title: American crocodile

text: The current US population, estimated at 2,000 and growing, is a sign of return to the northernmost portion of their range. There were suspicions as early as 1829 by Rafinesque that there were more than just alligators in the state, but confirmation could not be acquired until 1869, when a specimen could be brought back for examination. Records show they were plentiful in areas like Key Largo, Miami Beach, and wherever there were the appropriate mangroves for nesting and foraging. However, at the end of the 19th century, hunting them for their leather became a cottage industry in South Florida, and beginning in 1910, habitat destruction commenced on a massive scale, with the construction of a railroad designed to connect the mainland with the Keys. Crocodile hunters, who migrated to the upper Florida Keys before and after the railroad’s construction, slaughtered almost every crocodile in northeast Florida Bay for the commercial market. The widespread hunting did not cease until the 1970s: at one point in that decade, there were fewer than thirty total nests counted. As of 2020, further population seems to be expanding south to reclaim former habitat in the Florida Keys, where numbers are multiplying quickly, and old records indicate they once inhabited mangroves as far north as Tampa Bay.


title: American crocodile

text: American crocodiles are more susceptible to cold weather than American alligators. American crocodiles do not have socials groups but occasionally, they congregate for feeding and basking in the daytime. While basking, they will leave their mouths wide open that exposes blood vessels in the mouth to cooler and warmer air, which helps regulate body temperature. While an American alligator can survive in water temperatures of and below for some time, an American crocodile in that environment would lose consciousness and drown due to hypothermia. American crocodiles, however, have a faster growth rate than alligators, and are much more tolerant of saltwater. Unlike other crocodiles, the American crocodile uses acoustic signals to communicate. Crocodile communication is centered on short-distance communications during courtship and hatching.


title: American crocodile

text: American crocodiles are apex predators, and any aquatic or terrestrial animal they encounter in freshwater, riparian and coastal saltwater habitats is potential prey.


title: American crocodile

text: The snout of the American crocodile is broader than some specialized fish-eating crocodilians (e.g., gharials and freshwater crocodiles), allowing it to supplement its diet with a wider variety of prey. In addition the snout gets even broader and bulkier as the animal matures, a sign for a shift in prey items. Prey species have ranged in size from the insects taken by young American crocodiles to full-grown cattle taken by large adults, and can include various birds, mammals, turtles, crabs, snails, frogs, fish, and occasionally carrion. In Haiti, hatchling and juvenile American crocodiles lived primarily off of fiddler crabs ("Uca" ssp.), making up 33.8% and 62.3% of the diet by weight, respectively. Elsewhere, aquatic insects and their larvae and snails are near the top of the food list for American crocodiles at this very early age. Immature and subadult American crocodiles, per a study in Mexico, have a more diverse diet that can include insects, fish, frogs, small turtles, birds and small mammals. One specimen of had a catfish, a mourning dove and a bare-tailed woolly opossum in its stomach.


title: American crocodile

text: In Florida, bass, tarpon and especially mullet, large crabs, snakes, mammals that habit the riparian and coastal regions of the Everglades, such as opossums and raccoons appeared to be the primary prey of American crocodiles. In Haiti, adults appeared to live largely off of various birds, including herons, storks, flamingos, pelicans, grebes, coots and moorhens, followed by concentrations of marine fish including "Tilapia" and "Cichlasoma", at times being seen to capture turtles, dogs and goats. One adult from Honduras had stomach contents consisting of a crocodile of its own species, a turtle shell and peccary hooves. It was noted that historically in Mexico that, among several local farmers, the capturing of livestock by American crocodiles has been a source of some conflict between humans and American crocodiles and large adults occasionally can become habitual predators of goats, dogs, pigs and cattle. In Quintana Roo, Mexico, most prey that could be determined was fish for sub-adults and adults with sub-adults having a broader prey base than either younger or adult American crocodiles. In Costa Rica, American crocodiles have been recorded hunting and killing adult female olive ridley sea turtles ("Lepidochelys olivacea") when they come to nest around beaches. Reportedly, these American crocodiles hunt primarily in the first few hours after nightfall, especially on moonless nights, although they will feed at any time. It hunts in the typical way for most crocodilian, ambushing terrestrial prey when it comes to edge of the water or is sitting in shallows and dragging it down to be drowned or attempting to ambush aquatic prey from near the surface of the water.


title: American crocodile

text: Adult American crocodiles are apex predators; they have no natural predators. They are known predators of lemon sharks, and sharks avoid areas with American crocodiles.


title: American crocodile

text: Usually, American alligators are dominant over and more behaviorally aggressive than American crocodiles. However, on one occasion, an American crocodile in a Florida zoo escaped its cage and started a fight with a large male American alligator in a bordering pen, and was killed. Conversely, there is one confirmed case of an American crocodile preying on a sub-adult American alligator in the wild in Florida. American alligators and American crocodiles do not often come into conflict in the wild, due largely to habitat partitioning and largely separate distributions.


title: American crocodile

text: There are several records of American crocodiles killing and eating spectacled caimans in South America. Areas with healthy American crocodile populations often hold only limited numbers of spectacled caimans, while conversely areas that formerly held American crocodiles but where they are now heavily depleted or are locally extinct show a growth of caiman numbers, due to less competition as well as predation. In areas of Cuba where the two species coexist, the smaller but more aggressive Cuban crocodile is behaviorally dominant over the larger American crocodile. In Mexico, some Morelet's crocodile individuals have escaped from captivity, establishing feral populations and creating a problem for the populations of American crocodile, which must compete with this invasive species.


title: American crocodile

text: American crocodiles breed in late fall or early winter, engaging in drawn-out mating ceremonies in which males emit low-frequency bellows to attract females. Body size is more important than age in determining reproductive capabilities, and females reach sexual maturity at a length of about . In February or March, gravid females will begin to create nests of sand, mud, and dead vegetation along the water's edge. Nest location is crucial, and with the correct amount of vegetation, the eggs will develop within a small temperature range. Because sex determination is temperature-dependent in crocodilians, slight aberrations in temperature may result in all-male or all-female clutches, which would possibly harm the health of the population. About one month later, when it is time to lay, the female will dig a wide hole diagonally into the side of the nest and lay 30 to 70 eggs in it, depending on her size. After laying, the female may cover the eggs with debris or leave them uncovered. The white, elongated eggs are long and wide, with a number of pores in the brittle shell.


title: American crocodile

text: During the 75- to 80-day incubation period, the parents will guard the nest, often inhabiting a hole in the bank nearby. Females especially have been known to guard their nests with ferocity. But in spite of these precautions, American crocodile eggs sometimes fall prey to raccoons (arguably the most virulent natural predator of crocodilian nests in the Americas), coatis, foxes, skunks or other scavenging mammals (including coyotes in Mexico and American black bears in southern Florida), as well as large predatory ants, crabs and vultures. In Panama, green iguanas were seen to dig up and prey on American crocodile eggs occasionally, although in several cases were caught by the mother American crocodile and eaten. Crocodilian eggs are somewhat brittle, but softer than bird eggs. Despite noticeable nest guarding during egg incubation, guarding of young after hatching seems to be minimal in this species.


title: American crocodile

text: This species exists mostly in tropical areas with distinct rainy seasons, and the young hatch near the time of the first rains of the summer (July–August) after the preceding dry season, and before the bodies of water where they live flood. In this stage of development of their young, mother American crocodiles exhibit a unique mode of parental care. During the hatching process, when the young American crocodiles are most vulnerable to predation, they will instinctively call out in soft, grunt-like croaks. These sounds trigger the female to attend to the nest, uncovering the eggs if they have been covered. Then she will aid the hatchlings in escaping their eggs and scoop them up with her mouth, carrying them to the closest water source.


title: American crocodile

text: The hatchlings, which are in length, have been reported to actively hunt prey within a few days of hatching. It is not uncommon for the mother to care for her young even weeks after they have hatched, remaining attentive to their calls and continuing to provide transportation. About five weeks after hatching, the young American crocodiles disband in search of their own independent lives. Most of them will not survive, being preyed upon by several types of raptorial birds, other reptiles, and large fishes (e.g., barred catfish, Atlantic tarpons, common snook and lemon sharks, boa constrictors, black spiny-tailed iguanas and spectacled caimans). Those that do survive grow rapidly, feeding on insects, fish and frogs. Additionally, some young American crocodiles feed on each other.


title: American crocodile

text: The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists the species as vulnerable, but it has not been assessed since 1996. On March 20, 2007, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service declassified the American crocodile as an endangered species, changing its status to "threatened". It remains protected from poaching and killing under the federal Endangered Species Act. NatureServe considers the Florida population "Imperiled".


title: American crocodile

text: Because of hide hunting, pollution, loss of habitat, and commercial farming, the American crocodile is endangered in parts of its range. As a result of overhunting in the 1950s and 1960s, Venezuela banned commercial crocodile skin harvesting for a decade starting in 1972. In southern Florida, about two-thirds of American crocodile deaths are attributed to road collisions, about 10% to intentional killing, and only about 5% to natural causes. In recent years in Jamaica there has been rampant poaching of the species for their meat and there has been a significant population drop compounded by the lack of action by the government. On Hispaniola, they were once found throughout the island, but currently, the only confirmed remaining presence is at the two largest lakes on the island: Etang Saumâtre in Haiti, and Lago Enriquillo in the Dominican Republic.


title: American crocodile

text: An estimated 1,000 to 2,000 American crocodiles live in Mexico, Central America and South America, but population data is limited. An additional 500 to 1,200 are believed to live in southern Florida.


