title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Hubert Lagardelle wrote that Pierre-Joseph Proudhon laid out fundamental ideas of anarcho-syndicalism and repudiated both capitalism and the state in the process since he viewed free economic groups and struggle, not pacifism, as dominant in humans.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In September 1903 and March 1904, Sam Mainwaring published in Britain two issues of a short-lived newspaper called "The General Strike," a publication that criticised of the "officialism" of union bureaucracy and publicised strikes in Europe making use of syndicalist tactics.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In 1910, the (CNT) was founded in the middle of the restoration in Barcelona in a congress of the Catalan trade union (Workers' Solidarity) to constitute an opposing force to the then-majority trade union, the socialist (UGT) and "to speed up the economic emancipation of the working class through the revolutionary expropriation of the bourgeoisie". The CNT started small, counting 26,571 members represented through several trade unions and other confederations. In 1911, coinciding with its first congress, the CNT initiated a general strike that provoked a Barcelona judge to declare the union illegal until 1914. Also, in 1911, the trade union adopted its name formally. From 1918 on, the CNT grew more substantial and had an outstanding role in the events of the "La Canadiense" general strike, which paralyzed 70% of the industry in Catalonia in 1919, the year the CNT reached a membership of 700,000. Around that time, panic spread among employers, giving rise to the practice of (employing thugs to intimidate active unionists), causing a spiral of violence that significantly affected the trade union. These are credited with killing 21 union leaders in 48 hours.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In 1922, the International Workers' Association (IWA) was founded in Berlin, and the CNT joined immediately, but with the rise of Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship, the labour union was outlawed again the following year. However, with the workers' movement resurgent following the Russian Revolution, what was to become the modern IWA was formed, billing itself as the "true heir" of the original International. The successful Bolshevik-led revolution of 1917 in Russia was mirrored by a wave of syndicalist successes worldwide, including the struggle of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) in the United States alongside the creation of mass anarchist unions across Latin America and massive syndicalist-led strikes in Germany, Portugal, Spain, Italy and France, where it was noted that "neutral (economic, but not political) syndicalism had been swept away". The final formation of this new international, then known as the International Workingmen's Association, took place at an illegal conference in Berlin in December 1922, marking an irrevocable break between the international syndicalist movement and the Bolsheviks. The IWA included the Italian Syndicalist Union (500,000 members), the Argentine Workers Regional Organisation (200,000 members), the General Confederation of Workers in Portugal (150,000 members), the Free Workers' Union of Germany (120,000 members), the Committee for the Defense of Revolutionary Syndicalism in France (100,000 members), the from Paris (32,000 members), the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden (32,000 members), the National Labor Secretariat of the Netherlands (22,500 members), the Industrial Workers of the World in Chile (20,000 members) and the Union for Syndicalist Propaganda in Denmark (600 members).


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The first secretaries of the International included the famed writer and activist Rudolph Rocker, along with Augustin Souchy and Alexander Schapiro. Following the first congress, other groups from France, Austria, Denmark, Belgium, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Poland, and Romania were affiliated. Later, a bloc of unions in the United States, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Guatemala, Cuba, Costa Rica and El Salvador also shared the IWA's statutes. The IWW, biggest syndicalist union in the United States, considered joining but eventually ruled out affiliation in 1936 based on the IWA's religious and political affiliation policies. Although not anarcho-syndicalist, the IWW was informed by developments in the broader revolutionary syndicalist milieu at the turn of the 20th century. At its founding congress in 1905, influential members with strong anarchist or anarcho-syndicalist sympathies like Thomas J. Hagerty, William Trautmann and Lucy Parsons contributed to the union's overall revolutionary syndicalist orientation. Although the terms anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary syndicalism are often used interchangeably, the anarcho-syndicalist label was not widely used until the early 1920s: "The term 'anarcho-syndicalist' only came into wide use in 1921–1922 when it was applied polemically as a pejorative term by communists to any syndicalists…who opposed increased control of syndicalism by the communist parties". Depending on the translation, the original statement of aims and principles of the IWA (drafted in 1922) refers not to anarcho-syndicalism but revolutionary syndicalism or revolutionary unionism.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The "Biennio Rosso" (English: "Red Biennium") was a two-year period between 1919 and 1920 of intense social conflict in Italy following World War I. The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of economic crisis at the war's end, with high unemployment and political instability. It was characterized by mass strikes, worker manifestations, and self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. In Turin and Milan, workers' councils were formed, and many factory occupations took place under the leadership of anarcho-syndicalists. The agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the Padan plain and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrest, and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias. According to libcom.org, the anarcho-syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana (USI) "grew to 800,000 members and the influence of the Italian Anarchist Union (20,000 members plus "Umanita Nova", its daily paper) grew accordingly [...] Anarchists were the first to suggest occupying workplaces".


