title: Draupadi

text: Duryodhana and his entourage were exploring the keep during their visit to Yudhishthira's Rajasuya Yagna. While touring the grounds, an unsuspecting Duryodhana fell prey to one of the many illusions that could be seen all around the palace. When he stepped on the apparently solid part of the courtyard, there was a splash and Duryodhana found himself waist-deep in water, drenched from head to foot by the hidden pool. The myth is, Draupadi and her maids saw this from the balcony with amusement, and joked "Andhasya Putra Andhaha" meaning 'a blind man's son is blind'. This famous story does not feature in Veda Vyasa's Mahabharatha but is the figment of the imagination of a much later playwright. It gained immense popularity gradually through repeated depictions in various screen and written adaptations of the epic across the length and breadth of the country. The most popular depictions were by B.R. Chopra's "Mahabharata" series that aired on Doordarshan in 1988 and famous Telugu film 'Daana Veera Soora Karna' starring Nandamuri Taraka Rama Rao as Duryodhana, where Draupadi's laughter was singled out for dramatic effect.


title: Draupadi

text: In Vyasa's Sanskrit epic, the scene is quite different. It was Bhima, Arjuna, and the twin brothers alongside their retinues who had witnessed Duryodhana's fall and laughed along with their servants. In the Sanskrit text, Draupadi is not mentioned in the scene at all, either laughing or insulting Duryodhana. Nonetheless, Duryodhana felt insulted by the behaviour of the four Pandavas, stoking his hatred of them. Later on, he went back to Hastinapur and expressed his immense agony on witnessing the riches of the Pandavas to his blind father, which was the root cause for inviting his cousins for the dice-game. His main wish was to usurp the wealth of his cousins which they had accumulated on account of the Rajasuya Yajna. Known to few, during this conversation, Duryodhan mentions how he had observed Draupadi serving food to everyone, including physically challenged citizens as the Empress. He says to his father,""And, O king, Yajnaseni, without having eaten herself, daily seeth whether everybody, including even the deformed and the dwarfs, hath eaten or not.""


title: Draupadi

text: He then went on to express his wrath at having fallen into a pool of water and being laughed at mockingly, mainly by Bhima, followed by Arjun, Nakul, Sahadeva and other menials in the palace. It is here, where he fleetingly mentioned Draupadi's name, who accordingly to Duryodhan, had ""joined in the laughter with other females."" Whether Duryodhana was speaking an untruth or her name was a later addition into this part of the text is debatable.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi's laughter went on to be singled out and romanticized by writers for centuries as a cause for the dice-game, and the war. In Vyasa's Sanskrit epic, however, her role in the scene is trivial compared to the exaggerated treatment it has received in popular adaptations.


title: Draupadi

text: This key incident is often considered to mark a definitive moment in the story of Mahabharata. It is one of the driving reasons that ultimately led to the Kurukshetra War.


title: Draupadi

text: Together with his maternal uncle Shakuni, Duryodhana conspired to call on the Pandavas to Hastinapur and win their kingdoms in a game of gambling. There is famous folklore that the plan's architect, Shakuni had magic dice that would never disobey his will, as they were made from the bones of Shakuni's father. This story, however, is non-existent in the Sanskrit epic. As the game proceeds, Yudhishthira loses everything at first. In the second round, Yudhishthira's brother Nakula is at stake, and Yudhishthira loses him. Yudhisthira subsequently gambles away Sahadeva, Arjuna and Bhima. Finally, Yudhishthira puts himself at stake, and loses again. For Duryodhana, the humiliation of the Pandavas was not complete. He prods Yudhishthira that he has not lost everything yet; Yudhishthira still has Draupadi with him and if he wishes he can win everything back by putting Draupadi at stake. Inebriated by the game, Yudhishthira, to the horror of everybody present, puts Draupadi up as a bet for the next round. Playing the next round, Shakuni wins. Draupadi was horrified after hearing that she was staked in the game and now is a slave for Duryodhana. Duryodhana initially sends his charioteer Pratikamin to bring Draupadi to the court. Pratikamin informs Draupadi about the incidents happened during the dice game. Draupadi questions Yudhishthira's right on her as he had lost himself first and she was still the queen. Duryodhana, angry with Draupadi's questions, commands his younger brother Dushasana to bring her into the court, forcefully if he must.


title: Draupadi

text: Dushasana drags Draupadi to the court by the hair. Seeing this, Bhima pledges to cut off Dushasana's hands, as they touched Draupadi's hair. Now in an emotional appeal to the elders present in the forum, Draupadi repeatedly questions the legality of the right of Yudhishthira to place her at stake.


title: Draupadi

text: In order to provoke the Pandavas further, Duryodhana bares and pats his thigh looking into Draupadi's eyes, implying that she should sit on his thigh. The enraged Bhima vows in front of the entire assembly that he would break Duryodhana's thighs, or else accept being Duryodhana's slave for seven lifetimes. At this time Vikarna, a brother of Duryodhana asks the kings assembled in the court to answer the question of Draupadi. He gives his opinion that Draupadi is not won rightfully as Yudhishthira lost himself first before staking her. Besides, no one has the right to put a woman on bet according to shastras; not a husband, father, or even the gods. Hearing these words, Karna gets angry and says that when Yudhishthira lost all his possession he also lost Draupadi, even specifically staking her. Karna calls Draupadi a "whore" for being the wedded wife of five men, adding that her being to the court is not a surprising act whether she is clothed or naked. He then instructs Dushasana to remove the garments of Draupadi. After her husbands fail to assist her, Draupadi prays to Krishna to protect her. Dushasana attempts to disrobe her, but she is miraculously protected by Krishna, and Dushasana finds that as he continues to unwrap the layers of her sari, the amount of fabric covering her never lessens. Dushasana is eventually reduced to exhaustion, as the awed court observes that Draupadi is still chastely dressed. At this point, a furious Bhima vows to drink blood from Dushasana's chest, at the pain of not seeing his ancestors/entering heaven. This vow unsettles the entire court.


title: Draupadi

text: The only Kauravas who object to the disrobing of Draupadi in the court are Vikarna and Yuyutsu. Vidura openly calls Duryodhana a snake and demon after finding no support even from his own brother, Vidura is helpless. Karna further orders Dushasana to take Draupadi to the servants' quarters and derisively asks her to choose another husband who unlike Yudhishthira would not gamble her away. Just then, jackals call out as a mark of evil omen. Queen Gandhari enters the scene and counsels Dhritarashtra to undo her sons' misdeeds. Fearing the ill-omens, Dhritarashtra intervenes and grants Draupadi a boon. Draupadi asks that her husband Yudishthira be freed from bondage so her son Prativindhya would not be called a slave. In order to pacify her further, Dhritarashtra offers a second boon. Calmly, she asks for the freedom of the Pandavas along with their weapons. When Dhritarashtra asks her for her third wish, she reminds him that a Kshatriya woman can seek only two wishes, three would be a sign of greed. Dhritarashtra gives them back their wealth and grants them permission to go home.


title: Draupadi

text: Amused by the sudden turn of events, Karna remarks that they "have never heard of such an act, performed by any of the women noted in this world for their beauty." He taunts the Pandavas by praising their wife, as she had rescued them "like a boat from their ocean of distress".


title: Draupadi

text: Having restored their pride and wealth, the Pandavas and Draupadi leave for Indraprastha, only to receive another invitation for a game of dice, in which the loser would be given an exile of 12 years followed by a year of Agyatavasa, meaning "living in incognito". Yudhishtira yet again accepts the invitation and loses, and goes on an exile with his brothers and wife Draupadi.


title: Draupadi

text: Once, Draupadi and the Pandavas had finished eating their meal cooked from the Akshay Patra. Suddenly, sage Durvasa and his pupils visited them. They were sent by Duryodhana as he wanted the sage to curse the Pandavas. The brothers welcomed the sage along with his pupils and offered them service. Durvasa demanded food to eat as he was hungry. However, Draupadi had nothing left to feed the guests. Frightened that the sage would curse them, Draupadi prayed to god. Krishna then came there and asked her to give him the vessel. Draupadi gave the vessel to Krishna and he ate a single grain of rice left in it. The sage and his pupils suddenly felt that they had eaten a grand feast and left the place with satisfaction. Though a very popular tale, the "Critical Edition" doesn't include this incident.


title: Draupadi

text: While the Pandavas was in the Kamyaka forest, they often went hunting, leaving Draupadi alone. At this time Jayadratha, the son of Vriddhakshatra and the husband of Duryodhana's sister Dussala, passed through Kamyaka forest on the way to Salva Desa. Jayadratha met Draupadi and then started beseeching her to go away with him and desert her husband. Draupadi pointed out the immorality of deserting one's spouses when they were in difficulty and attempted to stall and dissuade Jayadradtha by describing how the Pandavas would punish him. Failing with words, Jayadratha forced her onto his chariot. Meanwhile, the Pandavas finished their hunt and found Draupadi missing. Learning of their wife's abduction by Jayadratha they rushed to save her. On seeing the Pandavas coming after him, Jayadratha left Draupadi on the road, though ultimately the Pandavas managed to arrest him. Arjuna urged Bhima to spare Jayadratha's life for the sake of Dussala and Gandhari, much to the indignation of Draupadi. In some versions of the story, Yudhishthira asks Draupadi to pass the sentence since it was she who was attacked, and she begrudgingly counsels to spare him because of the relations they share. Before freeing him, the Pandavas shaved Jayadratha's head at five places in order to publicly humiliate him.


title: Draupadi

text: On the thirteenth year of their exile, the Pandavas choose to stay in the Matsya Kingdom. Draupadi becomes the maid of Sudeshna, queen of Matsya, and serves her.


title: Draupadi

text: One day Kichaka, Sudeshna's brother and the commander of king Virata's forces, happens to see Draupadi. He is filled with lust by looking at her and requests her hand in marriage. Draupadi refuses him, saying that she is already married to Gandharvas. Seeing his persistence, he warns Kichaka that her husbands are very strong and that he will not be able to escape death at their hands. Later, he convinces his sister, the queen Sudeshna, to help him win Draupadi. Sudeshna orders Draupadi to fetch wine from Kichaka's house, overriding Draupadi's protests. When Draupadi goes to get wine, Kichaka tries to molest her.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi escapes and runs into the court of Virata. Kichaka kicks her in front of all the courtiers, including Yudhishthira. Fearful of losing his most powerful warrior, even Virat does not take any action. Bhima is present, and only a look from Yudhishthira prevents him from attacking Kichaka. Furious, Draupadi asks about the duties of a king and dharma. She then curses Kichaka with death by her husband's hand. Laughing it off, Kichaka only doubts their whereabouts and asks those present where the Gandharvas are. Yudhishthira addresses Draupadi as Sairandhri and orders her to go to the temple, as Kichaka would not do anything to her there (in some versions, he recommends she seeks refuge with the queen). With this, the king asks Kichaka to leave and praises Yudhishthira's reply as he himself could not think of anything.


title: Draupadi

text: Later that night, Bhima consoles Draupadi, and they hatch a plan to kill Kichaka. Draupadi meets with Kichaka, pretending to actually love him and agreeing to marry him on the condition that none of his friends or brothers will know about their relationship. Kichaka accepts her condition. Draupadi asks Kichaka to come to the dancing hall at night. Bhima (in the guise of Draupadi), fights with Kichaka and kills him.


