title: Moses in Islam

text: The sayings of Muhammad (hadith), Islamic literature and Quranic exegesis also narrate some incidents of the life of Musa. One story goes that he is bathing apart from the other Israelites who all bathe together. This leads the Bani Israel to say that Musa does so due to a scrotal hernia. One day, when Musa is bathing in seclusion, he puts his clothes on a stone, and the stone flees with his clothes. Musa rushes after the stone, and when the Bani Israel see him, they say, 'By God, Musa has got no defect in his body". Musa then beats the stone with his clothes, and Abu Huraira states, "By God! There are still six or seven marks present on the stone from that excessive beating". In a hadith, Muhammad states that the stone still has three to five marks due to Musa hitting it.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Harun dies shortly before Musa. It is reported in a Sunni hadith that when Azrael, the Angel of Death, comes to Musa, Musa slaps him in the eye. The angel returns to God and tells Him that Musa does not want to die. God tells the angel to return and tell Musa to put his hand on the back of an ox, and for every hair that comes under his hand, he would be granted a year of life. When Musa asks God what would happen after the granted time, God informs him that he would die after the period. Musa, therefore, requests God for death at his current age near the Promised Land "at a distance of a stone's throw from it."


title: Moses in Islam

text: The grave of Musa is located at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, which lies south of Jericho and east of Jerusalem in the Judean wilderness. A side road to the right of the main Jerusalem-Jericho road, about beyond the sign indicating sea level, leads to the site. The Fatimid, Taiyabi and Dawoodi Bohra sects also believe in the same.


title: Moses in Islam

text: The main body of the present shrine, mosque, minaret and some rooms were built during the reign of Baibars, a Mamluk Sultan, in 1270 AD. Over the years Nabi Musa was expanded, protected by walls, and includes 120 rooms in its two levels which hosted the visitors.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Moreover, by indicating that Musa wants to be separated from Harun, his brother, many of the Israelites proclaim that Musa had killed Harun on the mountain to secure this so-called separation. However, according to the accounts of al-Tabari, Harun dies of natural causes: “When they [Musa and Harun] fell asleep, death took Harun... When he was dead, the house was taken away, the tree disappeared, and the bed was raised to heaven”. When Musa returns to the Children of Israel, his followers, from the mountain without Harun, they are found saying that Musa killed Harun because he envied their love for Harun, for Harun was more forbearing and more lenient with them. This notion would strongly indicate that Musa could have indeed killed Harun to secure the separation for which he prayed to God. To redeem his faith to his followers though, al-Tabari quotes Musa by saying “He was my brother. Do you think that I would kill him?” As stated in the Shorter "Encyclopedia of Islam", it was recorded that Musa recited two rak’ahs to regain the faith of his followers. God answers Musa’ prayers by making the bed of Harun descend from heaven to earth so that the Children of Israel could witness the truth that Harun died of natural causes.


title: Moses in Islam

text: The unexpected death of Harun appears to make the argument that his death is merely an allusion to the mysterious and miraculous death of Musa. In the accounts of Musa’ death, al-Tabari reports, “[W]hile Musa was walking with his servant Joshua, a black wind suddenly approached. When Joshua saw it, he thought that the Hour—the hour of final judgement—was at hand. He clung to Musa…. But Musa withdrew himself gently from under his shirt, leaving it in Joshua’s hand”. This mysterious death of Musa is also asserted in Deuteronomy 34:5, “And Musa the servant of the LORD died there in Moab”. There is no explanation to why Musa may have died or why Musa may have been chosen to die: there is only this mysterious “disappearance”. According to Islamic tradition, Musa is buried at Maqam El-Nabi Musa, Jericho.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Although the death of Musa seems to be a topic of mysterious questioning, it is not the main focus of this information. However, according to Arabic translation of the word martyr, shahid—to see, to witness, to testify, to become a model and paradigm – is the person who sees and witnesses, and is therefore the witness, as if the martyr himself sees the truth physically and thus stands firmly on what he sees and hears. To further this argument, in the footnotes of the Quran translated by M.A.S. Abdel Haleem, “The noun shahid is much more complex than the term martyr….The root of shahid conveys ‘to witness, to be present, to attend, to testify, and/or to give evidence’”. Additionally, Haleem notes that the martyrs in the Quran are chosen by God to witness Him in Heaven. This act of witnessing is given to those who are “given the opportunity to give evidence of the depth of their faith by sacrificing their worldly lives, and will testify with the prophets on the Day of Judgment”. This is supported in 3:140: “…if you have suffered a blow, they too have the upper hand. We deal out such days among people in turn, for God to find out who truly believes, for Him to choose martyrs from among you…”


title: Moses in Islam

text: It is also stated in the Quran that the scriptures in which Musa brings forth from God to the Children of Israel are seen as the light and guidance of God himself (). This strongly indicates that Musa dies as a martyr: Musa dies being a witness to God; Musa dies giving his sacrifice to the worldly views of God; and Musa dies in the act of conveying the message of God to the Children of Israel. Although his death remains a mystery and even though he did not act in a religious battle, he does in fact die for the causation of a Religious War, a war that showcases the messages of God through scripture.


title: Moses in Islam

text: In light of this observation, John Renard claims that Muslim tradition distinguishes three types of supernatural events: “the sign worked directly by God alone; the miracle worked through a prophet; and the marvel effected through a non-prophetic figure”. If these three types of supernatural events are put into retrospect with the understanding of martyrdom and Musa, the aspect of being a martyr plays out to resemble the overall understanding of what “Islam” translates to. The concept of martyrdom in Islam is linked with the entire religion of Islam. This whole process can be somehow understood if the term 'Islam' is appreciated. This is because being a derivate of the Arabic root "salama", which means "surrender" and "peace", Islam is a wholesome and peaceful submission to the will of God. Just like Musa is an example of the surrender to God, the term "martyr" further reinforces the notion that through the signs, the miracle, and the marvel, the ones chosen by God are in direct correlation to the lives of the prophets.


title: Moses in Islam

text: In conclusion, although the death of Musa is a mysterious claim by God. The framework of Musa describes the spiritual quest and progress of the individual soul as it unfolds to reveal the relationship to God. Nevertheless, because of his actions, his ability to be a witness and his success at being a model for the Children of Israel his life were a buildup to the ideals of martyrdom. His death and his faithful obligations toward God have led his mysterious death to be an example of a true prophet and a true example of a martyrdom.


title: Moses in Islam

text: During his Night Journey ("Isra"), Muhammad is known to have led Musa along with Jesus, Abraham and all other prophets in prayer. Musa is mentioned to be among the prophets who Muhammad meets during his ascension to heaven ("Mi'raj") alongside Gabriel.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Musa and Muhammad are reported to have exchanged greetings with each other, and Musa is reported to have cried due to the fact that the followers of Muhammad are going to enter Heaven in greater numbers than his followers. When God enjoins fifty prayers to the community to Muhammad and his followers, Muhammad once again encounters Musa, who asks what has been commanded by God. When Musa is told about the fifty prayers, he advises Muhammad to ask a reduction in prayers for his followers. When Muhammad returns to God and asks for a reduction, he is granted his request. Once again, he meets Musa, who again inquires about the command of God. Despite the reduction, Musa again urges Muhammad to ask for another reduction. Muhammad again returns and asks for a reduction. This continues until only five prayers are remaining. When Musa again tells Muhammad to ask for a reduction, Muhammad replies that he is shy of asking again. Therefore, the five prayers are finally enjoined upon the Muslim community.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Musa is revered as a prominent prophet and messenger in Islam, and his narrative is recounted the most among the prophets in the Quran. He is regarded by Muslims as one of the five most prominent prophets in Islam, along with Jesus ("Isa"), Abraham ("Ibrahim"), Noah ("Nuh") and Muhammad. These five prophets are known as "Ulu’l azm prophets", the prophets who are favored by God and are described in the Quran to be endowed with determination and perseverance. Islamic tradition describes Musa being granted many miracles, including a glowing hand and a staff that turns into a snake. The life of Musa is often described as a parallel to that of Muhammad. Both are regarded as being ethical and exemplary prophets. Both are regarded as lawgivers, ritual leaders, judges and the military leaders for their people. Islamic literature also identifies a parallel between their followers and the incidents of their history. The exodus of the Israelites is often viewed as a parallel to the migration of the followers of Muhammad. The drowning and destruction of the Pharaoh and his army is also described to be a parallel to the Battle of Badr. In Islamic tradition, Musa is especially favored by God and converses directly with Him, unlike other prophets who receives revelation by God through an intervening angel. Musa receives the Torah directly from God. Despite conversing with God, the Quran states that Musa is unable to see God. For these feats Musa is revered in Islam as "Kalim Allah", meaning the one who talks with God.