title: American crocodile

text: Attacks by American crocodiles have been reported in Mexico, Costa Rica, and Panama. The American crocodile rates somewhere in the middle of all crocodilians temperamentally. A study by the IUCN found that it has the highest incidence of reported attacks on humans of any of the crocodilians from the Americas, but fatalities were rare. The species usually does not attack people as regularly as Old World crocodiles do; the estimated number of attacks is considerably smaller than those by the saltwater ("C. porosus") and Nile crocodiles ("C. niloticus"), which are considered the most aggressive crocodilians towards humans. Particular to this species, it is noted for having a shy demeanor and clearly does not want anything to do with humans; it will not stand its ground and will flee humans at the very sight of them. The Cuban crocodile ("C. rhombifer") is rather more aggressive in interspecies interactions than the American crocodile and attacks and displaces American crocodiles when they are kept in mixed species enclosures at zoos or at crocodile farms together, despite being smaller than the American species. However, attacks on humans are rarely reported in Cuban crocodiles, due to its much more limited habitat and range.


title: American crocodile

text: In May 2007, two instances occurred within one week of children being attacked and killed by this species—one in Mexico just south of Puerto Vallarta and one in Costa Rica. On August 24, 2014, a man and a woman were swimming in a canal in Gables by the Sea, a community in Coral Gables, Florida, at 02:00, a canal where crocodiles were known to occur, when they were bitten in the shoulder and the hand by an American crocodile. Although the crocodile was in length, and weighed an estimated , it did not press the attack, but released and moved away from its victims. (Florida Fish & Wildlife Conservation Commission, Crocodile Response Program) This was the first documented wild crocodile attack on humans in Florida since records of human-crocodile conflict have been kept. There have reportedly been 36 American crocodile attacks on humans from 1995 to 2017 in the Cancun area of southeastern Mexico.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: Motherland is a British television sitcom set in London, which examines the trials and traumas of middle-class motherhood. It stars Anna Maxwell Martin as Julia, Diane Morgan as Liz, Paul Ready as Kevin and Lucy Punch as Amanda, amongst a range of supporting characters. A pilot episode, written by Graham Linehan, Sharon Horgan, Helen Serafinowicz and Holly Walsh was first broadcast on BBC Two on 6 September 2016 as part of its "Sitcom Season". The BBC subsequently ordered a full series of six episodes, the first of which aired on 7 November 2017.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: The second series was released in its entirety on BBC iPlayer on 7 October 2019. The third season began transmission on BBC2 on 10 May 2021 with all five episodes being released on BBC iPlayer the same day. In the United States, the show is broadcast on Sundance TV. The series won a British Academy Television Award for Best Scripted Comedy in 2022. A second Christmas special will be aired on 23 December 2022 on BBC One.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: When her mother decides to stop taking care of her children, middle-class Julia Johnson is forced to begin to pay attention to her children’s schooling and the concept of middle-class motherhood. Julia later becomes friends with other parents, working-class Liz and stay-at-home dad Kevin and finds herself facing mothers with dominant personalities, including the superficially polite but acerbic leader, Amanda. The children do not feature prominently in the series, generally having non-speaking roles, and their names are only occasionally mentioned.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: The show was originally a 2011 pilot on the American network ABC. However, comedian and writer Sharon Horgan reworked the script when the pilot wasn't picked up for a full season and collaborated with Graham Linehan on turning it into a British sitcom instead. Following its pilot on BBC, it was picked up for a full series in October 2016.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: The show was filmed primarily in Muswell Hill, North London, and Acton, Bedford Park and Chiswick, West London. Scenes of the children's school are filmed at Southfield Primary School in Bedford Park.


title: Motherland (TV series)

text: The first series was released to favourable reviews and holds an approval rating of 82% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 22 reviews with critics. The websites critical consensus reads ""Motherland" pulls no punches, creating an honest and hilarious portrayal of parenthood buoyed by brilliant performances from its seasoned cast -- though for some viewers it may hit a little too close to home". The second series later received a score of 83% based on 12 reviews, with the Christmas special following on with a score of 100% based on 8 reviews. The third series later received five out of five stars by "Radio Times" and was released to positive reviews.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is a home rule city that is the county seat and most populous municipality of Boulder County, Colorado, United States. The city population was 108,250 at the 2020 United States census, making it the 12th most populous city in Colorado. Boulder is the principal city of the Boulder, CO Metropolitan Statistical Area and an important part of the Front Range Urban Corridor.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is located at the base of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of above sea level. Boulder is northwest of the Colorado state capital of Denver. It is home of the main campus of the University of Colorado, the state's largest university.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: On November 7, 1861, the Colorado General Assembly passed legislation to locate the University of Colorado in Boulder. On September 20, 1875, the first cornerstone was laid for the first building (Old Main) on the CU campus. The university officially opened on September 5, 1877.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In 1907, Boulder adopted an anti-saloon ordinance. Statewide prohibition started in Colorado in 1916 and ended with the repeal of national prohibition in 1933.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The city of Boulder is located in the Boulder Valley, where the Rocky Mountains meet the Great Plains. The Flatirons, slabs of sedimentary stone tilted up on the foothills, are located west of the city. The Flatirons are a widely recognized symbol of Boulder.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder Creek is the primary flow of water through Boulder. The creek was named prior to the city's founding, for all of the large granite boulders that have cascaded into the creek over the eons. It is from Boulder Creek that Boulder city is believed to have taken its name. Boulder Creek has significant water flow, derived primarily from snow melt and minor springs west of the city. The creek is a tributary of the South Platte River.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The 40th parallel (40 degrees north latitude) runs through Boulder and can be easily recognized as Baseline Road today.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder lies in a wide basin beneath Flagstaff Mountain just a few miles east of the continental divide and about northwest of Denver. Arapahoe Glacier provides water for the city, along with Boulder Creek, which flows through the center of the city.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Government preservation of open space around Boulder began with the Congress of the United States approving the allocation of of mountain backdrop/watershed extending from South Boulder Creek to Sunshine Canyon in 1899.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Since then, Boulder has adopted a policy of controlled urban expansion. In 1959, city voters approved the "Blue Line" city-charter amendment which restricted city water service to altitudes below , in an effort to protect the mountain backdrop from development. In 1967, city voters approved a dedicated sales tax for the acquisition of open space in an effort to contain urban sprawl. In 1970, Boulder created a "comprehensive plan" that would dictate future zoning, transportation, and urban planning decisions. Hoping to preserve residents' views of the mountains, in 1972, the city enacted an ordinance limiting the height of newly constructed buildings. A Historic-Preservation Code was passed in 1974, and a "residential-growth management" ordinance (the Danish Plan) in 1976.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Effective growth management has resulted in a rapid increase in housing costs with the median home price rising 60% over the period 2010 to 2015 to $648,200.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder has created an Urban Wildlife Management Plan which sets policies for managing and protecting urban wildlife. Also, the city's Parks and Recreation and Open Space and Mountain Parks departments have volunteers who monitor parks (including wetlands, lakes, etc.) to protect ecosystems. From time to time, parks and hiking trails are closed to conserve or restore ecosystems.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Traditionally, Boulder has avoided the use of chemical pesticides for controlling the insect population. However, with the threat of West Nile virus, the city began an "integrative" plan to control the mosquito population in 2003 that includes chemical pesticides. Residents can "opt-out" of the program by contacting the city and asking that their areas not be sprayed.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Also in 2005, the city experimented with using goats for weed control in environmentally sensitive areas. Goats naturally consume diffuse knapweed and Canada thistle, and although the program was not as effective as it was hoped, goats will still be considered in the future weed control projects. In 2010, goats were used to keep weeds under control at the Boulder Reservoir.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The city's Open Space and Mountain Parks department manages approximately 8,000 acres of protected forest land west of the city in accordance with a 1999 Forest Ecosystem Management Plan. The plan aims to maintain or enhance native plant and animal species, their communities, and the ecological processes that sustain them and to reduce the wildfire risk to forest and human communities.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder has a temperate climate typical for much of the state and receives many sunny or mostly sunny days each year. Under the Köppen climate classification, the city is considered semi-arid (Köppen "BSk") or humid subtropical (Köppen "Cfa") as it falls near that precipitation boundary, due to its relatively high yearly precipitation and average temperatures remaining above year-round. Winter conditions range from generally mild to the occasional bitterly cold, with highs averaging in the mid to upper 40s °F (7–9 °C). There are 4.6 nights annually during which the temperature reaches . Because of orographic lift, the mountains to the west often dry out the air passing over the Front Range, often shielding the city from precipitation in winter, though heavy falls may occur. Snowfall averages per season, but snow depth is usually shallow; a strong warming sun due to the high elevation can quickly melt snow cover during the day, and Chinook winds bring rapid warm-ups throughout the winter months. Summers are warm, with frequent afternoon thunderstorms. Roughly 30 days reach or above each year. Diurnal temperature variation is typically large due to the high elevation and semi-arid climate. Daytime highs are generally cooler than those of most Colorado cities with similar elevations. However, Boulder's nighttime lows are mild, particularly during winter. The average January temperature of is the warmest of any city in the state.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The highest recorded temperature of occurred most recently on June 25, 2012. The record low was on January 17, 1930. The coldest high temperature, , was recorded on February 4, 1989, while the warmest overnight low was recorded on July 20, 1998, with a temperature of


