title: Auteur

text: As the French New Wave in cinema began, French magazine "Cahiers du cinéma", founded in 1951, became a hub of discourse about directors' roles in cinema. In a 1954 essay, François Truffaut criticized the prevailing "Cinema of Quality" whereby directors, faithful to the script, merely adapt a literary novel. Truffaut described such a director as a "metteur en scene", a mere "stager" who adds the performers and pictures. To represent the view that directors who express their personality in their work make better films, Truffaut coined the phrase "la politique des auteurs", or "the policy of the authors", in a 1955 review of Jacques Becker's "Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves" titled, "Ali Baba et la 'Politique des auteurs'" (February 1955).


title: Auteur

text: Jerry Lewis, an actor from the Hollywood studio system, directed his own 1960 film "The Bellboy". Lewis's influence on it spanned business and creative roles, including writing, directing, lighting, editing, and art direction. French film critics, publishing in "Cahiers du Cinéma" and in "Positif", praised Lewis's results. For his "mise-en-scene" and camerawork, Lewis was likened to Howard Hawks, Alfred Hitchcock, and Satyajit Ray. In particular, Jean-Luc Godard credited Lewis's "personal genius" for making him "the only one in Hollywood doing something different, the only one who isn't falling in with the established categories, the norms, the principles", "the only one today who's making courageous films."


title: Auteur

text: As early as his 1962 essay "Notes of the auteur theory", published in the journal "Film Culture", American film critic Andrew Sarris translated the French term "la politique des auteurs", by François Truffaut in 1955, into Sarris's term "auteur theory". Sarris applied it to Hollywood films, and elaborated in his 1968 book, "The American Cinema: Directors and Directions 1929–1968", which helped popularized the English term.


title: Auteur

text: Via auteur theory, critical and public scrutiny of films shifted from their stars to the overall creation. In the 1960s and the 1970s, a new generation of directors, revitalizing filmmaking by wielding greater control, manifested the New Hollywood era, when studios granted directors more leeway to take risks. Yet in the 1980s, upon high-profile failures like "Heaven's Gate", studios reasserted control, muting the auteur theory.


title: Auteur

text: Pauline Kael, an early critic of auteur theory, debated Andrew Sarris in magazines. Defending a film as a collaboration, her 1971 essay "Raising Kane," examining Orson Welles's 1941 film "Citizen Kane", finds extensive reliance on co-writer Herman J. Mankiewicz and on cinematographer Gregg Toland.


title: Auteur

text: Richard Corliss and David Kipen argued that a film's success relies more on screenwriting. In 2006, to depict the screenwriter as the film's principal author, Kipen coined the term "Schreiber theory".


title: Auteur

text: To film historian Georges Sadoul, a film's main "author" can also be an actor, screenwriter, producer, or novel's author, although a "film" is a collective's work. Film historian Aljean Harmetz, citing classical Hollywood's input by producers and executives, held that auteur theory "collapses against the reality of the studio system".


title: Auteur

text: In a feminist criticism, Maria Giese in 2013 alleged that the auteur theory is biased to males, as the pantheons of auteurs barely include a woman. This may reflect the sheer scarcity of women as directors, with about 7% of directors being women among the 250 highest-grossing films in 2016.


title: Auteur

text: In some law references, a film is treated as artwork while the auteur, as its creator, is the original copyright holder. Under European Union law, largely by influence of auteur theory, a film director is considered the film's author or one of its authors.


title: Auteur

text: The references of auteur theory are occasionally applied to musicians, musical performers and music producers. From the 1960s, record producer Phil Spector is considered the first auteur among producers of popular music. Author Matthew Bannister named him the first "star" producer. Journalist Richard Williams wrote:


title: Auteur

text: Another early pop music auteur was Brian Wilson, mentored by Spector. In 1962, Wilson's band, the Beach Boys, signed to Capitol Records, and swiftly became a commercial success, whereby Wilson was an early recording artist who was also an entrepreneurial producer. Before the "progressive pop" of the late 1960s, performers typically had little input on their own records. Wilson, however, employed the studio like an instrument, as well as a high level of studio control that other artists soon sought.


title: Auteur

text: According to "The Atlantic"s Jason Guriel, the Beach Boys' 1966 album "Pet Sounds", produced by Wilson, anticipated later auteurs such as Kanye West, as well as "the rise of the producer" and "the modern pop-centric era, which privileges producer over artist and blurs the line between entertainment and art. ... Anytime a band or musician disappears into a studio to contrive an album-length mystery, the ghost of Wilson is hovering near."


title: Housefly

text: The housefly ("Musca domestica") is a fly of the suborder Cyclorrhapha. It is believed to have evolved in the Cenozoic Era, possibly in the Middle East, and has spread all over the world as a commensal of humans. It is the most common fly species found in houses. Adults are gray to black, with four dark, longitudinal lines on the thorax, slightly hairy bodies, and a single pair of membranous wings. They have red eyes, set farther apart in the slightly larger female.


title: Housefly

text: The female housefly usually mates only once and stores the sperm for later use. She lays batches of about 100 eggs on decaying organic matter such as food waste, carrion, or feces. These soon hatch into legless white larvae, known as maggots. After two to five days of development, these metamorphose into reddish-brown pupae, about long. Adult flies normally live for two to four weeks, but can hibernate during the winter. The adults feed on a variety of liquid or semi-liquid substances, as well as solid materials which have been softened by their saliva. They can carry pathogens on their bodies and in their feces, contaminate food, and contribute to the transfer of food-borne illnesses, while, in numbers, they can be physically annoying. For these reasons, they are considered pests.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies have been used in the laboratory in research into aging and sex determination. Houseflies appear in literature from Ancient Greek myth and Aesop's "The Impertinent Insect" onwards. Authors sometimes choose the housefly to speak of the brevity of life, as in William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", which deals with mortality subject to uncontrollable circumstances.


title: Housefly

text: Adult houseflies are usually long with a wingspan of . The females tend to be larger winged than males, while males have relatively longer legs. Females tend to vary more in size and there is geographic variation with larger individuals in higher latitudes. The head is strongly convex in front and flat and slightly conical behind. The pair of large compound eyes almost touch in the male, but are more widely separated in the female. They have three simple eyes (ocelli) and a pair of short antennae. Houseflies process visual information around seven times more quickly than humans, enabling them to identify and avoid attempts to catch or swat them, since they effectively see the human's movements in slow motion with their higher flicker fusion rate.


title: Housefly

text: The mouthparts are specially adapted for a liquid diet; the mandibles and maxillae are reduced and not functional, and the other mouthparts form a retractable, flexible proboscis with an enlarged, fleshy tip, the labellum. This is a sponge-like structure that is characterized by many grooves, called pseudotracheae, which suck up fluids by capillary action. It is also used to distribute saliva to soften solid foods or collect loose particles. Houseflies have chemoreceptors, organs of taste, on the tarsi of their legs, so they can identify foods such as sugars by walking over them. Houseflies are often seen cleaning their legs by rubbing them together, enabling the chemoreceptors to taste afresh whatever they walk on next. At the end of each leg is a pair of claws, and below them are two adhesive pads, pulvilli, enabling the housefly to walk up smooth walls and ceilings using Van der Waals forces. The claws help the housefly to unstick the foot for the next step. Houseflies walk with a common gait on horizontal and vertical surfaces with three legs in contact with the surface and three in movement. On inverted surfaces, they alter the gait to keep four feet stuck to the surface. Houseflies land on a ceiling by flying straight towards it; just before landing, they make a half roll and point all six legs at the surface, absorbing the shock with the front legs and sticking a moment later with the other four.


title: Housefly

text: The thorax is a shade of gray, sometimes even black, with four dark, longitudinal bands of even width on the dorsal surface. The whole body is covered with short hairs. Like other Diptera, houseflies have only one pair of wings; what would be the hind pair is reduced to small halteres that aid in flight stability. The wings are translucent with a yellowish tinge at their base. Characteristically, the medial vein (M1+2 or fourth long vein) shows a sharp upward bend. Each wing has a lobe at the back, the calypter, covering the haltere. The abdomen is gray or yellowish with a dark stripe and irregular dark markings at the side. It has 10 segments which bear spiracles for respiration. In males, the ninth segment bears a pair of claspers for copulation, and the 10th bears anal cerci in both sexes.


title: Housefly

text: A variety of species around the world appear similar to the housefly, such as the lesser house fly, "Fannia canicularis"; the stable fly, "Stomoxys calcitrans"; and other members of the genus "Musca" such as "M. vetustissima", the Australian bush fly and several closely related taxa that include "M. primitiva", "M. shanghaiensis", "M. violacea", and "M. varensis". The systematic identification of species may require the use of region-specific taxonomic keys and can require dissections of the male reproductive parts for confirmation.


title: Housefly

text: The housefly is probably the insect with the widest distribution in the world; it is largely associated with humans and has accompanied them around the globe. It is present in the Arctic, as well as in the tropics, where it is abundant. It is present in all populated parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australasia, and the Americas.


title: Housefly

text: Though the order of flies (Diptera) is much older, true houseflies are believed to have evolved in the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. The housefly's superfamily, Muscoidea, is most closely related to the Oestroidea (blow flies, flesh flies and allies), and more distantly to the Hippoboscoidea (louse flies, bat flies and allies). They are thought to have originated in the southern Palearctic region, particularly the Middle East. Because of their close, commensal relationship with humans, they probably owe their worldwide dispersal to co-migration with humans.