title: Moses in Islam

text: In Islam, Musa is revered as the receiver of a scripture known as the Torah ("Tawrat"). The Quran describes the Torah as “guidance and a light" for the Israelites and that it contains teachings about the Oneness of God ("Tawhid"), prophethood and the Day of Judgment. It is regarded as containing teachings and laws for the Israelites which are taught and practiced by Musa and Harun to them. Among the books of the complete Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Deuteronomy, Numbers, Leviticus and Exodus), only the Torah is considered to be divinely revealed instead of the whole Tanakh or the Old Testament. The Quran mentions that the Ten Commandments are given to the Israelites through Musa, and the Commandments contain guidance and understanding of all things. The Torah was the ""furqan"", meaning difference, a term which is regarded as having used for itself as well. Musa preaches the same message as Muhammad, and the Torah foretells the arrival of Muhammad. Modern Muslim scholars such as Mark N. Swanson and David Richard Thomas cite Deuteronomy 18:15–18 as foretelling the arrival of Muhammad.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Some Muslims believe that the Torah has been corrupted ("tahrif"). The exact nature of the corruption has been discussed among scholars. The majority of Muslim scholars, including Ibn Rabban and Ibn Qutayba, have stated that the Torah had been distorted in its interpretation rather than in its text. The scholar Tabari considered the corruption to be caused by distortion of the meaning and interpretation of the Torah. Tabari considered the learned rabbis of producing writings alongside the Torah, which were based on their own interpretations of the text. The rabbis then reportedly "twisted their tongues" and made them appear as though they were from the Torah. In doing so, Al-Tabari concluded that they added to the Torah what was not originally part of it, and these writings were used to denounce the prophet Muhammad and his followers. Tabari also states that these writings of the rabbis were mistaken by some Jews to be part of the Torah. A minority view held among scholars such as Al-Maqdisi is that the text of the Torah itself was corrupted. Maqdisi claimed that the Torah had been distorted in the time of Musa, by the seventy elders when they came down from Mount Sinai. Maqdisi states that the Torah was further corrupted in the time of Ezra, when his disciples made additions and subtractions in the text narrated by Ezra. Maqdisi also stated that discrepancies between the Jewish Torah, the Samaritan Torah and the Greek Septuagint point to the fact that the Torah was corrupted. Ibn Hazm viewed the Torah of his era as a forgery and considered various verses as contradicting other parts of the Torah and the Quran. Ibn Hazm considered Ezra as the forger of the Torah, who dictates the Torah from his memory and made significant changes to the text. Ibn Hazm accepted some verses which, he stated, foretold the arrival of Muhammad.


title: Moses in Islam

text: Sunni Muslims fast on the Ashura (the tenth day of Muharram, the first month in the Hijri calendar as similar to Yom Kippur which is on the tenth day of Tishrei, and the first month of the Hebrew civil year) to commemorate the liberation of the Israelites from the Pharaoh. Shia Muslims view Musa and his relation to Harun as a prefiguration of the relation between Muhammad and his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib. Ismaili Shias regard Musa as 4th in the line of the 7 'speaking prophets' ("natiq"), whose revealed law was for all believers to follow. In Sufism, Musa is regarded as having a special position, being described as a prophet as well as a spiritual wayfarer. The author Paul Nwyia notes that the Quranic accounts of Musa have inspired Sufi exegetes to "meditate upon his experience as being the entry into a direct relationship with God, so that later the Sufis would come to regard him as the perfect mystic called to enter into the mystery of God". Muslim scholars such as Norman Solomon and Timothy Winter state without naming that some Sufi commentators excuse Musa from the consequence of his request to be granted a vision of God, as they consider that it is "the ecstasy of hearing God which compelled him to seek completion of union through vision". The Quranic account of the meeting of Musa and Khidr is also noted by Muslim writers as being of special importance in Sufi tradition. Some writers such as John Renard and Phyllis G. Jestice note that Sufi exegetes often explain the narrative by associating Musa for possessing exoteric knowledge while attributing esoteric knowledge to Khidr. The author John Renard states that Sufis consider this as a lesson, "to endure his apparently draconian authority in view of higher meanings".


title: Moses in Islam

text: Musa is also revered in Islamic literature, which narrates and explains different parts of the life of Musa. Persian Muslim scholar and mystic Rumi, who titles Musa as the "spirit enkindler", also includes a story of Musa and the shepherd in his book, the "Masnavi". The story narrates the horror of Musa, when he encounters a shepherd who is engaged in anthropomorphic devotions to God. Musa accuses the shepherd of blasphemy; when the shepherd repents and leaves, Musa is rebuked by God for "having parted one of His servants from Him". Musa seeks out the shepherd and informs him that he was correct in his prayers. The authors Norman Solomon and Timothy Winter regard the story to be "intended as criticism of and warning to those who in order to avoid anthropomorphism, negate the Divine attributes". Rumi mainly mentions the life of Musa by his encounter with the burning tree, his white hand, his struggle with the Pharaoh and his conversation with God on Mount Sinai. According to Rumi, when Musa came across the tree in the valley of "Tuwa" and perceived the tree consumed by fire, he in fact saw the light of a "hundred dawns and sunrises". Rumi considered the light a "theater" of God and the personification of the love of God. Many versions of the conversation of Musa and God are presented by Rumi; in all versions Musa is commanded to remove his footwear, which is interpreted to mean his attention to the world. Rumi commented on Quran considering the speech of God to be in a form accessible only to prophets instead of verbal sounds. Rumi considers the miracles given to Musa as assurance to him of the success of his prophethood and as a means of persuasion to him to accept his mission. Rumi regarded Musa as the most important of the messenger-prophets before Muhammad.


title: Moses in Islam

text: The Shi'a Quranic exegesis scholar and thinker Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei, in his commentary "Balance of Judgment on the Exegesis of the Qur'an" attempted to show the infallibility of Musa in regard to his request for a vision of God and his breaking of his promise to Khidr as a part of the Shi'a doctorine of prophetic infallibility ("Ismah"). Tabatabaei attempted to solve the problem of vision by using various philosophical and theological arguments to state that the vision for God meant a necessary need for knowledge. According to Tabatabaei, Musa was not responsible for the promise broken to Khidr as he had added ""God willing"" after his promise. The Islamic reformist and activist Sayyid Qutb, also mentions Musa in his work, "In the Shade of the Quran". Sayyid Qutb interpreted the narrative of Musa, keeping in view the sociological and political problems facing the Islamic world in his era; he considered the narrative of Musa to contain teachings and lessons for the problems which faced the Muslims of his era. According to Sayyid Qutb, when Musa was preaching to the Pharaoh, he was entering the "battle between faith and oppression". Qutb believed that Musa was an important figure in Islamic teachings as his narrative symbolized the struggle to "expel evil and establish righteousness in the world" which included the struggle from oppessive tyrants, a struggle which Qutb considered was the core teaching of the Islamic faith.


title: Moses in Islam

text: The Sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, regarded the journey of Musa to Midian and to the valley of "Tuwa" as a spiritual journey. The turning of the face of Musa towards Midian is stated to be the turning of his heart towards God. His prayer to God asking for help of is described to be his awareness of his need. The commentary alleged to the Sixth Imam then states the command to remove his shoes symbolized the command to remove everything from his heart except God. These attributes are stated to result in him being honoured by God's speech. The Andalusian Sufi mystic and philosopher, Ibn Arabi wrote about Musa in his book "The Bezels of Wisdom" dedicating a chapter discussing "the Wisdom of Eminence in the word of Musa". Ibn Arabi considered Musa to be a "fusion" of the infants murdered by the Pharaoh, stating that the spiritual reward which God had chosen for each of the infants manifested in the character of Musa. According to Ibn Arabi, Musa was from birth an "amalgam" of younger spirits acting on older ones. Ibn Arabi considered the ark to be the personification of his humanity while the water of the river Nile to signifiy his imagination, rational thought and sense perception.


title: Moses in Islam

text: During the 20th century the story of Musa's confrontation with Pharaoh has been invoked by Islamists to justify their opposition to “disbelieving” secular regimes and tyrannical rulers. Sayyid Qutb (d. 1966) and Jihad movements in Egypt condemned Jamal Abd al-Nasir (d. 1970) and Anwar al-Sadat (d. 1981), both presidents of Egypt, for being equivalents to the unbelieving Pharaoh who opposed Musa; members of the Jihad Group assassinated al-Sadat for being a disbeliever. During the Iranian revolution of 1978–79, government troops were cautioned not to "Kill Musa [members of the Islamic opposition] for the sake of Pharaoh [the Shah’s regime]."


title: Moses in Islam

text: In Muhammad al-Bukhari's book Sahih al-Bukhari, in Chapter 55, Hadith 648, Musa is depicted by Muhammad after the Night of Ascension, narrarated by Ibn Umar.


title: Moses in Islam

text: According to Ibn ‘Abbaas, Muhammad reported, ""On the night of my Ascent to Heaven, I saw Moosa (Moses), who was a tall, brown man..."" [Al-Bukhari and Muslim]


title: Five-star rank

text: A five-star rank is the highest military rank in many countries. The rank is that of the most senior operational military commanders, and within NATO's standard rank scale it is designated by the code OF-10. Not all armed forces have such a rank, and in those that do the actual insignia of the five-star ranks may not contain five stars. For example: the insignia for the French OF-10 rank contains seven stars; the insignia for the Portuguese contains four gold stars. The stars used on the rank insignias of various Commonwealth of Nations are sometimes referred to colloquially as pips, but are stars of the orders of the Garter, Thistle or Bath or Eversleigh stars depending on the wearer's original regiment or corps, and are used in combination with other heraldic items, such as batons, crowns, swords or maple leaves.


title: Five-star rank

text: Typically, five-star officers hold the rank of general of the army, admiral of the fleet, field marshal, marshal or general of the air force, and several other similarly named ranks. As an active rank, the position exists only in a minority of countries and is usually held by only a very few officers during wartime. In times of peace, it is usually held only as an honorary rank. Traditionally, five-star ranks are granted to distinguished military commanders for notable wartime victories and/or in recognition of a record of achievement during the officer's career, whether in peace or in war. Alternatively, a five-star rank (or even higher ranks) may be assumed by heads of state in their capacities as commanders-in-chief of their nation's armed forces.


title: Five-star rank

text: Despite the rarity and seniority of five-star officers, an even more-senior rank of general of the armies was adopted in the United States. Other names for highly senior ranks from the twentieth century include (France), (Spain) and (USSR).


title: Five-star rank

text: Only one Australian-born officer, Field Marshal Sir Thomas Blamey, has held a substantive Australian five-star rank. Lord Birdwood, who commanded the Australian Imperial Force in the First World War, was appointed to honorary five-star rank in the Australian Military Forces on his promotion to field marshal in the British Army in 1925. King George VI and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh have held all three Australian five-star ranks in an honorary capacity, and have been the only holders of the Australian ranks of admiral of the fleet and marshal of the RAAF.