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi calls the members of Kichaka's family and shows them the mutilated body of Kichaka. The murder is attributed to her Gandharva husbands. This angers Kichaka's brothers and they decide to burn her along with Kichaka's body to take revenge. After getting permission from Virata, Draupadi is forcefully tried to Kichaka's pyre. Upon her pleading, Bhima runs for her help and kills the brothers of Kichaka, thus saving her from being burnt alive.


title: Draupadi

text: During the war, Draupadi stays at Ekachakra with other women. On the 16th day, Bhima kills Dushasana, drinking his blood and fulfilling his oath.


title: Draupadi

text: A popular myth, often depicted in well-known adaptations of Mahabharata, depicts Draupadi washing her hair with her brother-in-law Dushasana's blood, as a mark of her vengeance against the molestation she had suffered at the dice-game. Though an extremely powerful and symbolic theme, this incident does not appear in Vyasa's Sanskrit Mahabharata.


title: Draupadi

text: Alf Hiltebeitel in his acclaimed research work, "The Cult of Draupadi" explores the source of this myth as he travels through the rural areas of India. He discovers that the first literary mention of the blood-washing theme appeared in "Venisamhara"


title: Draupadi

text: Ashwathama, in order to avenge his father's as well as other Kuru warriors' deceitful killing by the Pandavas, attacks their camp at night with Kripacharya and Kritavarma. Ashwathama killed Dhrishtadyumna, Shikhandi, Upapandavas, and the remaining Pandava and Panchala army. In the morning, Yudhishthira hears the news and asks Nakula to bring Draupadi from Matsya Kingdom. Draupadi vows that if the Pandavas do not kill Ashwatthama, she would fast to death. The Pandavas find Ashwatthama at Vyasa's hut. Arjuna and Ashwatthama end up firing the Brahmashirsha astra at each other. Vyasa intervenes and asks the two warriors to withdraw the destructive weapon. Not endowed with the knowledge to do so, Ashwatthama instead redirects the weapon to Uttara's womb, but Krishna protects the Pandavas' only heir with his Sudarshana Chakra. Krishna curses him for this act. Ashwatthama is caught by the Pandavas and his jewel is taken away. Draupadi gives the jewel to Yudhishthira and forgives the killer of her children. Due to the power of meditation, her wrath is subdued and she speaks of Ashwathama, son of their preceptor Drona, ""I desired to only pay off our debt for the injury we have sustained. The preceptor's son is worthy of my reverence as the preceptor himself. Let the king bind this gem on his head, O Bharata!""


title: Draupadi

text: Draupadi and Yudhishthira performed the Ashvamedha and ruled for 36 years. When her husbands retired from the world and went on their journey towards the Himalayas and heaven, she accompanied them and was the first to fall dead on the journey. When Bhima asked Yudhishthira why Draupadi had fallen, Yudhishthira replied,


title: Draupadi

text: ""O best of men, though we were all equal unto her she had a great partiality for Dhananjaya. She obtains the fruit of that conduct today, O best of men.""


title: Draupadi

text: Polyandry was not regarded without censure by the society spoken of in the epic. The Vedic texts have not discriminated between polyandry and polygamy but usually, the women of royal families were allowed to indulge in polyandry for expansion of progeny, although polygyny was more common among men of higher social ranks. Her marriage to five men was controversial for political reasons as that was an advantage for Prince Duryodhana to get the throne of Bharat Varsha. However, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishi) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers).


title: Draupadi

text: There are many women of high born classes or royal class like Princess Mādhavi who had 4 husbands, the only daughter of King Yayati. Polyandry was in the royal class but under the strict guidance of the Vedic sages exactly like polygamous marriages of ancient Indian kings were under strict supervision and guidance of the Vedic laws and Vedic sages.


title: Draupadi

text: In Sanskrit Mahābhārata, Draupadi is described as the incarnation of different goddesses. In Sambhava section of Adi Parva, she is said to be partial incarnation of Goddess Shachi (or Sachi). However, in Vaivahika section of Adi Parva Vyasa describes her as the celestial Sri. In Svargarohanika Parva, Yudhisthira goes to heaven and sees Draupadi seated as Goddess Sri (Or Sree).


title: Draupadi

text: The Draupadi Amman sect (or Draupadi devotional sect) is a tradition that binds together a community of people in worshipping Draupadi Amman as a village goddess with unique rituals and mythology Fire walking or Thimithi is a popular ritual enacted at Draupadi Amman temples. At the ancient religious festival of Bengaluru Pete named Bangalore Karaga, Draupadi is worshipped as an incarnation of Adishakti and Parvati in the nine-day event.


title: Draupadi

text: There are over 400 temples dedicated to Draupadi in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and other countries like Sri Lanka, Singapore, Malaysia, Mauritius, Réunion, South Africa. In these regions, Draupadi is worshipped mainly by people of the Konar (Yadavas), Vanniyar (farmers) and Mutaliyar caste.


title: Draupadi

text: There are a few processions and festivals which are conducted for about 3 weeks a year. The most famous festival is in the village Durgasamudram, Tirupati of Chittoor district.


title: Draupadi

text: The Draupadi Amman cult (or Draupadi sect) is a regional Hindu sect in which the Pillais, Pallis, Konar, and the Mutaliyar communities worship Draupadi Amman was main god of vanniyar as a village goddess with unique rituals and mythologies.


title: Draupadi

text: The Pillais, Vanniyars, Mudaliyars, Konars and the Gounder community of Tamil Nadu, and the Tigala community of Karnataka believe Draupadi Amman as an incarnation of Adi Parashakti and as their household goddess (kuladevi) of their communities. There are many temples in South Indian villages dedicated to Draupadi Amman, observing annual festivals. One of the popular temples of Sri Dharmarayaswamy- Draupadi temple is at Thigarapete, the heart of Bengaluru, Karnataka. .


title: Draupadi

text: In Buddhism, Kṛṣṇā Draupadī is presented in the Mahāvastu and the Lalitavistara as one among eight goddesses who reside in the western cardinal direction.


title: Draupadi

text: In Digambara Jain scriptures like "Harivamsa Purana", polyandry of Draupadi has been rejected and it is suggested that she was married only to Arjuna. Hemachandra, a Svetambara Jain monk, accepts the polyandry in his work "Triṣaṣṭi" and further suggests that Draupadi was Nagasri in one of her previous lives and had poisoned a Jain monk. Therefore, she had to suffer in hell and animal incarnations for several lives before being born a woman who later became a Jain nun. After her death, she was reborn as Draupadi and was married to five Pandavas.


title: Draupadi

text: The story of Draupadi is one of the central topics of Yakshagana, a traditional dance-play practised in Karnataka and Terukkuttu, a Tamil street theatre form practised in Tamil Nadu state of India and Tamil-speaking regions of Sri Lanka.


title: Draupadi

text: The fiery heroine of Mahabharata has been the topic of research and debate for centuries. There are various plays and novels based on her.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel — sold under the brand name Plavix, among others — is an antiplatelet medication used to reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke in those at high risk. It is also used together with aspirin in heart attacks and following the placement of a coronary artery stent (dual antiplatelet therapy). It is taken by mouth. Its effect starts about two hours after intake and lasts for five days.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Common side effects include headache, nausea, easy bruising, itching, and heartburn. More severe side effects include bleeding and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura. While there is no evidence of harm from use during pregnancy, such use has not been well studied. Clopidogrel is in the thienopyridine-class of antiplatelets. It works by irreversibly inhibiting a receptor called P2Y on platelets.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel was patented in 1982, and approved for medical use in 1997. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In 2020, it was the 29th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 19million prescriptions. It is available as a generic medication.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel is used to prevent heart attack and stroke in people who are at high risk of these events, including those with a history of myocardial infarction and other forms of acute coronary syndrome, stroke, and those with peripheral artery disease.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Treatment with clopidogrel or a related drug is recommended by the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology for people who:


title: Clopidogrel

text: It is also used, along with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin), for the prevention of thrombosis after placement of a coronary stent or as an alternative antiplatelet drug for people intolerant to aspirin. It is available as a fixed-dose combination.


title: Clopidogrel

text: A meta-analysis found clopidogrel's benefit as an antiplatelet drug in reducing cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, and stroke to be 25% benefit in smokers, with little (8%) benefit in non-smokers.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Consensus-based therapeutic guidelines also recommend the use of clopidogrel rather than aspirin (ASA) for antiplatelet therapy in people with a history of gastric ulceration, as inhibition of the synthesis of prostaglandins by ASA can exacerbate this condition. In people with healed ASA-induced ulcers, however, those receiving ASA plus the proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) esomeprazole had a lower incidence of recurrent ulcer bleeding than those receiving clopidogrel. However, prophylaxis with proton-pump inhibitors along with clopidogrel following acute coronary syndrome may increase adverse cardiac outcomes, possibly due to inhibition of CYP2C19, which is required for the conversion of clopidogrel to its active form. The European Medicines Agency has issued a public statement on a possible interaction between clopidogrel and proton-pump inhibitors. However, several cardiologists have voiced concern that the studies on which these warnings are based have many limitations and that it is not certain whether an interaction between clopidogrel and proton-pump inhibitors is real.


title: Clopidogrel

text: In the CURE trial, people with acute coronary syndrome without ST elevation were treated with aspirin plus either clopidogrel or placebo and followed for up to one year. The following rates of major bleed were seen:


title: Clopidogrel

text: The CAPRIE trial compared clopidogrel monotherapy to aspirin monotherapy for 1.6 years in people who had recently experienced a stroke or heart attack. In this trial the following rates of bleeding were observed.


title: Clopidogrel

text: In CAPRIE, itching was the only adverse effect seen more frequently with clopidogrel than aspirin. In CURE, there was no difference in the rate of non-bleeding adverse events.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Rashes and itching were uncommon in studies (between 0.1 and 1% of people); serious hypersensitivity reactions are rare.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel generally has a low potential to interact with other pharmaceutical drugs. Combination with other drugs that affect blood clotting, such as aspirin, heparins and thrombolytics, showed no relevant interactions. Naproxen did increase the likelihood of occult gastrointestinal bleeding, as might be the case with other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. As clopidogrel inhibits the liver enzyme CYP2C19 in cellular models, it has been theorized that it might increase blood plasma levels of drugs that are metabolized by this enzyme, such as phenytoin and tolbutamide. Clinical studies showed that this mechanism is irrelevant for practical purposes.


