title: University of Georgia

text: The Chapel Bell is a historic monument and long-standing tradition of the University of Georgia. The Chapel Bell is located on the historic North Campus. Built in 1832, when Protestant orthodoxy dominated the campus region, the chapel was a center of campus activities. A daily religious service, which students were required to attend, were held there, as were assemblies and commencements. The bell was also rung to mark the beginning and the end of class.


title: University of Georgia

text: Over the years, the Chapel Bell has served as an athletic tradition at the University of Georgia. The ringing of the Chapel Bell after a Georgia victory is a tradition that has endured since the 1890s. In Georgia football's early days, Herty Field was located only yards from the chapel, and first-year students were compelled to ring the bell until midnight in celebration of a Bulldog victory. Today, students, alumni, fans and townspeople still rush to the chapel to ring the bell after a victory. The bell is also utilized for University meetings and events, weddings and remembrance ringing. The bell was rung in memory of victims of the September 11 attacks in 2001. After the 2012 Sandy Hook shooting, the University of Georgia partook in a nationwide mourning by ringing the Chapel Bell in honor of the victims of the shooting.


title: University of Georgia

text: On October 27, 2007, as tradition warrants, Georgia fans rang the Chapel Bell to celebrate the 42–30 win over the university's archrival, the Florida Gators. The excitement caused the yoke holding the 877 lb. bell to give way, and it fell from the support platform. The university has returned the bell to its historic post and , it still rings daily across campus.


title: University of Georgia

text: January 27, 1785, is the date the University of Georgia became the first public university to have a charter granted. Each year, January 27 is commemorated to honor UGA's place in the history of American colleges and universities. The tradition began in 2002 and is now celebrated as Founders Week. During Founders Week, a series of celebrations are hosted by various campus departments including the Student Alumni Association and the Student Government Association.


title: University of Georgia

text: The Emeriti Scholars, a group of retired faculty members especially known for their teaching abilities and continued involvement in the university's academic life, sponsor the Founders Day Lecture. The lecture is held in the UGA Chapel and has become a Founders Day tradition, drawing alumni, students, faculty, esteemed guests and members of the community.


title: University of Georgia

text: In 1857, the University of Georgia constructed a cast iron representation of the architectural elements featured on the obverse of the Great Seal of the state of Georgia. It stands at the north entrance of the campus, and has become known as The Arch. Fashioned from existing material, The Arch is a representation but not an exact replica of the architectural elements of the Seal. Originally serving both symbolic and practical functions, it was connected to a barrier which kept cows from roaming over parts of the campus, and was initially known as The Gate. It serves as the official icon and a historic landmark for the university. Since the 1900s, tradition has held that students may not pass beneath the Arch until they have received a diploma from the University of Georgia. Those who walked under the Arch prior to graduation commencement were said never to graduate. The tradition began when Daniel Huntley Redfearn, Class of 1910, arrived as a freshman from Boston, Georgia and vowed not to pass beneath the Arch until he had graduated. One of Redfearn's professors heard the vow and repeated it to his class, and the tradition has stood ever since. Many freshmen, learning of the tradition during orientation or from other sources still choose to honor the century-old tradition. Years of following the tradition are visible on the concrete steps leading to the Arch. Steps to each side have been worn down over the years as undergraduates have kept their vows.


title: University of Georgia

text: The Arch has been a site of historic political demonstrations. In 1961, when UGA officials desegregated the university with the admission of its first two African-American students, Hamilton Holmes and Charlayne Hunter-Gault. The Arch was a witness to students protesting both for and against segregation in the protesting the Persian Gulf War and a demonstration following the 1970 shootings at Kent State University. In 2001, along with the Chapel Bell, the Arch was the site of a memorial to the victims of the September 11 attacks.


title: University of Georgia

text: "Glory, Glory" is the rally song for the Georgia Bulldogs. "Glory, Glory" is sung to the tune of "The Battle Hymn of the Republic". It was sung at games as early as the 1890s, but arranged in its present form by musician-composer Hugh Hodgson in 1915. There have been many Bulldog songs through the years and at least two collections dating back to 1909 have been published, but "Glory, Glory" has been the most accepted among students and alumni. The only known original reference to the piece is in a history of the Redcoat Band written in 1962, which briefly mentions the march as "Georgia's first original school song" and notes that "all copies of the work have been lost." The document is kept in the university's Hargrett Library for rare and historic documents.


title: University of Georgia

text: Although "Glory, Glory" is generally thought to be the school's fight song, the official fight song is "Hail to Georgia". The fight song is played by the Georgia Redcoat Marching Band after touchdowns, field goals, and extra points scored by the football team. The Georgia Redcoat Marching Band is a 375-member marching band. First directed in 1905 by R.E. Haughey, the band has only had seven directors.


title: University of Georgia

text: The "Alma Mater", the official school song of the University of Georgia, is set to the tune of "Annie Lisle", a popular 1857 ballad by H. S. Thompson. The lyrics to "Alma Mater", penned by J.B. Wright, Jr., and Gail Carter Dendy, are unique to UGA. The song is sung at commencement and various official events of the University of Georgia.


title: University of Georgia

text: Sanford Stadium is the on-campus playing venue for football at the University of Georgia in Athens. The 92,746-seat stadium is the seventh largest stadium in the National Collegiate Athletic Association and has a grass (versus synthetic) field. The stadium is the eighth largest non-racing stadium in the United States and the 14th largest such stadium in the world. The stadium played host to the Olympic medal competition of men's and women's Olympic football (soccer) at the 1996 Summer Olympics.


title: University of Georgia

text: The University of Georgia playing "Between the Hedges" is a reference to Sanford Stadium that dates back to the early 1930s. The famous Chinese privet hedges that surround Sanford's playing field were only one foot high when the stadium was dedicated in 1929 and were protected by a wooden fence. Sports writers, referring to an upcoming home game, were said to observe "that the Bulldogs will have their opponent "between the hedges." The phrase was coined by the Atlanta sportswriter Grantland Rice. Games played there are said to be played "Between the Hedges" due to the privet hedges, which had stood around the field since 1929, but removed in the summer of 1996 so that soccer could be played for the 1996 Summer Olympics; new, albeit considerably shorter, hedges were restored in the fall of 1996. The hedges have been dubbed Hedges II by UGA fans.


title: University of Georgia

text: The Dawg Walk is a Saturday football tradition and celebration at University of Georgia home games when UGA students and fans line up in the Tate Center parking lot to form a tunnel that greets the players and coaches as they enter Sanford Stadium. The team enters the stadium through Gate 10 at Sanford Stadium to the music of the Redcoat Marching Band. The march is often led by the team's costumed mascot Hairy Dawg.


title: University of Georgia

text: The Dawg Walk is preceded by two show section shows. The Redcoat Sousaphones perform a warm up concert in the Tate Center assembly area, while the Redcoat Drumline performs a drumshow in the parking lot.


title: University of Georgia

text: University graduates include over 110 state and federal legislators, 70 federal judges, and numerous state supreme court justices, government officials, and ambassadors. Notable alumni include former acting United States Attorney General Sally Yates, Ertharin Cousin who was named to the "TIME" 100 most influential people in the world list, John Archibald Campbell, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice, and President Pro Tempore of the U.S. Senate Richard B. Russell Jr. Twenty-five University of Georgia alumni have become state governors, including six of the last seven Governors of Georgia: George Busbee, Joe Frank Harris, Zell Miller, Roy Barnes, Sonny Perdue, and Brian Kemp. Miller also served as United States Senator as did several other UGA alumni including Johnny Isakson, and Saxby Chambliss. Examples of some other alumni who served in high levels of government included Randy Evans, an ambassador, a member of Dentons international law firm U.S. board of directors, and former general counsel to Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, Abdul Karim al-Iryani, the former prime minister of Yemen, Lloyd D. Brown, an Army major general who commanded the 28th Infantry Division in World War II, William Tapley Bennett Jr. an ambassador including serving as Ambassador to the United Nations Security Council and as the United States Permanent Representative to NATO, Eugene E. Habiger, an Air Force four-star general who served as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Strategic Command from 1996 to 1998, Chee Soon Juan, a neuropsychologist, research fellow at universities including the University of Chicago, a politician, and leader of the Singapore Democratic Party, and Phil Gramm, an economist and U.S. Senator from Texas.


title: University of Georgia

text: University of Georgia alumni who pursued a career in investing and banking include Eugene R. Black Sr., the President of the World Bank from 1949 to 1963, Eugene Robert Black, Chairman of the Federal Reserve, economist Robert D. McTeer, president of the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, and Brown L. Whatley, chairman of Arvida Corp. and president of the Mortgage Bankers Association. Examples of others in the business world include Bernard Ramsey, an executive with the brokerage firm Merrill Lynch, Daniel P. Amos, the chairman and CEO of Aflac, M. Michele Burns, board member of Wal-Mart, Cisco Systems and Goldman Sachs, D.W. Brooks, founder and chairman of Gold Kist, A.D. "Pete" Correll, chairman of Georgia-Pacific and director of SunTrust Bank, Mirant and Norfolk Southern, and Tom Cousins, a real estate developer, sports patron, and philanthropist. Cousins is the owner of the Atlanta Hawks.


title: University of Georgia

text: William Porter Payne, who played football at UGA and was Vice Chairman of Bank of America became president and chief executive officer of the Atlanta Committee for the Olympic Games and later chairman of Augusta National Golf Club. Payne was largely responsible for bringing the 1996 Summer Olympics to Atlanta and the University of Georgia. In sports, particularly in the NFL, a notable UGA alum is Terrell Davis, a two-time Super Bowl champion with the Denver Broncos who was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Other Bulldogs that went on to a professional career include Hines Ward, a wide receiver who played the Pittsburgh Steelers for 15 seasons, Champ Bailey, a consensus All-American drafted by the Washington Redskins in the first round of the 1999 Draft, and Reggie Brown, drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round of the 2005 Draft. Alumni with careers in professional sports include Mitchell Boggs, a former baseball pitcher for the St. Louis Cardinals, and Kentavious Caldwell-Pope, a professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers.