title: Housefly

text: The housefly was first described as "Musca domestica" in 1758 based on the common European specimens by the Swedish botanist and zoologist Carl Linnaeus in his "Systema naturae" and continues to be classified under that name. A more detailed description was given in 1776 by the Danish entomologist Johan Christian Fabricius in his "Genera Insectorum".


title: Housefly

text: Each female housefly can lay up to 500 eggs in her lifetime, in several batches of about 75 to 150. The eggs are white and are about in length, and they are deposited by the fly in a suitable place, usually dead and decaying organic matter, such as food waste, carrion, or feces. Within a day, larvae (maggots) hatch from the eggs; they live and feed where they were laid. They are pale-whitish, long, thinner at the mouth end, and legless. Larval development takes from two weeks, under optimal conditions, to 30 days or more in cooler conditions. The larvae avoid light; the interiors of heaps of animal manure provide nutrient-rich sites and ideal growing conditions, warm, moist, and dark.


title: Housefly

text: At the end of their third instar, the larvae crawl to a dry, cool place and transform into pupae. The pupal case is cylindrical with rounded ends, about long, and formed from the last shed larval skin. It is yellowish at first, darkening through red and brown to nearly black as it ages. Pupae complete their development in two to six days at , but may take 20 days or more at .


title: Housefly

text: When metamorphosis is complete, the adult housefly emerges from the pupa. To do this, it uses the ptilinum, an eversible pouch on its head, to tear open the end of the pupal case. The adult housefly lives from two weeks to one month in the wild, or longer in benign laboratory conditions. Having emerged from the pupa, it ceases to grow; a small fly is not necessarily a young fly, but is instead the result of getting insufficient food during the larval stage.


title: Housefly

text: Male houseflies are sexually mature after 16 hours and females after 24. Females produce a pheromone, (Z)-9-tricosene (muscalure). This cuticular hydrocarbon is not released into the air and males sense it only on contact with females; it has found use as in pest control, for luring males to fly traps. The male initiates the mating by bumping into the female, in the air or on the ground, known as a "strike". He climbs on to her thorax, and if she is receptive, a courtship period follows, in which the female vibrates her wings and the male strokes her head. The male then reverses onto her abdomen and the female pushes her ovipositor into his genital opening; copulation, with sperm transfer, lasts for several minutes. Females normally mate only once and then reject further advances from males, while males mate multiple times. A volatile semiochemical that is deposited by females on their eggs attracts other gravid females and leads to clustered egg deposition.


title: Housefly

text: The larvae depend on warmth and sufficient moisture to develop; generally, the warmer the temperature, the faster they grow. In general, fresh swine and chicken manures present the best conditions for the developing larvae, reducing the larval period and increasing the size of the pupae. Cattle, goat, and horse manures produce fewer, smaller pupae, while mature swine manure composted with water content under 30%, approached 100% mortality of the larvae. Pupae can range from about in weight under different conditions.


title: Housefly

text: The life cycle can be completed in seven to ten days under optimal conditions, but may take up to two months in adverse circumstances. In temperate regions, 12 generations may occur per year, and in the tropics and subtropics, more than 20.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies play an important ecological role in breaking down and recycling organic matter. Adults are mainly carnivorous; their primary food is animal matter, carrion, and feces, but they also consume milk, sugary substances, and rotting fruit and vegetables. Solid foods are softened with saliva before being sucked up. They can be opportunistic blood feeders. Houseflies have a mutualistic relationship with the bacterium "Klebsiella oxytoca", which can live on the surface of housefly eggs and deter fungi which compete with the housefly larvae for nutrients.


title: Housefly

text: Adult houseflies are diurnal and rest at night. If inside a building after dark, they tend to congregate on ceilings, beams, and overhead wires, while out of doors, they crawl into foliage or long grass, or rest in shrubs and trees or on wires. In cooler climates, some houseflies hibernate in winter, choosing to do so in cracks and crevices, gaps in woodwork, and the folds of curtains. They arouse in the spring when the weather warms up, and search out a place to lay their eggs.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies have many predators, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, various insects, and spiders. The eggs, larvae, and pupae have many species of stage-specific parasites and parasitoids. Some of the more important are the parasitic wasps "Muscidifurax uniraptor" and "Spalangia cameroni"; these lay their eggs in the housefly larvae tissue and their offspring complete their development before the adult houseflies can emerge from the pupae. Hister beetles feed on housefly larvae in manure heaps and the predatory mite "Macrocheles muscae domesticae" consumes housefly eggs, each mite eating 20 eggs per day.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies sometimes carry phoretic (nonparasitic) passengers, including mites such as "Macrocheles muscaedomesticae" and the pseudoscorpion "Lamprochernes chyzeri".


title: Housefly

text: The pathogenic fungus "Entomophthora muscae" causes a fatal disease in houseflies. After infection, the fungal hyphae grow throughout the body, killing the housefly in about five days. Infected houseflies have been known to seek high temperatures that could suppress the growth of the fungus. Affected females tend to be more attractive to males, but the fungus-host interactions have not been fully understood. The housefly also acts as the alternative host to the parasitic nematode "Habronema muscae" that attacks horses. A virus that causes enlargement of the salivary glands, salivary gland hypertrophy virus (SGHV), is spread among houseflies through contact with food and infected female houseflies become sterile.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies are a nuisance, disturbing people while at leisure and at work, but they are disliked principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process they soften the food with saliva and deposit their feces, creating a health hazard. However, housefly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert waste to insect-based animal feed for farmed fish and livestock. Housefly larvae have been used in traditional cures since the Ming period in China (1386 AD) for a range of medical conditions and have been considered as a useful source of chitosan, with antioxidant properties, and possibly other proteins and polysaccharides of medical value.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies have been used in art and artifacts in many cultures. In 16th- and 17th-century European vanitas paintings, houseflies sometimes occur as "memento mori". They may also be used for other effects as in the Flemish painting, the "Master of Frankfurt" (1496). Housefly amulets were popular in ancient Egypt.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies can fly for several kilometers from their breeding places, carrying a wide variety of organisms on their hairs, mouthparts, vomitus, and feces. Parasites carried include cysts of protozoa, e.g. "Entamoeba histolytica" and "Giardia lamblia" and eggs of helminths; e.g., "Ascaris lumbricoides", "Trichuris trichiura", "Hymenolepis nana", and "Enterobius vermicularis". Houseflies do not serve as a secondary host or act as a reservoir of any bacteria of medical or veterinary importance, but they do serve as mechanical vectors to over 100 pathogens, such as those causing typhoid, cholera, salmonellosis, bacillary dysentery, tuberculosis, anthrax, ophthalmia, and pyogenic cocci, making them especially problematic in hospitals and during outbreaks of certain diseases. Disease-causing organisms on the outer surface of the housefly may survive for a few hours, but those in the crop or gut can be viable for several days. Usually, too few bacteria are on the external surface of the houseflies (except perhaps for "Shigella") to cause infection, so the main routes to human infection are through the housefly's regurgitation and defecation. A number of bacterial endosymbionts have however been detected in sequence-based identification from whole genome sequences extracted from flies, the greatest numbers being detected in the abdomen.


title: Housefly

text: In the early 20th century, Canadian public health workers believed that the control of houseflies was important in controlling the spread of tuberculosis. A "swat that fly" contest was held for children in Montreal in 1912. Houseflies were targeted in 1916, when a polio epidemic broke out in the eastern United States. The belief that housefly control was the key to disease control continued, with extensive use of insecticidal spraying well until the mid-1950s, declining only after the introduction of Salk's vaccine. In China, Mao Zedong's Four Pests Campaign between 1958 and 1962 exhorted the people to catch and kill houseflies, along with rats, mosquitoes, and sparrows.


title: Housefly

text: During the Second World War, the Japanese worked on entomological warfare techniques under Shirō Ishii. Japanese Yagi bombs developed at Pingfan consisted of two compartments, one with houseflies and another with a bacterial slurry that coated the houseflies prior to release. "Vibrio cholerae", which causes cholera, was the bacterium of choice, and was used in China in Baoshan in 1942, and in northern Shandong in 1943. Baoshan had been used by the Allies and bombing produced epidemics that killed 60,000 people in the initial stages, reaching a radius of which finally took a toll of 200,000 victims. The Shandong attack killed 210,000; the occupying Japanese troops had been vaccinated in advance.


title: Housefly

text: The ability of housefly larvae to feed and develop in a wide range of decaying organic matter is important for recycling of nutrients in nature. This could be exploited to combat ever-increasing amounts of waste. Housefly larvae can be mass-reared in a controlled manner in animal manure, reducing the bulk of waste and minimizing environmental risks of its disposal. Harvested maggots may be used as feed for animal nutrition.


title: Housefly

text: Houseflies can be controlled, at least to some extent, by physical, chemical, or biological means. Physical controls include screening with small mesh or the use of vertical strips of plastic or strings of beads in doorways to prevent entry of houseflies into buildings. Fans to create air movement or air barriers in doorways can deter houseflies from entering, and food premises often use fly-killing devices; sticky fly papers hanging from the ceiling are effective, but electric "bug zappers" should not be used directly above food-handling areas because of scattering of contaminated insect parts. Another approach is the elimination as far as possible of potential breeding sites. Keeping garbage in lidded containers and collecting it regularly and frequently, prevents any eggs laid from developing into adults. Unhygienic rubbish tips are a prime housefly-breeding site, but if garbage is covered by a layer of soil, preferably daily, this can be avoided.