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Many of the most prominent members of the IWA were broken, driven underground or wiped out in the 1920s–1930s as fascists came to power in states across Europe, and workers switched away from anarchism towards the seeming success of the Bolshevik model of socialism. In Argentina, the FORA had already begun to decline by the time it joined the IWA, having split in 1915 into pro and anti-Bolshevik factions. From 1922, the anarchist movement there lost most of its membership, exacerbated by further splits, most notably around the Severino Di Giovanni affair. It was crushed by General Uriburu's military coup in 1930. Germany's FAUD struggled throughout the late 1920s and early 1930s as the Brownshirts took control of the streets. Its last national congress in Erfurt in March 1932 saw the union attempt to form an underground bureau to combat Adolf Hitler's fascists; a measure never implemented as mass arrests decimated the conspirators' ranks. The editor of the FAUD organ "Der Syndikalist", Gerhard Wartenberg, was killed in the Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Karl Windhoff, delegate to the IWA Madrid congress of 1931, was driven out of his mind and also died in a Nazi death camp. There were also mass trials of FAUD members held in Wuppertal and Rhenanie; many of these never survived the death camps. Italian IWA union USI, which had claimed a membership of up to 600,000 people in 1922, was waning due to murders and repression from Benito Mussolini's fascists. It had been driven underground by 1924, and although it could still lead significant strikes by miners, metalworkers and marble workers, Mussolini's ascent to power in 1925 sealed its fate. By 1927, its leading activists had been arrested or exiled.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Portugal's CGT was driven underground after an unsuccessful attempt to break the newly installed dictatorship of Gomes da Costa with a general strike in 1927 that led to nearly 100 deaths. It survived underground with 15–20,000 members until January 1934, when it called a general revolutionary strike against plans to replace trade unions with fascist corporations, which failed. It continued in a much-reduced state until World War II but was effectively finished as a fighting union. Massive government repression repeated such defeats worldwide as anarcho-syndicalist unions were destroyed in Peru, Brazil, Colombia, Japan, Cuba, Bulgaria, Paraguay and Bolivia. By the end of the 1930s, legal anarcho-syndicalist trade unions existed only in Chile, Bolivia, Sweden and Uruguay. However, perhaps the most tremendous blow was struck in the Spanish Civil War, which saw the CNT, then claiming a membership of 1.58 million, driven underground with the defeat of the Spanish Republic by Francisco Franco. The sixth IWA congress took place in 1936, shortly after the Spanish Revolution had begun, but was unable to provide serious material support for the section. The IWA held its last pre-war congress in Paris in 1938; with months to go before the German invasion of Poland, it received an application from ZZZ, a syndicalist union in the country claiming up to 130,000 workers—ZZZ members went on to form a core part of the resistance against the Nazis and participated in the Warsaw uprising. However, the International was not to meet again until 1951, six years after World War II had ended. During the war, only one member of the IWA could continue to function as a revolutionary union, the SAC in Sweden. In 1927, with the "moderate" positioning of some "cenetistas" (CNT members), the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI), an association of anarchist affinity groups, was created in Valencia. The FAI would play an essential role during the following years through the so-called "trabazón" (connection) with the CNT; that is, the presence of FAI elements in the CNT, encouraging the labour union not to move away from its anarchist principles, an influence that continues today.