title: University of Georgia

text: Some University of Georgia alumni that have served in the scientific and medical fields include Alfred Blalock, an award-winning chief of surgery, professor, and director of the department of surgery of Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, who ushered in the modern era of cardiac surgery, Cornelia Bargmann, an award-winning neurobiologist, who is Wiesel Professor of Genetics and Neurosciences at the Rockefeller University, investigator at Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and president of science at the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, Crawford Long, a surgeon and pharmacist best known for his first use of inhaled diethyl ether as an anesthetic, Sir David Baulcombe, FRS, a geneticist who is Professor of Botany at the University of Cambridge, Hervey M. Cleckley, a psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of psychopathy whose published work was the most influential clinical description of psychopathy in the twentieth century and who was co-author of "The Three Faces of Eve", Barbara Rothbaum, a psychologist, medical school professor, and pioneer in the treatment of anxiety-related disorders who has played a key role in the development of the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), Eugene T. Booth a nuclear physicist who was a member of the historic team which made the first demonstration of nuclear fission in the United States, A. Jamie Cuticchia, a bioinformatics pioneer with expertise in the fields of genetics, bioinformatics, and genomics who was responsible for the groundbreaking collection of data constituting the human gene map and who is director of human genome database, and James E. Boyd, a physicist, mathematician, and founder of Scientific Atlanta, part of Cisco.


title: University of Georgia

text: UGA alumni have made significant contributions to the field of journalism and media. They include Henry W. Grady, a journalist and orator from the late 19th-century after whom the College of Journalism was named, and Clark Howell, a Pulitzer Prize-winning reporter who became the namesake of one of the buildings at his alma mater. Howell succeeded Grady as managing editor of the "Atlanta Constitution". More recent journalism alumni include Charlayne Hunter-Gault, a multiple Emmy Award and Peabody Award winning former reporter for "The New York Times", "PBS NewsHour" and CNN, Deborah Blum, Pulitzer Prize-winning author, journalist, science writer and professor at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, John Holliman, a broadcast journalist with CNN, known for his coverage of space exploration and reporting during the Persian Gulf War (NASA dedicated Launch Complex 39 Press Site facility at the Kennedy Space Center to him), Mary Katharine Ham, a journalist, political commentator and guest host of "The View", as well as a CNN and Fox News Channel contributor, Pat Mitchell, media industry CEO, producer, professor, and author who worked at NBC (where she was the first woman to produce and host a national program) and other news broadcasters, and who has taught including at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government, Mark B. Perry, a television producer, television writer and Primetime Emmy Award winner, Deborah Norville, an anchor for "Inside Edition", and the ABC News television presenters Deborah Roberts and Amy Robach. Both Roberts and Robach appear on "20/20" and "Good Morning America".


title: University of Georgia

text: A total of nine UGA graduates have received the Pulitzer Prize including Natasha Tretheway, winner of the 2007 Pulitzer Prize in Poetry who was appointed United States Poet Laureate in 2012 and again in 2014. Other notable UGA alumni in print media include Tom Johnson, a former publisher of the "Los Angeles Times", Sherrilyn Kenyon, author of over 100 novels and Stuart Woods, a prolific novelist with more than 60 books.


title: University of Georgia

text: Former UGA students in the music industry include Danger Mouse, Dave Haywood and Charles Kelley of Lady Antebellum, and several members of the bands The B-52's and R.E.M. After studying film at the university, Alton Brown became the director of photography on the music video for R.E.M.’s "The One I Love". Brown went on to create the Food Network television show "Good Eats". Examples of some other notable alumni in film, television, and radio include Kim Basinger, an actress winning the BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress, as well as Sonny Shroyer, Fred Newman, Matt Lanter, Kyle Chandler, IronE Singleton, Wayne Knight, Tituss Burgess, Parvati Shallow, and Ryan Seacrest.


title: LilyPichu

text: Lily Ki (born November 20, 1991), better known as LilyPichu, is an American internet personality, musician, voice actress, and animator. She is a member of OfflineTV, an online social entertainment group of content creators and was one of the most subscribed female Twitch streamers during her time on the platform, where she won a Streamer Award. In July 2022, Ki announced that she had signed an exclusive deal with YouTube and would stop her activity on Twitch. She also provides voice-work for several characters in anime series and video games.


title: LilyPichu

text: Ki was born on November 20, 1991. She is of Korean descent and has a brother named Daniel. She started learning piano at the age of five after her parents discovered her interest for music.


title: LilyPichu

text: Ki's content includes gaming, art, and music. She first gained popularity in 2011 when her parody song "I'll Quit LoL" went viral on YouTube. In 2015, she made her musical debut with the release of her extended play "Lilies". In July 2017, a video of Ki playing the melodica to unsuspecting cosplayers at Indy PopCon also went viral, becoming her most viewed YouTube video to date. That same month, she joined OfflineTV, an online social entertainment group of content creators. In September 2018, Riot Games launched a series of ads on YouTube for "League of Legends" which featured Ki and other content creators.


title: LilyPichu

text: Ki was the fifth most watched female Twitch streamer in 2020. In 2020, she was nominated for the Shorty Award for Twitch Streamer of the Year. That same year, she appeared in an advertisement for 5 Gum. In 2021, Ki starred in the music video for Bella Poarch and Sub Urban's song "Inferno", where she cameoed alongside several other content creators. At the 1st Streamer Awards in 2022, Ki was nominated for Best "League of Legends" Streamer and Best Music Streamer, winning for the latter.


title: LilyPichu

text: In July 2022, it was announced that Ki had signed exclusively with YouTube and will no longer stream on Twitch. Ki explained her reasons for the change citing financial stability and a desire for a change of space.


title: LilyPichu

text: In 2018, Ki began dating YouTuber Albert Chang, better known as Sleightlymusical, and in 2019, they separated after he had an affair. In March 2020, Ki confirmed on a livestream that she and fellow OfflineTV member Michael Reeves were in a relationship.


title: LilyPichu

text: On June 27, 2020, Ki and Yvonne "Yvonnie" Ng came forward with sexual misconduct allegations against former OfflineTV member Federico "Fedmyster" Gaytan, stating that he would enter her room uninvited and make inappropriate advances on her. Gaytan was removed from the group following the allegations, and in the week following his removal, six members of OfflineTV came forward with stories of his inappropriate and manipulative behavior.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Happy Valley is a British crime drama television series filmed and set in the Calder Valley, West Yorkshire, in Northern England. The series, starring Sarah Lancashire and Siobhan Finneran, is written and created by Sally Wainwright, and directed by Wainwright, Euros Lyn, and Tim Fywell. The first series debuted on BBC One on 29 April 2014, the second series debuted on 9 February 2016, and the third series will debut on 1 January 2023. In May 2015, "Happy Valley" won the BAFTA Award for Best Drama Series.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Catherine Cawood (Sarah Lancashire) is a strong-willed police sergeant in West Yorkshire, still coming to terms with the suicide of her teenage daughter, Becky, eight years earlier. Cawood is now divorced from her husband and living with her sister, Clare (Siobhan Finneran), a recovering alcoholic and heroin addict, who is helping her bring up Becky's young son, Ryan (Rhys Connah), the product of rape. Neither Catherine's ex-husband nor their adult son, Daniel, want anything to do with Ryan. Catherine hears that Tommy Lee Royce (James Norton), the man responsible for the brutal rape that impregnated Becky and drove her to suicide shortly after Ryan was born, is out of prison after serving eight years for drug charges. Catherine soon becomes obsessed with finding Royce, unaware that he is involved in the kidnapping of Ann Gallagher (Charlie Murphy), a plot instigated by Kevin Weatherill (Steve Pemberton) and orchestrated by Ashley Cowgill (Joe Armstrong). Things quickly take a dark turn as the abductors scramble to keep the kidnapping secret, although Catherine is on to them.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Eighteen months after the events of the first series, Catherine Cawood (Sarah Lancashire) is back at work and has won the Queen's Police Medal (QPM) for gallantry, for rescuing Ann Gallagher (Charlie Murphy) from Tommy Lee Royce (James Norton), who is serving a life sentence in prison. But when Royce's mother is killed, Catherine finds herself implicated in a string of murders. While trying to prove her innocence, Catherine is tasked with investigating a human trafficking operation linked to the serial killings. Meanwhile, senior HMIT officers Detective Superintendent Andy Shepard (Vincent Franklin) and Detective Inspector Jodie Shackleton (Katherine Kelly) begin to suspect that the supposed fourth victim of the serial killer, Victoria Fleming (Amelia Bullmore), was murdered by someone else. Gradually their investigation starts to lead them towards Victoria's actual killer: police detective John Wadsworth (Kevin Doyle), whom Fleming had been blackmailing. Catherine's grandson, Ryan, develops a friendship with a new teaching assistant, Miss Wealand (Shirley Henderson), who is secretly a prison groupie infatuated with Royce. Royce, whom the court has forbidden from having any contact with Ryan, is using Wealand to try to build a relationship with Ryan and get revenge on Catherine. Ryan increasingly concerns his family by asking questions about his father and even suggests Royce should be forgiven.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: On 22 November 2012, Ben Stephenson announced the commissioning of "Happy Valley" for BBC One. The programme was written by Sally Wainwright, produced by Karen Lewis, and directed by Euros Lyn, Sally Wainwright and Tim Fywell.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Filming began in the Calder Valley in November 2013. Locations in the area included Todmorden, Luddenden, Mytholmroyd, Bradford, Keighley, Sowerby Bridge, Hebden Bridge, and Heptonstall. Huddersfield, Halifax, Bradford, Leeds and other West Yorkshire cities are mentioned, though not main filming locations. A former police station (Station Road, Sowerby Bridge) was used for some scenes, and additional filming took place at North Light Film Studios at Brookes Mill, Huddersfield.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: The name "Happy Valley" is what local police in the Calder Valley call the area because of its drug problem.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: In the series one premiere episode, Ryan points out to Catherine, who is visiting her daughter Becky's grave in the next row, that visitors have left pens at Sylvia Plath's grave.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: A second series was commissioned on 18 August 2014. Filming began in August 2015, and the first episode was broadcast on 9 February 2016. The second series was written by Wainwright, produced by Lewis, and directed by Lyn and Wainwright. Catherine's workplace is a former police station in Sowerby Bridge, and her home and local pub (two other main filming locations) are based in Hebden Bridge. The prison scenes were filmed at Oakham Enterprise Park in Rutland, which was HMP Ashwell until its closure.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: The main character, "Sergeant Cawood", is mentioned in the third episode of the fifth series of "Last Tango in Halifax", which aired on BBC One on 9 March 2020. This series was also created and written by Wainwright, set in Halifax, and also stars Sarah Lancashire.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: In October 2020, Wainwright confirmed that there would be a third series and that she was in the "early stages" of writing it.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: The first episode aired on 29 April 2014 at 21:00. It garnered 8.64 million viewers, and it was the second most watched show of the week (commencing 28 April 2014) for BBC One. The BBC reported that the show received an average consolidated audience of 8.21 million viewers, over six episodes, and an additional 8.1 million requests for the show on BBC iPlayer. "Radio Times" called "Happy Valley" a "word-of-mouth hit" which "steadily became a success outside the normal audience for the slot and channel."