title: Housefly

text: Insecticides can be used. Larvicides kill the developing larvae, but large quantities may need to be used to reach areas below the surface. Aerosols can be used in buildings to "zap" houseflies, but outside applications are only temporarily effective. Residual sprays on walls or resting sites have a longer-lasting effect. Many strains of housefly have become immune to the most commonly used insecticides. Resistance to carbamates and organophosphates is conferred by variation in acetylcholinesterase genes. "M. domestica" has achieved a high degree of resistance. Resistance monitoring is vital to avoid continued use of ineffective a.i.s such as found in the notably severe example of Freeman et al 2019 in Kansas and Maryland, USA.


title: Housefly

text: Several means of biological pest control have been investigated. These include the introduction of another species, the black soldier fly ("Hermetia illucens"), whose larvae compete with those of the housefly for resources. The introduction of dung beetles to churn up the surface of a manure heap and render it unsuitable for breeding is another approach. Augmentative biological control by releasing parasitoids can be used, but houseflies breed so fast that the natural enemies are unable to keep up.


title: Housefly

text: The ease of culturing houseflies, and the relative ease of handling them when compared to the fruit fly "Drosophila", have made them useful as model organism for use in laboratories. The American entomologist Vincent Dethier, in his humorous "To Know A Fly" (1962), pointed out that as a laboratory animal, houseflies did not trouble anyone sensitive to animal cruelty. Houseflies have a small number of chromosomes, haploid 6 or diploid 12. Because the somatic tissue of the housefly consists of long-lived postmitotic cells, it can be used as an informative model system for understanding cumulative age-related cellular alterations. Oxidative DNA damage 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine in houseflies was found in one study to increase with age and reduce life expectancy supporting the hypothesis that oxidative molecular damage is a causal factor in senescence (aging).


title: Housefly

text: The housefly is an object of biological research, partly for its variable sex-determination mechanism. Although a wide variety of sex-determination mechanisms exists in nature (e.g. male and female heterogamy, haplodiploidy, environmental factors), the way sex is determined is usually fixed within a species. The housefly is, however, thought to exhibit multiple mechanisms for sex determination, such as male heterogamy (like most insects and mammals), female heterogamy (like birds), and maternal control over offspring sex. This is because a male-determining gene ("Mdmd") can be found on most or all housefly chromosomes. Sexual differentiation is controlled, as in other insects, by an ancient developmental switch, doublesex, which is regulated by the transformer protein in many different insects. "Mdmd" causes male development by negatively regulating "transformer". There is also a female-determining allele of "transformer" that is not sensitive to the negative regulation of "Mdmd."


title: Housefly

text: In the 1970s, the aircraft modeler Frank Ehling constructed miniature balsa-wood aircraft powered by live houseflies. Studies of tethered houseflies have helped in the understanding of insect vision, sensory perception, and flight control.


title: Housefly

text: "The Impertinent Insect" is a group of five fables, sometimes ascribed to Aesop, concerning an insect, in one version a fly, which puffs itself up to seem important. In the Biblical fourth plague of Egypt, flies represent death and decay, while the Philistine god Beelzebub's name may mean "lord of the flies". In Greek mythology, Myiagros was a god who chased away flies during the sacrifices to Zeus and Athena; Zeus sent a fly to bite Pegasus, causing Bellerophon to fall back to Earth when he attempted to ride the winged steed to Mount Olympus. In the traditional Navajo religion, Big Fly is an important spirit being.


title: Housefly

text: William Blake's 1794 poem "The Fly", part of his collection "Songs of Experience", deals with the insect's mortality, subject to uncontrollable circumstances, just like humans. Emily Dickinson's 1855 poem "I Heard a Fly Buzz When I Died" speaks of flies in the context of death. In William Golding's 1954 novel "Lord of the Flies", the fly is, however, a symbol of the children involved.


title: Housefly

text: Ogden Nash's humorous two-line 1942 poem "God in His wisdom made the fly/And then forgot to tell us why." indicates the debate about the value of biodiversity, given that even those considered by humans as pests have their place in the world's ecosystems.


title: Karla Souza

text: Karla Susana Olivares Souza (born December 11, 1985) is a Mexican actress known for her roles as Laurel Castillo on the ABC legal drama series "How to Get Away with Murder" and Marina Hayworth on the ABC sitcom "Home Economics".


title: Karla Souza

text: Souza was born in Mexico City, Mexico, on December 11, 1985, to a Chilean father and a Mexican mother, Mónica. Her grandmother, Elba Silva, was an assistant cook for the Rockefeller family for 20 years after immigrating to New York City from Chile in the 1960s. Having lived in Aspen, Colorado, until she was eight years old, Souza credits her grandmother's immigration to the United States as the reason she has an American passport.


title: Karla Souza

text: Souza studied acting at Centro de Educación Artística, an acting school run by Televisa, in Mexico City. She also attended acting school in France and was part of a professional theatre company that toured throughout that country. While still in France, Souza auditioned and was selected to participate in the French reality TV show "Star Academy", however, she turned down the offer after receiving an invitation to study at London's Central School of Speech and Drama. She graduated from the school in 2008 with a Bachelor of Arts in acting. Near the end of her London studies, she received a CCP award, traditionally presented to the most promising actress in London. After being selected to go to Moscow with Anatoly Smilianski for an acting intensive, she returned to Mexico City and began acting in television and film when she was 22.


title: Karla Souza

text: Souza had her television debut in 2009 on the Mexican telenovela "Verano de amor". She later starred in Mexican sitcoms "Los Héroes del Norte" and "La Clínica". Her film roles include "From Prada to Nada"; in 2013, she was also in two Mexican box office hits, "Nosotros los Nobles" and "Instructions Not Included". In 2014, Souza moved to Los Angeles to pursue English-language film and television roles. She was cast as a series regular in the Shonda Rhimes-produced legal drama series "How to Get Away with Murder" as law student Laurel Castillo, opposite Viola Davis. In February 2015, Souza appeared on the cover of "Women's Health".


title: Karla Souza

text: In December 2013, Souza became engaged to Marshall Trenkmann and the couple married in May 2014. Together, they have two children; daughter Gianna (born April 2018) and son Luka (born June 2020).


title: Karla Souza

text: Souza gave a TEDx talk in León, Guanajuato, on March 21, 2015, titled "Sweet are the Fruits of Adversity." It became the most-seen Spanish TEDx talk with millions of views.


title: Karla Souza

text: In February 2018, Souza appeared on Mexican journalist Carmen Aristegui's show and revealed that she had been a victim of sexual assault. Souza stated that, when she was 22, she was raped by the director of a TV show she was working in; she did not name her attacker.


title: Karla Souza

text: National Hispanic Media Coalition "Outstanding Performance in a Television Series (How To Get Away with Murder)", 2017.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In jurisprudence, double jeopardy is a procedural defence (primarily in common law jurisdictions) that prevents an accused person from being tried again on the same (or similar) charges following an acquittal or conviction and in rare cases prosecutorial and/or judge misconduct in the same jurisdiction. Double jeopardy is a common concept in criminal law. In civil law, a similar concept is that of . Variation in common law countries is the peremptory plea, which may take the specific forms of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'). These doctrines appear to have originated in ancient Roman law, in the broader principle ('not twice against the same').


title: Double jeopardy

text: If a double-jeopardy issue is raised, evidence will be placed before the court, which will typically rule as a preliminary matter whether the plea is substantiated; if it is, the projected trial will be prevented from proceeding. In some countries certain exemptions are permitted. In Scotland a new trial can be initiated if, for example, the acquitted has made a credible admission of guilt. Part of English law for over 800 years, it was partially abolished in England, Wales and Northern Ireland by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 where, following demand for change, serious offences may be re-tried following an acquittal if new and compelling evidence is found, and if the trial is found to be in the public's interest. In some countries, including Canada, Mexico, and the United States, the guarantee against being "twice put in jeopardy" is a constitutional right. In other countries, the protection is afforded by statute.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In common law countries, a defendant may enter a peremptory plea of ('previously acquitted') or ('previously convicted'), with the same effect.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Double jeopardy is not a principle of international law. It does not apply between different countries, unless having been contractually agreed on between those countries as, for example, in the European Union (Art. 54 Schengen Convention), and in various extradition treaties between two countries.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The 72 signatories and 166 parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognise, under Article 14 (7): "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again for an offence for which he has already been finally convicted or acquitted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of each country." However, it does not apply to prosecutions by two different sovereigns (unless the relevant extradition treaty expresses a prohibition).


title: Double jeopardy

text: All members of the Council of Europe (which includes nearly all European countries and every member of the European Union) have adopted the European Convention on Human Rights. The optional Protocol No. 7 to the convention, Article 4, protects against double jeopardy: "No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an offence for which he or she has already been finally acquitted or convicted in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State."