title: Clopidogrel

text: In November 2009, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced that clopidogrel should be used with caution in people using the proton-pump inhibitors omeprazole or esomeprazole, but pantoprazole appears to be safe. The newer antiplatelet agent prasugrel has minimal interaction with , hence might be a better antiplatelet agent (if no other contraindications are present) in people who are on these proton-pump inhibitors.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel is a prodrug, which is activated in two steps, first by the enzymes CYP2C19, CYP1A2 and CYP2B6, then by CYP2C19, CYP2C9, CYP2B6 and CYP3A. The active metabolite then specifically and irreversibly inhibits the P2Y subtype of ADP receptor, which is important in activation of platelets and eventual cross-linking by the protein fibrin. Platelet inhibition can be demonstrated two hours after a single dose of oral clopidogrel, but the onset of action is slow, so a loading dose of either 600 or 300 mg is administered when a rapid effect is needed.


title: Clopidogrel

text: After repeated oral doses of 75 mg of clopidogrel (base), plasma concentrations of the parent compound, which has no platelet-inhibiting effect, are very low and, in general, are below the quantification limit (0.258 µg/L) beyond two hours after dosing.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel is activated in the liver by cytochrome P450 enzymes, including CYP2C19. Due to opening of the thiophene ring, the chemical structure of the active metabolite has three sites that are stereochemically relevant, making a total of eight possible isomers. These are: a stereocentre at C4 (attached to the —SH thiol group), a double bond at C3—C16, and the original stereocentre at C7. Only one of the eight structures is an active antiplatelet drug. This has the following configuration: "Z" configuration at the C3—C16 double bond, the original "S" configuration at C7, and, although the stereocentre at C4 cannot be directly determined, as the thiol group is too reactive, work with the active metabolite of the related drug prasugrel suggests the "R"-configuration of the C4 group is critical for P2Y and platelet-inhibitory activity.


title: Clopidogrel

text: The active metabolite has an elimination half-life of about 0.5 to 1.0 h, and acts by forming a disulfide bridge with the platelet ADP receptor. Patients with a variant allele of CYP2C19 are 1.5 to 3.5 times more likely to die or have complications than patients with the high-functioning allele.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Following an oral dose of C-labeled clopidogrel in humans, about 50% was excreted in the urine and 46% in the feces in the five days after dosing.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel and the main circulating metabolite bind reversibly "in vitro" to human plasma proteins (98% and 94%, respectively). The binding is not saturable "in vitro" up to a concentration of 110 μg/mL.


title: Clopidogrel

text: In 2010 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) added a boxed warning, later updated, to Plavix, alerting that the drug can be less effective in people unable to metabolize the drug to convert it to its active form.


title: Clopidogrel

text: CYP2C19 is an important drug-metabolizing enzyme that catalyzes the biotransformation of many clinically useful drugs, including antidepressants, barbiturates, proton-pump inhibitors, and antimalarial and antitumor drugs. Clopidogrel is one of the drugs metabolized by this enzyme.


title: Clopidogrel

text: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) put a black box warning on Plavix in 2010, later updated, to make patients and healthcare providers aware that CYP2C19-poor metabolizers, representing up to 14% of patients, are at high risk of treatment failure and that testing is available. Patients with variants in cytochrome P-450 2C19 (CYP2C19) have lower levels of the active metabolite of clopidogrel, less inhibition of platelets, and a 3.58-times greater risk for major adverse cardiovascular events such as death, heart attack, and stroke; the risk was greatest in CYP2C19 poor metabolizers.


title: Clopidogrel

text: A published review showed that some mutations of "CYP2C19", "CYP3A4", "CYP2C9", "CYP2B6", and "CYP1A2" genes could affect the clinical efficacy and safety of clopidogrel treatment. For instance, patients carrying the mutations "CYP2C19*2", "CYP2C19*3", "CYP2C9*2", "CYP2C9*3", and "CYP2B6*5" alleles may not respond to clopidogrel due to poor platelet inhibition efficacy revealed among them.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Plavix is marketed worldwide in nearly 110 countries, with sales of in 2009. It was the second-top-selling drug in the world in 2007 and was still growing by over 20% in 2007. U.S. sales were in 2008.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Before the expiry of its patent, clopidogrel was the second best-selling drug in the world. In 2010, it grossed over in global sales.


title: Clopidogrel

text: In 2006, generic clopidogrel was briefly marketed by Apotex, a Canadian generic pharmaceutical company before a court order halted further production until resolution of a patent infringement case brought by Bristol-Myers Squibb. The court ruled that Bristol-Myers Squibb's patent was valid and provided protection until November 2011. The FDA extended the patent protection of clopidogrel by six months, giving exclusivity that would expire on 17 May 2012. The FDA approved generic versions of Plavix on 17 May 2012.


title: Clopidogrel

text: , brands included Aclop, Actaclo, Agregex, Agrelan, Agrelax, Agreless, Agrelex, Agreplat, Anclog, Angiclod, Anplat, Antiagrex, Antiban, Antigrel, Antiplaq, Antiplar, Aplate, Apolets, Areplex, Artepid, Asogrel, Atelit, Atelit, Ateplax, Atervix, Atheros, Athorel, Atrombin, Attera, Bidogrel, Bigrel, Borgavix, Carder, Cardogrel, Carpigrel, Ceraenade, Ceruvin, Cidorix, Clatex, Clavix, Clentel, Clentel, Clidorel, Clodel, Clodelib, Clodian, Clodil, Cloflow, Clofre, Clogan, Clogin, Clognil, Clogrel, Clogrelhexal, Clolyse, Clont, Clood, Clopacin, Clopcare, Clopeno, Clopex Agrel, Clopez, Clopi, Clopid, Clopida, Clopidep, Clopidexcel, Clopidix, Clopidogrel, Clopidogrelum, Clopidomed, Clopidorex, Clopidosyn, Clopidoteg, Clopidowel, Clopidra, Clopidrax, Clopidrol, Clopigal, Clopigamma, Clopigrel, Clopilet, Clopimed, Clopimef, Clopimet, Clopinovo, Clopione, Clopiright, Clopirite, Clopirod, Clopisan, Clopistad, Clopistad, Clopitab, Clopithan, Clopitro, ClopiVale, Clopivas, Clopivaz, Clopivid, Clopivin, Clopix, Cloplat, Clopra, Cloprez, Cloprez, Clopval, Clorel, Cloriocard, Cloroden, Clotix, Clotiz, Clotrombix, Clova, Clovas, Clovax, Clovelen, Clovex, Clovexil, Clovix, Clovvix, Copalex, Copegrel, Copidrel, Copil, Cordiax, Cordix, Corplet, Cotol, CPG, Cugrel, Curovix, Dapixol, Darxa, Dasogrel-S, Dclot, Defrozyp, Degregan, Deplat, Deplatt, Diclop, Diloxol, Dilutix, Diporel, Doglix, Dogrel, Dogrel, Dopivix, Dorel, Dorell, Duopidogrel, DuoPlavin, Eago, Egitromb, Espelio, Eurogrel, Expansia, Farcet, Flucogrel, Fluxx, Freeclo, Globel, Glopenel, Grelet, Greligen, Grelix, Grepid, Grepid, Grindokline, Heart-Free, Hemaflow, Hyvix, Idiavix, Insigrel, Iscover, Iskimil, Kafidogran, Kaldera, Kardogrel, Karum, Kerberan, Keriten, Klepisal, Klogrel, Klopide, Klopidex, Klopidogrel, Klopik, Klopis, Kogrel, Krossiler, Larvin, Lodigrel, Lodovax, Lofradyk, Lopigalel, Lopirel, Lyvelsa, Maboclop, Medigrel, Miflexin, Mistro, Mogrel, Monel, Monogrel, Moytor, Myogrel, Nabratin, Nadenel, Nefazan, Niaclop, Nivenol, Noclog, Nofardom, Nogreg, Nogrel, Noklot, Norplat, Novigrel, Oddoral, Odrel, Olfovel, Opirel, Optigrel, Panagrel, Pedovex, Pegorel, Piax, Piclokare, Pidgrel, Pidogrel, Pidogul, Pidovix, Pigrel, Pingel, Placta, Pladel, Pladex, Pladogrel, Plagerine, Plagrel, Plagril, Plagrin, Plahasan, Plamed, Planor, PlaquEx, Plasiver, Plataca, Platarex, Platec, Platel, Platelex, Platexan, Platil, Platless, Platogrix, Platrel, Plavedamol, Plavicard, Plavictonal, Plavidosa, Plavigrel, Plavihex, Plavitor, Plavix, Plavocorin, Plavogrel, Plavos, Pleyar, Plogrel, Plvix, Pravidel, Pregrel, Provic, Psygrel, Q.O.L, Ravalgen, Replet, Respekt, Revlis, Ridlor, Roclas, Rozak, Sanvix, Sarix, Sarovex, Satoxi, Shinclop, Sigmagrel, Simclovix, Sintiplex, Stazex, Stroka, Stromix, Sudroc, Synetra, Talcom, Tansix, Tessyron, Thinrin, Throimper, Thrombifree, Thrombo, Timiflo, Tingreks, Torpido, Triosal, Trogran, Troken, Trombex, Trombix, Tuxedon, Unigrel, Unplaque, Vaclo, Vasocor, Vatoud, Venicil, Vidogrel, Vivelon, Vixam, Xydrel, Zakogrel, Zillt, Zopya, Zylagren, Zyllt, and Zystol.


title: Clopidogrel

text: , it was marketed as a combination drug with acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) under the brand names Anclog Plus, Antiban-ASP, Asclop, Asogrel-A, Aspin-Plus, Cargrel-A, Clas, Clasprin, Clavixin Duo, Clodrel Forte, Clodrel Plus, Clofre AS, Clognil Plus, Clontas, Clopid-AS, Clopid-AS, Clopida A, Clopil-A, Clopirad-A, Clopirin, Clopitab-A, Clorel-A, Clouds, Combiplat, Coplavix, Coplavix, Cugrel-A, Dorel Plus, DuoCover, DuoCover, DuoPlavin, DuoPlavin, Ecosprin Plus, Grelet-A, Lopirel Plus, Myogrel-AP, Noclog Plus, Noklot Plus, Norplat-S, Odrel Plus, Pidogul A, Pladex-A, Plagerine-A, Plagrin Plus, Plavix Plus, Replet Plus, Stromix-A, and Thrombosprin.