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: After "Episode 1" aired, Ofcom received four complaints under the category "violence and dangerous behaviour", but they did not pursue the matter.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Reviews from the media have been overwhelmingly positive, and the show has received 100% rating critic review on Rotten Tomatoes. However, some reviewers have criticised the show for its graphic content, especially in "Episode 3" and "Episode 4".


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: In response to the criticism, "Happy Valley"s creator-writer, Wainwright, defended the show as "a quality, well-written drama" and stated, "Judging by the amount of email, texts, tweets I've had, I don't think anyone is asking me to apologise." In an interview with "Radio Times", Wainwright said the level of violence had been carefully considered and it was done responsibly, by showing the psychological and physical damage suffered by Catherine.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: Other critics have praised the show. Vicky Frost of "The Guardian" wrote: "To get hung up on the violence of this BBC1 kidnap drama misses the point. It is beautifully written by Sally Wainwright, draws an astonishing performance from Sarah Lancashire—and between them, they have created something truly unmissable." Gerard O'Donovan of "The Telegraph" called "Happy Valley" "complex, thrilling and brilliantly written and acted", and "one of the best watches of 2014." In September 2019, "The Guardian" ranked the show 11th on its list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century, calling it "a corrective to cliché-ridden and frequently blokey police procedurals", and one that "pulsated with poignant realness".


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: In May 2015, "Happy Valley" won the BAFTA Award for Best Drama Series. In 2014, it had won a TV Choice Award for Best New Drama; Sarah Lancashire was named Best Actress at the same time. The series was also voted the best TV programme of 2014 by readers of "Radio Times".


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: BBC Shop released "Happy Valley" series one on DVD, in regions two and four, on 16 June 2014. The DVD includes two discs, featuring 351 minutes' worth of footage, and has an age certificate of 15. All six episodes of the series were released on iTunes, both in standard and high definition.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: On 20 August 2014, the series was further released on Netflix in Canada and the USA, marketed as a "Netflix Original". However, it departed Netflix in March 2020.


title: Happy Valley (TV series)

text: In the summer of 2016 series 1 of "Happy Valley" was released on Netflix in the UK and is currently repeated on the channel W. A year later series 2 was released on Netflix in the UK.


title: French people

text: The French people () are an ethnic group and nation primarily located in Western Europe that share a common French culture, history, and language, identified with the country of France.


title: French people

text: The French people, especially the native speakers of langues d'oïl from northern and central France, are primarily the descendants of Gauls (including the Belgae) and Romans (or Gallo-Romans, western European Celtic and Italic peoples), as well as Germanic peoples such as the Franks, the Visigoths, the Suebi and the Burgundians who settled in Gaul from east of the Rhine after the fall of the Roman Empire, as well as various later waves of lower-level irregular migration that have continued to the present day. The Norse also settled in Normandy in the 10th century and contributed significantly to the ancestry of the Normans. Furthermore, regional ethnic minorities also exist within France that have distinct lineages, languages and cultures such as Bretons in Brittany, Occitans in Occitania, Basques in the French Basque Country, Catalans in northern Catalonia, Germans in Alsace, and Flemings in French Flanders.


title: French people

text: France has long been a patchwork of local customs and regional differences, and while most French people still speak the French language as their mother tongue, languages like Picard, Poitevin-Saintongeais, Franco-Provencal, Occitan, Catalan, Auvergnat, Corsican, Basque, French Flemish, Lorraine Franconian, Alsatian, Norman, and Breton remain spoken in their respective regions. Arabic is also widely spoken, arguably the largest minority language in France as of the 21st century (a spot previously held by Breton and Occitan).


title: French people

text: Modern French society is a melting pot. From the middle of the 19th century, it experienced a high rate of inward migration, mainly consisting of Spaniards, Portuguese, Italians, Arab-Berbers, Jews, Sub-Saharan Africans, Chinese, and other peoples from Africa, the Middle East and East Asia, and the government, defining France as an inclusive nation with universal values, advocated assimilation through which immigrants were expected to adhere to French values and cultural norms. Nowadays, while the government has let newcomers retain their distinctive cultures since the mid-1980s and requires from them a mere integration, French citizens still equate their nationality with citizenship as does French law.


title: French people

text: In addition to mainland France, French people and people of French descent can be found internationally, in overseas departments and territories of France such as the French West Indies ("French Caribbean"), and in foreign countries with significant French-speaking population groups or not, such as the United States ("French Americans"), Canada ("French Canadians"), Argentina ("French Argentines"), Brazil ("French Brazilians"), Mexico ("French Mexicans"), Chile ("French Chileans") and Uruguay ("French Uruguayans").


title: French people

text: To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of one's origin, race, or religion ("sans distinction d'origine, de race ou de religion"). According to its principles, France has devoted itself to the destiny of a "proposition nation", a generic territory where people are bounded only by the French language and the assumed willingness to live together, as defined by Ernest Renan's ""plébiscite de tous les jours"" ('everyday plebiscite') on the willingness to live together, in Renan's 1882 essay "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?").


title: French people

text: The debate concerning the integration of this view with the principles underlying the European Community remains open.


title: French people

text: France has been historically open to immigration, although this has changed in recent years. Referring to this perceived openness, Gertrude Stein, wrote: "America is my country but Paris is my home". Indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries (for instance, this is the case with Switzerland: one can be both French and Swiss). The European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector (though not as trainees in reserved branches, e.g., as magistrates).


title: French people

text: Seeing itself as an inclusive nation with universal values, France has always valued and strongly advocated assimilation. However, the success of such assimilation has recently been called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves ("communautarisme"). The 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs ("les quartiers sensibles") were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts (as appeared before in other countries like the US and the UK) but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration.


title: French people

text: Historically, the heritage of the French people is mostly of Celtic or Gallic, Latin (Romans) origin, descending from the ancient and medieval populations of Gauls or Celts from the Atlantic to the Rhone Alps, Germanic tribes that settled France from east of the Rhine and Belgium after the fall of the Roman Empire such as the Franks, Burgundians, Allemanni, Visigoths, and Suebi, Latin and Roman tribes such as Ligurians and Gallo-Romans, Basques, and Norse populations largely settling in Normandy at the beginning of the 10th century as well as "Bretons" (Celtic Britons) settling in Brittany in Western France.


title: French people

text: The name "France" etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire.


title: French people

text: In the pre-Roman era, Gaul (an area of Western Europe that encompassed all of what is known today as France, Belgium, part of Germany and Switzerland, and Northern Italy) was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Their ancestors were Celts who came from Central Europe in the 7th century BCE or earlier, and non-Celtic peoples including the Ligures, Aquitanians and Basques in Aquitaine. The Belgae, who lived in the northern and eastern areas, may have had Germanic admixture; many of these peoples had already spoken Gaulish by the time of the Roman conquest.


title: French people

text: Gaul was militarily conquered in 58–51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, except for the south-east which had already been conquered about one century earlier. Over the next six centuries, the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture. In the late Roman era, in addition to colonists from elsewhere in the Empire and Gaulish natives, Gallia also became home to some immigrant populations of Germanic and Scythian origin, such as the Alans.


title: French people

text: The Gaulish language is thought to have survived into the 6th century in France, despite considerable Romanization of the local material culture. Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French, with effects including loanwords and calques (including "oui", the word for "yes"), sound changes, and influences in conjugation and word order. Today, the last redoubt of Celtic language in France can be found in the northwestern region of Brittany, although this is not the result of a survival of Gaulish language but of a 5th-century AD migration of Brythonic speaking Celts from Britain.


title: French people

text: The Vulgar Latin in the region of Gallia took on a distinctly local character, some of which is attested in graffiti, which evolved into the Gallo-Romance dialects which include French and its closest relatives.