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: On 1 June 1936, the CNT joined the UGT in declaring a strike of "building workers, mechanics, and lift operators". A demonstration was held, 70,000 workers strong. Members of the Falange attacked the strikers. The strikers responded by looting shops, and the police reacted by attempting to suppress the strike. By July, the CNT was still fighting while the UGT had agreed to arbitration. In retaliation to the attacks by the Falangists, anarchists killed three bodyguards of the Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera. The government then closed the CNT's centres in Madrid and arrested David Antona and Cipriano Mera, two CNT militants.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In this respect, some of the most critical communities were Alcañiz, Calanda, Alcorisa, Valderrobres, Fraga, or Alcampel. Not only were the lands collectivized, but collective labours were also undertaken, like the retirement home in Fraga, the collectivization of some hospitals (such as in Barbastro or Binéfar) and the founding of schools such as the School of Anarchist Militants. The Nationalist troops would destroy these institutions during the war.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The Committee held an extraordinary regional plenary session to protect the new rural organization, gathering all the union representatives from the supporting villages and backed by Buenaventura Durruti. Against the will of the mainly Catalan CNT National Committee, the Regional Defence Council of Aragon was created. Following Largo Caballero's assumption of the position of Prime Minister of the government, he invited the CNT to join in the coalition of groups making up the national government. The CNT proposed instead that a National Defense Council should be formed, led by Largo Caballero, and containing five members each from the CNT and UGT and four "liberal republicans". When this proposal was declined, the CNT decided not to join the government. However, in Catalonia, the CNT joined the Central Committee of the Anti-Fascist Militias, which joined the Generalitat on 26 September. For the first time, three members of the CNT were also members of the government.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In November, Caballero once again asked the CNT to become part of the government. The leadership of the CNT requested the finance and war ministries as well as three others but were given four posts, the ministries of health, justice, industry and commerce. Federica Montseny became Minister of Health, the first female minister in Spain. As minister of justice, Juan García Oliver abolished legal fees and destroyed all criminal files. Shortly afterwards, despite the disapproval of the anarchist ministers, the capital was moved from Madrid to Valencia. On 23 December 1936, after receiving in Madrid a retinue formed by Joaquín Ascaso, Miguel Chueca and three republican and independent leaders, the government of Largo Caballero, which by then had four anarchists as ministers (García Oliver, Juan López, Federica Montseny and Joan Peiró), approved the formation of the National Defense Committee. It was a revolutionary body that represented anarchists as much as socialists and republicans. Halfway through February 1937, a congress took place in Caspe to create the Regional Federation of Collectives of Aragon. Four hundred fifty-six delegates, representing more than 141,000 collective members, attended the congress. The congress was also attended by delegates of the National Committee of the CNT.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: At a plenary session of the CNT in March 1937, the national committee asked for a motion of censure to suppress the Aragonese Regional Council. The Aragonese regional committee threatened to resign, which thwarted the censure effort. Although there had always been disagreements, that spring also saw a significant escalation in confrontations between the CNT-FAI and the Communists. In Madrid, Melchor Rodríguez, who was then a member of the CNT and director of prisons in Madrid, published accusations that the Communist José Cazorla, who was then overseeing public order, was maintaining secret prisons to hold anarchists, socialists and other republicans; and either executing or torturing them as "traitors". Soon after, on this pretext, Largo Caballero dissolved the Communist-controlled Junta de Defensa. Cazorla reacted by closing the offices of "Solidaridad Obrera".