title: Clopidogrel

text: Clopidogrel has been shown to be effective at decreasing platelet aggregation in cats, so its use in prevention of feline aortic thromboembolism has been advocated.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Sterling Walter Hayden (born Sterling Relyea Walter; March 26, 1916 – May 23, 1986) was an American actor, author, sailor and decorated Marine Corps officer and an Office of Strategic Services' agent during World War II. A leading man for most of his career, he specialized in westerns and film noir throughout the 1950s, in films such as John Huston's "The Asphalt Jungle" (1950), Nicholas Ray's "Johnny Guitar" (1954), and Stanley Kubrick's "The Killing" (1956). He became noted for supporting roles in the 1960s, perhaps most memorably as General Jack D. Ripper in Kubrick's "Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb" (1964).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden's success continued into the New Hollywood era, with roles such as Irish-American policeman Captain McCluskey in Francis Ford Coppola's "The Godfather" (1972), alcoholic novelist Roger Wade in Robert Altman's "The Long Goodbye" (1973), and elderly peasant Leo Dalcò in Bernardo Bertolucci's "1900" (1976). With a distinctive "rapid-fire baritone" voice and standing at , he had a commanding screen presence in both leading and supporting roles.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden was born March 26, 1916, in Upper Montclair, New Jersey, to George and Frances Walter, who named him Sterling Relyea Walter. After his father died, he was adopted at age 9 by James Hayden and renamed Sterling Walter Hayden. As a child he lived in coastal towns of New England, and in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Washington, D.C., and Maine. He attended Wassookeag School in Dexter, Maine.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden dropped out of high school at the age of 16 and took a job as mate on a schooner. His first voyage was to Newport Beach, California, from New London, Connecticut. Later, he was a fisherman on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, ran a charter yacht, and served as a fireman on 11 trips to Cuba aboard a steamer.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He skippered a trading schooner in the Caribbean after earning his master's license, and in 1937 he served as mate on a world cruise of the schooner "Yankee". After serving as sailor and fireman on larger vessels and sailing around the world several times, he was awarded his first command at age 22, skippering the square rigger "Florence C. Robinson" 7,700 miles from Gloucester, Massachusetts, to Tahiti in 1938. Hayden spoke of his nautical experiences before the monthly meeting of the Adventurers' Club of New York on March 21, 1940.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In 1938, Hayden's photo was taken during the annual Gloucester, Massachusetts, Fishermen's Race. It went on the cover of a magazine prompting Paramount Pictures to call and offer a screen test. Hayden did a test in New York with Jeanne Cagney, James Cagney's sister. Hayden:


title: Sterling Hayden

text: I was completely lost, ignorant, nervous. But the next thing I knew, Paramount made me a seven-year contract beginning at $250 a week, which was astronomical. I got my lovely old mother and bought a car, and we drove to California... I was so lost then I didn't think to analyze it. I said, 'This is nuts, but, damned, it's pleasant.' I had only one plan in mind: to get $5,000. I knew where there was a schooner, and then I'd haul ass.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Paramount dubbed the actor "The Most Beautiful Man in the Movies" and "The Beautiful Blond Viking God".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: His first film, "Virginia" (1941), directed by Edward H. Griffith, starred Madeleine Carroll whom he married. He, Griffith and Carroll were reunited in "Bahama Passage" (1941).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: After two film roles, he left Hollywood to fight in World War II. He enlisted in the Army and was sent to Scotland for training, but broke his ankle and was discharged.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He returned to the US and tried to buy a half-interest in a schooner but could not raise the money. He joined the United States Marine Corps as a private, under the name John Hamilton, an alias he never used otherwise. While at Parris Island, he was recommended for Officer Candidate School (OCS).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: After graduation from OCS, he was commissioned a second lieutenant and was transferred to service as an undercover agent with William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan's Office of the Coordinator of Information. He remained there after it became the Office of Strategic Services (OSS).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: As OSS agent John Hamilton, his World War II service included motorboating with supplies from Italy to Yugoslav partisans and parachuting into fascist Croatia. Hayden, who also participated in the Naples–Foggia campaign and established air crew rescue teams in enemy-occupied territory, became a first lieutenant on September 13, 1944, and a captain on February 14, 1945.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He received the Silver Star for gallantry in action in the Balkans and Mediterranean (according to his citation, "Lt. Hamilton displayed great courage in making hazardous sea voyages in enemy-infested waters and reconnaissance through enemy-held areas"), a Bronze Arrowhead device for parachuting behind enemy lines, and a commendation from Yugoslavia's Josip Broz Tito. He left active duty on December 24, 1945. Tito awarded him the Order of Merit.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He returned to the US and told the press "I feel a real obligation to make this a better country – and I believe the movies are the place to do it."


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden returned to Paramount and was cast as one of several brothers in an aviation film, "Blaze of Noon" (1947). The studio suspended him when he turned down a role in "The Sainted Sisters".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden made two films for Pine Thomas Productions who distributed through Paramount: a western, "El Paso" (1949), supporting John Payne; and "Manhandled" (1949), a thriller with Dorothy Lamour.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden's admiration for the Communist partisans he had fought alongside during World War II led him into a brief membership in the Communist Party from 1946.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He was apparently active in supporting an effort by the Communist-controlled motion picture painters union to absorb other film industry unions. As the Red Scare deepened in the US, he testified before the House Committee on Un-American Activities about his brief Communist Party membership and "named names".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He later said "the FBI made it very clear to me that, if I became an 'unfriendly witness', I could damn well forget the custody of my children. I didn't want to go to jail, that was the other thing."


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden testified that joining the Party was "the stupidest and most ignorant thing I have ever done in my life". He added that he had quit the party but been persuaded to return by Karen Morley.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden expressed remorse, however, over his testimony before, stating in his autobiography, "I don't think you have the foggiest notion of the contempt I have had for myself since the day I did that thing."


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden's career received a boost when cast by John Huston in the starring role in MGM's heist thriller, "The Asphalt Jungle" (1950). It was only a minor hit but was highly regarded critically and established Hayden as a leading man.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He played a minister who doubts his faith in "Journey into Light" (1951), then supported Bette Davis in "The Star" (1952). It was not a large success but "Flaming Feather" (1952), a Western, did well.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He followed it with a series of action films: "Denver and Rio Grande" (1952), a Western, for Paramount; "Hellgate" (1952), another Western; "The Golden Hawk" (1952), a pirate swashbuckler for producer Sam Katzman; "Flat Top" (1952), a Korean War drama; "Fighter Attack" (1953), a World War II film.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden then starred in "So Big" (1953), a melodrama from an Edna Ferber novel starring Jane Wyman, then it was back to medium budget action films: "Take Me to Town" (1953), a Western with Ann Sheridan; "Kansas Pacific" (1953), a Western for Walter Mirisch; "Crime Wave" (1954), a film noir.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He had a support role in a big studio picture, "Prince Valiant" (1954), playing Sir Gawain, then returned to more conventional material with "Arrow in the Dust" (1954). "Johnny Guitar" (1954) was another Western, but this one starred Joan Crawford and was directed by Nick Ray; it was a box office hit and became a cult favorite. It was financed by Republic Pictures, which used Hayden on several occasions.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: There were some film noirs: "Naked Alibi" (1954) with Gloria Grahame and "Suddenly" (1954) with Frank Sinatra. Then it was action: "Battle Taxi" (1954), a Korean War movie; "Timberjack" (1955), a Western for Republic; "Shotgun" (1955), a Western with Yvonne de Carlo; "The Eternal Sea" (1955), a World War II naval story; "Top Gun" (1955), a Western for producer Edward Small.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: "The Last Command" (1955) was the story of the Alamo for Republic, with Hayden as Jim Bowie. "The Come On" (1956) was a film noir with Anne Baxter. Hayden also began appearing on TV shows such as "Celebrity Playhouse".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden was cast in a heist film which turned out to be a classic: "The Killing" (1956), an early work from director Stanley Kubrick.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He remained a "B picture" star though: "Crime of Passion" (1957), a noir; "5 Steps to Danger" (1957), a mystery film; "Valerie" (1957), a Western "noir"; "Zero Hour!" (1957), a disaster film; "Gun Battle at Monterey" (1957), a Western; "The Iron Sheriff" (1957), a Western for Edward Small; "Ten Days to Tulara" (1958), an adventure film; "Terror in a Texas Town" (1958), a Western.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He also worked frequently on television, appearing on shows such as "Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre", "Wagon Train", "General Electric Theater", "Schlitz Playhouse", "Playhouse 90", "Goodyear Theatre", and "The DuPont Show of the Month".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden often professed distaste for film acting, saying he did it mainly to pay for his ships and voyages. In 1958, after a bitter divorce from Betty Ann de Noon, Hayden was awarded custody of his children. He defied a court order and sailed to Tahiti with all four children, Christian, Dana, Gretchen and Matthew.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: "I'd had it", he said. "One way or another, I felt that I had sold out – or failed – at almost everything in my whole life. It was either turn things around or hang myself."


title: Sterling Hayden

text: The crew sailed from San Francisco Bay to Tahiti, where Hayden had planned to film a movie. Hayden also invited well-known photographer Dody Weston Thompson along to document the trip and to help shoot location choices. Her South Seas folio contains photographs of Hayden's schooner, "The Wanderer"; on-deck photos of life aboard the ship; colorful prints of his children, Tahitian women and children; and unique artifacts on shore. The film never materialized; however, according to Dody's notes, "U.S. Camera and Travel" printed her photographs of paradise in 1961. Marin County Superior Court Judge Harold Haley later ordered Hayden to repay Republic Pictures nearly $50,000 to recover the cost of financing the trip.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In 1960, he married Catherine Devine McConnell. They had two sons, Andrew and David, and were married until his death in 1986. McConnell also had a son (Scott McConnell) from her first marriage to Neil McConnell, an heir to Avon's founding family.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In the early 1960s, Hayden rented one of the pilot houses of the retired ferryboat "Berkeley", docked in Sausalito, California, where he lived while writing his autobiography "Wanderer", which was first published in 1963.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In 1964, Hayden appeared in "A Carol for Another Christmas" on television. The same year he played one of his best-known characters, the deranged General Jack D. Ripper in the Kubrick-directed "Dr. Strangelove".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden bought a canal barge in the Netherlands in 1969, eventually moving it to the heart of Paris and living on it part of the time. He also shared a home in Wilton, Connecticut, with his family and had an apartment in Sausalito.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He returned to filmmaking with "Hard Contract" (1969), supporting James Coburn and "Loving" (1970), co-starring George Segal and Eva Marie Saint.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: "I'll go back to Hollywood to pick up a dollar, but that's all", he said. "Everything is wrong with that city."