title: French people

text: With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture: the Franks, from which the word "French" derives. The Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as "laeti" during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands and Germany between the 3rd and 7th centuries. Initially, they served in the Roman army and obtained important commands. Their language is still spoken as a kind of Dutch (French Flemish) in northern France (French Flanders). The Alamans, another Germanic people immigrated to Alsace, hence the Alemannic German now spoken there. The Alamans were competitors of the Franks, and their name is the origin of the French word for "German": "Allemand".


title: French people

text: By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France. The other major Germanic people to arrive in France, after the Burgundians and the Visigoths, were the Norsemen or Northmen. Known by the shortened name "Norman" in France, these were Viking raiders from modern Denmark and Norway. They settled with Anglo-Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons from the Danelaw in the region known today as Normandy in the 9th and 10th centuries. This later became a fiefdom of the Kingdom of France under King Charles III. The Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process. It was the Normans who, two centuries later, would go on to conquer England and Southern Italy.


title: French people

text: Eventually, though, the largely autonomous Duchy of Normandy was incorporated back into the royal domain (i. e. the territory under direct control of the French king) in the Middle Ages. In the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, at most 120,000 Franks, who were predominantly French-speaking Western Christians, ruled over 350,000 Muslims, Jews, and native Eastern Christians.


title: French people

text: Unlike elsewhere in Europe, France experienced relatively low levels of emigration to the Americas, with the exception of the Huguenots, due to a lower birthrate than in the rest of Europe. However, significant emigration of mainly Roman Catholic French populations led to the settlement of the Province of Acadia, Canada (New France) and Louisiana, all (at the time) French possessions, as well as colonies in the West Indies, Mascarene islands and Africa.


title: French people

text: On 30 December 1687, a community of French Huguenots settled in South Africa. Most of these originally settled in the Cape Colony, but have since been quickly absorbed into the Afrikaner population. After Champlain's founding of Quebec City in 1608, it became the capital of New France. Encouraging settlement was difficult, and while some immigration did occur, by 1763 New France only had a population of some 65,000. From 1713 to 1787, 30,000 colonists immigrated from France to the Saint-Domingue. In 1805, when the French were forced out of Saint-Domingue (Haiti), 35,000 French settlers were given lands in Cuba.


title: French people

text: By the beginning of the 17th century, some 20% of the total male population of Catalonia was made up of French immigrants.


title: French people

text: In the 18th century and early 19th century, a small migration of French emigrated by official invitation of the Habsburgs to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, now the nations of Austria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia, Serbia and Romania. Some of them, coming from French-speaking communes in Lorraine or being French Swiss "Walsers" from the Valais canton in Switzerland, maintained for some generations the French language and a specific ethnic identity, later labelled as Banat (French: "Français du Banat"). By 1788 there were 8 villages populated by French colonists.


title: French people

text: The French First Republic appeared following the 1789 French Revolution. It replaced the ancient kingdom of France, ruled by the divine right of kings.


title: French people

text: Hobsbawm highlighted the role of conscription, invented by Napoleon, and of the 1880s public instruction laws, which allowed mixing of the various groups of France into a nationalist mold which created the French citizen and his consciousness of membership to a common nation, while the various regional languages of France were progressively eradicated.


title: French people

text: The 1870 Franco-Prussian War, which led to the short-lived Paris Commune of 1871, was instrumental in bolstering patriotic feelings; until World War I (1914–1918), French politicians never completely lost sight of the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region which played a major role in the definition of the French nation and therefore of the French people.


title: French people

text: The decrees of 24 October 1870 by Adolphe Crémieux granted automatic and massive French citizenship to all Jewish people of Algeria.


title: French people

text: Successive waves of immigrants during the 19th and 20th centuries were rapidly assimilated into French culture. France's population dynamics began to change in the middle of the 19th century, as France joined the Industrial Revolution. The pace of industrial growth attracted millions of European immigrants over the next century, with especially large numbers arriving from Poland, Belgium, Portugal, Italy, and Spain.


title: French people

text: In the period from 1915 to 1950, many immigrants came from Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Russia, Scandinavia and Yugoslavia. Small but significant numbers of Frenchmen in the North and Northeast regions have relatives in Germany and Great Britain.


title: French people

text: Between 1956 and 1967, about 235,000 North African Jews from Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco also immigrated to France due to the decline of the French empire and following the Six-Day War. Hence, by 1968, Jews of North African origin comprised the majority of the Jewish population of France. As these new immigrants were already culturally French they needed little time to adjust to French society.


title: French people

text: French law made it easy for thousands of settlers ("colons" in French), national French from former colonies of North and East Africa, India and Indochina to live in mainland France. It is estimated that 20,000 settlers were living in Saigon in 1945, and there were 68,430 European settlers living in Madagascar in 1958. 1.6 million European "pieds noirs" settlers migrated from Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. In just a few months in 1962, 900,000 pied noir settlers left Algeria in the most massive relocation of population in Europe since the World War II. In the 1970s, over 30,000 French settlers left Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime as the Pol Pot government confiscated their farms and land properties.


title: French people

text: In the 1960s, a second wave of immigration came to France, which was needed for reconstruction purposes and for cheaper labour after the devastation brought on by World War II. French entrepreneurs went to Maghreb countries looking for cheap labour, thus encouraging work-immigration to France. Their settlement was officialized with Jacques Chirac's family regrouping act of 1976 ("regroupement familial"). Since then, immigration has become more varied, although France stopped being a major immigration country compared to other European countries. The large impact of North African and Arab immigration is the greatest and has brought racial, socio-cultural and religious questions to a country seen as homogenously European, French and Christian for thousands of years. Nevertherless, according to Justin Vaïsse, professor at Sciences Po Paris, integration of Muslim immigrants is happening as part of a background evolution and recent studies confirmed the results of their assimilation, showing that "North Africans seem to be characterized by a high degree of cultural integration reflected in a relatively high propensity to exogamy" with rates ranging from 20% to 50%. According to Emmanuel Todd the relatively high exogamy among French Algerians can be explained by the colonial link between France and Algeria.


title: French people

text: A small French descent group also subsequently arrived from Latin America (Argentina, Chile and Uruguay) in the 1970s.


title: French people

text: Most French people speak the French language as their mother tongue, but certain languages like Norman, Occitan languages, Corsican, Euskara, French Flemish and Breton remain spoken in certain regions (see Language policy in France). There have also been periods of history when a majority of French people had other first languages (local languages such as Occitan, Catalan, Alsatian, West Flemish, Lorraine Franconian, Gallo, Picard or Ch'timi and Arpitan). Today, many immigrants speak another tongue at home.


title: French people

text: According to historian Eric Hobsbawm, "the French language has been essential to the concept of 'France'," although in 1789, 50 percent of the French people did not speak it at all, and only 12 to 13 percent spoke it fairly well; even in oïl languages zones, it was not usually used except in cities, and even there not always in the outlying districts.


title: French people

text: Abroad, the French language is spoken in many different countries – in particular the former French colonies. Nevertheless, speaking French is distinct from being a French citizen. Thus, "francophonie", or the speaking of French, must not be confused with French citizenship or ethnicity. For example, French speakers in Switzerland are not "French citizens".


title: French people

text: Native English-speaking Blacks on the island of Saint-Martin hold French nationality even though they do not speak French as a first language, while their neighbouring French-speaking Haitian immigrants (who also speak a French-creole) remain foreigners. Large numbers of people of French ancestry outside Europe speak other first languages, particularly English, throughout most of North America (with Quebec and Acadians in the Canadian Maritimes being notable, not the only, exceptions), Spanish or Portuguese in southern South America, and Afrikaans in South Africa.


title: French people

text: The adjective "French" can be used to mean either "French citizen" or "French-speaker", and usage varies depending on the context, with the former being common in France. The latter meaning is often used in Canada, when discussing matters internal to Canada.


title: French people

text: Generations of settlers have migrated over the centuries to France, creating a variegated grouping of peoples. Thus the historian John F. Drinkwater states, "The French are, paradoxically, strongly conscious of belonging to a single nation, but they hardly constitute a unified ethnic group by any scientific gauge."


title: French people

text: The modern French are the descendants of mixtures including Romans, Celts, Iberians, Ligurians and Greeks in southern France, Germanic peoples arriving at the end of the Roman Empire such as the Franks and the Burgundians, and some Vikings who mixed with the Normans and settled mostly in Normandy in the 9th century.


title: French people

text: According to Dominique Schnapper, "The classical conception of the nation is that of an entity which, opposed to the ethnic group, affirms itself as an open community, the will to live together expressing itself by the acceptation of the rules of a unified public domain which transcends all particularisms". This conception of the nation as being composed by a "will to live together," supported by the classic lecture of Ernest Renan in 1882, has been opposed by the French far-right, in particular the nationalist "Front National" ("National Front" – FN / now "Rassemblement National" - "National Rally" - RN) party which claims that there is such a thing as a "French ethnic group". The discourse of ethno-nationalist groups such as the Front National (FN), however, advances the concept of "Français de souche" or "indigenous" French.


title: French people

text: The conventional conception of French history starts with Ancient Gaul, and French national identity often views the Gauls as national precursors, either as biological ancestors (hence the refrain "nos ancêtres les Gaulois"), as emotional/spiritual ancestors, or both. Vercingetorix, the Gaulish chieftain who tried to unite the various Gallic tribes of the land against Roman encroachment but was ultimately vanquished by Julius Caesar, is often revered as a "first national hero". In the famously popular French comic "Asterix", the main characters are patriotic Gauls who fight against Roman invaders while in modern days the term "Gaulois" is used in French to distinguish the "native" French from French of immigrant origins. However, despite its occasional nativist usage, the Gaulish identity has also been embraced by French of non-native origins as well: notably, Napoleon III, whose family was ultimately of Corsican and Italian roots, identified France with Gaul and Vercingetorix, and declared that "New France, ancient France, Gaul are one and the same moral person."