title: Double jeopardy

text: All EU states ratified this optional protocol except for Germany, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. In those member states, national rules governing double jeopardy may or may not comply with the provision cited above.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Member states may, however, implement legislation which allows reopening of a case if new evidence is found or if there was a fundamental defect in the previous proceedings:


title: Double jeopardy

text: In many European countries, the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court. This is not regarded as double jeopardy, but as a continuation of the same case. The European Convention on Human Rights permits this by using the phrase "finally acquitted or convicted" as the trigger for prohibiting subsequent prosecution.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In contrast to other common law nations, Australian double jeopardy law has been held to further prevent the prosecution for perjury following a previous acquittal where a finding of perjury would controvert the acquittal. This was confirmed in the case of "R v Carroll", where the police found new evidence convincingly disproving Carroll's sworn alibi two decades after he had been acquitted of murder charges in the death of Ipswich child Deidre Kennedy, and successfully prosecuted him for perjury. Public outcry following the overturn of his conviction (for perjury) by the High Court has led to widespread calls for reform of the law along the lines of the England and Wales legislation.


title: Double jeopardy

text: During a Council of Australian Governments (COAG) meeting of 2007, model legislation to rework double jeopardy laws was drafted, but there was no formal agreement for each state to introduce it. All states have now chosen to introduce legislation that mirrors COAG's recommendations on "fresh and compelling" evidence.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In New South Wales, retrials of serious cases with a minimum sentence of 20 years or more are now possible even if the original trial preceded the 2006 reform. On 17 October 2006, the New South Wales Parliament passed legislation abolishing the rule against double jeopardy in cases where:


title: Double jeopardy

text: On 30 July 2008, South Australia also introduced legislation to scrap parts of its double jeopardy law, legalising retrials for serious offences with "fresh and compelling" evidence, or if the acquittal was tainted.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Western Australia, amendments introduced on 8 September 2011 allow retrial if "new and compelling" evidence is found. It applies to serious offences where the penalty was life imprisonment or imprisonment for 14 years or more. Acquittal because of tainting (witness intimidation, jury tampering, or perjury) also permits retrial.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Tasmania, on 19 August 2008, amendments were introduced to allow retrial in serious cases if there is "fresh and compelling" evidence.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Victoria on 21 December 2011, legislation was passed allowing new trials where there is "fresh and compelling DNA evidence, where the person acquitted subsequently admits to the crime, or where it becomes clear that key witnesses have given false evidence". However, retrial applications could only be made for serious offences such as murder, manslaughter, arson causing death, serious drug offences and aggravated forms of rape and armed robbery.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Queensland on 18 October 2007, the double jeopardy laws were modified to allow a retrial where fresh and compelling evidence becomes available after an acquittal for murder or a "tainted acquittal" for a crime carrying a 25-year or more sentence. A "tainted acquittal" requires a conviction for an administration of justice offence, such as perjury, that led to the original acquittal. Unlike reforms in the United Kingdom, New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia, this law does not have a retrospective effect, which is unpopular with some advocates of the reform.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms includes provisions such as section 11(h) prohibiting double jeopardy. However, the prohibition only applies after an accused person has been "finally" convicted or acquitted. Canadian law allows the prosecution to appeal an acquittal based on legal errors. In rare circumstances, when a trial judge made all the factual findings necessary for a finding of guilt but misapplied the law, a court of appeal might also directly substitute an acquittal for a conviction. These cases are not considered double jeopardy because the appeal and the subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial.


title: Double jeopardy

text: For an appeal from an acquittal to be successful, the Supreme Court of Canada requires the Crown to show that an error in law was made during the trial and that it contributed to the verdict. It has been argued that this test is unfairly beneficial to the prosecution. For instance, in his book "My Life in Crime and Other Academic Adventures", Martin Friedland contends that the rule should be changed so that a retrial is granted only when the error is shown to be "responsible" for the verdict, not just a factor.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Though the "Charter" permits appeals of acquittals, there are still constitutional limits imposed on the scope of these appeals. In "Corp. Professionnelle des Médecins v. Thibault", the Supreme Court struck down a provision of Quebec law that allowed appellate courts to conduct a "de novo" review of both legal and factual findings. In doing so, it held that the scope of an appeal may not extend to challenging findings of fact where no legal error has been made. At this point, the Court reasoned, the process ceases to be a appeal and instead becomes a new trial disguised as one.


title: Double jeopardy

text: A notable example cited by critics of Canada's appeal system is the case of Guy Paul Morin, who was wrongfully convicted in his second trial after the acquittal in his first trial was vacated by the Supreme Court. Another notable use of the system occurred in the case of child murderer Guy Turcotte, the Quebec Court of Appeal overturned the initial verdict of not criminally responsible by reason of mental disorder and ordered a second trial after it found that the judge had erroneously instructed the jury. Turcotte was later convicted of second-degree murder in the second trial.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgement is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was forged. Prosecution for a crime already judged is impossible even if incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on the grounds of new exculpating evidence through a procedure known as "révision".


title: Double jeopardy

text: The Basic Law ("Grundgesetz") for the Federal Republic of Germany protects against double jeopardy if a final verdict is pronounced. A verdict is final if nobody appeals against it.


title: Double jeopardy

text: However, each trial party can appeal against a verdict in the first instance. The prosecution or the defendants can appeal against a judgement if they disagree with it. In this case, the trial starts again in the second instance, the court of appeal ("Berufungsgericht"), which reconsiders the facts and reasons and delivers a final judgement.


title: Double jeopardy

text: If one of the parties disagrees with the second instance's judgement, they can appeal it only for formal judicial reasons. The case will be checked in the third instance ("Revisionsgericht"), whether all laws are applied correctly.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The rule applies to the whole "historical event, which is usually considered a single historical course of actions the separation of which would seem unnatural". This is true even if new facts occur that indicate other crimes.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The Penal Procedural Code ("Strafprozessordnung") permits a retrial ("Wiederaufnahmeverfahren"), if it is in favour of the defendant or if the following events had happened:


title: Double jeopardy

text: In the case of an order of summary punishment, which can be issued by the court without a trial for lesser misdemeanours, there is a further exception:


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Germany, a felony is defined by § 12 (1) StGB as a crime that has a minimum of one year of imprisonment.


title: Double jeopardy

text: A partial protection against double jeopardy is a Fundamental Right guaranteed under Article 20 (2) of the Constitution of India, which states "No person shall be prosecuted and punished for the same offence more than once". This provision enshrines the concept of "autrefois convict", that no one convicted of an offence can be tried or punished a second time. However, it does not extend to "autrefois acquit", and so if a person is acquitted of a crime he can be retried. In India, protection against "autrefois acquit" is a statutory right, not a fundamental one. Such protection is provided by provisions of the Code of Criminal Procedure rather than by the Constitution.


title: Double jeopardy

text: However, in 1950, one defendant was found guilty in the District Court for crimes related to the election law and was sentenced to paying a fine. The prosecutor wanted a stronger sentence and appealed to the High Court. As a result, the defendant was sentenced to three months of imprisonment. He appealed to the Supreme Court on the grounds that the sentence was excessive when compared with precedents and that he had been placed in double jeopardy, which was in violation of Article 39. On 27 September 1950, all fifteen judges of the Supreme Court made the Grand Bench Decision to rule against the defendant and declared that a criminal proceeding in the District Court, High Court and Supreme Court is all one case and that there is no double jeopardy. In other words, if the prosecutor appeals against a judgement of not guilty or a guilty decision that they think does not impose a severe enough sentence, the defendant will not be placed in double jeopardy.


title: Double jeopardy

text: On 10 October 2003, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in the area of double jeopardy. The case involved Article 235 of the Penal Code, which addresses “simple larceny”, and Article 2 of the Law for Prevention and Disposition of Robbery, Theft, etc., which addresses “habitual larceny”. The Court ruled that in the event that there are two trials for separate cases of simple larceny, it will not be considered double jeopardy, even if the prosecutor could have charged both of them as a single crime of habitual larceny. The defendant in this case had committed crimes of trespassing and simple larceny on 22 separate occasions. The defence counsel argued that the crimes were actually one offence of habitual larceny and that charging them as separate counts was double jeopardy. The Supreme Court ruled that it was within the prosecutor’s discretion as to whether to charge the defendant with one count of habitual larceny or to charge them with multiple counts of trespassing and simple larceny. In either case, it is not considered double jeopardy.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In the Netherlands, the state prosecution can appeal a not-guilty verdict at the bench. New evidence can be applied during a retrial at a district court. Thus one can be tried twice for the same alleged crime. If one is convicted at the district court, the defence can make an appeal on procedural grounds to the supreme court. The supreme court might admit this complaint, and the case will be reopened yet again, at another district court. Again, new evidence might be introduced by the prosecution.


title: Double jeopardy

text: On 9 April 2013 the Dutch senate voted 36 "yes" versus 35 "no" in favour of a new law that allows the prosecutor to re-try a person who was found not guilty in court. This new law is limited to crimes where someone died and new evidence must have been gathered. The new law also works retroactively.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Article 13 of the Constitution of Pakistan protects a person from being punished or prosecuted more than once for the same offence. Section 403 of The Code of Criminal Procedure contemplates of a situation where as person having once been tried by a Court of competent jurisdiction and acquitted by such court cannot be tried again for the same offence or for any other offence based on similar facts. The scope of section 403 is restricted to criminal proceedings and not to civil proceedings and departmental inquiries.