title: Five-star rank

text: It is also worth noting that this was not the apex and there was a Six-star rank also present in the "Wehrmacht" known as "Reichsmarschall", however it was only ever present in the "Luftwaffe" and only ever held by one man: Hermann Göring, arguably the 2nd most powerful man in Nazi Germany.


title: Five-star rank

text: General Sam Manekshaw was the first officer to be promoted to five-star rank. He was promoted to the rank of field marshal on 1 January 1973 after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. General K. M. Cariappa, the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army was promoted to the rank of field marshal in 1986. In 2001, Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh was promoted to the rank of marshal of the Indian Air Force (MIAF). Around 1998, the Indian Air Force introduced gorget patches (or collar tabs) for its air officers. The MIAF's patches display five stars.


title: Five-star rank

text: The five-star ranks above are honorary rank and does not provide additional authority or responsibility.


title: Five-star rank

text: However, as government regulation No. 32/1997 have been revoked and replaced by government regulation No. 39/2010, whereas the latest regulation don't mentioned five-star rank. Therefore, it is unlikely there will be any Indonesian military personnel to be awarded five-star rank.


title: Five-star rank

text: Senior general () is the highest rank in Myanmar Armed Forces. It is the single rank for all three branches, and held by the Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services (CinCDS). It was created during the expansion of Armed Forces structure in 1990, and the first person to hold is Saw Maung promoted by himself directly from General to Senior general on 18 March 1990.


title: Five-star rank

text: Admiral () is theoretically the highest possible military rank in the Royal Netherlands Navy, although this five-star rank is no longer awarded.


title: Five-star rank

text: Under the Article VII Section 18 of the constitution, the President holds the position of the Commander-in-Chief, which is considered and recognized to be a five-star rank. Emilio Aguinaldo, the first president of the Philippines, held an equivalent rank of five-star general under the title "generalissimo" and and considered as the first commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.


title: Five-star rank

text: Historically, five-star ranks were held by field marshals. US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army, a position he held while also acting as the military advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of the Philippines nation-state.


title: Five-star rank

text: Marshal of Poland () is a Polish Army five-star rank. There are today no living marshals of Poland, since this rank is bestowed only on military commanders who have achieved victory in war. The last appointment was in 1963 to Marian Spychalski.


title: Five-star rank

text: Differently from most of other countries, the marshals (Army and Air Force) and admirals of the fleet (Navy) of Portugal are not identified by five stars, but by four golden stars, in comparison with generals and admirals who are also identified by four stars, but in silver.


title: Five-star rank

text: Five-star appointments - and not ranks - were however foreseen in the armed forces of Portugal, at different times in the past, for the officers exercising the several government posts related with defense (minister of national defense, minister for the army, secretary of state for the army, etc.).


title: Five-star rank

text: (marshal of the Romanian Army) is the highest military rank in the Romanian military forces. This rank can be bestowed to persons from the royal family or to four-star generals or admirals during wartime only.


title: Five-star rank

text: After WWII, the latest surviving marshal of Romania was HM King Michael I, who was bestowed this rank on May 10, 1941 (the national day of Romania). He died in December 2017.


title: Five-star rank

text: Five-star ranks were used by the former Republic of Vietnam Military Forces during the Vietnam War, from 1955 to 1975. The ranks were changed in 1964 to resemble US ranks more closely. The rank only bestowed to Lê Văn Tỵ


title: Five-star rank

text: Since 1922 it is not properly a rank but a "military dignity". The only full "capitán general" is currently His Majesty the King of Spain, the last not-royal appointment (honorary) was in 1994 to Manuel Gutiérrez Mellado. The rank of "capitán general" is currently bestowed also to several images of the Virgin Mary, among them la Virgen de Butarque, la Virgen del Pilar, la Virgen de Guadalupe, Nuestra Señora de los Reyes, la Virgen de los Desamparados (this one properly "capitana generalísima"), la Virgen de la Serra, la Virgen del Canto y la Virgen de los Remedios. The latest appointment was to Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, April 2011.


title: Five-star rank

text: The monarch of Thailand is appointed to the three ranks automatically upon accession as he is the constitutional head of the Royal Thai Armed Forces. Since 1973 the three ranks have been reserved for members of the royal family.


title: Five-star rank

text: The worn insignia of British five-star commanders do not contain stars; the vehicle star plate, mounted on the front of a staff car, does display five stars.


title: Five-star rank

text: Promotion to the ranks of admiral of the fleet and marshal of the Royal Air Force is now generally held in abeyance in peacetime with exceptions for special circumstances. Promotion to the rank of field marshal was generally stopped in 1995 as a cost-cutting measure but is still made in some cases. The most recent appointments to five-star ranks are the promotions in 2012 of the Prince of Wales to honorary five-star rank in all three services, and of former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Guthrie of Craigiebank to the honorary rank of field marshal. In 2014 the former Chief of the Defence Staff Lord Stirrup was promoted to the honorary rank of marshal of the Royal Air Force.


title: Five-star rank

text: During World War II and after, serving NATO, a small number of British five-star commanders have held the additional title Supreme Allied Commander, given operational control over all air, land, and sea units led by the four-star commanders of multi-national forces.


title: Five-star rank

text: Before the five-star ranks were established in 1944, two officers had previously been promoted from their four-star ranks to the superior and unique ranks of Admiral of the Navy and General of the Armies: Admiral George Dewey (appointment 1903 retroactive to 1899, died 1917) and General John J. Pershing (appointed 1919, died 1948). In 1944 the Navy and Army specified that these officers were considered senior to any officers promoted to the five-star ranks within their services (but it was not clear if they were senior by rank or by seniority due to an earlier date of rank).


title: Five-star rank

text: Five-star ranks were created in the U.S. military during World War II because of the awkward situation created when some American senior commanders were placed in positions commanding allied officers of higher rank. U.S. officers holding five-star rank draw full active duty pay for life, both before and after retiring from active duty. The five-star ranks were retired in 1981 on the death of General of the Army Omar Bradley.


title: Five-star rank

text: Nine Americans have been promoted to five-star rank, one of them, Henry H. Arnold, in two services (U.S. Army then later in the U.S. Air Force). As part of the bicentennial celebration, George Washington was, 177 years after his death, permanently made senior to all other U.S. generals and admirals with the title "General of the Armies" effective on 4 July 1976. The appointment stated he was to have "rank and precedence over all other grades of the Army, past or present".


title: Five-star rank

text: During World War II and (later) serving NATO, a small number of American five-star commanders have also held the additional title of Supreme Allied Commander, given operational control over all air, land, and sea units led by the four-star commanders of multi-national forces.


title: Five-star rank

text: In various law enforcement agencies, such as the Detroit Police Department and Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, their respective heads wear five-star ranks.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Chesa Boudin (, ; born August 21, 1980) is an American lawyer who served as the 29th District Attorney of San Francisco from January 8, 2020 to July 8, 2022. He is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: After graduating with his Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in 2011, Boudin served as a law clerk to M. Margaret McKeown on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. He went on to work at the San Francisco Public Defender's Office as a post-doctoral fellow in 2012. Boudin clerked for Charles Breyer on the United States District Court for the Northern District of California from 2013 and 2014 before returning to San Francisco as a deputy public defender.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Elected as San Francisco district attorney in 2019, Boudin implemented some criminal justice reform policies to reduce incarceration, including bail reform and alternatives to prosecution and sentencing. However, he was heavily criticized for mismanagement of the office and for his perceived softness on crime, and was the subject of a recall election on June 7, 2022; 55% of voters chose to remove him from office. Brooke Jenkins, who was a leading figure and critic of Boudin in the recall election, was chosen by Mayor London Breed to succeed him as interim District Attorney. She would go on to win a special election to complete Boudin's unexpired term.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin was born in New York City to Jewish parents. His parents, Kathy Boudin and David Gilbert, were Weather Underground members. When Boudin was 14 months old, both were arrested and convicted of murder for their role as getaway car drivers in the 1981 Brink's robbery in Rockland County, New York. His mother was sentenced to 20 years to life and his father to 75 years to life for the felony murders of two police officers and a security guard.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: After his parents were incarcerated, Boudin was raised in Hyde Park, Chicago by adoptive parents Bill Ayers and Bernardine Dohrn, who, like his parents, had been members of the Weather Underground. Boudin reports that he did not learn to read until age nine. Kathy Boudin was released under parole supervision in 2003. Gilbert was released in 2021.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin descends from a long left-wing lineage. His great-grand-uncle, Louis B. Boudin, was a Marxist theoretician and author of a two-volume history of the Supreme Court's influence on American government, and his grandfather Leonard Boudin was an attorney who represented controversial clients, such as Fidel Castro and Paul Robeson. His uncle Michael Boudin was a judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, and his grand-uncle Isidor Feinstein Stone ("I. F. Stone") was an independent progressive journalist.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin attended University of Chicago Laboratory Schools and Yale College. In 2003 he entered St Antony's College, Oxford, on a Rhodes Scholarship. At Oxford, he earned two master's degrees, one in forced migration and the other in public policy in Latin America. He earned his Juris Doctor from Yale Law School in 2011 and began work for the San Francisco Public Defender's Office as a post-doctoral fellow in 2012.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Before law school, Boudin traveled to Venezuela and served as a translator in the Venezuelan Presidential Palace during the administration of Hugo Chavez.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: After law school, from 2011 to 2012, Boudin served as a law clerk to M. Margaret McKeown on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. He was a 2012–2013 Liman Fellow at the San Francisco Public Defender's Office, and in 2013 and 2014, he served as a clerk to Charles Breyer on the United States District Court for the Northern District of California. In 2015, Boudin began working full time at the San Francisco Public Defender's Office as a deputy public defender. While there, he argued on behalf of the office's clients that California's bail system is unconstitutional, leading to the published case "In re Kenneth Humphrey", in which the state's First District Court of Appeals held that judges must give consideration to a defendant's ability to pay before setting bail.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin also serves on the board of the Civil Rights Corps, a national non-profit organization, and is on the board of Restore Justice, a non-profit based in California.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin translated "Understanding the Bolivarian Revolution: Hugo Chávez Speaks with Marta Harnecker" into English, co-edited "Letters from Young Activists: Today's Young Rebels Speak Out", and co-wrote "The Venezuelan Revolution: 100 Questions – 100 Answers". His book, "Gringo: A Coming of Age in Latin America", was released in April 2009 by Charles Scribner's Sons. The book received mixed reviews.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin was elected San Francisco district attorney in the 2019 election, defeating interim district attorney Suzy Loftus. Boudin campaigned for the office on a decarceration platform of eliminating cash bail, establishing a unit to re-evaluate wrongful convictions, and refusing to assist Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) with raids and arrests. The San Francisco Police Officers Association (SFPOA) and other law enforcement groups spent $650,000 in an unsuccessful effort to defeat Boudin. Attorney General William Barr criticized Boudin and like-minded DAs, accusing them of undermining the police, letting criminals off the hook, and endangering public safety. In an interview during the COVID-19 pandemic, Boudin questioned whether the nation "can safely continue the national system of mass incarceration. Why do we need to take people to jail for non-violent offenses if what they really need is drug treatment or mental health services?"