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The next day, CNT's regional committee declared a general strike. The CNT controlled most of the city, including the heavy artillery on the hill of Montjuïc overlooking the city. CNT militias disarmed more than 200 members of the security forces at their barricades, allowing only CNT vehicles to pass through. After unsuccessful appeals from the CNT leadership to end the fighting, the government began transferring Assault Guard from the front to Barcelona and even destroyers from Valencia. On 5 May, the Friends of Durruti issued a pamphlet calling for "disarming of the paramilitary police… dissolution of the political parties…" and declared "Long live the social revolution! – Down with the counter-revolution!" though the leadership of the CNT quickly denounced the pamphlet. The next day, the government agreed to a proposal by the leadership of the CNT-FAI that called for the removal of the Assault Guards and no reprisals against libertarians that had participated in the conflict in exchange for the dismantling of barricades and end of the general strike. However, neither the PSUC nor the Assault Guards gave up their positions and, according to historian Antony Beevor, "carried out violent reprisals against libertarians". By 8 May, the fighting was over.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: These events, the fall of Largo Caballero's government and the new prime ministership of Juan Negrín. soon led to the collapse of much that the CNT had achieved immediately following the rising the previous July. At the beginning of July, the Aragonese organizations of the Popular Front publicly declared their support for the alternative council in Aragon, led by their president, Joaquín Ascaso. Four weeks later, the 11th Division under Enrique Líster entered the region. On 11 August 1937, the Republican government, now situated in Valencia, dismissed the Regional Council for the Defense of Aragon. Líster's division was prepared for an offensive on the Aragonese front, but they were also sent to subdue the collectives run by the CNT-UGT and dismantle the collective structures created the previous twelve months. The offices of the CNT were destroyed, and all the equipment belonging to its collectives was redistributed to landowners. The CNT leadership not only refused to allow the anarchist columns on the Aragon front to leave the front to defend the collectives, but they failed to condemn the government's actions against the collectives, causing much conflict between it and the rank and file membership of the union.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In April 1938, Juan Negrín was asked to form a government and included Segundo Blanco, a member of the CNT, as minister of education; by this point, the only CNT member left in the cabinet. At this point, many in the CNT leadership were critical of participation in the government, seeing it as dominated by the Communists. Prominent CNT leaders went so far as to refer to Blanco as "sop of the libertarian movement" and "just one more Negrínist". On the other side, Blanco was responsible for installing other CNT members into the ministry of education and stopping the spread of "Communist propaganda" by the ministry. In March 1939, with the war nearly over, CNT leaders participated in the National Defense Council's coup overthrowing the government of the Socialist Juan Negrín. Those involved included the CNT's Eduardo Val and José Manuel González Marín serving on the council, while Cipriano Mera's 70th Division provided military support, and Melechor Rodríquez became mayor of Madrid. The Council attempted to negotiate peace with Franco, though he granted virtually none of their demands.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: After World War II, an appeal in the "Fraye Arbeter Shtime", detailing the plight of German anarchists, called for Americans to support them. By February 1946, sending aid parcels to anarchists in Germany was a large-scale operation. In 1947, Rudolf Rocker published "Zur Betrachtung der Lage in Deutschland" ("Regarding the Portrayal of the Situation in Germany") about the impossibility of another anarchist movement in Germany. It became the first post-World War II anarchist writing to be distributed in Germany. Rocker thought young Germans were cynical or inclined to fascism and awaited a new generation to grow up before anarchism could bloom again in the country.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Nevertheless, the Federation of Libertarian Socialists (FFS) was founded in 1947 by former FAUD members. Rocker wrote for its organ, "Die Freie Gesellschaft", which survived until 1953. In 1949, Rocker published another well-known work. On 10 September 1958, Rocker died in the Mohegan Colony. The Syndicalist Workers' Federation was a syndicalist group active in post-war Britain and one of the Solidarity Federation's earliest predecessors. It was formed in 1950 by members of the dissolved Anarchist Federation of Britain. Unlike the AFB, which was influenced by anarcho-syndicalist ideas but ultimately not syndicalist itself, the SWF decided to pursue a more definitely syndicalist, worker-centred strategy from the outset. The Confédération nationale du travail (CNT, or National Confederation of Labour) was founded in 1946 by Spanish anarcho-syndicalists in exile with former members of the CGT-SR. The CNT later split into the CNT-Vignoles and the CNT-AIT, the French section of the IWA.