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: As of the 2010 census, there were 97,385 people, 41,302 households, and 16,694 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,942.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,524.0/km). There were 43,479 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 88.0% White, 0.9% Black or African American, 0.4% Native American, 4.7% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.2% some other race, and 2.6% from two or more races. 8.7% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: There were 41,302 households, out of which 19.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% were headed by married couples living together, 5.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 59.6% were non-families. 35.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.1% were someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.16, and the average family size was 2.84.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder's population is younger than the national average, largely due to the presence of university students. The median age at the 2010 census was 28.7 years compared to the U.S. median of 37.2 years. In Boulder, 13.9% of the residents were younger than the age of 18, 29.1% from 18 to 24, 27.6% from 25 to 44, 20.3% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 105.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and older, there were 106.2 males.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In 2011 the estimated median household income in Boulder was $57,112, and the median family income was $113,681. Male full-time workers had a median income of $71,993 versus $47,574 for females. The per capita income for the city was $37,600. 24.8% of the population and 7.6% of families were below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 17.4% of those under the age of 18 and 6.0% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Boulder MSA had a gross metropolitan product of $18.3 billion in 2010, the 110th largest metropolitan economy in the United States.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder has hosted a 10 km road run, the Bolder Boulder, on Memorial Day, every year since 1979. The race involves over 50,000 runners, joggers, walkers, and wheelchair racers, making it one of the largest road races in the world. It has the largest non-marathon prize purse in road racing. The race culminates at Folsom Field with a Memorial Day Tribute. The 2007 race featured over 54,000 runners, walkers, and wheelchair racers, making it the largest race in the US in which all participants are timed and the fifth largest road race in the world.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Founded in 1958, the Boulder Philharmonic Orchestra is a professional orchestra under the leadership of its Music Director Michael Butterman.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Founded in 1976 by Giora Bernstein, the Colorado Music Festival presents a summer series of concerts in Chautauqua Auditorium.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Founded in 1981, the Boulder Bach Festival (BBF) is an annual festival celebrating the life, legacy, and music of J.S. Bach. The festival is led by Executive Director Zachary Carrettin and Artistic Director Mina Gajic.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is home to multiple dance companies and establishments. Boulder Ballet was founded by former American Ballet Theatre dancer Larry Boyette in the 1970s as part of the Ballet Arts Studios. Lemon Sponge Cake Contemporary Ballet was founded in 2004 by Robert Sher-Machherndl, former principal dancer of the Dutch National Ballet and Bavarian State Ballet.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Conference on World Affairs, started in 1948, is an annual one-week conference featuring dozens of discussion panels on a variety of contemporary issues.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The internationally syndicated radio program "eTown" has its headquarters at eTown Hall, at the intersection of 16th and Spruce Streets, in downtown Boulder. Most tapings of this weekly show are done at eTown Hall.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Beginning in 1983, hundreds of people head to the Boulder Reservoir on New Year's Day to take part in the annual polar bear plunge. With rescue teams standing by, participants use a variety of techniques to plunge themselves into the freezing reservoir. Once the plunge is complete, swimmers retreat to hot tubs on the reservoir beach to revive themselves from the cold.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Starting in 1998, dozens of people have taken part in a Halloween run down the city's streets wearing only shoes and a hollowed-out pumpkin on their heads. In 2009, local police threatened participants with charges of indecent exposure and no naked runners were reported in official newscasts, although a few naked runners were observed by locals. Several illegal attempts, resulting in arrests, have been made to restart the run, but no serious effort has been mounted.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: For several years on April 20, thousands of people gathered on the CU Boulder campus to celebrate 420 and smoke marijuana at and before 4:20 pm. The 2010 head count was officially between 8,000 and 15,000 with some discrepancy between the local papers and the university administrators (who have been thought to have been attempting to downplay the event). Eleven citations were given out whereas the year before there were only two. 2011 was the last year of mass 420 partying at CU as the university, in 2012, took a hard stance against 420 activities, closing the campus to visitors for the day, using smelly fish fertilizer to discourage gathering at the Norlin Quad, and having out-of-town law enforcement agencies help secure the campus. In 2013, April 20 fell on a Saturday; the university continued the 420 party ban and, again, closed the campus to visitors. In 2015 the government conceded and once again opened the park to visitors on April 20.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Happy Thursday Cruiser Ride is a weekly bicycle ride in Boulder Colorado. The Boulder Cruiser Ride grew from a group of friends and friends of friends in the early 90's riding bicycles around Boulder into the social cycling event it is today. Some enthusiasts gather wearing costumes and decorating their bikes; themes are an integral part of the cruiser tradition. Boulder Police began following the cruiser ride as it gained in popularity in the early 2000's. Issues with underage drinking, reckless bicycle riding, and other nuisance complaints led organizers to drop the cruiser ride as a public event. Returning to an underground format, where enthusiasts must become part of the social network before gaining access to event sites, the Boulder Cruiser Ride has continued as a local tradition. On May 30, 2013, over 400 riders attended the Thursday-night Cruiser Ride in honor of "Big Boy", an elk that was shot and killed on New Year's Day by an on-duty Boulder Police officer.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is surrounded by thousands of acres of recreational open space, conservation easements, and nature preserves. Almost 60%, , of open space totaling is open to the public.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The unincorporated community of Eldorado Springs, south of Boulder, is home to rock climbing routes. There are also climbing routes available in the city open space, including climbing routes of varying difficulty on the Flatirons themselves (traditional protection). Boulder Canyon (sport), directly west of downtown Boulder, also has many routes. All three of these areas are affected by seasonal closures for wildlife.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is a home rule municipality, being self-governing under Article XX of the Constitution of the State of Colorado; Title 31, Article 1, Section 202 of the Colorado Revised Statutes.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Politically, Boulder is one of the most liberal and Democratic cities in Colorado when viewed from a Federal and State elections lens. , registered voters in Boulder County were 43.4% Democratic, 14.7% Republican, 1.6% in other parties, and 40.3% unaffiliated. By residents and detractors alike, Boulder is often referred to as the "People's Republic of Boulder".


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In 1974, the Boulder City Council passed Colorado's first ordinance prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation. Boulder voters, however, repealed the measure by referendum within a year. In 1975, Boulder County Clerk Clela Rorex was the second in the United States ever to grant same-sex marriage licenses, prior to state laws being passed to prevent such issuance.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In July 2019, Boulder declared a "climate emergency" and established target dates for achieving 100% renewable electricity, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from city organizations and facilities, an increase in local generation of electricity through renewable sources, and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the community The city also created a community-centered process to focus on energy systems, regenerative ecosystems, circular materials economy, land use, and financial systems.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Boulder Valley School District (BVSD) administers the public school system in Boulder, aside from a few areas in northeast Boulder where students attend the St. Vrain Valley School District.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Charter schools within the city of Boulder include Preparatory High School (9–12), Summit Middle School (6–8), and Horizons Alternative School (K–8).