title: Double jeopardy

text: This principle is incorporated into the Constitution of the Republic of Serbia and further elaborated in its Criminal Procedure Act.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The Bill of Rights in the Constitution of South Africa forbids a retrial when there has already been an acquittal or a conviction.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Article 13 of the South Korean constitution provides that no citizen shall be placed in double jeopardy.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Double jeopardy has been permitted in England and Wales in certain (exceptional) circumstances since the Criminal Justice Act 2003.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The doctrines of "autrefois acquit" and "autrefois convict" persisted as part of the common law from the time of the Norman conquest of England; they were regarded as essential elements for protection of the subject's liberty and respect for due process of law in that there should be finality of proceedings. There were only three exceptions, all relatively recent, to the rules:


title: Double jeopardy

text: In "Connelly v DPP" [1964] AC 1254, the Law Lords ruled that a defendant could not be tried for any offence arising out of substantially the same set of facts relied upon in a previous charge of which he had been acquitted, unless there are "special circumstances" proven by the prosecution. There is little case law on the meaning of "special circumstances", but it has been suggested that the emergence of new evidence would suffice.


title: Double jeopardy

text: A defendant who had been convicted of an offence could be given a second trial for an aggravated form of that offence if the facts constituting the aggravation were discovered after the first conviction. By contrast, a person who had been acquitted of a lesser offence could not be tried for an aggravated form even if new evidence became available.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Following the murder of Stephen Lawrence, the Macpherson Report recommended that the double jeopardy rule should be abrogated in murder cases, and that it should be possible to subject an acquitted murder suspect to a second trial if "fresh and viable" new evidence later came to light. The Law Commission later added its support to this in its report "Double Jeopardy and Prosecution Appeals" (2001). A parallel report into the criminal justice system by Lord Justice Auld, a past Senior Presiding Judge for England and Wales, had also commenced in 1999 and was published as the Auld Report six months after the Law Commission report. It opined that the Law Commission had been unduly cautious by limiting the scope to murder and that "the exceptions should [...] extend to other grave offences punishable with life and/or long terms of imprisonment as Parliament might specify." 1999 was also the year of a highly-publicised case in which a man, David Smith, was convicted of the murder of a prostitute after having been acquitted of the "almost identical" murder of sex worker Sarah Crump 6 years previously. Because of the double jeopardy laws that existed at the time, Smith could not be re-tried for Crump's murder, despite police insisting they were not looking for anybody else and that the case was closed and the BBC reporting that Smith had "beat" the earlier murder charge.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Both Jack Straw (then Home Secretary) and William Hague (then Leader of the Opposition) favoured the measures suggested by the Auld Report. These recommendations were implemented—not uncontroversially at the time—within the Criminal Justice Act 2003, and this provision came into force in April 2005. It opened certain serious crimes (including murder, manslaughter, kidnapping, rape, armed robbery, and serious drug crimes) to a retrial, regardless of when committed, with two conditions: the retrial must be approved by the Director of Public Prosecutions, and the Court of Appeal must agree to quash the original acquittal due to "new and compelling evidence". Then Director of Public Prosecutions, Ken Macdonald QC, said that he expected no more than a handful of cases to be brought in a year.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Pressure by Ann Ming, the mother of 1989 murder victim Julie Hogg—whose killer, Billy Dunlop, was initially acquitted and subsequently confessed—also contributed to the demand for legal change. On 11 September 2006, Dunlop became the first person to be convicted of murder following a prior acquittal for the same crime, in his case his 1991 acquittal of Hogg's murder. Some years later he had confessed to the crime, and was convicted of perjury, but was unable to be retried for the killing itself. The case was re-investigated in early 2005, when the new law came into effect, and his case was referred to the Court of Appeal, in November 2005, for permission for a new trial, which was granted. Dunlop pleaded guilty to murder and was sentenced to life imprisonment, with a recommendation he serve no less than 17 years.


title: Double jeopardy

text: On 13 December 2010, Mark Weston became the first person to be retried and found guilty of murder by a jury (Dunlop having confessed). In 1996 Weston had been acquitted of the murder of Vikki Thompson at Ascott-under-Wychwood on 12 August 1995, but following the discovery in 2009 of compelling new evidence (Thompson's blood on Weston's boots) he was arrested and tried for a second time. He was sentenced to life imprisonment, to serve a minimum of 13 years.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In December 2018, convicted paedophile Russell Bishop was also retried and found guilty by a jury for the Babes in the Wood murders of two 9-year-old girls, Nicola Fellows and Karen Hadaway, on 9 October 1986. At the original trial in 1987, a key piece of the prosecution's case rested on the recovery of a discarded blue sweatshirt. Under questioning, Bishop denied that the sweatshirt belonged to him, but his girlfriend, Jennifer Johnson, alleged the clothing was Bishop's, before she changed her story in the trial, telling the jury she had never seen the top before. Attributed to a series of blunders in the prosecution's case, Bishop was acquitted by the jury after two hours of deliberations. Three years later, Bishop was found guilty of the abduction, molestation, and attempted murder of a 7-year-old girl in February 1990. In 2014, re-examined by modern forensics, the sweatshirt contained traces of Bishop's DNA, and also had fibres on it from both of the girls' clothing. Tapings taken from Karen Hadaway's arm also yielded traces of Bishop's DNA. At the 2018 trial, a jury of seven men and five women returned a guilty verdict after two-and-a-half hours of deliberation.


title: Double jeopardy

text: On 14 November 2019, Michael Weir became the first person to be twice found guilty of a murder. He was originally convicted of the murders of Leonard Harris and Rose Seferian in 1999, but the conviction was quashed in 2000 by the Court of Appeal on a technicality. In 2018, new DNA evidence had been obtained and palm prints from both murder scenes were matched to Weir. Twenty years after the original conviction, Weir was convicted of the murders for a second time.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The double jeopardy rule no longer applies absolutely in Scotland since the Double Jeopardy (Scotland) Act 2011 came into force on 28 November 2011. The Act introduced three broad exceptions to the rule: where the acquittal had been tainted by an attempt to pervert the course of justice; where the accused admitted their guilt after acquittal; and where there was new evidence.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In Northern Ireland, the Criminal Justice Act 2003, effective 18 April 2005, makes certain "qualifying offence" (including murder, rape, kidnapping, specified sexual acts with young children, specified drug offences, defined acts of terrorism, as well as in certain cases attempts or conspiracies to commit the foregoing) subject to retrial after acquittal (including acquittals obtained before passage of the Act) if there is a finding by the Court of Appeal that there is "new and compelling evidence."


title: Double jeopardy

text: The ancient protection of the Common Law against double jeopardy is maintained in its full rigour in the United States. The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides:


title: Double jeopardy

text: Conversely, double jeopardy comes with a key exception. Under the multiple sovereignties doctrine, multiple sovereigns can indict a defendant for the same crime. The federal and state governments can have overlapping criminal laws, so a criminal offender may be convicted in individual states and federal courts for exactly the same crime or for different crimes arising out of the same facts. However, in 2016, the Supreme Court held that Puerto Rico is not a separate sovereign for purposes of the Double Jeopardy Clause. The dual sovereignty doctrine has been the subject of substantial scholarly criticism.


title: Double jeopardy

text: As described by the U.S. Supreme Court in its unanimous decision concerning "Ball v. United States" 163 U.S. 662 (1896), one of its earliest cases dealing with double jeopardy, "the prohibition is not against being twice punished, but against being twice put in jeopardy; and the accused, whether convicted or acquitted, is equally put in jeopardy at the first trial." The Double Jeopardy Clause encompasses four distinct prohibitions: subsequent prosecution after acquittal, subsequent prosecution after conviction, subsequent prosecution after certain mistrials, and multiple punishment in the same indictment. Jeopardy "attaches" when the jury is impanelled, the first witness is sworn, or a plea is accepted.


title: Double jeopardy

text: With two exceptions, the government is not permitted to appeal or retry the defendant once jeopardy attaches to a trial unless the case does not conclude. Conditions which constitute "conclusion" of a case include


title: Double jeopardy

text: In these cases, the trial is concluded and the prosecution is precluded from appealing or retrying the defendant over the offence to which they were acquitted.


title: Double jeopardy

text: This principle does not prevent the government from appealing a pre-trial motion to dismiss or other non-merits dismissal, or a directed verdict after a jury conviction, nor does it prevent the trial judge from entertaining a motion for reconsideration of a directed verdict, if the jurisdiction has so provided by rule or statute. Nor does it prevent the government from retrying the defendant after an appellate reversal other than for sufficiency, including "habeas corpus", or "thirteenth juror" appellate reversals notwithstanding sufficiency on the principle that jeopardy has not "terminated".


title: Double jeopardy

text: The "dual sovereignty" doctrine allows a federal prosecution of an offence to proceed regardless of a previous state prosecution for that same offence and vice versa because "an act denounced as a crime by both national and state sovereignties is an offence against the peace and dignity of both and may be punished by each". The doctrine is solidly entrenched in the law, but there has been a traditional reluctance in the federal executive branch to gratuitously wield the power it grants, due to public opinion being generally hostile to such action.


title: Double jeopardy

text: There are two exceptions to bans on retrying defendants. If a defendant bribed a judge into acquitting him or her, the defendant was not in jeopardy and can be retried. A member of the armed forces can be retried by court-martial in a military court, even if he or she has been previously acquitted by a civilian court.