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin was sworn in as San Francisco district attorney by San Francisco mayor London Breed on January 8, 2020 at the Herbst Theatre. Shortly afterward, Boudin restructured the management team by firing seven prosecutors.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: On January 26, Boudin suspended the process of prosecuting Jamaica Hampton, a man who was shot and seriously injured in an altercation with police, during which he was captured in body camera footage striking an officer with a liquor bottle in San Francisco's Mission District. The charges were pulled without prejudice, which allowed them to be refiled at a later date. Alex Bastian, a spokesman for the office, stated that this was to avoid a conflict between the prosecution of Hampton and the investigation and potential prosecution of the officer, who could potentially be charged for the shooting. The police union criticized the decision as "giving criminals a green light" to attack police officers. The District Attorney’s Office charged Hampton with assault with a deadly weapon and other felonies on April 29, 2021.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin announced on February 28 that his office would no longer seek charges for contraband found during "pretextual" traffic stops and would not charge status enhancements that increase jail sentences, such as those imposed for gang membership or for having three strikes, with the intent of diminishing racial disparities in policing and sentencing.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In March 2020, Boudin charged 20-year-old Dwayne Grayson with elder abuse after he filmed 56-year old Jonathan Amerson in February 2020 swinging a metal bar at an elderly Asian man in Bayview–Hunters Point, San Francisco and stealing his aluminum cans. Amerson was charged with elder abuse and robbery. The video later went viral online. Boudin dropped charges against Dwayne Grayson after the victim expressed his intent to pursue restorative justice.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: On April 9, 2020, Boudin, Mayor London Breed, and San Francisco's Human Services Agency announced that they had acquired 20 temporary housing units for survivors of domestic violence from the city's largest landlord, Veritas Investments, during the 2020 stay-at-home orders in San Francisco during the COVID-19 pandemic in San Francisco. Boudin also announced partnerships with Lyft and AirBnB to provide transportation and temporary housing services to survivors during the pandemic.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin's office launched the Economic Crimes Against Workers Unit, which is led by Assistant District Attorney Scott Stillman, in April 2020. In June 2020, Boudin and the unit filed a motion against food delivery service DoorDash, alleging the company illegally classifies its delivery workers as independent contractors. DoorDash argued that the suit would "disrupt the essential services Dashers provide" and threaten their "flexible earning opportunities". This followed similar suits against gig companies Uber and Lyft by other public attorneys in California such as Xavier Becerra and Dennis Herrera.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: His first policy as district attorney was the implementation of a diversion program for primary caregiver parents of minor children who were charged with misdemeanors or nonviolent felonies, in accordance with SB394. The bill, which was authored by State Senator Nancy Skinner, was signed into law by Gavin Newsom in October 2019. If accepted into the program, the police would suspend criminal proceedings for up to 24 months, allowing the defendant to undergo various classes and training. After completing the program, the court would drop their charges. It is similar to the mental health and drug diversion program in San Francisco. It is supposed to reduce trauma for children who would have otherwise had a parent incarcerated. Critics have raised concerns about potential loopholes for abusers and sexual offenders.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In January 2020, he eliminated cash bail and replaced it with a "risk-based system", in which prosecutors evaluate whether or not a defendant poses a threat to public safety as a condition for their pretrial release. John Raphling, a senior researcher at the Human Rights Watch, praised the decision, stating that bail and pretrial incarceration has been used "as leverage to pressure people to plead guilty regardless of actual guilt." Conversely, Tony Montoya, president of the SFPOA, condemned the decision, arguing that the risk-based system is an "arbitrary math equation" and that the change would create a "criminal justice revolving door".


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In March 2020, at the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, Boudin reduced the San Francisco's jail population by 25%, from around 1100 to 840, following outbreaks in other American cities such as New York City. Older inmates or those with medical conditions were prioritized, while those almost done with their sentences or were charged with misdemeanors were considered for home detention or probation. This was increased to approximately 40% in April 2020.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In June 2020, during the George Floyd protests that demanded more police accountability, Boudin and other prosecutors across the country implemented new policies to address police accountability.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: On June 1, 2020, a group of active and retired district attorneys in California—including Boudin, Diana Becton, and George Gascón—called on the State Bar of California to prohibit elected prosecutors from accepting campaign contributions from police unions. They cited potential conflicts of interest between the police's financial backing and the prosecutors who potentially have to file charges against them. Robert Stern, a former attorney who worked for the California Fair Political Practices Commission, doubted that the ban would have any major effects as most unions donate through political action committees, which are not subject to contribution limits, and cited potential First Amendment concerns. The request also faced backlash from police unions in Los Angeles and San Francisco, who called the effort politically opportunistic.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: On June 2, 2020, Boudin and Supervisor Shamann Walton announced a resolution prohibiting the hiring of law enforcement officers with prior findings of misconduct or those who quit while under active investigation for misconduct.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Also in June 2020, Boudin announced a new policy requiring prosecutors to review all available evidence before charging any cases involving allegations of resisting or obstructing police officers or committing an assault on officers. He introduced a new policy wherein cases would not be charged or prosecuted based on the sole evidence of officers with a history of misconduct, such as excessive force or discrimination, without prior approval of the district attorney. He also announced that victims of police violence would be able to file for medical compensation regardless if the officer was prosecuted for assault or found to have used excessive force. Boudin stated that the policy is meant to supplement a gap in the state's compensation laws, which excluded victims of police assaults and shootings if police reports suggest that the victim contributed to their own injury or death. Compensation would be processed via a partnership between the district attorney's office and the University of California, San Francisco's Trauma Recovery Center. A budget was not determined at the time of announcement.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin filed charges against Officer Terrance Stangel for striking Dacari Spiers with a baton in what he called the "first-ever use-of-force case against an on-duty officer for excessive force". Stangel alleged that Boudin's office withheld a witness interview which said that Spiers was assaulting his girlfriend, therefore justifying the use of force. An investigator with the office also testified that she felt pressured to not disclose evidence, although Judge Jacqueline Scott Corley later ruled that the evidence would not have affected the case. Corley also fined the city for failing to disclose three interviews with officers by the police department. A jury later acquitted Stangel of all charges.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin has received criticism for the increase in specific crimes, particularly burglaries, car theft, and murders, during his tenure.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In a poll from May 2022, 53% of San Franciscans strongly disapproved of Boudin's job performance, 18% somewhat disapprove, while 22% somewhat approve and 8% strongly approve. Among all groups, Asian Americans and Hispanics were found to be the most likely to vote in favor of the recall.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In December 2020, SFPD data showed a rise of about 46% in burglaries compared to the previous year, which San Francisco Police Chief William Scott attributed to the March 2020 shelter-in-place orders in San Francisco and "prolific" serial burglars who were released from custody. According to a spokesperson for Boudin, prosecutors had filed charges in about 66% of the cases and filed motions to revoke probation in about 82% of cases. Boudin theorized that the rise of burglaries in neighborhoods such as Bernal Heights was due to "economic desperation" from the COVID-19 pandemic and the shift of targeting from tourists to residents and small businesses.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In October 2020, Boudin's office sent out a survey to 10,500 crime victims, asking them to rank their experience with his office. The survey offered raffle prizes for participation. Responses to the survey were mixed. And some respondents, including sexual assault survivors whose cases were dismissed by Boudin's office, found the questions to be insensitive. In response, Rachel Marshall, a spokeswoman for Boudin's office, issued a statement citing a statistic indicating that the office has prosecuted 35 of 61 (57%) sexual assault cases requested for prosecution by police. Marshall called that a high percentage and said that proving sexual assault in court is difficult.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin was criticized for his handling of the case of Deshaune Lumpkin, a 17-year old who shot and killed a 6 year old. Boudin decided to try Lumpkin as a minor and consequently received only 7 years in prison, a decision that was criticized by the media and the family of the victim.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: When asked about the January 2021 killing of Vicha Ratanapakdee, Boudin called the crime "heinous" but did not think that the attack was racially motivated, stating that "the defendant was in some sort of a temper tantrum." The family of Ratanapakdee expressed outrage over the characterization of the attack as a "temper tantrum", finding the comments to be disheartening and inappropriate for the severity of the crime. Boudin later clarified his comments, stating that he was referring to the perpetrator's conduct before the crime. According to ABC7, the family said that Boudin had planned to participate in a vigil for Ratanapakdee, but did not show up after the family told him they were not interested in taking pictures or videos with him. Boudin has charged Ratanapakdee’s assailant with murder and elder abuse.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin was criticized for his handling of the case of the attack perpetrated by 24-year-old Ramos-Hernandez on 84-year old Rong Xin Liao. After spending time in jail, Ramos-Hernandez was released on mental health diversion. Boudin's office claimed that outcome was desired by Liao, who speaks only Cantonese. Liao's family disputed this claim, and instead stated that Liao desired "strict punishment". The family, together with groups such as Asians Are Strong, United Peace Collaborative, Stop AAPI Hate, and career prosecutor Nancy Tung protested Boudin's action and organized a demonstration outside the Hall of Justice.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin has been criticized for his alleged lack of prosecution of drug-related crimes, with only three drug convictions in 2021, none of which were for fentanyl dealing. Boudin has defended his actions saying that many of the drug dealers in the Bay Area are from Honduras, and would face deportation if convicted of drug dealing.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: At an open court hearing in September 2021, San Francisco County Superior Court Judge Bruce Chan criticized Boudin's management of the district attorney's office as disorganized, inadvertent, and marred by constant turnover and managerial reorganization. He also criticized the office for putting the politics of criminal justice reform above "the fundamentals of competent, professional prosecution." The case of a judge publicly criticizing a DA was characterized as unusual by the media. A spokesperson for the District Attorney's office later said that Chan apologized in private. The fact happened following a case of a defendant charged with felony gun possession and driving with a suspended or revoked license, which the prosecution asked Chan to dismiss after the DA had failed to disclose DNA evidence for over a year. The public defender, Martina Avalos, further rebuked Boudin’s office for routinely failing to turn over exculpatory evidence in a reasonable amount of time, resulting in Brady disclosure violations. Boudin's office acknowledged having failed to disclose evidence on time, but disputed having hid it intentionally.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Prosecutors Brooke Jenkins and Don du Bain, who previously worked for Boudin, left the DA’s office and publicly joined the recall campaign, blaming Boudin’s lack of commitment to prosecuting crimes. Jenkins criticized Boudin by saying that " The D.A.’s office now is a sinking ship. It’s like the Titanic, and it’s taking public safety along with it." She claims that, while describing herself as a progressive prosecutor and agreeing with the necessity of criminal justice reform, she believes that Boudin's prioritization of ideology caused disorganization, lack of morale in the DA office, and hurt victims and families.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: At least 51, or about one third, of lawyers at the District Attorney's Office left or were fired since Boudin took over in January 2020. The high turnover rate has been criticized as unusual and producing understaffing.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Boudin has been criticized in a number of instances for releasing suspects with a history of previous convictions who then went on to commit further crimes.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: Troy Ramon McAlister, a repeat offender who had three federal felony convictions before 2015, was released on parole from state prison on April 10, 2020, under a plea appeal with Boudin's office and was arrested by police in November and December 2020 for vehicle and drug crimes. Boudin's office declined to file new charges against McAlister, stating that the state's parole officials had more leverage to keep individuals in custody for nonviolent crimes. On December 31, 2020, McAlister struck and killed pedestrians Hanako Abe and Elizabeth Platt while driving a stolen vehicle. While Boudin noted that the parole officers did not hold McAlister after his arrest on December 20, 2020, the California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation and district attorneys from Sacramento and Alameda have criticized Boudin's office for the lack of prosecutions against McAlister and other "alleged serial offenders". Even though a police report was generated, it is not clear if Daly City police made any effort to locate or apprehend McAlister. Following the arrest, Jason Calacanis began raising money to hire an independent investigative journalist to cover the district attorney's office to hold him "accountable to the people of San Francisco".


