inspired others to attempt similar feats, particularly Taylor Wilson, who at age 14 became the youngest person to produce nuclear fusion.


title: David Hahn

text: SPQN's mystery program "Jimmy Akin Mysterious World", dedicated episode #92 on Hahn called ""The Radioactive Boy Scout"".


title: David Hahn

text: An episode of the CBS series "Young Sheldon" features the protagonist attempting to build a nuclear reactor by extracting americium from smoke detectors.


title: David Hahn

text: Duncan Jones claimed that the villain in his sci-fi film "Source Code" was inspired by the documentary "The Nuclear Boy Scout".


title: David Hahn

text: The song “Baby Criminal” by Swedish post-punk band Viagra Boys from their 2022 studio album Cave World is loosely based off of Hahn’s life.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Steven Randall "Randy" Jackson (born October 29, 1961) is an American singer-songwriter, musician, and dancer. Randy is best known as a former member of his family band the Jacksons. Randy is the youngest Jackson brother and the second-youngest Jackson sibling before his sister Janet Jackson. He is the ninth child in the Jackson family.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Randy was born at St Mary's Mercy Hospital in Gary, Indiana to Joseph Jackson and Katherine Jackson. Nicknamed "Little Randy", Jackson is the ninth child of the Jackson family and youngest of the brothers. Jackson was only two years old when the Jackson 5 was formed and thus not an original member. While Randy's brothers toured, Jackson honed his skills as a musician, mastering piano and the bongos.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Randy was not an original member of the Jackson 5, first appearing live with his brothers in 1971 at a Christmas show the Jackson 5 held for blind children. Although he was on every Jackson 5 tour since 1972, mainly playing the congas among other instruments, Randy did not officially join the family band until 1975 when they left Motown for CBS Records and older brother Jermaine chose to stay with Motown, prompting Randy to replace him. The Jackson 5 officially changed their name to the Jacksons when they signed with Epic in part because Motown owned the name "Jackson 5". At age 16, he co-wrote the Jacksons' most successful single on Epic, "Shake Your Body (Down to the Ground)" with Michael.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: On March 3, 1980, Jackson was seriously injured in a car crash in Hollywood, California. In June 1980, he appeared on the cover of the weekly African-American newsmagazine "Jet". The cover headline read: "Randy Jackson Walks Again: Talks About His Future."


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Jackson plays congas, percussion, keyboards, piano, bass, and guitar, among other instruments. In addition to singing and playing on the Jacksons' recordings, he worked with Michael on his album "Off the Wall". He participated in the Jacksons' Destiny World Tour from 1979 to 1980, the Triumph Tour in 1981, Victory Tour in 1984, and the band's later projects. After the Victory Tour, Jackson worked with Lionel Richie on his album "Dancing On The Ceiling" in 1985. Jackson, along with brothers Jackie, Tito, Marlon, and his sister La Toya joined USA For Africa to sing in "We Are The World", which was led by Jackson’s brother Michael, Lionel Richie, Quincy Jones, and Harry Belafonte.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: He was left out when the Jackson 5 were inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997; only the five original members were inducted.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: He was part of the Jacksons' 2001 reunion at Madison Square Garden, but did not appear as an official cast member in their 2009 A&E reality series "". He did contribute backing vocals with Jackie, Tito, Marlon and Jermaine for Michael's "This Is It".


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: After recording "2300 Jackson Street", the group disbanded and focused on separate projects in 1990. After this split, Jackson formed his own band, Randy & the Gypsys. The group released only one album before breaking up. The same year, he co-founded Total Multimedia Inc. with former Iron Butterfly bass player Philip Taylor Kramer to develop data compression techniques for CD-ROMs. On June 28, 1998, Jackson opened up his own record label, Modern Records.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Randy is currently a co-partner with his sister, Janet Jackson, at her independent record label Rhythm Nation Records. On August 16, 2018, Randy and Janet announced that Rhythm Nation Records was partnering with independent music publisher, distributor and label Cinq Music. On August 17, 2018, Janet Jackson's "Made for Now" was released, co-written by Randy.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: In the 1980s, Jackson dated Bernadette Swann (née Robi), Lynn Swann's ex-wife. Swann alleged that Jackson was physically abusive, so she sought refuge at the home of her friend Tina Turner (Swann previously dated Turner's son). Turner shot at Jackson after he broke into her home to see Swann. Turner decided not to press charges in order to avoid bad press.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: In 1986, Jackson met Alejandra Oaziaza. They dated for several years, and have two children together:


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Oaziaza married and divorced Randy Jackson's brother Jermaine Jackson. Randy Jackson married Eliza Shaffy in August 1989; they divorced in 1992. They have a daughter together, Stevanna Jackson (born June 17, 1990).