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden went to Europe where he appeared in "Ternos Caçadores" (1970), "Angel's Leap" (1971) and "Le grand départ" (1972). He had small but important roles in "The Godfather" (1972) and "The Long Goodbye" (1973).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He made some films in Europe: "The Final Programme" (1973), "Deadly Strangers" (1975), "Cipolla Colt" (1975) and "1900" (1975). He was offered the role of "Quint" in "Jaws" (1975) but turned it down.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In the 1970s, after his appearance in "The Godfather", he appeared several times on NBC's "Tomorrow Show" with Tom Snyder, where he talked about his career resurgence and how it had funded his travels and adventures around the world. He also appeared on the Canadian sci-fi TV series "The Starlost", and the U.S. detective show "Banacek".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: He returned to Hollywood for "King of the Gypsies" (1978), "Winter Kills" (1979), "The Outsider" (1980), "9 to 5" (1980), "Gas" (1981), "Venom" (1981) and "The Blue and the Gray" (1982).


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden wrote two acclaimed books: an autobiography, "Wanderer" (1962), and a novel, "Voyage" (1976). He said they made him "a lot of money" but he lost most of it to taxes.


title: Sterling Hayden

text: In 2011 the American singer-songwriter Tom Russell released the song "Sterling Hayden" on his album "Mesabi".


title: Sterling Hayden

text: Hayden, under his nom de guerre Lieutenant John Hamilton, and his role as an OSS agent play a secondary part in the 2012 novel "Death's Door: A Billy Boyle World War II mystery" by author James R. Benn. Hayden/Hamilton assists in getting protagonist Billy Boyle through German-occupied Italy.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hawker Hurricane is a British single-seat fighter aircraft of the 1930s–40s which was designed and predominantly built by Hawker Aircraft Ltd. for service with the Royal Air Force (RAF). It was overshadowed in the public consciousness by the Supermarine Spitfire during the Battle of Britain in 1940, but the Hurricane inflicted 60 percent of the losses sustained by the Luftwaffe in the campaign, and fought in all the major theatres of the Second World War.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane originated from discussions between RAF officials and aircraft designer Sir Sydney Camm about a proposed monoplane derivative of the Hawker Fury biplane in the early 1930s. Despite an institutional preference for biplanes and lack of interest by the Air Ministry, Hawker refined their monoplane proposal, incorporating several innovations which became critical to wartime fighter aircraft, including retractable landing gear and the more powerful Rolls-Royce Merlin engine. The Air Ministry ordered Hawker's "Interceptor Monoplane" in late 1934, and the prototype Hurricane "K5083" performed its maiden flight on 6 November 1935.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane went into production for the Air Ministry In June 1936 and entered squadron service in December 1937. Its manufacture and maintenance were eased by using conventional construction methods so that squadrons could perform many major repairs without external support. The plane was rapidly procured prior to the outbreak of the Second World War; in September 1939, the RAF had 18 Hurricane-equipped squadrons in service. It was relied upon to defend against German aircraft operated by the Luftwaffe, including dogfighting with Messerschmitt Bf 109s in multiple theatres of action.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane was developed through several versions: bomber-interceptors, fighter-bombers, and ground support aircraft as well as fighters. Versions designed for the Royal Navy known as the Sea Hurricane had modifications enabling operation from ships. Some were converted as catapult-launched convoy escorts. By the end of production in July 1944, 14,487 units had been completed in Britain and Canada, with others built in Belgium and Yugoslavia.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: During the early 1930s, when Hawker Aircraft company developed the Hurricane, RAF Fighter Command had just 13 squadrons, equipped with the Hawker Fury, Hawker Demon, or the Bristol Bulldog, all biplanes with fixed-pitch wooden propellers and non-retractable undercarriages. At the time, there was an institutional reluctance towards change within the Air Staff; some senior figures were prejudiced against the adoption of monoplane fighter aircraft, while mid-level officers were typically more open-minded.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In 1934 the British Air Ministry issued Specification F.5/34 in response to demands within the Royal Air Force (RAF) for a new generation of fighter aircraft. Earlier, during 1933, British aircraft designer Sydney Camm had conducted discussions with Major John Buchanan of the Directorate of Technical Development on a monoplane based on the existing Fury. Mason attributes Camm's discussions with figures within the RAF, such as Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley, as having provoked the specification and some of its details, such as the preference for armaments being installed within the wings instead of within the aircraft's nose.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: An outline of the "Fury Monoplane" armed with two guns in the wings and two in the nose and powered by the Goshawk was prepared and discussed with Roger Liptrot of the Air Ministry in December 1933. The design was reworked with the PV.12, following detailed work working drawings of the "Interceptor Monoplane" were begun in May 1934. The complete design was presented to the Air Ministry on 4 September.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Camm's initial submission in response to the earlier fighter specification F.7/30 was a development of the Fury, the Hawker P.V.3, However, the P.V.3 was not among the proposals which the Air Ministry selected to be built as prototype to official contract. After the rejection of the P.V.3 proposal, Camm started work on a new design involving a cantilever monoplane arrangement with a fixed undercarriage, armed with four machine guns and powered by the Rolls-Royce Goshawk engine. The original 1934 armament specifications for what evolved into the Hurricane were for a similar armament fitment to the Gloster Gladiator: four machine-guns, two in the wings and two in the fuselage, synchronised to fire through the propeller arc. By January 1934, the proposal's detail drawings had been finished, but these failed to impress the Air Ministry enough for a prototype to be ordered.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Camm's response to this rejection was to further develop the design, introducing a retractable undercarriage and replacing the unsatisfactory Goshawk engine with a new Rolls-Royce design, initially designated the "PV-12", which went on to become famous as the Merlin. In August 1934, a one-tenth scale model of the design was produced and sent to the National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, where a series of wind tunnel tests confirmed the aerodynamics were satisfactory, and in September 1934 Camm again approached the Air Ministry. This time, the Ministry's response was favourable, and a prototype of the "Interceptor Monoplane" was promptly ordered.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In July 1934, at a meeting chaired by Air Commodore Arthur Tedder (Director of Training), the Air Ministry Science Officer Captain F.W. "Gunner" Hill presented his calculation showing that future fighters must carry no fewer than eight machine guns, each capable of firing 1,000 rounds per minute./ Hill's assistant in making his calculations was his 13-year-old daughter Hazel Hill. Of the decision to place eight machine guns in fighters, Claude Hilton Keith, at the time Assistant Director of Armament Research and Development, says "The battle was brisk and was carried into very high quarters before the implementing authority was given. My Branch had made out a sound case for 8-gun fighters and if this recommendation had not been accepted and we had been content with half-measures, it might indeed have gone ill for us during the late summer of 1940". Present at the meeting was Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley of the Air Ministry's Operational Requirements branch, who played an important role in the decision. In November 1934, the Air Ministry issued Specification F.5/34 which called for new fighter aircraft to be armed with a total of eight guns. However, by this time, work had progressed too far to immediately modify the planned four-gun installation. By January 1935, a wooden mock-up had been finished, and although a number of suggestions for detail changes were made, construction of the prototype was approved, and a new specification (F.36/34) was written around the design. In July 1935, this specification was amended to include installation of eight guns.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The mock-up conference with Air Ministry staff was on 10 January 1935 at Kingston. The Ministry order to purchase a prototype to the September proposal was placed on 21 February 1935. At the time the armament was two Vickers Mark V machine guns in the fuselage and one Browning machine gun in each wing. Work on stressed skin outer wings to replace the fabric covered ones began in July and the contract was altered in August to include another set of wings with eight guns in them; the guns were to be either Vickers or Brownings. These wings were delivered in June 1936.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: By the end of August 1935, work on the airframe had been completed at Hawker's Kingston upon Thames facility and the aircraft components were transported to Brooklands, Surrey, where Hawker had an assembly shed; the prototype was fully re-assembled on 23 October 1935. Ground testing and taxi trials took place over the following two weeks. On 6 November 1935 the prototype "K5083" took to the air for the first time at the hands of Hawker's chief test pilot, Flight Lieutenant George Bulman. Bulman was assisted by two other pilots in subsequent flight testing; Philip Lucas flew some of the experimental test flights, while John Hindmarsh conducted the firm's production flight trials. As completed, the prototype had been fitted with ballast to represent the aircraft's armament prior to the acceptance of the final multi-gun wing armament.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: By March 1936 the prototype had completed ten flying hours, covering all major portions of the flight envelope. Early testing had gone reasonably well, especially in light of the trial status of the Merlin engine, which had yet to achieve full flight certification at this time and thus severe restrictions had been imposed upon use of the engine. In early 1936, the prototype was transferred to RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, to participate in initial service trials under the direction of squadron leader D. F. Anderson. Sammy Wroath, later to be the founding Commandant of the Empire Test Pilots' School, was the RAF test pilot for the Hurricane: his report was favourable, stating that: "The aircraft is simple and easy to fly and has no apparent vices" and proceeded to praise its control response.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In the course of RAF trials, despite the problems with the Merlin engine, which had suffered numerous failures and necessitating several changes, enthusiastic reports were produced on the aircraft and its performance. The trials had proved the aircraft to possess a maximum level speed of at an altitude of , climb to in 5.7 minutes, and a stalling speed of (only marginally higher than the Gladiator biplane), the last achieved using its flaps.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In the course of further testing, it was found that the Hurricane had poor spin recovery characteristics, in which all rudder authority could be lost due to shielding of the rudder. Hawker's response to the issue was to request that spinning tests be waived, but the Air Ministry refused the request; the situation was resolved by the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), who established that the aerodynamic problem had been caused by a breakdown of the airflow over the lower fuselage, and could be cured by the addition of a small ventral fairing and extension of the bottom of the rudder. This discovery had come too late for the changes to be incorporated in the first production aircraft, but were introduced upon the 61st built and all subsequent aircraft.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In early 1936, the Hawker Board of Directors had decided, in the absence of official authorisation and at company expense, to proceed with the issue of the design drawings to the production design office and to start tooling-up for a production line capable of producing a batch of 1,000 Hurricanes.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In June 1936 the Air Ministry placed its first order, for 600 aircraft. On 26 June 1936, the type name "Hurricane", which had been proposed by Hawker, was approved by the Air Ministry; an informal christening ceremony for the aircraft was carried out the following month during an official visit by King Edward VIII to Martlesham Heath.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: A major reason for the aircraft's appeal was its relatively simple construction and ease of manufacture. It was significantly cheaper than Supermarine Spitfire and took 10,300 man hours to produce each example, compared to 15,200 for the Spitfire. As a large-scale war was looking increasingly likely, and time was of the essence in providing the RAF with an effective fighter aircraft, it was unclear if the more advanced Spitfire would enter production smoothly, while the Hurricane made use of well-understood manufacturing techniques. This factor was equally applicable for its use within service squadrons, which were experienced in working on and repairing aircraft whose construction was similar to the Hurricane, and the simplicity of its design enabled the improvisation of some remarkable repairs in squadron workshops. A fabric-covered wing, patterned upon traditional Hawker designs, was initially adopted in order to speed up production; a higher-performing stressed-skin metal wing took its place in late 1939.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 12 October 1937, the maiden flight of the first production Hurricane I which was powered by a Merlin II engine took place, flown by Flight Lieutenant Philip Lucas. While a production contract for 600 Hurricanes was received on 2 June 1936, deliveries were delayed by roughly six months due to the decision made in December 1936 to equip the Hurricane with the improved Merlin II, replacing the troubled Merlin I. The effect of this was that "the cowling shape and fairing lines were considerably altered" and "other units affected were the air intake, airscrew, engine controls, engine mounting, hand starter gear, header tank and header tank mounting."