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder's main daily newspaper, the "Daily Camera", was founded in 1890 as the weekly "Boulder Camera", and became a daily newspaper the following year. The "Colorado Daily" was started in 1892 as a university newspaper for CU Boulder. Following many heated controversies over "Colorado Daily" political coverage, it severed its ties to the university in 1971. In summer 1996, the "Boulder Planet", a free weekly competing with the "Boulder Weekly", published its first issue; it ceased publication in February 2000. Newspaper conglomerate Scripps acquired the "Colorado Daily" in 2005 after its acquisition of the "Camera" in 1997, leaving the "Boulder Weekly" as the only locally owned newspaper in Boulder. Scripps relinquished its 50 percent ownership in both daily papers in early 2009 to Media News Group. "Boulder Magazine", a lifestyle magazine, was founded in 1978. "Boulder Magazine" is published three times per year.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder is part of the Denver market for television stations, and it also receives many radio stations based in Denver or Ft. Collins. For cable television, Boulder is served by Comcast Cable. The city operates public service Boulder 8 TV on cable (high- and standard-definition), which airs, live-streams and archives council meetings; with its in-house video production facilities, it also produces news, talk and informational programming. Over-the-air television reception is poor in the western part of the city because of interference from mountains.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Non-commercial community radio station KGNU was founded in 1978 and commercial music station KBCO in 1977. KBCO programs an adult album alternative format and is owned and operated by iHeartMedia. KBCO moved its studios from Boulder to the Denver Tech Center in 2010 but still maintains the Boulder license and transmits from atop Eldorado Mountain south of Boulder.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: KVCU, also known as Radio 1190, is another non-commercial radio station run with the help of university-student volunteers. KVCU started broadcasting in 1998.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: NPR programming is heard over KCFC 1490 AM, operated by Colorado Public Radio, and simulcasting Denver station KCFR 90.1.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: KRKS-FM 94.7, owned and operated by Salem Media Group and affiliated with SRN News, offers a Christian talk and teaching format, and has its transmitter located on Lee Hill, northwest of Boulder.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The University of Colorado Press, a non-profit co-op of various western universities, publishes academic books. Paladin Press book/video publishers and "Soldier of Fortune" magazine both have their headquarters in Boulder. Paladin Press was founded in September 1970 by Peder Lund and Robert K. Brown. In 1974, Lund bought out Brown's share of the press, and Brown moved on to found "Soldier of Fortune" magazine the following year.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Since Boulder has operated under residential growth control ordinances since 1976, the growth of employment in the city has far outstripped population growth. Considerable road traffic enters the city each morning and leaves each afternoon, since many employees live in Longmont, Lafayette, Louisville, Broomfield, Westminster, and Denver. Boulder is served by US 36 and a variety of state highways. Parking regulations in Boulder have been explicitly designed to discourage parking by commuters and to encourage the use of mass transit, with mixed results.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Over the years, Boulder has made significant investments in the multi-modal network. The city is now well known for its grade-separated bicycle and pedestrian paths, which are integrated into a network of bicycle lanes, cycle tracks, and on-street bicycle routes. Boulder also provides a community transit network that connects downtown, the University of Colorado campuses, and local shopping amenities. While the city has no rail transit, local and regional shuttle busses are funded by a variety of sources. Due in part to these investments in pedestrian, bicycle, and transit infrastructure, Boulder has been recognized both nationally and internationally for its transportation system.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In 2009, the Boulder metropolitan statistical area (MSA) ranked as the fourth highest in the United States for percentage of commuters who biked to work (5.4 percent). In 2013, the Boulder MSA ranked as the fourth lowest in the United States for percentage of workers who commuted by private automobile (71.9 percent). During the same time period, 11.1 percent of Boulder area workers had no commute whatsoever: they worked out of the home.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder has an extensive bus system operated by the Regional Transportation District (RTD). The HOP, SKIP, JUMP, Bound, DASH and Stampede routes run throughout the city and connect to nearby communities with departures every ten minutes during peak hours, Monday-Friday. Other routes, such as the 204, 205, 206, 208 and 209 depart every 15 to 30 minutes. Regional routes, traveling between nearby cities such as Longmont (BOLT, J), Golden (GS), and Denver (Flatiron Flyer, a bus rapid transit route), as well as Denver International Airport (AB), are also available. There are over 100 scheduled daily bus trips on seven routes that run between Boulder and Denver on weekdays.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: A 41-mile RTD commuter rail route called the Northwest Rail Line is proposed to run from Denver through Boulder to Longmont, with stops in major communities along the way. The Boulder station is to be north of Pearl Street and east of 30th Street. At one time this commuter rail service was scheduled to commence in 2014, but major delays have ensued. In 2016, an initial six-mile segment opened, reaching from downtown Denver to southern Westminster at West 71st Avenue and Federal Boulevard. The remaining 35 miles of the Northwest Rail Line is planned to be completed by 2044, depending upon funding.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: These future transit plans, as well as the current Flatiron Flyer Bus Rapid Transit route, are part of FasTracks, an RTD transit improvement plan funded by a 0.4% increase in the sales tax throughout the Denver metro area. RTD, the developer of FasTracks, is partnering with the city of Boulder to plan a transit-oriented development near Pearl and 33rd Streets in association with the proposed Boulder commuter rail station. The development is to feature the Boulder Railroad Depot, already relocated to that site, which may be returned to a transit-related use.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder, well known for its bicycle culture, boasts hundreds of miles of bicycle-pedestrian paths, lanes, and routes that interconnect to create a renowned network of bikeways usable year-round. Boulder has 74 bike and pedestrian underpasses that facilitate safer and uninterrupted travel throughout much of the city. The city offers a route-finding website that allows users to map personalized bike routes around the city, and is one of five communities to have received a "Platinum Bicycle Friendly Community" rating from the League of American Bicyclists.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The headquarters of the free and non-obligatory hospitality exchange network for cyclists, Warm Showers, is based in Boulder.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder Municipal Airport is located from central Boulder, is owned by the City of Boulder and is used exclusively for general aviation, with most traffic consisting of single-engine airplanes and glider aircraft.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Woody Allen's film "Sleeper" (1973) was filmed on location in Boulder. Some houses and the Mesa Laboratory of the National Center for Atmospheric Research, designed by I. M. Pei, were used in the film.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Boulder was a setting for Stephen King's book "The Stand" (1978), as the gathering point for some of the survivors of the superflu. King lived in Boulder for a little less than a year, beginning in the autumn of 1974, and wrote "The Shining" (1977) during this period.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The television sitcom "Mork & Mindy" (1978–1982) was set in Boulder, with 1619 Pine St. serving as the exterior shot of Mindy's home. The New York Deli, a now closed restaurant in the Pearl Street Mall, was also featured prominently in the series.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: In the American version of the television sitcom "The Office", the character Michael Scott leaves the show in season 7 and moves with his fiancée to Boulder.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: "Boulder to Birmingham" is a song written by Emmylou Harris and Bill Danoff which first appeared on Harris's 1975 album "Pieces of the Sky". It has served as something of a signature tune for the artist and recounts her feelings of grief in the years following the death of country rock star and mentor Gram Parsons.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Comedy Central television show "Broad City" ends with the protagonist, Abby, moving to Boulder for an art fellowship.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: Landmarks representing Boulder's connection with its various sister cities can be found throughout the city. Boulder's Sister City Plaza – dedicated on May 17, 2007 – is located on the east lawn of Boulder's Municipal Building. The plaza was built to honor all of Boulder's sister city relationships.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: The Dushanbe Tea House is located on 13th Street just south of the Pearl Street Mall. Dushanbe presented its distinctive tea house as a gift to Boulder in 1987. It was completed in Tajikistan in 1990 and then shipped to Boulder, where it was reassembled and opened to the public in 1998.


title: Boulder, Colorado

text: A mural representing the relationship between Boulder and Mante, Mexico, was dedicated in August 2001. The mural, which was painted by Mante muralist Florian Lopez, is located on the north-facing wall of the Dairy Center for the Performing Arts.


title: All-NBA Team

text: The All-NBA Team is an annual National Basketball Association (NBA) honor bestowed on the best players in the league following every NBA season. The voting is conducted by a global panel of sportswriters and broadcasters. The team has been selected in every season of the league's existence, dating back to its inaugural season in 1946. The All-NBA Team originally had two teams, but since 1988 it is typically composed of three five-man lineups—a first, second, and third team.


title: All-NBA Team

text: Since 1956, voters have selected two guards, two forwards, and one center for each team. This contrasts with the voting for starters of the NBA All-Star Game, which has chosen two backcourt and three frontcourt players since 2013. The NBA's sister league, the Women's National Basketball Association (WNBA), announced late in its 2022 season that it was changing the composition of its All-WNBA Teams from the All-NBA format to a "positionless" format in which members are selected without regard to position. NBA players receive five points for a first team vote, three points for a second team vote, and one point for a third team vote. The players with the highest point totals at their respective positions make the first team, with the next highest making the second team and so forth. On one occasion, six players were placed on a team, when Bob Davies and Dolph Schayes tied for the first team in 1952; the second team remained at five.


title: All-NBA Team

text: Voters are instructed to "vote for the player at the position he plays regularly", and some use the flexibility to designate a player at a position which is not their primary role. A player who receives votes at multiple positions is classified at the position in which they received the most votes. This can cause a player to be slotted to a lower team or miss an All-NBA selection altogether. For example, Draymond Green received votes at forward and center in 2016, but he was placed on the second team as a forward although he had more total points than the first-team center, DeAndre Jordan. In 2020, Khris Middleton garnered votes at both forward and guard, yet he was not on the third team despite having more points overall than Ben Simmons and Russell Westbrook, who were selected at guard.


title: All-NBA Team

text: LeBron James has the most All-NBA selections with eighteen. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Kobe Bryant, and Tim Duncan previously shared the record with fifteen. James also has the most All-NBA First Team honors with thirteen and the only player to have such in three teams, while Bryant and Karl Malone are tied for second-most with eleven. Malone and James each share a record eleven consecutive first-team selections.


title: All-NBA Team

text: From the 1946–47 season to 1954–55 season, the All-NBA Team was composed of two teams, each with five roster spots, except when there were ties. During this period, players were selected without regard to position.


title: All-NBA Team

text: From the 1955–56 season to 1987–88 season, the All-NBA Team was composed of two teams, each with five roster spots, except when there were ties. During this time, players were selected with regard to position; they are listed according to position in the following descending order: two forwards, one center and two guards.