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In February 2021, Jerry Lyons ran a red light in a stolen Ford Explorer and slammed into a group of cars, killing pedestrian Sheria Musyoka near Lake Merced. Lyons had an arrest record dating back more than a decade and was on probation in both San Francisco and San Mateo County at the time, having been arrested several times in 2020 for driving a stolen car while intoxicated. After his December 2020 arrest, Boudin requested a blood toxicology report before pressing charges. Lyons was detained for 27 days for violating his probation in connection with a previous grand theft conviction and later released on community supervision. In January 2021, he was requested to report back to the police after the report confirmed his inebriation. The death of Musyoka led to a petition by former San Francisco mayoral candidate Richie Greenberg, demanding Boudin resign immediately. The petition gathered 10,000 signatures in four days. The SFPOA has criticized Boudin for releasing Lyons and for being too lenient on repeat offenders. Conversely, District Attorney Steve Wagstaffe of San Mateo County, who has charged Lyons for unrelated misdemeanors, did not see a viable alternative and opined that, "Lyons most likely would not have been in custody anyway because of the pandemic and legal requirements."


title: Chesa Boudin

text: By May 2021, Boudin had become the target of two recall campaigns, with social media pages calling for his recall appearing as early as December 2020. Efforts increased after the New Year's Eve vehicular manslaughter of two pedestrians by a repeat offender, who was subsequently released on bail. In the incident, Troy McAlister, who was on parole for robbery, hit and killed Elizabeth Platt and Hanako Abe with a stolen vehicle. McAlister had been repeatedly arrested and released multiple times in the previous few years. On March 9, 2021, the San Francisco Department of Elections cleared the campaign led by former mayoral candidate Richie Greenberg, which would require the organizers to collect 51,325 signatures—roughly 10% of the registered voters in San Francisco—by August 2021 to trigger a recall vote. Boudin responded to the recall effort with a statement saying, "I am not surprised that the same people who opposed my election, and the reforms that came with it, are now trying to undo the will of the voters here through a Republican-led recall effort." The first campaign collected over 50,000 signatures but fell 1,714 short of succeeding. He is described by his critics as "soft on crime".


title: Chesa Boudin

text: A second campaign, The Safer SF Without Boudin pro-recall campaign, raised 83,487 signatures, a sufficient number. The recall election was held on June 7, 2022. The campaign was led by former San Francisco Democratic Party County Central Committee chair Mary Jung, but Boudin's supporters have asserted, based on the campaign's sources of funding, that the campaign was largely a Republican effort to remove him from power. In the run-up to the recall, Scott Shafer for "KQED" suggested both Boudin's policies and his personality may have played a role in motivating voters. On June 7, 2022, Boudin was recalled with 55% of voters supporting his removal. A special election will be held in November to decide who will complete Boudin's term through 2023.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: On January 24, 2022, the Alliance of Asian American Justice filed a federal civil rights lawsuit against the San Francisco District Attorney's office on behalf of 69-year old Ahn Lê, victim of a baseball bat assault by a father and son in November 2019. Lê said that a man beat him with a glass bottle while threatening to kill him, and the man’s adolescent son beat him with a bat and made death threats. Both attackers were arrested and charged with several felonies including elder abuse and terrorist attacks. However, the DA's Office gave the man a plea deal of a misdemeanor assault with one year probation while his son did not appear to be charged with a crime. Lê said his rights as a victim of violent assault were denied when the sentencing of his attackers failed to consult him under Marsy's Law.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: As of 2019, Boudin was living in the Outer Sunset neighborhood of San Francisco with his wife, Valerie Block, a post-doctoral researcher at University of California, San Francisco. They have one child together, born September 2021.


title: Chesa Boudin

text: In November 2020, Boudin lobbied New York Governor Andrew Cuomo to commute the 75-year-to-life prison sentence of his father David Gilbert, the last member of Weather Underground still incarcerated for their involvement in the 1981 Brink's robbery and three related murders. His mother Kathy Boudin had spent 22 years in prison for her role in the 1981 Brink's robbery and the related murders before she was released in 2003. The effort to release his father was led by CUNY School of Law professor Steve Zeidman and supported by 45 faith leaders including Ela Gandhi, Bernice King, and Archbishop Desmond Tutu. They cited Gilbert's clean prison record and increased COVID-19 risk in prison as arguments for his clemency. Relatives of the murder victims contested the appeal, questioning why Gilbert deserved attention when inmates with lesser convictions did not. On August 24, his final night as governor of New York, Cuomo commuted Gilbert's sentence, making him eligible to apply for parole. He was granted parole on October 26, 2021 and released on November 4, 2021.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Brandi Lynn Glanville (born November 16, 1972) is an American television personality. She is best known for appearing on the reality television series "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills" (2011–2016) and season two of "The Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip" (2021) . She also hosts a podcast called "Brandi Glanville Unfiltered" and has appeared on television shows "Celebrity Apprentice", both the British and American version of "Celebrity Big Brother", "Famously Single", and "My Kitchen Rules". Glanville has released two books, "Drinking and Tweeting: And Other Brandi Blunders" (2013) and "Drinking and Dating" (2014), which became "New York Times" Best Sellers.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville was born in Salinas, California and raised in Sacramento, California as the middle child of Judith (née Swinehart) and Guy Glanville. She has said her father grew marijuana, and she would sell it as she got older, admitting on "Celebrity Big Brother" that with her siblings, older sister Tricia, and younger brother Michael, she had blackmailed her father in order to obtain money. Her father worked three jobs to support the family, such as working at a grocery store and gas station. Her mother worked as a housekeeper. She attended Willow Rancho Baptist School and Gloria Dei Luther and graduated from John F. Kennedy High School.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: At the age of 16, Glanville moved to Paris, France, and began modeling. She was signed to Elite Model Management and worked in Hamburg, Munich, Los Angeles, New York and Tokyo. By the next year, she was taking part in Paris runway shows. She has appeared in several magazines, including "Glamour," "Cosmopolitan, NW" and "Beverly Hills Lifestyle Magazine". She appeared on the magazine cover of UK's "The Times" in January 2014. Glanville has worked for well-known brands including Valentino, Versace, Chanel, Giorgio Armani, and Gucci. She has appeared in a commercial for Coors Light.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In December 2012, she launched a clothing line called "Brand B", which was sold exclusively on Amazon. Glanville's T-shirt line was launched in her official online store in 2014. The tops feature slogans such as "Medicated" and "It's Not Fun To Be Sober" and are priced between $25 to $30.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2011, Glanville appeared on the second season of the Bravo reality series "The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills". She made several appearances throughout the season as a "Friend of the Housewives", and on the reunion episode. She revealed to radio host Howard Stern that she made $18,000 as a part-time cast member during her first season on the show.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: The following year, she and Yolanda Hadid joined the cast as housewives for its third season. She was fired from the series after its fifth season in 2015