title: Double jeopardy

text: An individual can be prosecuted by both the United States and an for the same acts that constituted crimes in both jurisdictions; it was established by the Supreme Court in "United States v. Lara" that as the two are separate sovereigns, prosecuting a crime under both tribal and federal law does not attach double jeopardy.


title: Double jeopardy

text: In "Blockburger v. United States" (1932), the Supreme Court announced the following test: the government may separately try and punish the defendant for two crimes if each crime contains an element that the other does not. "Blockburger" is the default rule, unless the governing statute legislatively intends to depart; for example, Continuing Criminal Enterprise (CCE) may be punished separately from its predicates, as can conspiracy.


title: Double jeopardy

text: The "Blockburger" test, originally developed in the multiple punishments context, is also the test for prosecution after conviction. In "Grady v. Corbin" (1990), the Court held that a double jeopardy violation could lie even where the "Blockburger" test was not satisfied, but "Grady" was later distinguished in "United States v. Felix" (1992), when the court reverted to the "Blockburger" test without completely dismissing the "Grady" interpretation. The court eventually overruled "Grady" in "United States v. Dixon" (1993).


title: Double jeopardy

text: The rule for mistrials depends upon who sought the mistrial. If the defendant moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial, unless the prosecutor acted in "bad faith", i.e. goaded the defendant into moving for a mistrial because the government specifically wanted a mistrial. If the prosecutor moves for a mistrial, there is no bar to retrial if the trial judge finds "manifest necessity" for granting the mistrial. The same standard governs mistrials granted sua sponte.


title: Double jeopardy

text: Retrials are not common, due to the legal expenses to the government. However, in the mid-1980s Georgia antique dealer James Arthur Williams was tried a record four times for the murder of Danny Hansford and (after three mistrials) was finally acquitted on the grounds of self-defence. The case is recounted in the book "Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil," which was adapted into a film directed by Clint Eastwood (the movie combines the four trials into one).


title: Double jeopardy

text: Research and Notes produced for the UK Parliament, summarising the history of legal change, views and responses, and analyses:


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: Lee Je-hoon (born July 4, 1984) is a South Korean actor. He started his career in indie films, then went on to appear in commercial films like "The Front Line" (2011), "Architecture 101" (2012) and "My Paparotti" (2013), and television series like "Fashion King" (2012), "Secret Door" (2014), "Signal" (2016), "Tomorrow, With You" (2017), "Where Stars Land " (2018), "Taxi Driver" (2021), and "Move to Heaven" (2021).


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: When Lee Je-hoon realized that he wanted to go into acting, he dropped out of the Biotechnology major at Korea University and transferred to the School of Drama at Korea National University of Arts. From 2006 to 2010, Lee appeared in more than 18 student shorts and indie films, notably the queer coming-of-age romance "Just Friends?". He also appeared as an extra in a number of commercial films, including erotic thriller "The Servant" and romantic comedy "Finding Mr. Destiny".


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: Then Lee had his breakthrough in 2011. He received rave reviews for his performances as a manipulative alpha-male in the haunting indie "Bleak Night", and as a morphine-addicted squad leader in big-budget war film "The Front Line". He gained mainstream popularity as a shy college student pining for his first love in box-office hit "Architecture 101", and though the television series "Fashion King" was poorly received, his role as a struggling young chaebol heir in Korea's fashion industry further showcased his versatility.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: Lee next starred opposite acclaimed veteran actor, Han Suk-kyu in the comedy-drama "My Paparotti", which focuses on the special relationship between a high school gang member who dreams of becoming a singer like the late tenor Luciano Pavarotti, and the music teacher who helps him pursue his dream. He next starred in "Ghost Sweepers", dubbed the character Jack Frost for the Korean release of 3D animated film "Rise of the Guardians", and featured in the crime thriller "An Ethics Lesson".


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: Lee enlisted on October 25, 2012, for his mandatory military service as a member of the Seoul Metropolitan Police Agency riot police. He was discharged on July 24, 2014.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: For his comeback project, Lee chose "Secret Door", a period drama about Crown Prince Sado who was controversially executed through death by starvation by his father King Yeongjo; the series reunited him with Han Suk-kyu. This was followed by the Jo Sung-hee-directed film "Phantom Detective", a modern retelling of the eponymous folk hero Hong Gil-dong as a private detective in the 1990s.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2016, Lee starred in tvN's fantasy crime drama "Signal" together with Cho Jin-woong and Kim Hye-soo, which was critically and commercially successful.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2017, Lee starred in the fantasy romance drama "Tomorrow, With You" opposite Shin Min-a, portraying a CEO of a real estate company who has the ability to travel through time.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: He then starred in the biographical period drama film "Anarchist from Colony" directed by Lee Joon-ik, playing the character of Park Yeol, a self-proclaimed anarchist and revolutionary activist during the Colonial Era of Japan. The same year Lee starred in the film "I Can Speak" as a civil servant who also tutors English.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2018, Lee was cast in the film "Time to Hunt" directed by Yoon Sung-hyun. The same year, he starred in the airport-themed melodrama "Where Stars Land" alongside Chae Soo-bin. Lee and co-star Chae Soo-bin were appointed as honorary ambassadors of Incheon International Airport.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2019, Lee filmed the travel reality programme "Traveller" along with Ryu Jun-yeol where the two stars enjoy a backpacking holiday in Cuba. The same year, he was cast in the film "Tomb Robbery".


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2020, Lee starred in the dystopian action thriller film "Time to Hunt" which earned him a nomination for Best Actor at the 56th Baeksang Arts Awards. He also starred in the caper story film "Collectors".


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2021, Lee joined the SBS drama "Taxi Driver", his small screen comeback after last making a special appearance in "Hot Stove League" in 2020. Later in May, Lee appeared in the Netflix series "Move to Heaven". Lee founded "Company on" in June 2021, after the contract with his former agency expired.


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: In 2022, Lee organized a fan meeting which was held at Central World Live in Bangkok, Thailand on June 22 and 23. Later in August, it was announced that Lee will hold another fan meeting at the Centennial Memorial Hall of Yonsei University concert hall in Seodaemun-gu, Seoul. Later in October, Lee made a comeback to the small screen with a special appearance in the SBS drama "One Dollar Lawyer".


title: Lee Je-hoon

text: On March 6, 2022, Lee donated 100 million won to the Hope Bridge Disaster Relief Association to help the victims of the massive wildfire that started in Uljin, Gyeongbuk and has spread to Samcheok, Gangwon.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Bob the Builder is a British animated children's television series created by Keith Chapman for HIT Entertainment and Hot Animation. The series follows the adventures of Bob, a building contractor, specialising in masonry, along with his colleague Wendy, various neighbours, and friends, and equipment, and their gang of anthropomorphised work-vehicles, Scoop, Muck, Dizzy, Roley, Lofty and many others. The show is broadcast in many countries but originated from the United Kingdom where Bob was voiced by English actor Neil Morrissey. The series originally used stop-motion from 1999 to 2009, but later used CGI animation starting with the spin-off series "Ready, Steady, Build!". British proprietors of "Bob the Builder" and "Thomas & Friends" sold the enterprise in 2011 to US toy-maker Mattel for $680 million.


title: Bob the Builder

text: In each episode, Bob and his group help with renovations, construction, and repairs and with other projects as needed. The show emphasises conflict resolution, co-operation, socialisation, and various learning skills. Bob's catchphrase is "Can we fix it?", to which the other characters respond with "Yes we can!" This phrase is also the title of the show's theme song, which was a million-selling number one hit in the UK.


title: Bob the Builder

text: In October 2014, Bob the Builder was revamped by Mattel for a new series to be aired on Channel 5's "Milkshake!" in 2015. Amongst the changes were a complete overhaul of the cast, with "Harry Potter" actor Lee Ingleby replacing Neil Morrissey as the voice of Bob, and Joanne Froggatt and Blake Harrison also confirmed as the voices of Wendy and Scoop respectively. The setting and appearance of the characters also changed, with Bob and his team moving to the bustling metropolis of Spring City. An American localisation of the new series debuted on PBS Kids in November 2015. The changes have been criticised by fans of the original version.


title: Bob the Builder

text: The original series returned to TV in the United States on Qubo from 7 October 2020 through 28 February 2021 due to the channel's closure, but with the original British English dub instead of the dubbed American English one.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Voice actors who have contributed to the original British version include Neil Morrissey, Rob Rackstraw, Kate Harbour, Rupert Degas, Colin McFarlane, Maria Darling, Emma Tate, Richard Briers, and June Whitfield.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Celebrities who have provided voices for the series (usually for one-off specials) include John Motson, Sue Barker, Kerry Fox, Ulrika Jonsson, Alison Steadman, Stephen Tompkinson, Elton John, Noddy Holder, and Chris Evans (Bobsville's resident rock star Lennie Lazenby).


title: Bob the Builder

text: "Bob the Builder" is shown in more than thirty countries, and versions are available in English, French, Spanish, Serbian, Swedish, Slovenian, German, Italian, Dutch, Hebrew, Hindi, Croatian, and Bengali, among other languages. It was shown on CBeebies on BBC television in the UK. It has also aired on Nick Jr. in the UK.