title: All-NBA Team

text: Since the 1988–89 season, the All-NBA Team has been composed of three teams, each with five roster spots, except when there are ties. Players are selected with regard to position; they are listed according to position in the following descending order: two forwards, one center and two guards.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Led Zeppelin III is the third studio album by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, released on 5 October 1970. It was recorded in three locations. Much of the work was done at Headley Grange, a country house, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio. Additional sessions were held in more traditional recording studios, such as Island Studios and Olympic Studios in London. As with the prior album, the band eschewed the use of guest musicians, with all music performed by band members Robert Plant (vocals), Jimmy Page (guitars), John Paul Jones (bass, keyboards), and John Bonham (drums). The range of instruments played by the band was greatly enhanced on this album, with Jones especially emerging as a talented multi-instrumentalist, playing a wide range of keyboard and stringed instruments, including various synthesizers, mandolin and double bass, in addition to his usual bass guitar. As with prior albums, Page served as producer on the album, with mixing done by Andy Johns and Terry Manning.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The album showed a progression from straightforward rock towards folk and acoustic music. While hard rock influences were still present, such as on "Immigrant Song", acoustic-based songs such as "Gallows Pole" and "That's the Way" showed Led Zeppelin were capable of playing different styles successfully. The band wrote most of the material themselves, but as with prior records, included two songs that were re-interpretations of earlier works: "Gallows Pole", based on a traditional English folk song, by way of American singer Fred Gerlach; and "Hats Off to (Roy) Harper", a reworking of a blues song by Bukka White. The acoustic material developed from a songwriting session between Plant and Page at Bron-Yr-Aur cottage in Wales, which influenced the musical direction.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The album was one of the most anticipated of 1970, and its shipping date was held up by the intricate inner sleeve design based around a volvelle, with numerous images visible through holes in the outer cover. It was an immediate commercial success upon release and topped the UK and US charts. Although many critics were initially confused over the change in musical style and gave the album a mixed response, "Led Zeppelin III" has since been acknowledged as representing an important milestone in the band's history and a turning point in their music.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: By 1970, Led Zeppelin had achieved commercial success in both the UK and the US with their first two albums. They were determined to have a proper break, having recorded most of "Led Zeppelin II" in various locations while on tour, financing the sessions with the album sales and tour receipts. Following an exhausting concert tour of North America that spring, lead singer Robert Plant recommended to guitarist and producer Jimmy Page that they should retreat to Bron-Yr-Aur, an 18th-century cottage in Snowdonia, Wales, on a hilltop overlooking the Dyfi Valley, north of the market town Machynlleth. Plant had spent holidays there with his family.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: This remote setting had no running water or electric power, which encouraged a slight change of musical direction for the band towards an emphasis on acoustic arrangements. Page later explained that the tranquillity of Bron-Yr-Aur stood in sharp contrast to the continual touring of 1969, affecting the overall tone of the songwriting and dominance of acoustic guitars. His playing was influenced by folk guitarists Davey Graham and Bert Jansch, who regularly used alternative guitar tunings. Plant also recalled the band were "obsessed with change" and enjoyed listening to John Fahey. The band specifically wanted a change in direction, to show they could play any style of music they wanted.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The first recording sessions for "Led Zeppelin III" took place at Olympic Studios in November 1969. A press statement from manager Peter Grant said the group were recording a non-album track to be released as a single, but this was ultimately abandoned. Further sessions took place towards the end of the year, in between touring, before the decision was made to stop working and take a break at Bron-Yr-Aur. After preparing material for the album there, Page and Plant were joined by drummer John Bonham and bassist/keyboardist John Paul Jones at Headley Grange, a mansion in East Hampshire, to rehearse the songs. The rural atmosphere gave a relaxed feel to the sessions, and the band found it to be a more enjoyable environment in which to develop songs than a studio in the city.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The album was recorded between May and June 1970 at Headley Grange (using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio) and at Olympic, with further recording at Island Records' Island Studios in Notting Hill the following month. Mixing took place at Ardent Studios, Memphis, in August 1970, partway through the group's sixth American concert tour. The album was produced by Page and engineered by Andy Johns and Terry Manning. Page had first met Manning when the latter's band, Lawson and Four More, had supported Page's old band the Yardbirds in 1966. Manning had been to several Led Zeppelin shows, and this led to Page asking him to engineer the new album.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Led Zeppelin III" marked a change in focus for the band, from late 1960s hard rock to a psychedelic folk and acoustic sound. These styles had been present to a lesser degree on the band's first two releases, such as "Babe I'm Gonna Leave You" and "Ramble On", from the first and second albums, respectively. However, on this album, the group used more acoustic arrangements, and they would remain prominent to various degrees in the group's later releases. With "Led Zeppelin III", the group's songwriting dynamic also changed, from Page's domination of the first two albums towards a more democratic situation in which all four group members contributed their own compositions and ideas. Plant wrote all of the lyrics, with the exception of "Tangerine".


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Immigrant Song" was written about the Viking invasions of England and inspired by a short tour of Iceland in June 1970. It was released as a single in the US and became a top 20 hit. It was the opening song for the band's appearance at the Bath Festival of Blues and Progressive Music and at subsequent gigs for the next two years. It was included in the 2003 movie "School of Rock", after Jack Black made a short video with fans asking for permission for its use. Page clarified that the song's opening is a combination of a voice and echo feedback.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Friends" is an acoustic track that uses a C6 tuning on guitar. Page explained: "I played a Harmony acoustic tuned to C–A–C–G–C–E on 'Friends'... It's a C [type] tuning, but not a [typical] C tuning. I made it up." The song includes a string section arranged by Jones, which Page had wanted to achieve an Indian style of sound. The song was re-recorded as an experimental arrangement with the Bombay Orchestra in March 1972, along with "Four Sticks" from the following untitled album, commonly known as "Led Zeppelin IV" (1971). That arrangement appeared on the 2015 reissue of the retrospective album "Coda". The song segues into "Celebration Day" via a Moog synthesiser drone.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Since I've Been Loving You" was one of the first songs to be written for the album, in late 1969. It is a blues song in the key of C minor, featuring Jones on Hammond organ and bass pedals, simultaneously. The song became a live performance staple for the band throughout the rest of their career, replacing "I Can't Quit You Baby" from the first album as the band's slow blues showcase, with Page's guitar solo featured on both the recorded version and in the band's live show.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Out on the Tiles" was mostly written by Bonham, who came up with the idea for the riffs that run through the track. The introduction was used to open live versions of "Black Dog" (from "Led Zeppelin IV") and Bonham's drum solo on the 1977 US tour.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Gallows Pole" is an updated arrangement of a traditional folk song called "The Maid Freed from the Gallows", inspired by a version recorded by Fred Gerlach. Page played a variety of acoustic and electric guitars and banjo, while Jones played mandolin as well as bass. It was reworked by Page and Plant for their 1994 album "".


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Tangerine" was written by Page in 1968, when the Yardbirds were still together. The track features pedal steel guitar as well as acoustic. It was added to the group's live acoustic set in 1971 and performed regularly into the following year. It was then revived as a four-part harmony arrangement in 1975.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "That's the Way" had the original title of "The Boy Next Door". It was written in Bron-Yr-Aur about the problems two people faced in a relationship and the clashes with their families. The song became a staple part of the group's acoustic set throughout the 1970s and was played at the Bath Festival, where Led Zeppelin performed acoustically for the first time in the UK. Page thought highly of Plant's lyrics and considered it a breakthrough in their development as a songwriting team. The pair had gone for a walk and, on their return, sat down by a ravine with a tape recorder, where Page started to play the tune, to which Plant improvised a verse.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Bron-Y-Aur Stomp" was originally called "Jennings Farm Blues" and recorded as an electric arrangement, at the end of 1969. It was subsequently reworked as an acoustic number and featured Bonham playing spoons.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The closing track, "Hats Off to (Roy) Harper", was based on the Bukka White blues song "Shake 'Em On Down" and named as a tribute to their friend and folk singer, Roy Harper. The original LP credited the arrangement to "Charles Obscure", a band in-joke. It features Plant's voice fed through a vibrato amplifier.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Page said that the group had 16 tracks to choose from for release on "Led Zeppelin III". Six other songs that were recorded during the "Led Zeppelin III" sessions were released at a later date: "Poor Tom" was released on "Coda"; "Bron-Yr-Aur" was included on the 1975 double album "Physical Graffiti"; "Hey, Hey, What Can I Do" was released as the B-side to the 1970 "Immigrant Song" single, and on the 1972 sampler album "The New Age of Atlantic", later appearing on the first box set in 1990 and then "Coda" (Deluxe Edition) in 2015, along with "St. Tristan's Sword"; and both "Jennings Farm Blues" and "Key to the Highway/Trouble in Mind" later appeared on the 2014 deluxe edition of the album.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Led Zeppelin III"'s original vinyl edition was packaged in a gatefold sleeve with an innovative cover, designed by Zacron, a multi-media artist whom Page had met in 1963 whilst Zacron was a student at Kingston College of Art. Zacron subsequently graduated from the Royal Academy of Arts and became a lecturer at the University of Leeds. Page asked him if he would help design a sleeve for the album, which he helped arrange in January 1970.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The cover and interior gatefold art consisted of a surreal collection of seemingly random images on a white background, many of them connected thematically with flight or aviation. Behind the front cover was a rotatable laminated card disc, or volvelle, covered with more images, including photos of the band members, which showed through holes in the cover; moving an image into place behind one hole would usually bring one or two others into place behind other holes. The back cover was a composite shot of the best photographs from the photography sessions. Zacron chose the images because he wanted to "show them as the giant force they were in music". In France, this album was released with a different album cover, simply showing a photo of the four band members.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Zacron later said that, upon his completion of the artwork, Page telephoned him while he was in New York to express his satisfaction with the results, saying, "I think it is fantastic". However, he later thought the artwork was unsatisfactory because of working to a deadline.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Led Zeppelin III" was one of the most anticipated albums of 1970, and advance orders in the US alone were close to the million mark. The volvelle-designed sleeve held up production and caused a two-month delay. In the run-up to release, the group bought a full page advertisement in "Melody Maker" magazine at the end of September, which simply said, "Thank you for making us the world's number one band." The album was released in the US on 5 October, then in the UK on 23 October. It immediately topped the British charts.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Although the band's expanding musical boundaries were greeted warmly by some, detractors attacked the heavier tracks as being mindless noise. In a review for "Rolling Stone", critic Lester Bangs praised "That's the Way" as "beautiful and genuinely moving", while characterising the band's heavier songs as crude and little differentiated from each other. Others criticised the acoustic material for imitating the music of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, which Page disputed, as the group had featured that style on their previous albums. Page has also said that the negative press given to the third album affected him so much that he did not give press interviews for 18 months after its release, adding that the criticism was one of the reasons why the following album contained no written information on it at all. He later came to believe that journalists had little time to listen to the material and were simply looking for "the new 'Whole Lotta Love'" instead of appreciating the material on its own merits.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: A positive review came from Robert Christgau, who originally assigned it an A-minus grade and wrote in his "Consumer Guide" review for "The Village Voice": "I have always approved theoretically of Led Zep's concept, and now the group has finally whipped it into shape. It's amazing to realize that Robert Plant's vocals can convey that same overbearing power when Page plays acoustic, as he does to great effect on several cuts here. No drum solos, either. Heavy."