title: French people

text: It has been noted that the French view of having Gallic origins has evolved over history. Before the French Revolution, it divided social classes, with the peasants identifying with the native Gauls while the aristocracy identified with the Franks. During the early nineteenth century, intellectuals began using the identification with Gaul instead as a unifying force to bridge divisions within French society with a common national origin myth. Myriam Krepps of the University of Nebraska-Omaha argues that the view of "a unified territory (one land since the beginning of civilization) and a unified people" which de-emphasized "all disparities and the succession of waves of invaders" was first imprinted on the masses by the unified history curriculum of French textbooks in the late 1870s.


title: French people

text: Since the beginning of the Third Republic (1871–1940), the state has not categorized people according to their alleged ethnic origins. Hence, in contrast to the United States Census, French people are not asked to define their ethnic appartenance, whichever it may be. The usage of ethnic and racial categorization is avoided to prevent any case of discrimination; the same regulations apply to religious membership data that cannot be compiled under the French Census. This classic French republican non-essentialist conception of nationality is officialized by the French Constitution, according to which "French" is a nationality, and not a specific ethnicity.


title: French people

text: France sits at the edge of the European peninsula and has seen waves of migration of groups that often settled owing to the presence of physical barriers preventing onward migration. This has led to language and regional cultural variegation, but the extent to which this pattern of migrations showed up in population genetics studies was unclear until the publication of a study in 2019 that used genome wide data. The study identified six different genetic clusters that could be distinguished across populations. The study concluded that the population genetic clusters correlate with linguistic and historical divisions in France and with the presence of geographic barriers such as mountains and major rivers. A population bottleneck was also identified in the fourteenth century, consistent with the timing for the Black Death in Europe.


title: French people

text: French nationality has not meant automatic citizenship. Some categories of French people have been excluded, throughout the years, from full citizenship:


title: French people

text: France was one of the first countries to implement denaturalization laws. Philosopher Giorgio Agamben has pointed out this fact that the 1915 French law which permitted denaturalization with regard to naturalized citizens of "enemy" origins was one of the first example of such legislation, which Nazi Germany later implemented with the 1935 Nuremberg Laws.


title: French people

text: Furthermore, some authors who have insisted on the "crisis of the nation-state" allege that nationality and citizenship are becoming separate concepts. They show as example "international", "supranational citizenship" or "world citizenship" (membership to international nongovernmental organizations such as Amnesty International or Greenpeace). This would indicate a path toward a "postnational citizenship".


title: French people

text: Beside this, modern citizenship is linked to civic participation (also called positive freedom), which implies voting, demonstrations, petitions, activism, etc. Therefore, social exclusion may lead to deprivation of citizenship. This has led various authors (Philippe Van Parijs, Jean-Marc Ferry, Alain Caillé, André Gorz) to theorize a guaranteed minimum income which would impede exclusion from citizenship.


title: French people

text: In France, the conception of citizenship teeters between universalism and multiculturalism. French citizenship has been defined for a long time by three factors: integration, individual adherence, and the primacy of the soil ("jus soli"). Political integration (which includes but is not limited to racial integration) is based on voluntary policies which aims at creating a common identity, and the interiorization by each individual of a common cultural and historic legacy. Since in France, the state preceded the nation, voluntary policies have taken an important place in the creation of this common cultural identity.


title: French people

text: On the other hand, the interiorization of a common legacy is a slow process, which B. Villalba compares to acculturation. According to him, "integration is therefore the result of a double will: the nation's will to create a common culture for all members of the nation, and the communities' will living in the nation to recognize the legitimacy of this common culture". Villalba warns against confusing recent processes of integration (related to the so-called "second generation immigrants", who are subject to discrimination), with older processes which have made modern France. Villalba thus shows that any democratic nation characterize itself by its project of transcending all forms of particular memberships (whether biological – or seen as such, ethnic, historic, economic, social, religious or cultural). The citizen thus emancipates himself from the particularisms of identity which characterize himself to attain a more "universal" dimension. He is a citizen, before being a member of a community or of a social class


title: French people

text: Therefore, according to Villalba, "a democratic nation is, by definition, multicultural as it gathers various populations, which differs by their regional origins (Auvergnats, Bretons, Corsicans or Lorrainers...), their national origins (immigrant, son or grandson of an immigrant), or religious origins (Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Muslims, Agnostics or Atheists...)."


title: French people

text: Ernest Renan described this republican conception in his famous 11 March 1882 conference at the Sorbonne, "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?" ("What is a Nation?"). According to him, to belong to a nation is a subjective act which always has to be repeated, as it is not assured by objective criteria. A nation-state is not composed of a single homogeneous ethnic group (a community), but of a variety of individuals willing to live together.


title: French people

text: Renan's non-essentialist definition, which forms the basis of the French Republic, is diametrically opposed to the German ethnic conception of a nation, first formulated by Fichte. The German conception is usually qualified in France as an "exclusive" view of nationality, as it includes only the members of the corresponding ethnic group, while the Republican conception thinks itself as universalist, following the Enlightenment's ideals officialized by the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. While Ernest Renan's arguments were also concerned by the debate about the disputed Alsace-Lorraine region, he said that not only one referendum had to be made in order to ask the opinions of the Alsatian people, but also a "daily referendum" should be made concerning all those citizens wanting to live in the French nation-state. This "plébiscite de tous les jours" ('everyday plebiscite') might be compared to a social contract or even to the classic definition of consciousness as an act which repeats itself endlessly.


title: French people

text: Henceforth, contrary to the German definition of a nation based on objective criteria, such as race or ethnic group, which may be defined by the existence of a common language, among other criteria, the people of France is defined as all the people living in the French nation-state and willing to do so, i.e. by its citizenship. This definition of the French nation-state contradicts the common opinion, which holds that the concept of the French people identifies with one particular ethnic group. This contradiction explains the seeming paradox encountered when attempting to identify a "French ethnic group": the French conception of the nation is radically opposed to (and was thought in opposition to) the German conception of the "Volk" ("ethnic group").


title: French people

text: This universalist conception of citizenship and of the nation has influenced the French model of colonization. While the British empire preferred an indirect rule system, which did not mix the colonized people with the colonists, the French Republic theoretically chose an integration system and considered parts of its colonial empire as France itself and its population as French people. The ruthless conquest of Algeria thus led to the integration of the territory as a Département of the French territory.


title: French people

text: This ideal also led to the ironic sentence which opened up history textbooks in France as in its colonies: "Our ancestors the Gauls...". However, this universal ideal, rooted in the 1789 French Revolution ("bringing liberty to the people"), suffered from the racism that impregnated colonialism. Thus, in Algeria, the Crémieux decrees at the end of the 19th century gave French citizenship to north African Jews, while Muslims were regulated by the 1881 Indigenous Code. Liberal author Tocqueville himself considered that the British model was better adapted than the French one and did not balk before the cruelties of General Bugeaud's conquest. He went as far as advocating racial segregation there.


title: French people

text: This paradoxical tension between the universalist conception of the French nation and the racist attitudes intermingled into colonization is most obvious in Ernest Renan himself, who went as far as advocating a kind of eugenics. In a 26 June 1856 letter to Arthur de Gobineau, author of "An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races" (1853–55) and one of the first theoreticians of "scientific racism", he wrote:


title: French people

text: The fact of race is huge originally; but it's been continually losing its importance, and sometimes, as in France, it happens to disappear completely. Does that mean total decadence? Yes, certainly from the standpoint of the stability of institutions, the originality of character, a certain nobility that I hold to be the most important factor in the conjunction of human affairs. But also what compensations! No doubt if the noble elements mixed in the blood of a people happened to disappear completely, then there would be a demeaning equality, like that of some Eastern states and in some respects China. But it is in fact a very small amount of noble blood put into the circulation of a people that is enough to ennoble them, at least as to historical effects; this is how France, a nation so completely fallen into commonness, in practice plays on the world stage the role of a gentleman. Setting aside the quite inferior races whose intermingling with the great races would only poison the human species, I see in the future a homogeneous humanity.


title: French people

text: During the "Ancien Régime" (before the 1789 French revolution), "jus soli" (or "right of territory") was predominant. Feudal law recognized personal allegiance to the sovereign, but the subjects of the sovereign were defined by their birthland. According to the 3 September 1791 Constitution, those who are born in France from a foreign father and have fixed their residency in France, or those who, after being born in a foreign country from a French father, have come to France and have sworn their civil oath, become French citizens. Because of the war, distrust toward foreigners led to the obligation on the part of this last category to swear a civil oath in order to gain French nationality.


title: French people

text: However, the Napoleonic Code would insist on "jus sanguinis" ("right of blood"). Paternity, against Napoléon Bonaparte's wish, became the principal criterion of nationality, and therefore broke for the first time with the ancient tradition of "jus soli", by breaking any residency condition toward children born abroad from French parents. However, according to Patrick Weil, it was not "ethnically motivated" but "only meant that family links transmitted by the pater familias had become more important than subjecthood".


title: French people

text: With the 7 February 1851 law, voted during the Second Republic (1848–1852), "double "jus soli"" was introduced in French legislation, combining birth origin with paternity. Thus, it gave French nationality to the child of a foreigner, if both are born in France, except if the year following his coming of age he reclaims a foreign nationality (thus prohibiting dual nationality). This 1851 law was in part passed because of conscription concerns. This system more or less remained the same until the 1993 reform of the Nationality Code, created by 9 January 1973 law.