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville appeared in guest capacities in the show's sixth, ninth and tenth seasons. Glanville stated she was surprised she was not invited back to the Season 10 reunion episode and Season 11 of the show as she was the source of a lot of the season's storylines due to her alleged affair with cast member Denise Richards.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2022, Glanville appeared on Season 2 of "The Real Housewives Ultimate Girls Trip" which was filmed in late 2021 at Dorinda Medley’s Blue Stone Manor in The Berkshires.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville is allegedly in talks to return to The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills in a cast 'shake-up' for it's upcoming thirteenth season.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2015, Glanville competed on the seventh season of "Celebrity Apprentice", where she was fired two weeks before the finale. She appeared on the E! reality series "Famously Single" in 2016. In 2017, Glanville competed with Dean Sheremet on the FOX reality cooking series "My Kitchen Rules", where they finished in third place. That same year, she took part as a housemate on season 20 of "Celebrity Big Brother UK". She was the fourth housemate to be evicted on Day 18. In 2018, Glanville took part as a HouseGuest on season 1 of "Celebrity Big Brother U.S." She was the fifth HouseGuest to be evicted on Day 24. She also appeared on the second season of "" with her father, Guy Glanville.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2013, she co-hosted an episode of CNN anchorman Anderson Cooper's talk show "Anderson". In February 2013, she worked as a fashion correspondent and hosted the Academy Awards for ABC’s "On the Red Carpet". In 2013, she also appeared as herself on The CW's teen drama series "90210," in the episode "Dude, Where's My Husband?". She portrayed Erica in Lifetime's television film "Missing at 17" (2013), Housewife Veronica in comedy film "The Hungover Games" (2014) and Tech Whitley in Syfy's disaster television film "" (2016).


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In February 2013, Glanville released a book with Leslie Bruce, "Drinking and Tweeting: And Other Brandi Blunders", which became a #1 "New York Times" bestseller. "LA Weekly" called the book "the best piece of celeb literature we've ever come across." "People" magazine also gave the book a positive review by writing: "Yet as crazy as she might come off here (and on TV), she's strangely relatable, like someone it would be really fun to have drinks with." Glanville's second book with Leslie Bruce, "Drinking and Dating: P.S. Social Media Is Ruining Romance" was published on February 11, 2014. The book focuses on her relationships and dating life as a single mother.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville is popular on social media and endorses products such as beauty and wellness products on Instagram. She has partnered with several brands, including "Hand MD Skincare" hand care range, "Lifeline Skin Care" products, "FabFitFun" beauty subscription box, "Teami Blends" teas and "Singles Swag" subscription box. On November 4, 2013, Glanville began a weekly podcast show entitled "Brandi Glanville Unfiltered". On the podcast Glanville discusses her life, popular culture, and holds interviews with various personalities.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville's Sonoma County Chardonnay titled “Unfiltered Blonde" was launched in partnership with Rippey Wine Company in April 2015. The wine received a Bronze Medal in the Celebrity Wine Division at the 2015 Los Angeles International Wine Awards and was rated 90 points by "Wine Enthusiast Magazine". She has also created an Android mobile application called Blunder Block.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: On July 7, 2022, Glanville debuted her first single named "Life of a Housewife" under the name B-Geezy.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: Glanville served as the Celebrity Grand Marshal at the Sacramento Pride in June 2013. In July 2013, Glanville and Charitybuzz organized a charity project auctioning off a chance to spend an entire day with her, valued at $10,000. Proceeds from the auction benefited The Foundation For Living Beauty, which provides free services to help women with cancer and cancer survivors. She supported the David Foster Foundation Miracle Gala and Concert in Calgary on September 27, 2014.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: She supports children's charity Make-a-Wish Foundation and chose the latter as her charity of choice when competing on "Celebrity Apprentice". Through "Celebrity Apprentice", she was able to secure a donation of $80,000 to the foundation. In December 2014, she promoted and encouraged the sales of Make-a-Wish Foundation's holiday cards on Facebook, Twitter and her official Bravo blog. In April 2015, she participated in Make-a-Wish Foundation's "Walk for Wishes" charity walk and had a personal goal of raising $15,000 for the organization. She received a Woman's Achievement Award from Associates for Breast and Prostate Cancer Studies based in California on May 6, 2015. In June 2017, Glanville participated in a bachelor auction with television personality Eden Sassoon. The event raised money for the breast cancer organization Susan G. Komen, as part of the Babes For Boobs charity event.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In March 2018, Glanville, Carole Radziwill and Teresa Giudice participated in "An Evening With Celebrity Housewives" charity event at The Ridgefield Playhouse. Proceeds from the event's meet and greet tickets benefited actress Mariska Hargitay’s Joyful Heart Foundation.


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2001, Glanville married actor Eddie Cibrian. Cibrian and Glanville have two sons, Mason and Jake. The couple announced their separation in July 2009 when it was revealed Cibrian had begun an affair with country music singer LeAnn Rimes, after they appeared together in the movie "Northern Lights". Cibrian and Glanville's divorce was finalized on September 30, 2010. The circumstances surrounding the affair and divorce were a part of Glanville's book "Drinking and Tweeting: And Other Brandi Blunders". In a 2013 interview, Glanville commented, "Marriages break up all the time. People have affairs. Happens every day. It matters how you handle yourself after and if you're actually remorseful. I've never found LeAnn to be remorseful. I found her to be like, 'Nah-nah-nah-nah-nah, I got your family.'"


title: Brandi Glanville

text: In 2015, Glanville was sued by model and fellow "Real Housewife" Joanna Krupa for defamation related to comments made by Glanville on "Watch What Happens Live". The lawsuit was settled in 2017 for $500,000.00, and Glanville issued a public apology to Krupa.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: James Harris Simons (; born 25 April 1938) is an American mathematician, billionaire hedge fund manager, and philanthropist. He is the founder of Renaissance Technologies, a quantitative hedge fund based in East Setauket, New York. He and his fund are known to be quantitative investors, using mathematical models and algorithms to make investment gains from market inefficiencies. Due to the long-term aggregate investment returns of Renaissance and its Medallion Fund, Simons is described as the "greatest investor on Wall Street," and more specifically "the most successful hedge fund manager of all time."


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: As reported by "Bloomberg Billionaires Index", Simons' net worth is estimated to be $25.2 billion, making him the 66th-richest person in the world.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Simons is known for his studies on pattern recognition. He developed the Chern–Simons form (with Shiing-Shen Chern), and contributed to the development of string theory by providing a theoretical framework to combine geometry and topology with quantum field theory. In 1994, Simons founded the Simons Foundation with his wife to support researches in mathematics and fundamental sciences. He is one of the biggest donors to the University of California, Berkeley, establishing the Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing in 2012, and to Berkeley's Simons Laufer Mathematical Sciences Institute, where he has served as a trustee since 1999.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 2016, asteroid 6618 Jimsimons, discovered by Clyde Tombaugh in 1936, was named after Simons by the International Astronomical Union in honor of his contributions to mathematics and philanthropy.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: James Harris Simons was born on April 25, 1938 to an American Jewish family, the only child of Marcia (née Kantor) and Matthew Simons, and raised in Brookline, Massachusetts.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: He received a bachelor's degree in mathematics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1958 and a PhD in mathematics from the University of California, Berkeley under supervision of Bertram Kostant in 1961 at the age of 23. After graduating from MIT, Simons traveled from Boston to Bogotá, Colombia on a motor scooter.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Simons' mathematical work has primarily focused on the geometry and topology of manifolds. His 1962 Berkeley PhD thesis, written under the direction of Bertram Kostant, gave a new proof of Berger's classification of the holonomy groups of Riemannian manifolds. He subsequently began to work with Shing-Shen Chern on the theory of characteristic classes, eventually discovering the Chern–Simons secondary characteristic classes of 3-manifolds. Later, a mathematical physicist Albert Schwarz discovered early topological quantum field theory, which is an application of the Chern–Simons form.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: It is also related to the Yang-Mills functional on 4-manifolds, and has had an effect on modern physics. These and other contributions to geometry and topology led to Simons becoming the 1976 recipient of the AMS Oswald Veblen Prize in Geometry. In 2014, he was elected to the National Academy of Sciences of the USA.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 1964, Simons worked with the National Security Agency to break codes. Between 1964 and 1968, he was on the research staff of the Communications Research Division of IDA and taught mathematics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Harvard University. After being forced to leave the IDA due to his public opposition to the Vietnam War, he joined the faculty at Stony Brook University. From 1968 to 1978, he was appointed chairman of the math department at Stony Brook University. Simons was asked by IBM in 1973 to attack the block cipher Lucifer, an early but direct precursor to the Data Encryption Standard (DES). Simons founded Math for America, a nonprofit organization, in January 2004 with a mission to improve mathematics education in United States public schools by recruiting more highly qualified teachers.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: For more than two decades, Simons' Renaissance Technologies' hedge funds, which trade in markets around the world, have employed mathematical models to analyze and execute trades, many automated. Renaissance uses computer-based models to predict price changes in financial instruments. These models are based on analyzing as much data as can be gathered, then looking for non-random movements to make predictions.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Medallion, the main fund which is closed to outside investors, has earned over $100 billion in trading profits since its inception in 1988. This translates to a 66.1% average gross annual return or a 39.1% average net annual return between 1988 – 2018. Renaissance Technologies manages three other funds – Renaissance Institutional Equities Fund (RIEF), Renaissance Institutional Diversified Alpha (RIDA) and Renaissance Institutional Diversified Global Equity Fund – which, as of April 2019, totalled approximately $55 billion in combined assets and were open to outside investors.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Renaissance employs specialists with non-financial backgrounds, including mathematicians, physicists, signal processing experts and statisticians. The firm's latest fund is the Renaissance Institutional Equities Fund (RIEF). RIEF has historically trailed the firm's better-known Medallion fund, a separate fund that contains only the personal money of the firm's executives.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: "It's startling to see such a highly successful mathematician achieve success in another field," says Edward Witten, professor of physics at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey and considered by many of his peers to be the most accomplished theoretical physicist alive.In 2006, Simons was named Financial Engineer of the Year by the International Association of Financial Engineers. In 2020, he was estimated to have personally earned $2.6 billion, $2.8 billion in 2007, $1.7 billion in 2006, $1.5 billion in 2005 (the largest compensation among hedge fund managers that year), and $670 million in 2004. On October 10, 2009, Simons announced he would retire on January 1, 2010, but remain at Renaissance as nonexecutive chairman.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 2014, Simons reportedly earned US$1.2 billion, including a share of his firm's management and performance fees, cash compensation and stock and option awards. According to "Forbes" magazine, Simons had a net worth of $18 billion in 2017, making him #24 on the Forbes 400 richest people list. In 2018, he was ranked 23rd by Forbes, and in October 2019, his net worth was estimated to be $21.6 billion. In March 2019, he was named one of the highest-earning hedge fund managers and traders by "Forbes".