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: "Led Zeppelin III" was a trans-Atlantic number one hit. In the UK, it reached No. 1 on 7 November 1970 and remained on the chart for 40 weeks. In the US, it entered the chart at No. 3 on 24 October and reached No. 1 the following week. It remained on the chart for 19 weeks and was certified Gold on 8 October 1970. However, following the lukewarm, if not confused and sometimes dismissive reception from critics, sales lagged after this initial peak.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Despite mostly indifferent reviews and lower sales than Led Zeppelin's previous two albums, "Led Zeppelin III"'s reputation has recovered over time. The RIAA certified the album 2 times platinum in 1990, and 6 times platinum in 1999. The 2014 reissue of the album helped itself get back into the "Billboard" Top 10.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: Along with the group's self-titled debut album and their second album, "Led Zeppelin II", the album was remastered and reissued on 2 June 2014. The reissue comes in six formats: a standard CD edition; a deluxe two-CD edition; a standard LP version; a deluxe two-LP version; a super deluxe two-CD plus two-LP version with a hardback book; and as high-resolution, 24-bit/96k digital downloads. The deluxe and super deluxe editions feature bonus material containing alternative takes, backing tracks and the previously unreleased songs "Bathroom Sound", "Jennings Farm Blues" and "Key to the Highway/Trouble in Mind". The LP versions replicate the original volvelle sleeve design. The reissue was released with an inverted colour version of the original album's artwork as its bonus disc's cover.


title: Led Zeppelin III

text: The reissue was met with widespread critical acclaim. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 98, based on 10 reviews. The bonus disc was hailed by "Pitchfork" journalist Mark Richardson as "easily the best" of the three reissues. In "Rolling Stone", David Fricke wrote of highlights in the bonus disc: Jennings Farm Blues', an electric run at the folk gallop 'Bron-Y-Aur Stomp', shows Zeppelin exploring options, and the medley 'Keys to the Highway/Trouble in Mind', by Page and Plant, feels like a deep-blues breath before the next rush forward."


title: Salvia

text: Salvia () is the largest genus of plants in the sage family Lamiaceae, with nearly 1000 species of shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and annuals. Within the Lamiaceae, "Salvia" is part of the tribe Mentheae within the subfamily Nepetoideae. One of several genera commonly referred to as sage, it includes two widely used herbs, "Salvia officinalis" (common sage, or just "sage") and "Salvia rosmarinus" (rosemary, formerly "Rosmarinus officinalis").


title: Salvia

text: The genus is distributed throughout the Old World and the Americas (over 900 total species), with three distinct regions of diversity: Central America and South America (approximately 600 species); Central Asia and the Mediterranean (250 species); Eastern Asia (90 species).


title: Salvia

text: The name "Salvia" derives from Latin (sage), from (safe, secure, healthy), an adjective related to (health, well-being, prosperity or salvation), and (to feel healthy, to heal). Pliny the Elder was the first author known to describe a plant called ""Salvia"" by the Romans, likely describing the type species for the genus "Salvia", "Salvia officinalis".


title: Salvia

text: The common modern English name "sage" derives from Middle English , which was borrowed from Old French , from Latin (the source of the botanical name). When used without modifiers, the name 'sage' generally refers to "Salvia officinalis" ("common sage" or "culinary sage"), although it is used with modifiers to refer to any member of the genus. The ornamental species are commonly referred to by their genus name "Salvia".


title: Salvia

text: "Salvia" species include annual, biennial, or perennial herbaceous plants, along with woody subshrubs. The stems are typically angled like other members in Lamiaceae. The leaves are typically entire, but sometimes toothed or pinnately divided. The flowering stems bear small bracts, dissimilar to the basal leaves—in some species the bracts are ornamental and showy.


title: Salvia

text: The flowers are produced in racemes or panicles, and generally produce a showy display with flower colors ranging from blue to red, with white and yellow less common. The calyx is normally tubular or bell shaped, without bearded throats, and divided into two parts or lips, the upper lip entire or three-toothed, the lower two-cleft. The corollas are often claw shaped and are two-lipped. The upper lip is usually entire or three-toothed. The lower lip typically has two lobes. The stamens are reduced to two short structures with anthers two-celled, the upper cell fertile, and the lower imperfect. The flower styles are two-cleft. The fruits are smooth ovoid or oblong nutlets and in many species they have a mucilaginous coating.


title: Salvia

text: Many members of "Salvia" have trichomes (hairs) growing on the leaves, stems and flowers, which help to reduce water loss in some species. Sometimes the hairs are glandular and secrete volatile oils that typically give a distinct aroma to the plant. When the hairs are rubbed or brushed, some of the oil-bearing cells are ruptured, releasing the oil. This often results in the plant being unattractive to grazing animals and some insects.


title: Salvia

text: The defining characteristic of the genus "Salvia" is the unusual pollination mechanism. It is central to any investigation into the systematics, species distribution, or pollination biology of "Salvia". It consists of two stamens (instead of the typical four found in other members of the tribe Mentheae) and the two thecae on each stamen are separated by an elongate connective which enables the formation of the lever mechanism. Sprengel (1732) was the first to illustrate and describe the nototribic (dorsal) pollination mechanism in Salvia. When a pollinator probes a male stage flower for nectar, (pushing the posterior anther theca) the lever causes the stamens to move and the pollen to be deposited on the pollinator. When the pollinator withdraws from the flower, the lever returns the stamens to their original position. In older, female stage flowers, the stigma is bent down in a general location that corresponds to where the pollen was deposited on the pollinator's body. The lever of most "Salvia" species is not specialized for a single pollinator, but is generic and selected to be easily released by many bird and bee pollinators of varying shapes and sizes. The lever arm can be specialized to be different lengths so that the pollen is deposited on different parts of the pollinator's body. For example, if a bee went to one flower and pollen was deposited on the far back of her body, but then it flew to another flower where the stigma was more forward (anterior), pollination could not take place. This can result in reproductive isolation from the parental population and new speciation can occur. It is believed that the lever mechanism is a key factor in the speciation, adaptive radiation, and diversity of this large genus.


title: Salvia

text: George Bentham was first to give a full monographic account of the genus in 1832–1836, and based his classifications on staminal morphology. Bentham's work on classifying the family Labiatae ("Labiatarum Genera et Species" (1836)) is still the only comprehensive and global organization of the family. While he was clear about the integrity of the overall family, he was less confident about his organization of "Salvia", the largest genus in Labiatae (also called Lamiaceae). Based on his own philosophy of classification, he wrote that he "ought to have formed five or six genera" out of "Salvia". In the end, he felt that the advantage in placing a relatively uniform grouping in one genus was "more than counterbalanced by the necessity of changing more than two hundred names." At that time there were only 291 known "Salvia" species.


title: Salvia

text: Bentham eventually organized "Salvia" into twelve sections (originally fourteen), based on differences in corolla, calyx, and stamens. These were placed into four subgenera that were generally divided into Old World and New World species:


title: Salvia

text: His system is still the most widely studied classification of "Salvia", even though more than 500 new species have been discovered since his work. Other botanists have since offered modified versions of Bentham's classification system, while botanists in the last hundred years generally do not endorse Bentham's system.


title: Salvia

text: It was long assumed that "Salvia"'s unusual pollination and stamen structure had evolved only once, and that therefore "Salvia" was monophyletic, meaning that all members of the genus evolved from one ancestor. However, the immense diversity in staminal structure, vegetative habit, and floral morphology of the species within "Salvia" has opened the debate about its infrageneric classifications.


title: Salvia

text: Through DNA sequencing, "Salvia" was shown to not be monophyletic but to consist of three separate clades ("Salvia" clades I–III) each with different sister groups. They also found that the staminal lever mechanism evolved at least two separate times, through convergent evolution. Walker and Sytsma (2007) clarified this parallel evolution in a later paper combining molecular and morphological data to prove three independent lineages of the "Salvia" lever mechanism, each corresponding to a clade within the genus. It is surprising to see how similar the staminal lever mechanism structures are between the three lineages, so "Salvia" proves to be an interesting but excellent example of convergent evolution.


title: Salvia

text: Walker and Sytsma (2007) also addressed the question of whether "Salvia" is truly polyphyletic or just paraphyletic within the tribe Mentheae. To make "Salvia" monophyletic would require the inclusion of 15 species from "Rosmarinus", "Perovskia", "Dorystaechas", "Meriandra", and "Zhumeria" genera. The information attained by Walker and Sytsma (2007) supporting the three independent origins of the staminal lever indicate that "Salvia" is not the case where 15 species (currently not members of the genus) are actually members of "Salvia" but underwent character reversals—in other words, "Salvia" is paraphyletic as previously circumscribed. In 2017 Drew et al. recircumscribed "Salvia", proposing that the five small embedded genera ("Dorystaechas", "Meriandra", "Perovskia", "Rosmarinus", and "Zhumeria") be subsumed into a broadly defined "Salvia". This approach would require only 15 name changes whereas maintaining the five small genera and renaming various "Salvia" taxa would require over 700 name changes.


title: Salvia

text: The circumscription of individual species within "Salvia" has undergone constant revision. Many species are similar to each other, and many species have varieties that have been given different specific names. There have been as many as 2,000 named species and subspecies. Over time, the number has been reduced to less than a thousand. A modern and comprehensive study of "Salvia" species was done by Gabriel Alziar, in his "Catalogue Synonymique des "Salvia" du Monde" (1989) ("World Catalog of "Salvia" Synonyms"). He found that the number of distinct species and subspecies could be reduced to less than 700.


title: Salvia

text: Many species are used as herbs, as ornamental plants (usually for flower interest), and sometimes for their ornamental and aromatic foliage. Some species, such as "Salvia columbariae" and "Salvia hispanica", are also grown for their seeds. The Plant List has 986 accepted species names. A selection of some well-known species is below.


title: Salvia

text: "Salvia" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species including the bucculatricid leaf-miner "Bucculatrix taeniola" which feeds exclusively on the genus and the "Coleophora" case-bearers "C. aegyptiacae", "C. salviella" (both feed exclusively on "Salvia. aegyptiaca"), "C. ornatipennella" and "C. virgatella" (both recorded on "Salvia. pratensis").


title: Salvia

text: Many interspecific hybrids occur naturally, with a relatively high degree of crossability, but some such as "Salvia officinalis" × "Salvia lavandulifolia" and "Salvia fruticosa" × "Salvia tomentosa" have been intentional. A natural hybrid, "Salvia longispicata" × "Salvia farinacea" has given rise to a series of popular ornamentals such as "Salvia" 'Indigo Spires' and "Salvia" 'Mystic Spires Blue'.


title: Salvia

text: Numerous garden-worthy cultivars and varieties have been produced, often with mixed or unknown parentage. The following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: Prabhu Ganesan (born 25 December 1956), known professionally as Prabhu, is an Indian actor, businessman and film producer who predominantly works in Tamil cinema. He is the son of veteran actor Sivaji Ganesan. He is popularly known as "Ilaya Thilagam". He has worked in more than 215 films in lead and supporting roles in Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada films.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: After making his debut in "Sangili" (1982), Prabhu played various leading and supporting roles, earning the Best Actor award recognition by the Tamil Nadu State for his portrayal in "Chinna Thambi" (1991).