title: French people

text: The 1993 reform, which defines the Nationality law, is deemed controversial by some. It commits young people born in France to foreign parents to solicit French nationality between the ages of 16 and 21. This has been criticized, some arguing that the principle of equality before the law was not complied with, since French nationality was no longer given automatically at birth, as in the classic "double "jus soli"" law, but was to be requested when approaching adulthood. Henceforth, children born in France from French parents were differentiated from children born in France from foreign parents, creating a hiatus between these two categories.


title: French people

text: The 1993 reform was prepared by the Pasqua laws. The first Pasqua law, in 1986, restricts residence conditions in France and facilitates expulsions. With this 1986 law, a child born in France from foreign parents can only acquire French nationality if he or she demonstrates his or her will to do so, at age 16, by proving that he or she has been schooled in France and has a sufficient command of the French language. This new policy is symbolized by the expulsion of 101 Malians by charter.


title: French people

text: The second Pasqua law on "immigration control" makes regularisation of illegal aliens more difficult and, in general, residence conditions for foreigners much harder. Charles Pasqua, who said on 11 May 1987: "Some have reproached me of having used a plane, but, if necessary, I will use trains", declared to "Le Monde" on 2 June 1993: "France has been a country of immigration, it doesn't want to be one anymore. Our aim, taking into account the difficulties of the economic situation, is to tend toward 'zero immigration' (""immigration zéro"")".


title: French people

text: Therefore, modern French nationality law combines four factors: paternality or 'right of blood', birth origin, residency and the will expressed by a foreigner, or a person born in France to foreign parents, to become French.


title: French people

text: The 1992 Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of European citizenship, which comes in addition to national citizenships.


title: French people

text: By definition, a "foreigner" is someone who does not have French nationality. Therefore, it is "not" a synonym of "immigrant", as a foreigner may be born in France. On the other hand, a Frenchman born abroad may be considered an immigrant (e.g. former prime minister Dominique de Villepin who lived the majority of his life abroad). In most of the cases, however, a foreigner is an immigrant, and vice versa. They either benefit from legal sojourn in France, which, after a residency of ten years, makes it possible to ask for naturalisation. If they do not, they are considered "illegal aliens". Some argue that this privation of nationality and citizenship does not square with their contribution to the national economic efforts, and thus to economic growth.


title: French people

text: The INSEE does not collect data about language, religion, or ethnicity – on the principle of the secular and unitary nature of the French Republic.


title: French people

text: It is said by some that France adheres to the ideal of a single, homogeneous national culture, supported by the absence of hyphenated identities and by avoidance of the very term "ethnicity" in French discourse.


title: French people

text: As of 2008, the French national institute of statistics INSEE estimated that 5.3 million foreign-born immigrants and 6.5 million direct descendants of immigrants (born in France with at least one immigrant parent) lived in France representing a total of 11.8 million and 19% of the total population in metropolitan France (62.1 million in 2008). Among them, about 5.5 million are of European origin and 4 million of North African origin.


title: French people

text: Between 1848 and 1939, 1 million people with French passports emigrated to other countries. The main communities of French ancestry in the New World are found in the United States, Canada and Argentina while sizeable groups are also found in Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Australia.


title: French people

text: There are nearly seven million French speakers out of nine to ten million people of French and partial French ancestry in Canada. The Canadian province of Quebec (2006 census population of 7,546,131), where more than 95 percent of the people speak French as either their first, second or even third language, is the center of French life on the Western side of the Atlantic; however, French settlement began further east, in Acadia. Quebec is home to vibrant French-language arts, media, and learning. There are sizable French-Canadian communities scattered throughout the other provinces of Canada, particularly in Ontario, which has about 1 million people with French ancestry (400 000 who have French as their mother tongue), Manitoba, and New Brunswick, which is the only fully bilingual province and is 33 percent Acadian.


title: French people

text: The United States is home to an estimated 13 to 16 million people of French descent, or 4 to 5 percent of the US population, particularly in Louisiana, New England, Northern New York, and parts of the Midwest. The French community in Louisiana consists of the Creoles, the descendants of the French settlers who arrived when Louisiana was a French colony, and the Cajuns, the descendants of Acadian refugees from the Great Upheaval. Very few creoles remain in New Orleans in present times. In New England, the vast majority of French immigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries came not from France, but from over the border in Quebec, the Quebec diaspora. These French Canadians arrived to work in the timber mills and textile plants that appeared throughout the region as it industrialized. Today, nearly 25 percent of the population of New Hampshire is of French ancestry, the highest of any state.


title: French people

text: English and Dutch colonies of pre-Revolutionary America attracted large numbers of French Huguenots fleeing religious persecution in France. In the Dutch colony of New Netherland that later became New York, northern New Jersey, and western Connecticut, these French Huguenots, nearly identical in religion to the Dutch Reformed Church, assimilated almost completely into the Dutch community. However, large it may have been at one time, it has lost all identity of its French origin, often with the translation of names (examples: "de la Montagne" > "Vandenberg" by translation; "de Vaux" > "DeVos" or "Devoe" by phonetic respelling). Huguenots appeared in all of the English colonies and likewise assimilated. Even though this mass settlement approached the size of the settlement of the French settlement of Quebec, it has assimilated into the English-speaking mainstream to a much greater extent than other French colonial groups and has left few traces of cultural influence. New Rochelle, New York is named after La Rochelle, France, one of the sources of Huguenot emigration to the Dutch colony; and New Paltz, New York, is one of the few non-urban settlements of Huguenots that did not undergo massive recycling of buildings in the usual redevelopment of such older, larger cities as New York City or New Rochelle.


title: French people

text: French Argentines form the third largest ancestry group in Argentina, after Italian and Spanish Argentines. French immigration to Argentina peaked between 1871 and 1890, though considerable immigration continued until the late 1940s. At least half of these immigrants came from Southwestern France, especially from the Basque Country, Béarn (Basses-Pyrénées accounted for more than 20% of immigrants), Bigorre and Rouergue, but significant numbers also from Savoy and the Paris region. Today around 6.8 million Argentines have some degree of French ancestry or are of partial or wholly of French descent (up to 17% of the total population). French Argentines had a considerable influence over the country, particularly on its architectural styles and literary traditions, as well as on the scientific field. Some notable Argentines of French descent include writer Julio Cortázar, physiologist and Nobel Prize winner Bernardo Houssay or activist Alicia Moreau de Justo.


title: French people

text: With something akin to Hispanic culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Argentine society.


title: French people

text: French Uruguayans form the third largest ancestry group in Uruguay, after Italian and Spanish Uruguayans. During the first half of the 19th century, Uruguay received the most French immigrants of any South American country. It constituted back then the second receptor of French immigrants in the New World after the United States. While the United States received 195,971 French immigrants between 1820 and 1855, 13,922 Frenchmen, most of them from the Basque Country and Béarn, left for Uruguay between 1833 and 1842.


title: French people

text: The majority of immigrants were coming from the Basque Country, Béarn and Bigorre. Today, there are an estimated at 300,000 French descendants in Uruguay.


title: French people

text: French migration to the United Kingdom is a phenomenon that has occurred at various points in history. Many British people have French ancestry, and French remains the foreign language most learned by British people. Much of the UK's mediaeval aristocracy was descended from Franco-Norman migrants at the time of the Norman Conquest of England, and also during the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenet dynasty.


title: French people

text: According to a study by Ancestry.co.uk, 3 million British people are of French descent. Among those are television presenters Davina McCall and Louis Theroux. There are currently an estimated 400,000 French people in the United Kingdom, most of them in London.


title: French people

text: The first French emigration in Costa Rica was a very small number to Cartago in the mid-nineteenth century. Due to World War II, a group of exiled French (mostly soldiers and families orphaned) migrated to the country.


title: French people

text: In Mexico, a sizeable population can trace its ancestry to France. After Spain, this makes France the second largest European ethnicity in the country. The bulk of French immigrants arrived in Mexico during the 19th and early 20th centuries.


title: French people

text: From 1814 to 1955, inhabitants of Barcelonnette and the surrounding Ubaye Valley emigrated to Mexico by the dozens. Many established textile businesses between Mexico and France. At the turn of the 20th century, there were 5,000 French families from the Barcelonnette region registered with the French Consulate in Mexico. While 90% stayed in Mexico, some returned, and from 1880 to 1930, built grand mansions called "Maisons Mexicaines" and left a mark upon the city. Today the descendants of the Barcelonettes account for 80,000 descendants distributed around Mexico.


title: French people

text: In the 1860s, during the Second Mexican Empire ruled by Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico—in collaboration with Mexican conservatives and part of Napoleon III's plan to create a Latin empire in the New World (indeed responsible for coining the term of "Amérique latine", "Latin America" in English)-- many French soldiers, merchants, and families set foot upon Mexican soil. Emperor Maximilian's consort, Carlota of Mexico, a princess of Belgium, was a granddaughter of Louis-Philippe of France.


title: French people

text: Many Mexicans of French descent live in cities or states such as Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Sinaloa, Monterrey, Puebla, Guadalajara, and the capital, Mexico City, where French surnames such as Chairez/Chaires, Renaux, Pierres, Michel, Betancourt, Alaniz, Blanc, Ney, Jurado (Jure), Colo (Coleau), Dumas, or Moussier can be found. Today, Mexico has more than 3 million people of full and partial French descent. mainly living in the capital, Puebla, Guadalajara, Veracruz and Querétaro.


title: French people

text: The French came to Chile in the 18th century, arriving at Concepción as merchants, and in the mid-19th century to cultivate vines in the haciendas of the Central Valley, the homebase of world-famous Chilean wine. The Araucanía Region also has an important number of people of French ancestry, as the area hosted settlers arrived by the second half of the 19th century as farmers and shopkeepers. With something akin to Hispanic culture, the French immigrants quickly assimilated into mainstream Chilean society.