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Merlin I production was terminated after 180 were built. The earlier Merlin I had been prioritised for the Fairey Battle light bomber and the Hawker Henley, a failed competitor to the Battle adapted as a target tug which shared common elements with the Hurricane design. By the following December, the first four aircraft to enter service with the RAF had joined No. 111 Squadron, stationed at RAF Northolt. By February 1938, No. 111 Squadron had received 16 Hurricanes. Upon the outbreak of the Second World War, over 550 Hurricanes had been produced, which had equipped a total of 18 squadrons, while a further 3,500 aircraft were on order.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: During 1940, Lord Beaverbrook, who was the Minister of Aircraft Production, established an organisation in which a number of manufacturers were seconded to repair and overhaul battle-damaged aircraft including Hurricanes. The Civilian Repair Organisation also overhauled battle-weary aircraft, which were later sent to training units or to other air forces; one of the factories involved was the Austin Aero Company's Cofton Hackett plant. Another was David Rosenfield Ltd, based at Barton aerodrome near Manchester.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: A major manufacturer of the Hurricane was Canadian Car and Foundry at their factory in Fort William, Ontario, Canada, receiving their initial contract for 40 Hurricanes in November 1938. The facility's chief engineer, Elsie MacGill, became known as the "Queen of the Hurricanes". The initiative was commercially led rather than governmentally, but was endorsed by the British government; Hawker, having recognised that a major conflict was all but inevitable after the Munich Crisis of 1938, drew up preliminary plans to expand Hurricane production via a new factory in Canada. Under this plan, samples, pattern aircraft, and a complete set of design documents stored on microfilm, were shipped to Canada; in 1938/9 the RCAF ordered 24 Hurricanes to equip one fighter squadron, 20 of which were delivered, and two more were supplied to Canadian Car and Foundry as pattern aircraft but one probably did not arrive, while the other was sent back to Britain in 1940. The first Hurricane built at Canadian Car and Foundry was officially produced in February 1940. As a result, Canadian-built Hurricanes were shipped to Britain to participate in events such as the Battle of Britain.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Overall, some 14,487 Hurricanes and Sea Hurricanes were produced in England and Canada. The majority of Hurricanes, 9,986 were built by Hawker (who produced the type at Brooklands from December 1937 to October 1942 and Langley from October 1939 to July 1944), while Hawker's sister company, the Gloster Aircraft Company, constructed 2,750. The Austin Aero Company completed 300 Hurricanes. Canada Car and Foundry was responsible for the production of 1,451 Hurricanes. However those shipped to Britain were incomplete airframes, to be completed after arrival, about 80% arrived without an engine.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In 1939, production of 100 Hurricanes was initiated in Yugoslavia by Zmaj and Rogožarski. Of these, 20 were built by Zmaj by April 1941. Recognising that the supply of British-made Merlin engines might not be guaranteed, it was decided to fit one of the Yugoslavian Hurricanes with a Daimler-Benz DB 601 engine instead; this aircraft was test flown in 1941. In 1938, a contract for 80 Hurricanes was placed with Fairey's Belgian subsidiary Avions Fairey SA for the Belgian Air Force; it was intended to arm these aircraft with an arrangement of four Browning machine guns. Three were built and two flown with this armament by the time of the German invasion of Belgium in May 1940, with at least 12 more constructed by Avions Fairey armed with the conventional eight rifle calibre machine gun armament.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hawker Hurricane is a low-wing cantilever monoplane with retractable undercarriage and an enclosed cockpit. The primary structure of the fuselage was a Warren truss box-girder with high-tensile steel longerons and duralumin cross-bracing, which were mechanically fastened rather than being welded. Over this, a secondary structure composed of wooden formers and stringers covered with doped linen the fuselage a rounded section. The majority of the external surfaces were linen, except for a section between the cockpit and the engine cowling which used lightweight metal panels instead.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Camm had decided to use traditional Hawker construction techniques instead of more advanced options, such as a stressed-skin metal construction. This form of construction resembled that of earlier biplanes and was already considered to be somewhat outdated when the Hurricane was introduced to service . The Hurricane was initially armed with an arrangement of eight remotely-operated wing-mounted Browning machine guns, intended for conducting rapid engagements. The Hurricane was typically equipped for flying under both day and night conditions, being provided with navigation lights, Harley landing lights, complete blind-flying equipment, and two-way radios. Upon its entry to service, much of the performance data was intentionally concealed from the general public, but it was known that the type possessed a speed range of 6:1.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: A simple steel tube structure supported the engine; detachable cowling panels allowed access to most of the engine's areas for maintenance. Installed underneath the fuselage, the liquid-cooled radiator has a rectangular opening to its aft; this is covered by a hinged flap, allowing the pilot to control the cooling level. An atypical feature for the era was the use of Tungum alloy pipes throughout the cooling system.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Initially, the structure of the Hurricane's cantilever wing consisted of two steel spars, which possessed considerable strength and stiffness. The wing was described by "Flight" as relatively straightforward to manufacture, employing simple vertical jigs to attach the two spars, after which the wing ribs were installed using horizontal bolts, forming separate units between the front and rear spars. Hydraulically-actuated split trailing edge flaps were fitted to the inner end of the wings. This wing was predominantly fabric-covered, like the fuselage, although some lightweight metal sheets were used on the inner wing and its leading edge. The majority of the flight control surfaces, such as the Frise-type ailerons, also had fabric coverings.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: An all-metal, stressed-skin wing of duraluminium (a DERD specification similar to AA2024) was introduced in April 1939 and was used for all of the later marks. "The metal skinned wings allowed a diving speed that was higher than the fabric-covered ones. They were very different in construction but were interchangeable with the fabric-covered wings; one trials Hurricane, "L1877", was even flown with a fabric-covered port wing and metal-covered starboard wing. The great advantage of the metal-covered wings over the fabric ones was that the metal ones could carry far greater stress loads without needing as much structure." Several fabric-wing Hurricanes were still in service during the Battle of Britain, although a good number had had their wings replaced during servicing or after repair. Changing the wings required only three hours work per aircraft.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane had a inward-retracting undercarriage, the main undercarriage units being housed in recesses in the wing. Hinged telescopic Vickers-built legs are attached to the bottom boom of the wing's forward spar, but with a angled pivot to allow the strut to be perpendicular to the thrust line when extended and angle rearwards when retracted to clear the forward spar. A hydraulic jack actuated the undercarriage. Two separate hydraulic systems, one being power-operated and the other hand-operated, are present for the deployment and retraction of the undercarriage; in the event of both failing, pilots can release the retaining catches holding the undercarriage in place, deploying the wheels to the 'down' position using weight alone. A wide wheel-track was used to allow for considerable stability during ground movements and to enable tight turns to be performed.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The prototype and early production Hurricanes were fitted with a Watts two-bladed fixed-pitch wooden propeller. "Flight" commented of this arrangement: "Many have expressed surprise that the Hurricane is not fitted with variable-pitch airscrews". The original two-bladed propeller was found to be inefficient at low airspeeds and the aircraft required a long ground run to get airborne, which caused concern at Fighter Command. Accordingly, trials with a de Havilland variable-pitch propeller demonstrated a reduction in the Hurricane's take-off run from . Deliveries of these began in April 1939: this was later replaced by the hydraulically operated constant-speed Rotol propeller, which came into service in time for the Battle of Britain.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Camm's priority was to provide the pilot with good all-round visibility. To this end, the cockpit was mounted reasonably high in the fuselage, creating a distinctive "hump-backed" silhouette. Pilot access to the cockpit was aided by a retractable "stirrup" mounted below the trailing edge of the port wing. This was linked to a spring-loaded hinged flap which covered a handhold on the fuselage, just behind the cockpit. When the flap was shut, the footstep retracted into the fuselage. In addition, both wing roots were coated with strips of non-slip material.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: An advantage of the steel-tube structure was that cannon shells could pass right through the wood and fabric covering without exploding. Even if one of the steel tubes were damaged, the repair work required was relatively simple and could be done by ground crew at the airfield. Damage to a stressed skin structure, as used by the Spitfire, required more specialised equipment to repair. The old-fashioned structure also permitted the assembly of Hurricanes with relatively basic equipment under field conditions. Crated Hurricanes were assembled at Takoradi in West Africa and flown across the Sahara to the Middle East theatre and, to save space, some Royal Navy aircraft carriers carried their reserve Sea Hurricanes dismantled into their major assemblies, which were slung up on the hangar bulkheads and deckhead for reassembly when needed.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In contrast, the contemporary Spitfire used all-metal monocoque construction and was thus both lighter and stronger, though less tolerant to bullet damage. With its ease of maintenance, widely set landing gear and benign flying characteristics, the Hurricane remained in use in theatres of operations where reliability, easy handling and a stable gun platform were more important than performance, typically in roles like ground attack. One of the design requirements of the original specification was that both the Hurricane and the Spitfire were also to be used as night fighters. The Hurricane proved to be a relatively simple aircraft to fly at night, and shot down several German aircraft on night raids. From early 1941 the Hurricane was also used as an "intruder" aircraft, patrolling German airfields in France at night to catch bombers taking off or landing.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: By the middle of 1938, the first 50 Hurricanes had reached squadrons and, at that time, it had been assessed that the rate of production was slightly greater than the RAF's capacity to introduce the new aircraft, which had already been accelerated. Accordingly, the British government gave Hawker the clearance to sell excess aircraft to nations that were likely to oppose German expansion. As a result, there were some modest export sales made to other countries; at the earliest opportunity, a former RAF Hurricane I was dispatched to Yugoslavia for evaluation purposes. Shortly after this evaluation, an order for 24 Hurricane Mark Is for the Royal Yugoslav Air Force was received; this was followed by the purchase of a production licence for the Hurricane by Yugoslavia. Yugoslavian Hurricanes saw action against the Luftwaffe during the invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941 by the Axis powers.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: To the end of August 1939, 14 Hurricanes had been sent to Poland (SS "Lassel" left Liverpool on 30 August 1939 heading to Constanza in Romania, these planes never reached Poland and ultimately were sold to Turkey), seven ex-RAF Hurricanes had been sent to South Africa, while another 13 ex-RAF Hurricanes were sent to Turkey, 13 Hurricanes had been built for Belgium, 21 for Canada including 1 as a pattern for Canadian Car and Foundry, 1 for Iran, 1 for Poland, 3 for Romania and 12 for Yugoslavia. All the built for export aircraft were taken from the RAF order and so all originally had an RAF serial. Further exports were done in the final 4 months of 1939 and early 1940.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Hurricane production was increased as part of a plan to create a reserve of attrition aircraft as well as re-equip existing squadrons and newly formed ones such as those of the Auxiliary Air Force. Expansion scheme E included a target of 500 fighters of all types by the start of 1938. By the time of the Munich Crisis, there were only two fully operational RAF squadrons of the planned 12 to be equipped with Hurricanes. By the time of the German invasion of Poland there were sixteen operational Hurricane squadrons as well as a further two more that were in the process of converting.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Owing to the Hurricane's rugged construction, ease of maintenance and repair in the field, and its docile landing and take-off characteristics, coupled with a wide-track undercarriage, it was selected to go to France as the principal RAF fighter. Two Hurricane squadrons, No. 1 and No. 73, formed 67 Wing of the Advanced Air Striking Force, while two more, No. 85 and No. 87, formed 60 Wing of the Air Component, BEF.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: While the two squadrons of No. 60 Wing had their Hurricanes painted in the standard colour scheme and markings of Home-based fighters, those of No. 67 Wing differed considerably. It was probably because No. 1 and No. 73 Squadrons were operating in close proximity to French fighter squadrons that these units painted Red, White and Blue stripes over the entire height of the rudders on their Hurricanes in a similar manner to the standard French AF National markings.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: As the French squadrons were not familiar with the [British] use of code letters, and there could have been cause for error in aircraft identification, both Hurricane squadrons removed their Squadron identification letters, leaving the grey-painted aircraft letter aft of the [fuselage] roundel. The decision to adopt these special changes in markings seems to have been made at 67 Group HQ (the immediate command authority for the two squadrons involved) to suit local circumstances.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 24 August 1939, the British government gave orders partially to mobilise and No. 1 Group RAF (Air Vice-Marshal Patrick Playfair) sent its ten Fairey Battle day-bomber squadrons to France, according to plans established by the British and French earlier in the year. The group was the first echelon of the RAF Advanced Air Striking Force (AASF) and flew from bases at Abingdon, Harwell, Benson, Boscombe Down and Bicester. The group HQ became the AASF when the order to move to France was received and the home station HQs, 71, 72 74–76 Wings. As part of the AASF, No. 1 and No. 73 Squadrons Fighter Command operating Hawker Hurricanes were also sent to France (No. 1 to Berry-au-Bac, north-west of Paris; No. 73 to Rouvres) and assigned escort duties independent of the Air Component BEF.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane had its first combat action on 21 October 1939, at the start of the Phoney War. That day, "A" Flight of 46 Squadron took off from North Coates satellite airfield, on the Lincolnshire coast, and was directed to intercept a formation of nine Heinkel He 115B floatplanes from 1/KüFlGr 906, searching for ships to attack in the North Sea. The Heinkels, which were flying at sea level in an attempt to avoid fighter attacks, had already been attacked and damaged by two Spitfires from 72 Squadron when six Hurricanes intercepted them. The Hurricanes shot down four of the enemy in rapid succession, 46 Squadron claiming five and the Spitfire pilots two.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In response to a request from the French government for the provision of ten fighter squadrons to provide air support, Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding, Commander-in-Chief of RAF Fighter Command, insisted that this number would deplete British defences severely, and so initially only four squadrons of Hurricanes, 1, 73, 85 and 87, were relocated to France, keeping Spitfires back for "Home" defence. The first to arrive was 73 Squadron on 10 September 1939, followed shortly by the other three. A little later, 607 and 615 Squadrons joined them.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: After his first flight in October 1939, Hurricane pilot Roland Beamont subsequently flew operationally with 87 Squadron, claiming three enemy aircraft during the French campaign, and delivered great praise for his aircraft's performance:


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: While the opening months of the war were characterised by little air activity in general, there were sporadic engagements and aerial skirmishes between the two sides. On 30 October 1939 Hurricanes saw action over France. That day, Pilot Officer P. W. O. "Boy" Mould of 1 Squadron, flying Hurricane L1842, shot down a Dornier Do 17P from 2(F)/123. The German aircraft, sent to photograph Allied airfields close to the border, fell in flames about west of Toul. Mould was the first RAF pilot to down an enemy aircraft on the European continent in the Second World War. According to Mason, the experiences gained in these early engagements proved invaluable in developing tactics which became tried and tested, and rapidly spread throughout Fighter Command.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 6 November 1939, Pilot Officer P.V. Ayerst from 73 Squadron was the first to clash with a Messerschmitt Bf 109. After the dogfight, he came back with five holes in his fuselage. Flying Officer E. J. "Cobber" Kain, a New Zealander, was responsible for 73 Squadron's first victory, on 8 November 1939 while stationed at Rouvres. He went on to become one of the RAF's first fighter aces of the war, being credited with 16 kills. On 22 December, the Hurricanes in France suffered their first losses: three, while trying to intercept an unidentified aircraft between Metz and Thionville, were jumped by four Bf 109Es from III./JG 53, with their "Gruppenkommandeur", Spanish Civil War ace Captain Werner Mölders, in the lead. Mölders and "Leutnant" Hans von Hahn shot down the Hurricanes of Sergeant R. M. Perry and J. Winn for no loss.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In May 1940, Nos. 3, 79 and 504 Squadrons reinforced the earlier units as Germany's "Blitzkrieg" gathered momentum. On 10 May, the first day of the Battle of France, Flight Lieutenant R. E. Lovett and Flying Officer "Fanny" Orton, of 73 Squadron, were the first R.A.F pilots to engage enemy aircraft in the campaign. They attacked one of three Dornier Do 17s from "4. Staffel/KG 2" that were flying over their airfield at Rouvres-en-Woevre. The Dornier went away unscathed, while Orton was hit by defensive fire and had to force land. On the same day the Hurricane squadrons claimed 42 German aircraft, none of them fighters, shot down during 208 sorties; seven Hurricanes were lost but no pilots were killed.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 12 May several Hurricanes units were committed to escort bombers. That morning, five Fairey Battle volunteer crews from 12 Squadron took off from Amifontaine base to bomb Vroenhoven and Veldwezelt bridges on the Meuse, at Maastricht. The escort consisted of eight Hurricanes of 1 Squadron, with Squadron Leader P. J. H. "Bull" Halahan in the lead. When the formation approached Maastricht, it was bounced by 16 Bf 109Es from "2./JG 27". Two Battles and two Hurricanes (including Halahan's) were shot down, two more Battles were brought down by flak and the fifth bomber had to crash-land. The 1 Squadron pilots claimed four Messerschmitts and two Heinkel He 112s, while the Luftwaffe actually lost only one Bf 109.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 13 May 1940, a further 32 Hurricanes arrived. All ten requested Hurricane squadrons were then operating from French soil and felt the full force of the Nazi offensive. The following day, Hurricanes suffered heavy losses: 27 being shot down, 22 by Messerschmitts, with 15 pilots killed (another died some days later), including Squadron Leader J. B. Parnall (504 Squadron), and the Australian ace Flying Officer Les Clisby (1 Squadron). On the same day, 3 Squadron claimed 17 German aircraft shot down, 85 and 87 Squadrons together claimed four victories, while 607 Squadron claimed nine. During the following three days (15–17 May), no fewer than 51 Hurricanes were lost, in combat or in accidents.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: By 17 May, the end of the first week of fighting, only three of the squadrons were near operational strength, but the Hurricanes had managed to destroy nearly twice as many German aircraft. On 18 May 1940, air combat continued from dawn to dusk; Hurricane pilots claimed 57 German aircraft and 20 probables (Luftwaffe records show 39 aircraft lost). The following day, 1 and 73 Squadrons claimed eleven German aircraft (three by "Cobber" Kain and three by Paul Richey). On these two days Hurricanes suffered heavier losses, with 68 Hurricanes shot down or forced to crash-land due to combat damage. Fifteen pilots were killed, eight were taken prisoner and eleven injured. Two-thirds of the Hurricanes had been shot down by Messerschmitt Bf 109s and Bf 110s.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In the afternoon of 20 May 1940, the Hurricane units based in northern France were ordered to abandon their bases on the continent and return to Great Britain. On the same day, "Bull" Halahan requested the repatriation of the pilots serving in 1 Squadron. During the previous 10 days, the unit had been the most successful of the campaign; it had claimed 63 victories for the loss of five pilots: two killed, one taken prisoner and two hospitalised. 1 Squadron was awarded ten DFCs and three DFMs during the "Blitzkrieg". On the evening of 21 May, the only Hurricanes still operational were those of the AASF that had been moved to bases around Troyes.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: During the 11 days of fighting in France and over Dunkirk from 10 to 21 May, Hurricane pilots claimed 499 kills and 123 probables. Contemporary German records, examined postwar, attribute 299 Luftwaffe aircraft destroyed and 65 seriously damaged by RAF fighters. The last 66 Hurricanes of the 452 engaged during the Battle of France left France on 21 June; 178 were abandoned at several airfields, notably Merville, Abbeville, and Lille/Seclin.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: During Operation Dynamo (the evacuation from Dunkirk of British, French and Belgian troops cut off by the German army during the Battle of Dunkirk), the Hawker Hurricanes operated from British bases. Between 26 May and 3 June 1940, the 14 Hurricane units involved were credited with 108 air victories. A total of 27 Hurricane pilots became aces during Operation Dynamo, led by Canadian Pilot Officer W. L. Willie McKnight (10 victories) and Pilot Officer Percival Stanley Turner (seven victories), who served in No. 242 Squadron, consisting mostly of Canadian personnel. Losses were 22 pilots killed and three captured.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: On 27 May 1940, in one of the final mass encounters of the "Blitzkrieg", 13 Hurricanes from 501 Squadron intercepted 24 Heinkel He 111s escorted by 20 Bf 110s; during the ensuing battle, 11 Heinkels were claimed as "kills" and others damaged, with little damage to the Hurricanes. On 7 June 1940, "Cobber" Kain, the first RAF ace of the war, got word that he was to return to England for "rest leave" at an Operational Training Unit. On leaving his airfield, he put on an impromptu aerobatic display and was killed when his Hurricane crashed after completing a loop and attempting some low altitude "flick" rolls.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Initial engagements with the Luftwaffe had showed the Hurricane to be a tight-turning and steady platform, but the Watts two-bladed propeller was clearly unsuitable. At least one pilot complained of how a Heinkel 111 was able to pull away from him in a chase, yet by this time the Heinkel was obsolete. At the start of the war, the engine ran on standard 87 octane aviation spirit. From early 1940, increasing quantities of 100 octane fuel imported from the U.S. became available. In February 1940, Hurricanes with the Merlin II and III engines began to receive modifications to allow for an additional of supercharger boost for five minutes (although there are accounts of its use for 30 minutes continuously).