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: Prabhu was born to veteran actor Sivaji Ganesan and Kamala on 25 December 1956. His elder brother Ramkumar is a film producer and he has two sisters Shanthi and Thenmozhi.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: After leaving Bishop Cotton Boys' School in Bangalore, Prabhu got involved in film production as an executive producer and worked alongside his uncle and mentor V. C. Shanmugam, who insisted that Prabhu learn the film making process in a disciplined way, giving him general tasks such as pulling up chairs for artistes. Prabhu's father, actor Sivaji Ganesan, had initially expressed reluctance in allowing Prabhu to pursue an acting career, but through his work in the industry, he began to receive offers from film-makers to feature in their films.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: He subsequently made his acting debut in C. V. Rajendran's "Sangili" (1982), a remake of the Hindi film "Kalicharan", where he was cast in a supporting role. By the time "Sangili" released, Prabhu was working on six films, including Charuhasan's "Pudhiya Sangamam" and Gangai Amaren's romantic film "Kozhi Koovuthu", which became his first commercially successful venture. After featuring in about thirty films, including nineteen with his father including "Neethibathi" (1983), "Sandhippu" (1983) and "Miruthanga Chakravarthi" (1983), Prabhu's career graph registered a drop and he began to reconsider the type of films he had signed. He opted against featuring in films co-starring his father and consciously began to choose subjects rather than accept as many offers as possible.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: Among the first films he signed after taking the break included G. M. Kumar's "Aruvadai Naal" (1986) and Manivannan's "Paalaivana Rojakkal", alongside Sathyaraj, both proving successful. Subsequently, the following period saw a series of commercial successes in 1988 for the actor, notably S. P. Muthuraman's "Guru Sishyan" with Rajinikanth, Mani Ratnam's "Agni Natchathiram" with Karthik and P. Vasu's family drama "En Thangachi Padichava". The success of the latter film prompted more successful collaborations in the same genre between Prabhu and Vasu with "Chinna Thambi" (1991) and "Senthamizh Pattu" (1992) also receiving a similar reception, with the actor earning the Best Actor award recognition by the Tamil Nadu state.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: He subsequently worked in his hundredth film R. V. Udayakumar's "Rajakumaran", before portraying well received roles in K. Balachander's romantic film "Duet" (1994) and Priyadarshan's Malayalam period film "Kaalapani" (1996) alongside Mohanlal. Prabhu went through another barren spell in the late 1990s, when several films after the success of "Panchalankurichi" failed to do well, prompting another image change away from his village do-gooder roles. Moving away from action films, Prabhu selected scripts which would appeal to family audiences in the early 2000s and collaborated with film-makers including Rama Narayanan and T. P. Gajendran, working in a series of "minimum guarantee" return films.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: Prabhu then made another career change and began accepting film offers in which he would play a supporting rather than the leading role and featured alongside Kamal Haasan and then Rajinikanth in two big budget ventures "Vasool Raja MBBS" (2004) and his home production "Chandramukhi" (2005). Since then, he has gained acclaim portraying characters including a caring guardian in "Unakkum Enakkum", "Thaamirabharani" and "Ayan", while he has also been seen in detective roles in action films, notably "Billa" (2007) and then "Kanthaswamy" (2009). He has also played other acclaimed supporting roles in Mani Ratnam's "Raavanan" (2010) and Aishwarya Dhanush's "3" (2012), while he has ventured into playing similar roles in Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam films. In 2016, Prabhu featured in his 200th film, the romantic comedy "Meen Kuzhambum Mann Paanaiyum" produced by his nephew, Dushyanth Ramkumar.


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: Prabhu is married to Punitha in 1982 and has two children Aishwarya Prabhu (born 1984) and Vikram Prabhu (born 1986), who made his acting debut in the 2012 film "Kumki".


title: Prabhu (actor)

text: While still married to Punitha, Prabhu had a live-in relationship with actress Kushboo, and got married on September 12, 1993. The pair subsequently decided to split four months later.


title: Josie Totah

text: Josie Totah (born August 5, 2001), formerly known as J. J. Totah, is an American actress. She is known for her recurring role on the Disney Channel series "Jessie" and supporting role on the 2013 ABC comedy series "Back in the Game". Totah received critical praise for her role in the 2016 film "Other People". In 2018, she starred in the short-lived NBC comedy series "Champions".


title: Josie Totah

text: Totah began her career playing male roles but publicly came out as a trans woman in August 2018, changing her first name to Josie.


title: Josie Totah

text: Totah was born in Sacramento, California, the third child of Suheil and Christine Totah. She has one sister and one brother, and is of Palestinian and Lebanese ancestry.


title: Josie Totah

text: Totah began her acting career in 2012 when she was cast as the "Lil' Dictator" in the first production for AwesomenessTV. Beginning in 2013, she began appearing as Stuart Wooten, a boy with a crush on series regular Zuri Ross, in the Disney Channel Original Series "Jessie". Totah has guest starred on the TV shows, "New Girl", "2 Broke Girls", and "Liv and Maddie".


title: Josie Totah

text: Also in 2013, Totah was cast in a supporting role in the ABC comedy "Back in the Game". In 2015, she was cast in 4 episodes of the sixth season "Glee" as the youngest member ever of the New Directions.


title: Josie Totah

text: In 2016, Totah appeared in the film "Other People", and received critical praise for her role with "Variety", making her one of its Sundance Breakout Stars of the year. In October 2016, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Totah would star in a new comedy for NBC that she helped develop where Totah was set to produce alongside executive producers Adam and Naomi Scott. In 2017, she appeared in the Netflix detective comedy "" and the Marvel Studios film "".


title: Josie Totah

text: In January 2017, Totah joined Adam Devine in the Disney feature film "Magic Camp". In February 2017 Totah was cast as Michael Patel, the son of Mindy Kaling's character, Priya Patel, in the new NBC comedy "Champions", which was picked up to series in May 2017, and aired from March 8 to May 25, 2018, before being canceled. Totah was cast in a "Saved by the Bell" reboot for NBC's streaming service Peacock, where she played the character of Lexi, a socially powerful cheerleader.


title: Josie Totah

text: In August 2022, she started a podcast titled "Dare We Say" with Yasmine Hamady and "Saved by the Bell" co-star Alycia Pascual-Peña.


title: Josie Totah

text: On August 20, 2018, Totah wrote an article published in "Time magazine" in which she came out as a transgender woman.


title: Nun

text: A nun is a woman who vows to dedicate her life to religious service, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery or convent. The term is often used interchangeably with religious sisters who do take simple vows but live an active vocation of prayer and charitable work.


title: Nun

text: In Christianity, nuns are found in the Roman Catholic, Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, and Anglican traditions, as well as other Christian denominations. In the Buddhist tradition, female monastics are known as Bhikkhuni, and take several additional vows compared to male monastics (bhikkhus). Nuns are most common in Mahayana Buddhism, but have more recently become more prevalent in other traditions.


title: Nun

text: In the Catholic tradition, there are many religious institutes of nuns and sisters (the female equivalent of male monks or friars), each with its own charism or special character. Traditionally, nuns are members of enclosed religious orders and take solemn religious vows, while sisters do not live in the papal enclosure and formerly took vows called "simple vows".


title: Nun

text: As monastics, nuns living within an enclosure historically commit to recitation of the full Liturgy of the Hours throughout the day in church, usually in a solemn manner. They were formerly distinguished within the monastic community as "choir nuns", as opposed to lay sisters who performed upkeep of the monastery or errands outside the cloister. This last task is still often entrusted to women, called "externs", who live in the monastery, but outside the enclosure. They were usually either oblates or members of the associated Third Order, often wearing a different habit or the standard woman's attire of the period.


title: Nun

text: In general, when a woman enters a religious order or monastery she first undergoes a period of testing life for six months to two years called a postulancy. If she, and the order, determine that she may have a vocation to the life, she receives the habit of the order (usually with some modification, normally a white veil instead of black, to distinguish her from professed members) and undertakes the novitiate, a period (that lasts one to two years) of living the life of the religious institute without yet taking vows. Upon completion of this period she may take her initial, temporary vows. Temporary vows last one to three years, typically, and will be professed for not less than three years and not more than six. Finally, she will petition to make her "perpetual profession", taking permanent, solemn vows.