title: French people

text: From 1840 to 1940, around 25,000 Frenchmen immigrated to Chile. 80% of them were coming from Southwestern France, especially from Basses-Pyrénées (Basque country and Béarn), Gironde, Charente-Inférieure and Charente and regions situated between Gers and Dordogne.


title: French people

text: Most of French immigrants settled in the country between 1875 and 1895. Between October 1882 and December 1897, 8,413 Frenchmen settled in Chile, making up 23% of immigrants (second only after Spaniards) from this period. In 1863, 1,650 French citizens were registered in Chile. At the end of the century they were almost 30,000. According to the census of 1865, out of 23,220 foreigners established in Chile, 2,483 were French, the third largest European community in the country after Germans and Englishmen. In 1875, the community reached 3,000 members, 12% of the almost 25,000 foreigners established in the country. It was estimated that 10,000 Frenchmen were living in Chile in 1912, 7% of the 149,400 Frenchmen living in Latin America.


title: French people

text: Former president of Chile Michelle Bachelet is of French origin, as was Augusto Pinochet. A large percentage of politicians, businessmen, professionals and entertainers in the country are of French ancestry.


title: French people

text: It is estimated that there are 1 million to 2 million or more Brazilians of French descent today. This gives Brazil the second largest French community in South America.


title: French people

text: From 1819 to 1940, 40,383 Frenchmen immigrated to Brazil. Most of them settled in the country between 1884 and 1925 (8,008 from 1819 to 1883, 25,727 from 1884 to 1925, 6,648 from 1926 to 1940). Another source estimates that around 100,000 French people immigrated to Brazil between 1850 and 1965.


title: French people

text: The French community in Brazil numbered 592 in 1888 and 5,000 in 1915. It was estimated that 14,000 Frenchmen were living in Brazil in 1912, 9% of the 149,400 Frenchmen living in Latin America, the second largest community after Argentina (100,000).


title: French people

text: The Brazilian Imperial Family originates from the Portuguese House of Braganza and the last emperor's heir and daughter, Isabella, married Prince Gaston d'Orleans, Comte d'Eu, a member of the House of Orléans, a cadet branch of the Bourbons, the French Royal Family.


title: French people

text: The first French immigrants were politicians such as Nicolas Raoul and Isidore Saget, Henri Terralonge and officers Aluard, Courbal, Duplessis, Gibourdel and Goudot. Later, when the Central American Federation was divided in 7 countries, Some of them settled to Costa Rica, others to Nicaragua, although the majority still remained in Guatemala. The relationships start to 1827, politicians, scientists, painters, builders, singers and some families emigrated to Guatemala. Later in a Conservative government, annihilated nearly all the relations between France and Guatemala, and most of French immigrants went to Costa Rica, but these relationships were again return to the late of the nineteenth century.


title: French people

text: Elsewhere in the Americas, French settlement took place in the 16th to 20th centuries. They can be found in Haiti, Cuba (refugees from the Haitian Revolution) and Uruguay. The Betancourt political families who influenced Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Puerto Rico, Bolivia and Panama have some French ancestry.


title: French people

text: Large numbers of Huguenots are known to have settled in the United Kingdom (ab 50 000), Ireland (10,000), in Protestant areas of Germany (especially the city of Berlin) (ab 40 000), in the Netherlands (ab 50 000), in South Africa and in North America. Many people in these countries still bear French names.


title: French people

text: In Asia, a proportion of people with mixed French and Vietnamese descent can be found in Vietnam. Including the number of persons of pure French descent. Many are descendants of French settlers who intermarried with local Vietnamese people. Approximately 5,000 in Vietnam are of pure French descent, however, this number is disputed.


title: French people

text: A small proportion of people with mixed French and Khmer descent can be found in Cambodia. These people number approximately 16,000 in Cambodia, among this number, approximately 3,000 are of pure French descent.


title: French people

text: A few thousand French citizens of Indian, European or creole ethnic origins live in the former French possessions in India (mostly Pondicherry).


title: French people

text: In addition to these Countries, small minorities can be found elsewhere in Asia; the majority of these living as expatriates.


title: French people

text: During the great power era, about 100 French families came to Sweden. They had mainly emigrated to Sweden as a result of religious oppression. These include the Bedoire, De Laval and De Flon families. Several of whom worked as merchants and craftsmen. In Stockholm, the French Lutheran congregation was formed in 1687, later dissolved in 1791, which was not really an actual congregation but rather a series of private gatherings of religious practice.


title: French people

text: Apart from Québécois, Acadians, Cajuns, and Métis, other populations with some French ancestry outside metropolitan France include the "Caldoches" of New Caledonia, Louisiana Creole people of the United States, the so-called "Zoreilles" and "Petits-blancs" of various Indian Ocean islands, as well as populations of the former French colonial empire in Africa and the West Indies.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: Mark Allen Webber (born July 19, 1980) is an American actor, screenwriter, and director known for his roles in the films "Snow Day", "Weapons", "The Laramie Project", and "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World".


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: Webber was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where he spent the first nine years of his life. His mother, Cheri Lynn Honkala, is a noted advocate for the homeless in Philadelphia, and was the vice-presidential nominee of the Green Party in the 2012 presidential election.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: In 1989, he and his single mother moved to Philadelphia, where they spent time homeless, living in cars and abandoned buildings, and struggling to survive during the harsh winters.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: Webber began his acting career in 1998. He favors "offbeat independent productions and challenging roles that involve intense characterization."


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: In March 2019, Webber was cast as Grey McConnell in the ABC crime drama series "Stumptown" which was written by Jason Richman. After the series was ordered, Webber was replaced and the role was recast with Jake Johnson.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: Webber was formerly in a relationship with actress Frankie Shaw, with whom he has a son. The end of their relationship inspired Webber to create his film "The End of Love", which starred himself and his son and premiered at Sundance in January 2012. Webber and Shaw share joint custody of their son.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: In September 2012, Webber began dating Australian actress Teresa Palmer after she contacted him via Twitter. They became engaged in August 2013, and married on December 21, 2013, in Mexico. They have four children: a son (born February 2014), a second son (born December 2016), a daughter (born April 2019), and a second daughter (born August 2021). As of 2013, they reside in the Beachwood Canyon community of Los Angeles.


title: Mark Webber (actor)

text: Webber and his mother are longtime outspoken advocates for the homeless. They have organized protest walks, helped educate voters, and volunteered to provide food and shelter to the urban poor in Philadelphia and elsewhere. Honkala ran for Sheriff of Philadelphia in 2011 with the Green Party on a "no evictions" platform.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: The Hannibal Lecter franchise is an American media franchise based around the titular character, Hannibal Lecter, a brilliant psychiatrist who moonlights as a notorious cannibalistic serial killer, whose assistance is routinely sought out by law enforcement personnel to aid in the capture of other criminals. He originally appeared in a series of novels (starting with "Red Dragon" in 1981) by Thomas Harris. The series has since expanded into film and television.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: The first adaptation was the 1986 film "Manhunter", which was an adaptation of "Red Dragon", directed by Michael Mann.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: The next adaptation was 1991's "The Silence of the Lambs", which was directed by Jonathan Demme and was the first film to feature Anthony Hopkins in the role of Hannibal Lecter. "Silence" was a success, both critically and financially, and went on to become the third film in Academy Awards history to win in all top five categories (Best Actor for Hopkins, Best Actress for Jodie Foster, Best Director for Demme, Best Adapted Screenplay for Ted Tally, and Best Picture).


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: Hopkins once again reprised the role in "Red Dragon", a prequel directed by Brett Ratner. In 2002, Hopkins revealed that he had written a screenplay for another sequel, ending with Clarice Starling killing Lecter, but it was not produced.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: In 2007, "Hannibal Rising" was released. The film is a prequel, directed by Peter Webber and starring Gaspard Ulliel as Lecter.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: In 2013, the TV series "Hannibal" premiered. Developed by Bryan Fuller, it is not a direct adaptation, but based on characters and elements from the novels. Some male characters have become female, such as Freddy Lounds, who is renamed Fredricka "Freddie" Lounds. The series has garnered much critical acclaim since its premiere, winning the 2014 and 2015 Saturn Awards for Best Network Television Series, as well as the inaugural Best Action-Thriller Television Series award in 2016.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: In May 2012, Lifetime announced to develop a television series centered on Starling after her graduation from the FBI academy, which was to be produced by MGM; the project was never picked up and was shelved. CBS later developed the series of the same name, with Alex Kurtzman and Jenny Lumet as producers, as a sequel to "The Silence of the Lambs" set in 1993, starring Rebecca Breeds as Starling. The show premiered in 2021.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: The "Hannibal Lecter" films, when compared to other top-grossing American horror franchises—"Alien vs. Predator", "Candyman", "Child's Play", "The Conjuring", "The Exorcist", "Evil Dead", "Final Destination", "Friday the 13th", "Halloween", "Hellraiser", "I Know What You Did Last Summer", "Jaws", "A Nightmare on Elm Street", "The Omen", "Paranormal Activity", "Psycho", "The Purge", "Saw", "Scream", and "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre"—is one of the highest grossing horror film franchises.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: In 2005, comedian-musicians Jon and Al Kaplan, most famous for their musical re-imaginings of popular films as YouTube musicals, parodied "The Silence of the Lambs", especially the film version, in "Silence! The Musical". It premiered Off-Off-Broadway and has since had acclaimed productions in London (2009) and Los Angeles (2012). In 2012, it won the Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle – Score, Lead Performance, Choreography Award.