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The extra supercharger boost, which increased engine output by nearly , gave the Hurricane an approximate increase in speed of , under altitude and greatly increased the aircraft's climb rate. "Overboost" or "pulling the plug", a form of war emergency power as it was called in later Second World War aircraft, was an important wartime modification that allowed the Hurricane to be more competitive against the Bf 109E and to increase its margin of superiority over the Bf 110C, especially at low altitude. With the + "emergency boost", the Merlin III was able to generate at .


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Flight Lieutenant Ian Gleed of 87 Squadron wrote about the effect of using the extra boost on the Hurricane while chasing a Bf 109 at low altitude on 19 May 1940: "Damn! We're flat out as it is. Here goes with the tit. A jerk – boost's shot up to 12 pounds; speed's increased by 30 mph. I'm gaining ground – 700, 600, 500 yards. Give him a burst. No, hold your fire you fool! He hasn't seen you yet..." Gleed ran out of ammunition before he could shoot the 109 down although he left it heavily damaged and flying at about .


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Hurricanes equipped with Rotol constant-speed propellers were delivered to RAF squadrons in May 1940, with deliveries continuing throughout the Battle of Britain. According to aviation author David Donald, the Rotol propeller had the effect of transforming the Hurricane's performance from "disappointing" to "acceptable mediocrity"; modified aircraft were reportedly much sought after among squadrons which had also been equipped with Hurricanes that were fitted with the older de Havilland two-position propeller.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: At the end of June 1940, following the fall of France, 31 of Fighter Command's 61 fighter squadrons were equipped with Hurricanes. The Battle of Britain officially lasted from 10 July until 31 October 1940, but the heaviest fighting took place between 8 August and 21 September. Both the Supermarine Spitfire and the Hurricane are renowned for their part in having defended Britain against the Luftwaffe; generally, the Spitfires intercepted the German fighters, leaving Hurricanes to concentrate on the bombers, and, despite the undoubted abilities of the "thoroughbred" Spitfire, it was the "workhorse" Hurricane that scored the higher number of RAF victories during this period, accounting for 55 per cent of the 2,739 German losses, according to Fighter Command, compared with 42 per cent by Spitfires. On 8 August 1940, Hurricanes of No. 145 Squadron were recorded as having fired the first shots of the Battle of Britain. The highest scoring Hurricane squadron during the Battle of Britain was the No. 303 Polish Fighter Squadron. This squadron also had the distinction of having the highest ratio of enemy aircraft destroyed to own losses suffered.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: As a fighter, the Hurricane had some drawbacks. It was slightly slower than both the Spitfire I and II and the Messerschmitt Bf 109E, and the thicker wing profiles compromised acceleration; but it could out-turn both of them. In spite of its performance deficiencies against the Bf 109, the Hurricane was still capable of destroying the German fighter, especially at lower altitudes. The standard tactic of the 109s was to attempt to climb higher than the RAF fighters and "bounce" them in a dive; the Hurricanes could evade such tactics by turning into the attack or going into a "corkscrew dive", which the 109s, with their lower rate of roll, found hard to counter. If a 109 was caught in a dogfight, the Hurricane was just as capable of out-turning the 109 as the Spitfire. In a stern chase, the 109 could evade the Hurricane.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In September 1940, the more powerful Mk IIa series 1 Hurricanes started entering service, although only in small numbers. This version was capable of a maximum speed of .


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane was a steady gun platform, and had demonstrated its ruggedness as several were badly damaged yet returned to base. But the Hurricane's construction made it dangerous if it caught fire; the wood frames and fabric covering of the rear fuselage allowed fire to spread through the rear fuselage structure easily. In addition, the gravity fuel tank in the forward fuselage sat right in front of the instrument panel, without any form of protection for the pilot. Many Hurricane pilots were seriously burned as a consequence of a jet of flame which could burn through the instrument panel. This became of such concern to Hugh Dowding that he had Hawker retrofit the fuselage tanks of the Hurricanes with Linatex, a self-expanding rubber coating. If the tank happened to be punctured by a bullet, the Linatex coating expanded when soaked with petrol and seal it. However, some Hurricane pilots felt that the fuel tanks in the wings, although they were also protected with a layer of Linatex, were vulnerable from behind, and it was thought that those, and not the fuselage tank, were the main fire risk.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: From 10 July to 11 August 1940, RAF fighters fired at 114 German bombers and shot down 80, a destruction ratio of 70 per cent. Against the Bf 109, the RAF fighters attacked 70 and shot down 54 of these, a ratio of 77 per cent. It has been suggested that part of the success of the British fighters was possibly due to the use of the de Wilde incendiary round.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane with the highest number of kills during the Battle of Britain was P3308, a Mk1, flown between 15 August and 7 October 1940 by RAF (auxiliary) pilot Archie McKellar of 605 Squadron. He is credited with 21 kills, 19 of those in a Hurricane during the Battle of Britain. On 7 October he is credited with shooting down 5 Bf 109s, making him one of only two RAF pilots (the other being Brian Carbury of New Zealand) to become an "ace in a day" during the Battle of Britain. During his brief fighting career, McKellar earned the DSO, DFC & Bar. McKellar has remained in relative obscurity in Battle of Britain history, as he was killed in action one day after the date set by the War Ministry (after the War) as the official end date for the Battle of Britain. He was killed on 1 November 1940 while taking on a superior number of Bf 109s.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: As in the Spitfire, the Merlin engine suffered from negative-G cut-out, a problem not cured until the introduction of Miss Shilling's orifice in early 1941.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The only Battle of Britain Victoria Cross, and the only one awarded to a member of Fighter Command during the war, was awarded to Flight Lieutenant James Brindley Nicolson of 249 Squadron as a result of an action on 16 August 1940 when his section of three Hurricanes was "bounced" from above by Bf 110 fighters. All three were hit simultaneously. Nicolson was badly wounded, and his Hurricane was damaged and engulfed in flames. While attempting to leave the cockpit, Nicolson noticed that one of the Bf 110s had overshot his aircraft. He returned to the cockpit, which by now was in an inferno, engaged the enemy, and may have shot down the Bf 110. Afterward, he parachuted to safety, although he was mistakenly shot at by the Home Guard after landing.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Following the Battle of Britain the Hurricane continued to give service; through the Blitz of 1941 it was the principal single-seat night fighter in Fighter Command. F/Lt. Richard Stevens claimed 14 Luftwaffe bombers flying Hurricanes in 1941. In 1942 the cannon-armed Mk IIc performed further afield, as a night intruder over occupied Europe. F/Lt. Karel Kuttelwascher of 1 Squadron proved the top scorer, with 15 Luftwaffe bombers claimed shot down.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: 1942 also saw the manufacture of twelve Hurricane II C(NF) night fighters, equipped with pilot-operated Air Interception Mark VI radar. After a brief operational deployment with No. 245 and No. 247 Squadron RAF during which these aircraft proved too slow for operations in Europe, the aircraft were sent to India to serve with No. 176 Squadron RAF in the defence of Calcutta. They were withdrawn from service at the end of December 1943.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: A Hurricane Mk I undertook tropical trials in Sudan in mid 1939, and a number were hastily tropicalised following Italy's entry into the war in June 1940. These aircraft were initially ferried through France and Malta by air to 80 Squadron in Egypt, replacing Gladiator biplanes. The Hurricane claimed its first kill in the Mediterranean on 19 June 1940, when F/O P.G. Wykeham-Barnes reported shooting down two Fiat CR.42 Falcos.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: Hurricanes served with several British Commonwealth squadrons in the Desert Air Force. They suffered heavy losses over North Africa after the arrival of Bf 109E and F-variants and were progressively replaced in the air superiority role from June 1941 by Curtiss Tomahawks/Kittyhawks. However, fighter-bomber variants ("Hurribombers") retained an edge in the ground attack role, due to their impressive armament of four cannon and a bomb load.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: From November 1941, beginning in the Libyan desert, it had to face a new formidable opponent: the new Regia Aeronautica Macchi C.202 "Folgore". The Italian aircraft proved superior to the Hawker fighter and, thanks to its excellent agility and a new, more powerful inline engine licence-built by Alfa Romeo, could outperform it in a dogfight.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: During and following the five-day Second Battle of El Alamein artillery barrage that commenced on the night of 23 October 1942, six squadrons of Hurricanes, including the cannon-armed Hurricane Mk.IID version, claimed to have destroyed 39 tanks, 212 lorries and armoured troop-carriers, 26 bowsers, 42 guns, 200 various other vehicles and four small fuel and ammunition dumps, flying 842 sorties with the loss of 11 pilots. Whilst performing in a ground support role, Hurricanes based at RAF Castel Benito, Tripoli, knocked out six tanks, 13 armoured vehicles, 10 lorries, five half-tracks, a gun and trailer, and a wireless van on 10 March 1943, with no losses to themselves.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: In the spring of 1943, during the German "Ochsenkopf" offensive in Tunisia, Hurricane IIDs conducted many sorties after fog had lifted, helping to blunt the final attack at Hunts Gap.


title: Hawker Hurricane

text: The Hurricane played a significant role in the defence of Malta. When Italy entered the war on 10 June 1940, Malta's air defence rested on Gloster Gladiators, which managed to hold out against vastly superior numbers of the Italian air force during the following 17 days. Initially there were six Gladiators, though after a while, only three were able to be flown at any one time because of a shortage of spare parts, and for whatever reason (five different explanations have been given), they became known as "Faith, Hope and Charity". Four Hurricanes joined them at the end of June, and together they faced attacks throughout July from the 200 enemy aircraft based in Sicily, with the loss of one Gladiator and one Hurricane. Further reinforcements arrived on 2 August in the form of 12 more Hurricanes and two Blackburn Skuas.