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Michael Jackson's memorial service was held at the Staples Center, now known as Crypto.com Arena on Tuesday, July 7, 2009. To honor him, Randy and his brothers Marlon, Jackie, Jermaine and Tito served as pallbearers wearing a single spangly white glove and sunglasses.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: In January 1991, Jackson was charged with battery for beating his wife Eliza Shaffy and their 7-month-old daughter Stevanna. He pleaded no contest to the charge, was placed on two years' probation and ordered to enroll in a domestic violence program, but didn't comply. In November 1991, Jackson was arrested after Shaffy phoned the police to report that the beatings did not stop. He was sentenced to 30 days in a mental hospital, Pine Grove Hospital, in Canoga Park and ordered to serve the remainder of his probation and enroll in a year-long domestic violence rehabilitation program. Disappointed that Jackson received no jail time, Shaffy filed for divorce.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Jackson filed for bankruptcy in 1996. He was ordered to surrender his shares in Modern Records Inc. In May 1998, an arrest warrant was issued when Jackson failed to turn over the stock. In 2001, he pleaded guilty to bankruptcy fraud by failing to list all his vehicular assets.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: In January 2012, Jackson filed a complaint against Oaziaza, disputing an alleged $500,000 owed in child support. He claimed he had never been served for the initial paternity lawsuit, instead claiming that the matter had been settled in 1993. His absence at the paternity proceedings resulted in a default judgment in Oaziaza's favor.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: Randy attempted to unseat executors John Branca and John McClain and dismiss the will of his brother Michael, which reportedly made their mother Katherine furious. He, Jermaine and Janet objected to the 2011 tribute concert held for Michael, stating that they felt the family's attention should have been focused on Conrad Murray's trial.


title: Randy Jackson (Jacksons singer)

text: The three siblings were later involved in an event where Katherine lost custody of Michael's children due to suspicion that she was "prevented from acting as a guardian because of the acts of third parties". Randy, Jermaine, and Janet attempted to take the children with them to Arizona, where it was alleged that Katherine was being held against her will after being kidnapped. Footage of the event appeared to show the siblings storming the house and Janet trying to take Paris's phone. Sheriff's deputies broke up an altercation between Randy, Jermaine and Trent (Katherine's nephew-in-law and paternal cousin of Randy and Jermaine). Eventually Katherine regained custody of Prince, Paris, and Bigi ("Blanket").


title: Kaduva

text: Kaduva () is a 2022 Indian Malayalam language masala film directed by Shaji Kailas, written by Jinu V. Abraham and produced by Prithviraj Productions and Magic Frames. It stars Prithviraj Sukumaran in the title role alongside Vivek Oberoi and Samyuktha Menon.


title: Kaduva

text: Set in 1990s, the plot revolves around an ego war between businessman Kaduva and police officer I.G. Joseph. Principal photography took place from April 2021 to March 2022 at Pala, Erattupetta, Vandiperiyar, Mundakkayam and Ernakulam. Jakes Bejoy composed the original songs and film score.


title: Kaduva

text: "Kaduva" was released on 7 July 2022 to mixed reviews from critics, but became the third-highest-grossing Malayalam film of 2022 by grossing over 50 crore at the box office.


title: Kaduva

text: In the late 1990s, Kaduvakunnel Kuriyachan aka Kaduva, a rich planter and businessman in Pala, is brought to district jail in Kottayam where a murder attempt is made on Kaduva by three goons from Kottarakkara sub-jail, under the orders from I.G Joseph Chandy Ouseppukutty, but Kaduva defeats them.


title: Kaduva

text: Before getting arrested, Kaduva was living a happy life with his family consisting of his wife Elsa and children Tessa, Eva and son Chacko. However, he happened to have an ego-tussle between him and Joseph Chandy, due to Joseph Chandy's mother Cheddathi lying that the piano was gifted to the church's corrupted Fr. Robin Poovampura, instead of the church, which led to Kaduva getting enraged and insulting Joseph Chandy's father Karikandhathil Chandichayan. Due to this, Joseph Chandy swore vengeance against Kaduva, when he transferred all the policemen in Pala and includes S.I Dominic Benjamin, whose father Benjamin was thrashed by Kaduva earlier. Joseph Chandy bought a land that belonged to an American family, which was sold by Kaduva and also created a ruckus at his bar. With his influence, Joseph Chandy issued a search warrant on Kaduva's house. On his way back home, Kaduva was intercepted by S.I Rajeevan, who begun a search at his jeep where he tried to arrest Kaduva in arms licence case, but Kaduva thrashed them and was arrested, where his bar licence had been revoked, due to his involvement in spirit smuggling.