title: Nun

text: In the branches of the Benedictine tradition, (Benedictines, Cistercians, Camaldolese, and Trappists, among others) nuns take vows of stability (that is, to remain a member of a single monastic community), obedience (to an abbess or prioress), and conversion of life (which includes poverty and celibacy). In other traditions, such as the Poor Clares (the Franciscan Order) and the Dominican nuns, they take the threefold vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. These are known as the 'evangelical counsels' as opposed to 'monastic vows' proper. Most orders of nuns not listed here follow one of these two patterns, with some Orders taking an additional vow related to the specific work or character of their Order (for example, to undertake a certain style of devotion, praying for a specific intention or purpose).


title: Nun

text: Cloistered nuns (Carmelites, for example) observe "papal enclosure" rules, and their nunneries typically have walls separating the nuns from the outside world. The nuns rarely leave (except for medical necessity or occasionally for purposes related to their contemplative life) though they may receive visitors in specially built parlors, often with either a grille or half-wall separating the nuns from visitors. They are usually self-sufficient, earning money by selling jams, candies or baked goods by mail order, or by making liturgical items (such as vestments, candles, or hosts to be consecrated at Mass for Holy Communion).


title: Nun

text: They often undertake contemplative ministries – that is, a community of nuns is often associated with prayer for some particular good or supporting the missions of another order by prayer (for instance, the Dominican nuns of Corpus Christi Monastery in the Bronx, New York, pray in support of the priests of the Archdiocese of New York). Yet religious sisters can also perform this form of ministry, e.g., the Maryknoll Missionary Sisters have small houses of contemplative sisters, some in mission locations, who pray for the work of the priests, brothers, and other sisters of their congregation, and since Vatican II have added retreat work and spiritual guidance to their apostolate; the Sister Disciples of the Divine Master are also cloistered sisters who receive visitors and pray in support of their sister congregation, the Daughters of St. Paul in their media ministry.


title: Nun

text: A canoness is a nun who corresponds to the male equivalent of canon, usually following the Rule of St. Augustine. The origin and rules of monastic life are common to both. As with the canons, differences in the observance of rule gave rise to two types: the canoness regular, taking the traditional religious vows, and the secular canoness, who did not take vows and thus remained free to own property and leave to marry, should they choose. This was primarily a way of leading a pious life for the women of aristocratic families and generally disappeared in the modern age, except for the modern Lutheran convents of Germany.


title: Nun

text: A nun who is elected to head her religious house is termed an abbess if the house is an abbey, a prioress if it is a monastery, or more generically may be referred to as "Mother Superior" and styled "Reverend Mother". The distinction between abbey and monastery has to do with the terms used by a particular order or by the level of independence of the religious house. Technically, a convent is any home of a community of sisters – or, indeed, of priests and brothers, though this term is rarely used in the United States. The term "monastery" is often used by The Benedictine family to speak of the buildings and "convent" when referring to the community. Neither is gender specific. 'Convent' is often used of the houses of certain other institutes.


title: Nun

text: The traditional dress for women in religious communities consists of a tunic, which is tied around the waist with a cloth or leather belt. Over the tunic some nuns wear a scapular which is a garment of long wide piece of woolen cloth worn over the shoulders with an opening for the head. Some wear a white wimple and a veil, the most significant and ancient aspect of the habit. Some orders – such as the Dominicans – wear a large rosary on their belt. Benedictine abbesses wear a cross or crucifix on a chain around their neck.


title: Nun

text: After the Second Vatican Council, many religious institutes chose in their own regulations to no longer wear the traditional habit and did away with choosing a religious name. Catholic Church canon law states: "Religious are to wear the habit of the institute, made according to the norm of proper law, as a sign of their consecration and as a witness of poverty."


title: Nun

text: Although usage has varied throughout church history, typically "nun" (Latin: "monialis") is used for women who have taken "solemn" vows, and "sister" (Latin: "soror") is used for women who have taken "simple" vows (that is, vows other than solemn vows).


title: Nun

text: During the first millennium, nearly all religious communities of men and women were dedicated to prayer and contemplation. These monasteries were built in remote locations or were separated from the world by means of a precinct wall. The mendicant orders, founded in the 13th century, combined a life of prayer and dedication to God with active works of preaching, hearing confessions, and service to the poor, and members of these orders are known as friars rather than monks. At that time, and into the 17th century, Church custom did not allow women to leave the cloister if they had taken religious vows. Female members of the mendicant orders (Dominican, Augustinian and Carmelite nuns and Poor Clares) continued to observe the same enclosed life as members of the monastic orders.


title: Nun

text: Originally, the vows taken by profession in any religious institute approved by the Holy See were classified as solemn. This was declared by Pope Boniface VIII (1235–1303). The situation changed in the 16th century. In 1521, two years after the Fourth Lateran Council had forbidden the establishment of new religious institutes, Pope Leo X established a religious Rule with simple vows for those tertiaries attached to existing communities who undertook to live a formal religious life. In 1566 and 1568, Pope Pius V rejected this class of congregation, but they continued to exist and even increased in number. After at first being merely tolerated, they afterwards obtained approval. Finally in the 20th century, Pope Leo XIII recognized as religious all men and women who took simple vows. Their lives were oriented not to the ancient monastic way of life, but more to social service and to evangelization, both in Europe and in mission areas. Their number had increased dramatically in the upheavals brought by the French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic invasions of other Catholic countries, depriving thousands of religious of the income that their communities held because of inheritances and forcing them to find a new way of living the religious life. But members of these new associations were not recognized as "religious" until Pope Leo XIII's Constitution "Conditae a Christo" of 8 December 1900.


title: Nun

text: The 1917 Code of Canon Law reserved the term "nun" (Latin: "monialis") for religious women who took solemn vows or who, while being allowed in some places to take simple vows, belonged to institutes whose vows were normally solemn. It used the word "sister" (Latin: "soror") exclusively for members of institutes for women that it classified as "congregations"; and for "nuns" and "sisters" jointly it used the Latin word "religiosae" (women religious). The same religious order could include both "nuns" and "sisters", if some members took solemn vows and others simple vows.


title: Nun

text: The new legal code of the Catholic Church which was adopted in 1983, however, remained silent on this matter. Whereas previously the code distinguished between orders and congregations, the code now refers simply to religious institutes.


title: Nun

text: Since the code of 1983, the Vatican has addressed the renewal of the contemplative life of nuns. It produced the letter "Verbi Sponsa" in 1999, the apostolic constitution "Vultum Dei quaerere" in 2016, and the instruction "Cor Orans" in 2018 "which replaced the 1999 document "Verbi Sponsa" and attempted to bring forward the ideas regarding contemplative life born during the Second Vatican Council".


title: Nun

text: Nuns and sisters played a major role in American religion, education, nursing and social work since the early 19th century. In Catholic Europe, convents were heavily endowed over the centuries, and were sponsored by the aristocracy. There were very few rich American Catholics, and no aristocrats. Religious orders were founded by entrepreneurial women who saw a need and an opportunity, and were staffed by devout women from poor families. The numbers grew rapidly, from 900 sisters in 15 communities in 1840, 50,000 in 170 orders in 1900, and 135,000 in 300 different orders by 1930. Starting in 1820, the sisters always outnumbered the priests and brothers. Their numbers peaked in 1965 at 180,000 then plunged to 56,000 in 2010. Many women left their orders, and few new members were added. Since the Second Vatican Council the sisters have directed their ministries more to the poor, working more directly among them and with them.


title: Nun

text: Nuns have played an important role in Canada, especially in heavily Catholic Quebec. Outside the home, Canadian women had few domains which they controlled. An important exception came with Catholic nuns, especially in Québec. Stimulated by the influence in France, the popular religiosity of the Counter Reformation, new orders for women began appearing in the seventeenth century. In the next three centuries women opened dozens of independent religious orders, funded in part by dowries provided by the parents of young nuns. The orders specialized in charitable works, including hospitals, orphanages, homes for unwed mothers, and schools.


title: Nun

text: Prior to women becoming nuns during early modern Spain, aspired nuns underwent a process. The process was ensured by the Council of Trent, which King Philip II (1556–1598) adopted within Spain. King Phillip II acquired the aid of the Hieronymite order to ensure that monasteries abided by the decrees of the Council of Trent. This changed the way in which nuns would live. One edict of the Council of Trent was that female monasteries be enclosed in order to limit nuns' relationship with the secular world. Enclosure of monasteries during this time was associated with chastity. Another decree issued by the Council of Trent was that religious devotion be "true and voluntary". A male clergy member would ask the aspiring nuns if whether or not their vocation was "true and voluntary" in order to ensure no enforced conversion.


title: Nun

text: To be considered as a nun, one must have the economic means to afford the convent dowry. During this time convent dowries were affordable, compared to secular marriages between a man and a woman. Typically during early modern Spain many nuns were from elite families who had the means to afford the convent dowry and "maintenance allowances", which were annual fees. Monasteries were economically supported through convent dowries. Convent dowries could be waived if the aspiring nun had an artistic ability benefiting the monastery.


title: Nun

text: Once an aspiring nun has entered the convent and has the economic means to afford the dowry, she undergoes the process of apprenticeship known as the novitiate period. The novitiate period typically lasts 1–2 years, and during this time the aspiring nun lives the life of a nun without taking the official vows. As she lives in the convent she is closely monitored by the other women in the community to determine if her vocation is genuine. This would be officially determined by a vote from the choir nuns. If the aspiring nun passes the scrutiny of the women of the religious community, she then can make her solemn vows. Prior to making the vows, the family of the nun is expected to pay the convent dowry. Nuns were also expected to renounce their inheritance and property rights.