title: Bob the Builder

text: The North American version of the show uses the original British footage and script, but dubs the voices in American accents and slang; for example, the word "wrench" is used instead of "spanner", as wrench is the standard term for the tool in North America. The original North American voice of Bob (and Farmer Pickles/Mr. Beasley/Mr. Sabatini) was William Dufris, however, he was replaced with comedian Greg Proops. More recently, Bob's US voice has been provided by Marc Silk, an English voice actor from Birmingham. In the United States, the series first aired during the Nick Jr. block (from 2001 to 2004) before moving to PBS Kids for a long run, from 2005 until November 2018. Qubo also started airing the show from 7 October 2020 through 28 February 2021 due to the channel's closure, but with the original British English dub.


title: Bob the Builder

text: When being exported to Japan, it was reported that characters of "Bob the Builder" would be doctored to have five fingers instead of the original four. This was because of a practice among the Yakuza, the famed Japanese mafia, where members would "cut off their little fingers as a sign they can be trusted and have strength of character, and will stay through." In fact, Bob the Builder aired in Japan without such edits, as did other series including "Postman Pat" and "The Simpsons".


title: Bob the Builder

text: "Bob the Builder" was nominated in the BAFTA "Pre-school animation" category from 1999 to 2009, and won the "Children's Animation" category in 2003 for the special episode "A Christmas to Remember". Of the show's success, Sarah Ball said:


title: Bob the Builder

text: Bob the Builder has been parodied by "Robot Chicken" in the episode "", and by "Comedy Inc." as Bodgy Builder.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Bob has also been parodied on Cartoon Network's "MAD" on several occasions. In the episode "S'UP / Mouse M.D.", Bob is seen with a smashed thumb and asks "Can we fix it?" In another episode, Bob encounters the title character of "Handy Manny", whom he tells to "Stop copying my show!"


title: Bob the Builder

text: A New Yorker cartoon shows a parent in a toy store asking for toys depicting "Alex the Architect", supposedly a white-collar equivalent to "Bob the Builder".


title: Bob the Builder

text: Some have complained about technical errors and lack of proper safety practices in the programme, especially the absence of protective eyewear. However, in later episodes, Bob is seen using safety glasses.


title: Bob the Builder

text: In May 2005, a sort of spin-off series was released titled "Bob the Builder: Project: Build It". Bob hears of a contest to build a new community in a remote area called Sunflower Valley, outside of Bobsville. He moves from Bobsville (supposedly temporarily) with Wendy and the machines and builds a new Yard there. Bob convinces his father, Robert, to come out of retirement and take over the Bobsville building business. It is unknown whether Bob returned to Bobsville in the stop-motion series or not after this spin-off series was finished.


title: Bob the Builder

text: For the US version of the "Project: Build It" series, different actors were found to do the voices for many of the human characters, including casting Greg Proops as the new voice of Bob, and Rob Rackstraw, who played the original voices of Scoop, Muck and Travis, to be the voices of Spud the Scarecrow and Mr. Bentley for both the UK and the US. The show also added recycling and being environmentally friendly to its lessons, emphasising the phrase "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle."


title: Bob the Builder

text: This series premiered on 2 May 2005 in the United Kingdom and 3 September of the same year in the United States, and was the first series made in HD 1080p.


title: Bob the Builder

text: The third spin-off was titled "Bob the Builder: Ready, Steady, Build!" It was created by Keith Chapman and Mallory Lewis. The group, now joined by newcomer Scratch are now residing in the town of Fixham Harbour (which is very similar to Bobsville, and is even implied to be Bobsville in several episodes), deal with construction and other building tasks around the area. Unlike previous series, "Ready, Steady, Build!" is animated in full CGI animation, which allows for larger and more elaborate construction projects that would be too large or expensive for the model sets of the stop-motion series, though it still retains the theme song.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Various companies manufacture licensed Bob the Builder merchandise (e.g.: Brio, Lego Duplo, Hasbro, Learning Curve, etc.) since about 1999 to present. Sometimes some fans make fan-made merchandise for the television show, such as racing games that are not related to the show.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Lego began manufacturing licensed Duplo Bob the Builder sets in 2001. Lego Explorer also made the sets using the same bricks that Duplo used (e.g. Naughty Spud, Wallpaper Wendy, etc.). The sets were aimed at younger children, two and up. Duplo manufactured the sets (e.g. Scoop at Bobland Bay, Muck Can Do It, etc.) until 2009 when Lego's contract expired.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Hasbro created licensed Bob the Builder characters. They included talking characters and others to go with the Bob the Builder line. The Hasbro line was discontinued in 2005 when Learning Curve took over.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Learning Curve among countless others held a license to make the toys, but discontinued them. They first merchandised their Bob the Builder products in 2005 after the Hasbro range was discontinued. Learning Curve also created the "Thomas & Friends" characters, while the company still makes the sets (e.g. Scoop, Muck, Lofty, Dizzy, Andy's trailer etc.) and then sold them to stores. They discontinued them in 2010 and it is unknown if they could ever return to making them. The toys are currently available in the United Kingdom by Character Options.


title: Bob the Builder

text: In 2012, Character World announced that they had signed a license to manufacture official Bob the Builder bedding and bedroom textiles. A duvet cover is said to be available in the UK in late 2012.


title: Bob the Builder

text: In the United States, "Bob the Builder: Can We Fix It?"s computer version sold 350,000 copies and earned $6.1 million by August 2006, after its release in August 2001. It was the country's 50th best-selling computer game between January 2000 and August 2006. Combined sales of all "Bob the Builder" computer games released between January 2000 and August 2006 had reached 520,000 units in the United States by the latter date.


title: Bob the Builder

text: Jolly Roger (Amusement Rides) Ltd. released two kiddie rides based on the series, a Scoop in January 2000, and a Roley in March 2003. In March 2003, Scoop was re-released with a new dashboard and a Stamar soundboard. Then, in 2004, versions of both rides were released with video screens.


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: Shane Van Dyke (born August 28, 1979) is an American actor, screenwriter, film director, television writer, and film producer. He is the son of Barry Van Dyke and grandson of Dick Van Dyke.


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of Mary (née Carey) Van Dyke and actor Barry Van Dyke. He has two brothers, Wes and Carey, and a sister, Taryn Van Dyke. He is the paternal grandson of the entertainer Dick Van Dyke. He is also a grandnephew of Jerry Van Dyke and first cousin once removed of Jerry's daughter, Kelly Jean Van Dyke.


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke's professional acting career began after graduating from high school when he became involved with the theatre program at Moorpark College in California. He launched his television career with a recurring minor role (14 episodes) as medical student Alex Smith on the CBS television show "". In 2002, he starred in the musical "Annie".


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: In the years following his role on "Diagnosis: Murder", Van Dyke worked on other television shows including the long-running soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful", as well as the independent film "Arizona Summer".


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: In the summer of 2007, Shane rejoined his grandfather and father in a series of Hallmark Channel Original Movies titled "Murder 101". Around the same period, he also co-starred in the mini-series "Shark Swarm", opposite John Schneider and Daryl Hannah.


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke has performed screenwriter duties for various films including "Transmorphers 2", "Street Racer", "Paranormal Entity", "The Day the Earth Stopped" and "The Silence".


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: Van Dyke was the director and writer of the movie "Titanic II" (2010) and portrayed the ship's owner, Hayden Walsh. In 2011, Van Dyke appeared as a lifeguard in the SyFy film "Super Shark", about a giant shark released from stone by an oil-drilling rig off the California coast. In 2012, he produced (with his brother Carey Van Dyke and Oren Peli) the horror film "Chernobyl Diaries".


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: As of 2009, Van Dyke resides in Los Angeles and is a film and television faculty member with Hollywood for Kids.


title: Shane Van Dyke

text: In 2019, he and his brother Carey Van Dyke released a spec script titled "Don't Worry Darling"; the screenplay appeared on the 2019 Black List. A film based on the spec script was announced in August of that year, after a bidding war amongst 18 studios to acquire the project, set to be directed by Olivia Wilde; New Line Cinema won the auction, and the film was released in 2022. Katie Silberman was brought on to rewrite what became the film's screenplay.


title: Michael Barrett (cinematographer)

text: Michael Barrett (born May 28, 1970) is an American cinematographer. He is known for his work on "Bobby", "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang" and "Ted".


title: Michael Barrett (cinematographer)

text: In 1992, Barrett met the cinematographer Gabriel Figueroa and talked to him about Figueroa's work for the 1947 film "La perla", an encounter Barrett considered a pivotal moment in his career plans. He earned a bachelor's degree in art from the University of California-Los Angeles and a Master of Fine Arts in film from Columbia University in New York City.


title: Michael Barrett (cinematographer)

text: Starting in 2001 Barrett worked for the TV series "". In 2002 he received an ASC Award for Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in the category "Movie of the Week or Pilot (Network)" for his work on the CSI pilot "Cross Jurisdictions". In 2006 his work on "Bobby" was selected for the main competition at the Camerimage Festival. In 2008 Barrett was a member of the jury of the Camerimage Polish Films Competition.


title: Michael Barrett (cinematographer)

text: Since 2012, Barrett has worked primarily with digital movie cameras. Barrett is an active member of the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC).


title: Michael Barrett (cinematographer)

text: In February 2020, actress Anna Faris confirmed she and Barrett had become engaged. In July 2021, Faris revealed on her podcast that she and Barrett had married at a courthouse on San Juan Island in Washington.