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Simons shuns the limelight and rarely gives interviews, citing Benjamin the Donkey in "Animal Farm" for explanation: "'God gave me a tail to keep off the flies. But I'd rather have had no tail and no flies.' That's kind of the way I feel about publicity."


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 1996, his son Paul, aged 34, was riding a bicycle, when he was killed by a car on Long Island. In 2003, his son Nicholas, aged 24, drowned on a trip to Bali, Indonesia. His son Nat Simons is an investor and philanthropist and his daughter Liz Simons is an educator and philanthropist.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Simons owns a motor yacht, named "Archimedes". It was built at the Dutch yacht builder Royal Van Lent and delivered to Simons in 2008.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Simons is a major contributor to Democratic Party political action committees. According to OpenSecrets, Simons was ranked the #5 donor to federal candidates in the 2016 election cycle, coming behind Renaissance Technologies' co-CEO Robert Mercer, who ranked #1 and generally donates to Republicans. Simons has donated $7 million to Hillary Clinton's Priorities USA Action, $2.6 million to the House and Senate Majority PACs, and $500,000 to EMILY's List. He also donated $25,000 to Republican senator Lindsey Graham's super PAC. Since 2006 Simons has contributed about $30.6 million to federal campaigns. Since 1990, Renaissance Technologies has contributed $59,081,152 to federal campaigns and since 2001, and has spent $3,730,000 on lobbying as of 2016.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: According to "The Wall Street Journal" in May 2009, Simons was questioned by investors on the dramatic performance gap of Renaissance Technologies' portfolios. The Medallion Fund, which has been available exclusively to current and past employees and their families, surged 80% in 2008 in spite of hefty fees; the Renaissance Institutional Equities Fund (RIEF), owned by outsiders, lost money in both 2008 and 2009; RIEF declined 16% in 2008.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: On July 22, 2014, Simons was subject to bipartisan condemnation by the U.S. Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations for the use of complex basket options to shield day-to-day trading (usually subject to higher ordinary income tax rates) as long-term capital gains. "Renaissance Technologies was able to avoid paying more than $6 billion in taxes by disguising its day-to-day stock trades as long term investments," said Sen. John McCain (R., Ariz.), the committee's ranking Republican, in his opening statement.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: An article published in "The New York Times" in 2015 said that Simons was involved in one of the biggest tax battles of the year, with Renaissance Technologies being "under review by the I.R.S. over a loophole that saved their fund an estimated $6.8 billion in taxes over roughly a decade." In September 2021, it was announced that Simons and his colleagues would pay billions of dollars in back taxes, interest and penalties to resolve the dispute, one of the biggest in IRS history.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In total, Simons has given over $2.7 billion to philanthropic causes. Simons and his wife, Marilyn Hawrys Simons, co-founded the Simons Foundation in 1994, a charitable organization that supports projects related to education and health, in addition to scientific research. The Simons Foundation established the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative (SFARI) in 2003 as a scientific initiative within the Simons Foundation's suite of programs. SFARI's mission is to improve the understanding, diagnosis and treatment of autism spectrum disorders.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 2004, Simons founded Math for America with an initial pledge of $25 million from the Simons Foundation, a pledge he later doubled in 2006. The foundation continues to fund its operations, contributing nearly $22 million in 2018.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Primarily through the foundation, Simons has been a major benefactor of the University of California, Berkeley. On July 1, 2012, the Simons Foundation pledged $60 million to Berkeley to establish the Simons Institute for the Theory of Computing, the world's leading institute for collaborative research in theoretical computer science. In 2020, Simons made additional grants to Berkeley totaling over $46 million. He and his wife have made other major grants to Berkeley affiliates, notably to the Simons Laufer Mathematical Sciences Institute and Berkeley Lab.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: The Simons Foundation established the Flatiron Institute in 2016, to house 5 groups of computational scientists (each with 60 or more PhD level researchers). The institute consists of four cores or departments: CCB (Center for Computational Biology), CCA (Center for Computational Astrophysics), CCQ (Center for Computational Quantum mechanics), CCM (Center for Computational Mathematics), and CCN (Center for Computational Neuroscience). The new institute is located in Manhattan and represents a major investment in basic computational science.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Via the foundation, Simons and his wife funded the renovation of the building housing the mathematics department at MIT, which in 2016 was named after the two of them.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In memory of his son Paul, whom he had with his first wife, Barbara Simons, he established Avalon Park, a nature preserve in Stony Brook. In 1996, 34-year-old Paul was killed by a car driver while riding a bicycle near the Simons home.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: Another son, Nick Simons, drowned at age 24 while on a trip to Bali in Indonesia in 2003. Nick had worked in Nepal. The Simons have become large donors to Nepalese healthcare through the Nick Simons Institute.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 2006, Simons donated $25 million to Stony Brook University through the Stony Brook Foundation, the largest donation ever to a State University of New York school at the time. On February 27, 2008, then Gov. Eliot Spitzer announced a $60 million donation by the Simons Foundation to found the Simons Center for Geometry and Physics at Stony Brook, the largest gift to a public university in New York state history. In 2011, Simons broke that record again with a $150 million donation to Stony Brook, which went to research in medical sciences, the construction of a life sciences building, the creation of a neurosciences institute and a center for biological imaging, the study of cancer and infectious diseases, 35 new endowed professorships and 40 fellowships for graduate students. In order to secure the donation, Stony Brook was allowed to raise its annual tuition in opposition to traditional New York state policy.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: In 2008, he was inducted into Institutional Investors Alpha's Hedge Fund Manager Hall of Fame along with Alfred Jones, Bruce Kovner, David Swensen, George Soros, Jack Nash, Julian Roberston, Kenneth Griffin, Leon Levy, Louis Bacon, Michael Steinhardt, Paul Tudor Jones, Seth Klarman and Steven A. Cohen.


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: He was named by the "Financial Times" in 2006 as "the world's smartest billionaire". He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 2007. In 2011, he was included in the 50 Most Influential ranking of "Bloomberg Markets Magazine".


title: Jim Simons (mathematician)

text: A book about Simons and his investing methods, "The Man Who Solved the Market: How Jim Simons Launched the Quant Revolution" by Gregory Zuckerman was released November 5, 2019. In 2018, Trinity College Dublin awarded him with an honorary doctorate.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Sutton Hoo is the site of two early medieval cemeteries dating from the 6th to 7th centuries near the English town of Woodbridge. Archaeologists have been excavating the area since 1938, when a previously undisturbed ship burial containing a wealth of Anglo-Saxon artefacts was discovered. The site is important in establishing the history of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of East Anglia as well as illuminating the Anglo-Saxons during a period which lacks historical documentation.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The site was first excavated by Basil Brown, a self-taught archaeologist, under the auspices of the landowner Edith Pretty, but when its importance became apparent, national experts took over. The artefacts the archaeologists found in the burial chamber include a suite of metalwork dress fittings in gold and gems, a ceremonial helmet, a shield and sword, a lyre, and silver plate from the Byzantine Empire. The ship burial has prompted comparisons with the world of "Beowulf". The Old English poem is partly set in Götaland in southern Sweden, which has archaeological parallels to some of the Sutton Hoo finds. Scholars believe Rædwald, king of the East Angles, is the most likely person to have been buried in the ship.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: During the 1960s and 1980s, the wider area was explored by archaeologists and other individual burials were revealed. Another burial ground is situated on a second hill-spur about upstream of the first. It was discovered and partially explored in 2000 during preliminary work for the construction of a new tourist visitor centre. The tops of the mounds had been obliterated by agricultural activity. The cemeteries are located close to the River Deben estuary and other archaeological sites. They appear as a group of approximately 20 earthen mounds that rise slightly above the horizon of the hill-spur when viewed from the opposite bank. The visitor centre contains original artefacts, replicas of finds and a reconstruction of the ship burial chamber. The site is in the care of the National Trust; most of these objects are now held by the British Museum.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Sutton Hoo derives its name from Old English. "Sut" combined with "tun" means the "southern farmstead" or "settlement" and "hoh" refers to a hill "shaped like a heel spur". The same ending survives in a few other placenames, notably Plymouth Hoe and Fingringhoe. Hoo was recorded in the Domesday Book as "Hoi"/"Hou".