title: Kaduva

text: After narrating his past, Kaduva is later released from prison after two weeks and learns that his father's Ambassador car has been seized by Benjamin, and Tessa has suffered from a leg fracture. However, Tessa secretly tells him that Robin was the one behind Tessa's accident, when he tried to molest Elsa. Tessa makes Kaduva promise to not cause any trouble. Kaduva meets his friend Victor in which he learns that Dominic had made Victor's eardrum bleed as he was about to file a petition against the cops to the CM Ananthanathan and DGP.


title: Kaduva

text: Meanwhile, Ananthanathan is dethroned from the ministry post due to his corrupt activities coming into limelight where it is revealed that Kaduva had met his sister Leena's classmate Maalam Sunny in prison, where he learns that the evidence linking to the politician's illegal activities are with Francis Paul and Kunjithomman. After his release and with Sunny's help, Kaduva makes a deal with Francis and Thomman to provide the video evidence of the party's corruption, in exchange for money and leadership changes in the party, to which they agree. Due to the deal, Kaduva had sold some of his estate. After Thomman becomes the CM and Sunny's release from prison, Kaduva thrashes Robin and dumps him in the church's well, where he also issues a frozen promotion of Joseph Chandy's ADGP post, due to multiple accusations.


title: Kaduva

text: Kaduva thrashes Dominic, when he was asking a bribe, and also retrieves his father's Ambassador car back. Ananthanathan learns that there will be raid in his house by the central vigilance department and ask Joseph Chandy to transport the goods to a safe place. Joseph Chandy attempts to transports the goods to his plantation in Anakkara, only to be thwarted by Kaduva. The goods are found and Joseph Chandy is suspended. Enraged, Joseph Chandy hires a goon in a mental asylum to kill Kaduva at a church festival, but Kaduva manages to kill him and his goons, where he fights Joseph Chandy and defeats him. Joseph Chandy is later arrested on charges of unaccounted money.


title: Kaduva

text: Kaduva also blackmails Thomman and Paul for a "lifetime commitment", when he shows a video of the meeting between him and the duo (Paul and Thomman). While leaving for prison, Joseph Chandy tells Kaduva that their feud is not over and promises to meet soon.


title: Kaduva

text: "Kaduva" was officially announced on 16 October 2019 on Prithviraj Sukumaran's birthday, to be directed by Shaji Kailas and written by Jinu V. Abraham, along with a poster featuring Prithviraj captioned "inspired from a true story". Jointly produced by Prithviraj's Prithviraj Productions and Listin Stephen's Magic Frames. Abraham said, although the film is inspired by a true story, it constitutes only five percent of the film and rest is fictional, which is set in 1990s. He first narrated the screenplay to Prithviraj, who suggested Kailas' name as director and brought him on board. The film was expected to begin production in March 2020 as soon as Prithviraj completes "Aadujeevitham".


title: Kaduva

text: Prithviraj plays the character of Kaduvakunnel Kuryachan, a young planter from a Christian family in Pala. Prithviraj said, though he received the screenplay only in early 2019 he had heard about the character even before that. Prithviraj was filming for "Driving Licence" when he called Kailas for directing the film. It was after Kailas agreed to do the film Prithviraj and Listin decided to produce it. Shooting which was scheduled to begin somewhere in mid-2020 was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. In June that year, an untitled film to be directed by Mathews Thomas, produced by Tomichan Mulakuppadam, and starring Suresh Gopi was announced, which bears the same character name Kaduvakunnel Kuruvachan. This prompted Abraham to file a case against them at District Court, Ernakulam alleging plagiarism. The court stayed its production and promotional activities as Abraham's screenplay was registered under copyright law. Beside character name, promotional materials of "SG250" (working title) also bears similarity to what is depicted in "Kaduva" poster, said Abraham. The initial title he found for "Kaduva" was "Kaduvakunnel Kuruvachan" and the screenplay was also registered under that title, it was changed after producer Stephen asked him to choose a shorter title. Abraham said Mathews had worked under him as an assistant director and had known him since 2011, with whom he had discussed stories, including "Kaduva".