title: Hannibal Lecter (franchise)

text: In 2016, rock band Conan Neutron & the Secret Friends released their second record, "The Art of Murder", a concept album which was "directly inspired by the Hannibal Lecter series of books by Thomas Harris".


title: Boeing X-32

text: The Boeing X-32 is a concept demonstrator aircraft that was designed for the Joint Strike Fighter competition. It lost to the Lockheed Martin X-35 demonstrator, which was further developed into the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.


title: Boeing X-32

text: In 1993, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) launched the Common Affordable Lightweight Fighter project (CALF). The project's purpose was to develop a stealth-enabled design to replace all of United States Department of Defense lighter weight fighter and attack aircraft, including the F-16 Fighting Falcon, McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet, and vertical/short takeoff / vertical landing (V/STOL) AV-8B Harrier II. Around the same time the Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) project was started. In 1994, the U.S. Congress ordered the two to be merged into the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program.


title: Boeing X-32

text: Many companies took part in the first phase of this project, which involved drafting concept aircraft designs for submission to the Department of Defense. On 16 November 1996, Boeing and Lockheed Martin were awarded contracts for them to produce two of their concept demonstrator aircraft (CDA) each. Under the contract, these fighters were required to demonstrate conventional take-off and landing (CTOL), carrier take-off and landing (CV version), and short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL). They were also expected to include ground demonstrations of a production representative aircraft's systems, such as the Preferred Weapon System Concept (PWSC).


title: Boeing X-32

text: One major departure from previous projects was the prohibition of the companies from using their own money to finance development. Each was awarded $750 million to produce their two aircraft – including avionics, software and hardware. This limitation promoted the adoption of low cost manufacturing and assembly techniques, and also prevented either Boeing or Lockheed Martin from bankrupting themselves in an effort to win such an important contest.


title: Boeing X-32

text: Boeing's strategy for a competitive advantage was to offer substantially lower manufacturing and life-cycle costs by minimizing variations between the different JSF versions. The X-32 therefore was designed around a large one piece carbon fiber composite delta wing. The wing had a span of 9.15 meters, with a 55-degree leading edge sweep, and could hold up to 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg) of fuel. The purpose of the high sweep angle was to allow for a thick wing section to be used while still providing limited transonic aerodynamic drag, and to provide a good angle for wing-installed conformal antenna equipment. The wing would prove a challenge to fabricate.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The compete-on-cost strategy also led Boeing to pick a direct-lift thrust vectoring system, for the Marines' short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) requirement, as this would only necessitate the addition of a thrust vectoring module around the main engine. However, this choice required the engine to be mounted directly behind the cockpit, and moved the center of gravity forward from its usual position in jet fighters (towards the rear of the airplane) to enable a neutral-attitude hover. Boeing had proposed, in the 1960s, a similar supersonic fighter with a mid-center-of-gravity mounted engine with vectored thrust nozzles, but this never proceeded beyond pictures published in "Aviation Week". By comparison, the Lockheed entry looked like, if anything, a smaller version of the F-22 Raptor stealth fighter. Yet another effect of the selection of the direct-lift system was the large chin-mounted air intake. This was required to feed sufficient air to the main engine (to provide the thrust necessary to hover) during the zero horizontal velocity phase, when it could not exploit ram-air pressure. A knock-on effect of this large intake was the potential direct visibility of the compressor blades to radar (see radar cross-section). Mitigation possibilities included variable baffles designed to block incoming radio waves without adversely affecting airflow.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The two X-32 aircraft featured a delta wing design. However, eight months into construction of the concept demonstrator aircraft, the JSF's maneuverability and payload requirements were refined at the request of the Navy and Boeing's delta wing design fell short of the new targets. Engineers altered the aircraft's design with a conventional canted twin tail that reduced weight and improved agility, but it was too late to change the aircraft. It was judged that they would be sufficient to demonstrate Boeing's technology.


title: Boeing X-32

text: On 14 December 1999, Boeing unveiled both its concept demonstrators at its plant in Palmdale, California, in front of 5,500 attendees. While the X-32A was expected to make an appearance, the roll out of the X-32B was a surprise, as construction of the latter aircraft had started some three months after the former and was completed six weeks after the X-32A. Boeing attributed the rapid construction of the STOVL version to the use of digital design and assembly methods. After having the Pratt & Whitney F119 engine installed in April 2000, the X-32A commenced low- and medium-speed taxi tests, which had been completed by late May.


title: Boeing X-32

text: Due to the heavy delta wing design of the X-32, Boeing demonstrated STOVL and supersonic flight in separate configurations, with the STOVL configuration requiring that some parts be removed from the fighter. The company promised that their conventional tail design for production models would not require separate configurations. By contrast, the Lockheed Martin X-35 concept demonstrator aircraft were capable of transitioning between their STOVL and supersonic configurations in mid-flight.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The first flight of the X-32A (designed for CTOL and carrier trials) took place on 18 September 2000, from Boeing's Palmdale plant to Edwards Air Force Base. The aircraft, piloted by Boeing test pilot Fred Knox, took of runway before becoming airborne at at around 8:00 am. Shortly after takeoff, a minor hydraulic leak was discovered and the flight was shortened to 20 minutes from the expected 30–40 minutes. According to Knox, the F/A-18 chase plane required "a lot of afterburner" to keep up with the X-32 during the initial stages. During the flight, the aircraft reached , attained a speed of , and attained an angle of attack of 13°. Despite the shortened flight, about 80% of the planned test points were accomplished. It was powered by a conventional derivative of the F-22 afterburning turbofan, designated F119-PW-614C.


title: Boeing X-32

text: On 29 March 2001, the X-32B STOVL version made its first flight. The flight lasted 50 minutes as the aircraft flew from Palmdale to Edwards AFB. The flight had originally been scheduled for the third quarter of 2000. A modified version of the -614C engine, known as the F119-PW-614S, powered the STOVL aircraft. In normal flight, the -614S was configured as a conventional afterburning turbofan. However, in the STOVL mode a butterfly valve diverted the core stream exhaust gases to a pair of thrust vectoring nozzles located close to the aircraft's center-of-gravity. Forward of these nozzles, a jet screen nozzle provided a sheet of cool bypass air to minimise hot gas recirculation. There was also a pair of ducts leading to roll nozzles near the wing tips. Two pairs of ducts fed the aft-pitch yaw nozzles and the forward-pitch nozzles. The afterburner was unlit, with no gas flow during lift. The X-32B achieved STOVL flight in much the same way as the AV-8B Harrier II with thrust vectoring of the jet exhaust. A smooth transition (between STOVL and normal modes) was obtained by maintaining a constant engine match, facilitated by the control system algorithm maintaining a fixed total nozzle effective area. Thus the engine was unaware of various nozzles being opened up and closed off to complete the transition.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The F119-PW-614S was a direct lift engine, whereas the Lockheed Martin STOVL team used a more complex and riskier alternative, known as the F119-PW-611, which comprised a remote shaft-driven lift fan powered by the main engine. However, this generated more lift thrust than possible with only direct exhaust gases. A successful design would have greater payload, and thus longer range than a simple thrust vectored turbofan.


title: Boeing X-32

text: On 26 October 2001, the Department of Defense announced that the Lockheed Martin X-35 won the JSF competition. The X-35 would be developed into the production Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The loss of the JSF contract to Lockheed Martin in 2001 was a major blow to Boeing, as it represented the most important international fighter aircraft project since the Lightweight Fighter program competition of the 1960s and 1970s, which had led to the F-16 Fighting Falcon and F/A-18 Hornet. At the time, the production run of the JSF was estimated at anywhere between 3,000 and 5,000. Prior to the awarding of the contract, many lawmakers pushed the idea of retaining the losing competitor as a sub-contractor; however, the "winner takes all" principle was not changed. Nonetheless, Boeing views its work on the X-32 as a strategic investment, yielding important technologies which it has been able to adopt in the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and other studies.


title: Boeing X-32

text: In 2005, the Boeing X-32A was transferred to the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio. Its condition deteriorated due to being outside for several years following the end of the JSF competition, but it is now indoors and planned to be restored.


title: Boeing X-32

text: The X-32B was transferred to the Patuxent River Naval Air Museum adjacent to NAS Patuxent River in St. Mary's County, Maryland in 2005. It underwent restoration at the museum's restoration facility in June 2009 and is now on display.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Mitsubishi Eclipse is a sport compact car that was produced by Mitsubishi in four generations from 1989 until 2011. A convertible body style was added during the 1996 model year.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The first two generations share the automobile platform and parts with the rebadged Eagle Talon and Plymouth Laser captive imports. They were built during Mitsubishi Motors' close relationship with Chrysler Corporation. Their partnership was known as Diamond-Star Motors (DSM). In Japan, the first two generations were sold at a specific Japanese retail chain called "Mitsubishi Car Plaza". The third, 2000-2005 generation shared a redesigned platform with the Chrysler Sebring and Dodge Stratus. In May 2005, the fourth, and final generation Eclipse was introduced, replacing the Chrysler platform used for the third generation with the PS platform.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: According to Mitsubishi Motors, the Eclipse was named after an unbeaten 18th-century English racehorse that had won 26 races.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse was officially sold in Japan, North America, the Middle East, South Korea, the Philippines, Brazil, and China. At the end of August 2011, the final Eclipse was manufactured and subsequently auctioned for charity.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 2017, Mitsubishi resurrected the Eclipse name on a compact crossover vehicle, titled the Eclipse Cross.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The first-generation Mitsubishi Eclipse was marketed as an entry to mid-level four-cylinder sports coupe segment. Five trim levels were available; all were front-wheel drive except the GSX which was all-wheel drive. The GS Turbo and GSX were equipped with turbocharged engines.