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Sutton Hoo lies along a bank of the tidal estuary of the River Deben. On the opposite bank the harbour town of Woodbridge stands from the North Sea and below the lowest convenient fording place. It formed a path of entry into East Anglia during the period that followed the end of Roman imperial rule in the 5th century.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: South of Woodbridge, there are 6th-century burial grounds at Rushmere, Little Bealings, and Tuddenham St Martin and circling Brightwell Heath, the site of mounds that date from the Bronze Age. There are cemeteries of a similar date at Rendlesham and Ufford. A ship-burial at Snape is the only one in England that can be compared to the example at Sutton Hoo.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The territory between the Orwell and the watersheds of the Alde and Deben rivers may have been an early centre of royal power, originally centred upon Rendlesham or Sutton Hoo, and a primary component in the formation of the East Anglian kingdom. In the early 7th century, Gipeswic (modern Ipswich) began its growth as a centre for foreign trade, Botolph's monastery at Iken was founded by royal grant in 654, and Bede identified Rendlesham as the site of Æthelwold's royal dwelling.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: There is evidence that Sutton Hoo was occupied during the Neolithic period, , when woodland in the area was cleared by agriculturalists. They dug small pits that contained flint-tempered earthenware pots. Several pits were near to hollows where large trees had been uprooted: the Neolithic farmers may have associated the hollows with the pots.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: During the Bronze Age, when agricultural communities living in Britain were adopting the newly introduced technology of metalworking, timber-framed roundhouses were built at Sutton Hoo, with wattle and daub walling and thatched roofs. The best surviving example contained a ring of upright posts, up to in diameter, with one pair suggesting an entrance to the south-east. In the central hearth, a faience bead had been dropped.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The farmers who dwelt in this house used decorated Beaker-style pottery, cultivated barley, oats, and wheat, and collected hazelnuts. They dug ditches that marked the surrounding grassland into sections, indicating land ownership. The acidic sandy soil eventually became leached and infertile, and it was likely that for this reason, the settlement was eventually abandoned, to be replaced in the Middle Bronze Age (1500–1000 BCE) by sheep or cattle, which were enclosed by wooden stakes.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: During the Iron Age, iron replaced copper and bronze as the dominant form of metal used in the British Isles. In the Middle Iron Age (around 500 BCE), people living in the Sutton Hoo area began to grow crops again, dividing the land into small enclosures now known as Celtic fields. The use of narrow trenches implies grape cultivation, whilst in other places, small pockets of dark soil indicate that big cabbages may have been grown. This cultivation continued into the Romano-British period, from 43 to around 410.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Life for the Britons remained unaffected by the arrival of the Romans. Several artefacts from the period, including a few fragments of pottery and a discarded fibula, have been found. As the peoples of Western Europe were encouraged by the Empire to maximise the use of land for growing crops, the area around Sutton Hoo suffered degradation and soil loss. It was eventually abandoned and became overgrown.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Following the withdrawal of the Romans from southern Britain after 410, Germanic tribes such as the Angles and Saxons began to settle in the southeastern part of the island. East Anglia is regarded by many scholars as a region in which this settlement was particularly early and dense; the area's name derives from that of the Angles. Over time, the remnants of the pre-existing Brittonic population adopted the culture of the newcomers.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: During this period, southern Britain became divided up into a number of small independent kingdoms. Several pagan cemeteries from the kingdom of the East Angles have been found, most notably at Spong Hill and Snape, where a large number of cremations and inhumations were found. Many of the graves were accompanied by grave goods, which included combs, tweezers and brooches, as well as weapons. Sacrificed animals had been placed in the graves.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: At the time when the Sutton Hoo cemetery was in use, the River Deben would have formed part of a busy trading and transportation network. A number of settlements grew up along the river, most of which would have been small farmsteads, although it seems likely that there was a larger administrative centre as well, where the local aristocracy held court. Archaeologists have speculated that such a centre may have existed at Rendlesham, Melton, Bromeswell or at Sutton Hoo. It has been suggested that the burial mounds used by wealthier families were later appropriated as sites for early churches. In such cases, the mounds would have been destroyed before the churches were constructed.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The Sutton Hoo grave field contained about twenty barrows; it was reserved for people who were buried individually with objects that indicated that they had exceptional wealth or prestige. It was used in this way from around 575 to 625 and contrasts with the Snape cemetery, where the ship-burial and furnished graves were added to a graveyard of buried pots containing cremated ashes.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Martin Carver believes that the cremation burials at Sutton Hoo were "among the earliest" in the cemetery. Two were excavated in 1938. Under Mound 3 were the ashes of a man and a horse placed on a wooden trough or dugout bier, a Frankish iron-headed throwing-axe, and imported objects from the eastern Mediterranean, including the lid of a bronze ewer, part of a miniature carved plaque depicting a winged Victory, and fragments of decorated bone from a casket. Under Mound 4 was the cremated remains of a man and a woman, with a horse and perhaps also a dog, as well as fragments of bone gaming-pieces.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: In Mounds 5, 6, and 7, Carver found cremations deposited in bronze bowls. In Mound 5 were found gaming-pieces, small iron shears, a cup, and an ivory box. Mound 7 also contained gaming-pieces, as well as an iron-bound bucket, a sword-belt fitting and a drinking vessel, together with the remains of horse, cattle, red deer, sheep, and pig that had been burnt with the deceased on a pyre. Mound 6 contained cremated animals, gaming-pieces, a sword-belt fitting, and a comb. The Mound 18 grave was very damaged, but of similar kind.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Two cremations were found during the 1960s exploration to define the extent of Mound 5, together with two inhumations and a pit with a skull and fragments of decorative foil. In level areas between the mounds, Carver found three furnished inhumations. One small mound held a child's remains, along with his buckle and miniature spear. A man's grave included two belt buckles and a knife, and that of a woman contained a leather bag, a pin and a chatelaine.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The most impressive of the burials without a chamber is that of a young man who was buried with his horse, in Mound 17. The horse would have been sacrificed for the funeral, in a ritual sufficiently standardised to indicate a lack of sentimental attachment to it. Two undisturbed grave-hollows existed side by side under the mound. The man's oak coffin contained his pattern welded sword on his right and his sword-belt, wrapped around the blade, which had a bronze buckle with garnet cloisonné cellwork, two pyramidal strapmounts and a scabbard-buckle.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: By the man's head were a firesteel and a leather pouch, containing rough garnets and a piece of millefiori glass. Around the coffin were two spears, a shield, a small cauldron and a bronze bowl, a pot, an iron-bound bucket and some animal ribs. In the north-west corner of his grave was a bridle, mounted with circular gilt bronze plaques with interlace ornamentation. These items are on display at Sutton Hoo.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Inhumation graves of this kind are known from both England and Germanic continental Europe, with most dating from the 6th or early 7th century. In about 1820, an example was excavated at Witnesham. There are other examples at Lakenheath in western Suffolk and in the Snape cemetery: Other examples have been inferred from records of the discovery of horse furniture at Eye and Mildenhall.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Although the grave under Mound 14 had been destroyed almost completely by robbing, apparently during a heavy rainstorm, it had contained exceptionally high-quality goods belonging to a woman. These included a chatelaine, a kidney-shaped purse-lid, a bowl, several buckles, a dress-fastener, and the hinges of a casket, all made of silver, and also a fragment of embroidered cloth.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: This important grave, damaged by looters, was probably the source of the many iron ship-rivets found at Sutton Hoo in 1860. In 1938, when the mound was excavated, iron rivets were found, which enabled the Mound 2 grave to be interpreted as a small boat. Carver's re-investigation revealed that there was a rectangular plank-lined chamber, long by wide, sunk below the land surface, with the body and grave-goods laid out in it. A small ship had been placed over this in an east–west alignment before a large earth mound was raised.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: Chemical analysis of the chamber floor has suggested the presence of a body in the south-western corner. The goods found included fragments of a blue glass cup with a trailed decoration, similar to the recent find from the Prittlewell tomb in Essex. There were two gilt-bronze discs with animal interlace ornament, a bronze brooch, a silver buckle, and a gold-coated stud from a buckle. Four objects had a special kinship with the Mound 1 finds: the tip of a sword blade showed elaborate pattern welding; silver-gilt drinking horn-mounts (struck from the same dies as those in Mound 1); and the similarity of two fragments of dragon-like mounts or plaques. Although the rituals were not identical, the association of the contents of the grave shows a connection between the two burials.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The cemetery contained remains of people who died violently, in some cases by hanging and decapitation. Often the bones have not survived, but the flesh had stained the sandy soil: the soil was laminated as digging progressed, so that the emaciated figures of the dead were revealed. Casts were taken of several of these.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The identification and discussion of these burials was led by Carver. Two main groups were excavated, with one arranged around Mound 5 and the other situated beyond the barrow cemetery limits in the field to the east. It is thought that a gallows once stood on Mound 5, in a prominent position near to a significant river-crossing point, and that the graves contained the bodies of criminals, possibly executed from the 8th and 9th centuries onwards.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: In 2000, a Suffolk County Council team excavated the site intended for the National Trust's new visitor centre, north of Tranmer House, at a point where the ridge of the Deben valley veers westwards to form a promontory. When the topsoil was removed, early Anglo-Saxon burials were discovered in one corner, with some possessing high-status objects. The area had first attracted attention with the discovery of part of a 6th-century bronze vessel, of eastern Mediterranean origin, that had probably formed part of a furnished burial. The outer surface of the so-called "Bromeswell bucket" was decorated with a Syrian- or Nubian-style frieze, depicting naked warriors in combat with leaping lions, and had an inscription in Greek that translated as "Use this in good health, Master Count, for many happy years."


title: Sutton Hoo

text: In an area near to a former rose garden, a group of moderate-sized burial mounds was identified. They had long since been levelled, but their position was shown by circular ditches that each enclosed a small deposit indicating the presence of a single burial, probably of unurned human ashes. One burial lay in an irregular oval pit that contained two vessels, a stamped black earthenware urn of late 6th-century type, and a well-preserved large bronze hanging bowl, with openwork hook escutcheons and a related circular mount at the centre. In another burial, a man had been laid next to his spear and covered with a shield of normal size. The shield bore an ornamented boss-stud and two fine metal mounts, ornamented with a predatory bird and a dragon-like creature.


title: Sutton Hoo

text: The ship-burial discovered under Mound 1 in 1939 contained one of the most magnificent archaeological finds in England for its size and completeness, far-reaching connections, the quality and beauty of its contents, and for the profound interest it generated.