title: System

text: A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory and other systems sciences.


title: System

text: Systems have several common properties and characteristics, including structure, function(s), behavior and interconnectivity.


title: System

text: The term "system" comes from the Latin word "systēma", in turn from Greek "systēma": "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".


title: System

text: "System" means "something to look at". You must have a very high visual gradient to have systematization. But in philosophy, prior to Descartes, there was no "system". Plato had no "system". Aristotle had no "system".


title: System

text: In the 19th century the French physicist Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, who studied thermodynamics, pioneered the development of the concept of a "system" in the natural sciences. In 1824 he studied the system which he called the "working substance" (typically a body of water vapor) in steam engines, in regards to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings and began to use the term "working body" when referring to the system.


title: System

text: The biologist Ludwig von Bertalanffy became one of the pioneers of the general systems theory. In 1945 he introduced "models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them."


title: System

text: Norbert Wiener and Ross Ashby, who pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems, carried out significant development in the concept of a "system".


title: System

text: In the 1980s John Henry Holland, Murray Gell-Mann and others coined the term "complex adaptive system" at the interdisciplinary Santa Fe Institute.


title: System

text: A subsystem is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe "Job Entry Subsystem" family (JES1, JES2, JES3, and their HASP/ASP predecessors) are examples. The main "elements" they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.


title: System

text: A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system. The Data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).


title: System

text: There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, in an analysis of urban systems dynamics, A .W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory, Kenneth D. Bailey defined systems in terms of conceptual, concrete, and abstract systems, either isolated, closed, or open. Walter F. Buckley defined systems in sociology in terms of mechanical, organic, and process models. Bela H. Banathy cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined "natural" and "designed", i. e. artificial, systems.


title: System

text: It is important not to confuse these abstract definitions. For example, natural systems include subatomic systems, living systems, the Solar System, galaxies, and the Universe, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations.


title: System

text: Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. This is in strict alignment to the Gödel's incompleteness theorems. The Artificial system can be defined as a "consistent formalized system which contains elementary arithmetic". These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed (i.e. it is evident that if the initial expession is false, then the Artificial system is not a "consistent formalized system"). For example, in geometry this is very evident in the postulation of theorems and extrapolation of proofs from them.


title: System

text: George J. Klir maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and conceptual physical systems, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to hybrid systems, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and open systems. It seems most unlikely that an absolutely closed system can exist or, if it did, that it could be known by man. Important distinctions have also been made between "hard" systems – technical in nature and amenable to methods such as systems engineering, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis – and "soft" systems that involve people and organisations, commonly associated with concepts developed by Peter Checkland and Brian Wilson through Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) involving methods such as action research and emphasis of participatory designs. Where hard systems might be identified as more "scientific", the distinction between them is often elusive.


title: System

text: A cultural system may be defined as the interaction of different elements of culture. While a cultural system is quite different from a social system, sometimes both together are referred to as a "sociocultural system". A major concern of the social sciences is the problem of order.


title: System

text: An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. The economic system is composed of people, institutions and their relationships to resources, such as the convention of property. It addresses the problems of economics, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.


title: System

text: The international sphere of interacting states is described and analysed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the neorealist school. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the constructivist school, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlies the vision of the international sphere held by the liberal institutionalist school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.


title: System

text: Systems modeling is generally a basic principle in engineering and in social sciences. The system is the representation of the entities under concern. Hence inclusion to or exclusion from system context is dependent on the intention of the modeler.


title: System

text: No model of a system will include all features of the real system of concern, and no model of a system must include all entities belonging to a real system of concern.


title: System

text: In computer science and information science, system is a hardware system, software system, or combination, which has components as its structure and observable inter-process communications as its behavior. Again, an example will illustrate: There are systems of counting, as with Roman numerals, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogues, and various library systems, of which the Dewey Decimal Classification is an example. This still fits with the definition of components which are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).


title: System

text: System can also refer to a framework, aka platform, be it software or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect statement or data definition


title: System

text: In engineering and physics, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a thermodynamic system is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. Systems engineering is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained. Expected result is the behavior predicted by the specification, or another source, of the component or system under specified conditions.


title: System

text: Social and cognitive sciences recognize systems in human person models and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social/cultural behavioral patterns.


title: System

text: In management science, operations research and organizational development (OD), human organizations are viewed as systems (conceptual systems) of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex business processes (organizational behaviors) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist Peter Senge developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book "The Fifth Discipline".


title: System

text: Organizational theorists such as Margaret Wheatley have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as quantum physics, chaos theory, and the self-organization of systems.


title: System

text: There is also such a thing as a logical system. The most obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by Leibniz and Isaac Newton. Another example is George Boole's Boolean operators. Other examples have related specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. Maslow's hierarchy of needs applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including Carl Jung and Sigmund Freud have developed systems which logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire. Often these domains consist of general categories following a corollary such as a theorem. Logic has been applied to categories such as taxonomy, ontology, assessment, and hierarchies.


title: System

text: In 1988, military strategist, John A. Warden III introduced the Five Ring System model in his book, "The Air Campaign", contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—Leadership, Processes, Infrastructure, Population and Action Units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by Air Force planners in the First Gulf War. In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.


title: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

text: A series of false claims are centered on the baseless allegation that while Joe Biden was vice president of the United States, he engaged in corrupt activities relating to the employment of his son, Hunter Biden, by the Ukrainian gas company Burisma. They were spread primarily in an attempt to damage Joe Biden's reputation during the 2020 presidential campaign. United States intelligence community analysis released in March 2021 found that proxies of Russian intelligence promoted and laundered misleading or unsubstantiated narratives about the Bidens "to US media organizations, US officials, and prominent US individuals, including some close to former President Trump and his administration." "The New York Times" reported in May 2021 that a federal criminal investigation was examining a possible role by current and former Ukrainian officials, including whether they used former Trump personal attorney Rudy Giuliani, who is the subject of a separate federal investigation, to spread unsubstantiated claims.


title: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

text: The conspiracy theory alleges that then-Vice President Biden withheld loan guarantees to pressure Ukraine into firing a prosecutor to prevent a corruption investigation into Burisma and to protect his son. The United States did withhold government aid to pressure Ukraine into removing the prosecutor, in accord with the official and bipartisan policy of the federal government of the United States. The US government, along with the European Union, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund, believed the prosecutor to be corrupt and ineffective and too lenient in investigating companies and oligarchs, including Burisma and its owner. A January 2018 video shows Biden taking credit for withholding the loan guarantees to have the prosecutor fired, acting to implement bipartisan US policy rather than for the reasons the conspiracy theory alleges.


title: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

text: Hunter Biden is a lawyer whose career previously included a period as an executive vice-president at MBNA and three years at the United States Department of Commerce. He then worked as a lobbyist until 2006, when George W. Bush appointed him to the board of directors of Amtrak. Hunter Biden resigned from Amtrak in February 2009, shortly after the inauguration of Barack Obama, when his father Joe Biden became vice-president. He resumed lobbying, and was counsel at the law firm Boies Schiller Flexner LLP, until the Ukrainian oil and gas firm Burisma Holdings hired him in April 2014. As Hunter Biden had no prior experience in Ukraine or the energy sector, some viewed this as a likely attempt to buy influence via his father, though Hunter Biden was hired to conduct general corporate consulting rather than to provide energy expertise. Hunter Biden's employment was described by some as a potential conflict of interest, and advisors to the Obama administration considered the situation awkward.


title: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

text: In October 2020, during the last weeks of the presidential campaign, the "New York Post" published an article, with the involvement of Donald Trump's personal attorney Giuliani and former chief strategist Steve Bannon, about a found laptop belonging to Hunter Biden. The laptop contained an email, the authenticity of which was later verified by "The Washington Post" in 2022, showing what the "New York Post" characterized as a "meeting" between Joe Biden and Vadym Pozharskyi, a Burisma advisor, in 2015, though that characterization was disputed by witnesses. The article's veracity was strongly questioned by most mainstream media outlets, analysts and intelligence officials, due to the chain of custody of the laptop and its contents, and suspicion that it may have been part of a disinformation campaign. It was later confirmed that at least some of the laptop materials were genuine, though most of the data could not be verified and fake material may have been mixed in with it. Hunter Biden said that it is possible the laptop could be his.


title: Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory

text: Viktor Shokin was appointed to the position of Prosecutor General of Ukraine by Ukrainian president Petro Poroshenko, whom he was loyal to. Representatives of the EU and the United States pressed Poroshenko for his removal as did the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. In March 2016 testimony to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, former ambassador to Ukraine John E. Herbst stated, "By late fall of 2015, the EU and the United States joined the chorus of those seeking Mr. Shokin's removal" and that Joe Biden "spoke publicly about this before and during his December visit to Kyiv". During the same hearing, assistant secretary of state Victoria Nuland stated, "we have pegged our next $1 billion loan guarantee, first and foremost, to having a rebooting of the reform coalition so that we know who we are working with, but secondarily, to ensuring that the prosecutor general's office gets cleaned up." An overwhelming majority vote in the Ukrainian Parliament in March 2016 led to Shokin's removal from office after an investigation into extortion of another company led to associates who were found in possession of diamonds, cash and other valuables as well as documents and passports belonging to Shokin.