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: At the seventh congress in Toulouse in 1951, a much smaller IWA was relaunched without the CNT, which would not be strong enough to reclaim membership until 1958 as an exiled and underground organization. Delegates attended, though primarily representing tiny groups, from Cuba, Argentina, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Britain, Bulgaria and Portugal. A message of support was received from Uruguay. However, the situation remained difficult for the International as it struggled to deal with the rise of state-sanctioned economic trade unionism in the West, heavy secret service intervention as Cold War anti-communism reached its height and the banning of all strikes and free trade unions in the Soviet Union bloc of countries. At the tenth congress in 1958, the SAC's response to these pressures led it to clash with the rest of the international. It withdrew from the IWA following its failure to amend the body's statutes to allow it to stand in municipal elections and amid concerns over its integration with the state over the distribution of unemployment benefits. For most of the next two decades, the international struggled to rebuild itself. In 1976 at the 15th congress, the IWA had only five member groups, two of which (the Spanish and Bulgarian members) were still operating in exile (though following Franco's death in 1975, the CNT was already approaching a membership of 200,000).


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The Direct Action Movement was formed in 1979 when the remaining SWF branch and other smaller anarchist groups decided to form a new organisation of anarcho-syndicalists in Britain. The DAM was highly involved in the Miners' Strike and a series of industrial disputes later in the 1980s, including the Ardbride dispute in Ardrossan, Scotland, involving a supplier to Laura Ashley, for which the DAM received international support. From 1988 in Scotland, then England and Wales, the DAM was active in opposing the Poll Tax. In March 1994, DAM changed to its current name, the Solidarity Federation, having been the Direct Action Movement since 1979 and the Syndicalist Workers' Federation since 1950. The Solidarity Federation publishes the quarterly magazine "Direct Action" (presently on hiatus) and the newspaper "Catalyst". In 1979, a split over representative unionism, professional unionism and state-funded schemes saw the CNT divided into two sections, the CNT as it is today and the Confederacion General del Trabajo. After Franco's death in November 1975 and the beginning of Spain's transition to democracy, the CNT was the only social movement to refuse to sign the 1977 Moncloa Pact, an agreement amongst politicians, political parties and trade unions to plan how to operate the economy during the transition. In 1979, the CNT held its first congress since 1936 and several mass meetings, the most remarkable one in Montjuïc. Views put forward in this congress would set the pattern for the CNT's line of action for the following decades: no participation in union elections, no acceptance of state subsidies, no acknowledgement of works councils and support of union sections.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: In this first congress, held in Madrid, a minority sector in favour of union elections split from the CNT, initially calling themselves CNT Valencia Congress (referring to the alternative congress held in this city) and later Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) after an April 1989 court decision determined that they could not use the CNT initials. In 1990, a group of CGT members left this union because they rejected the CGT's policy of accepting government subsidies, founding "Solidaridad Obrera". One year before, the 1978 Scala Case affected the CNT. An explosion killed three people in a Barcelona nightclub. The authorities alleged that striking workers "blew themselves up" and arrested surviving strikers, implicating them in the crime. CNT members declared that the prosecution sought to criminalize their organization.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: After its legalization, the CNT began efforts to recover the expropriations of 1939. The basis for such recovery would be established by Law 4/1986, which required the return of the seized properties and the unions' right to use or yield the real estate. Since then, the CNT has been claiming the return of these properties from the State. In 1996, the Economic and Social Council facilities in Madrid were squatted by 105 CNT militants. This body is in charge of the repatriation of the accumulated union wealth. In 2004, an agreement was reached between the CNT and the District Attorney's Office, through which all charges were dropped against the hundred prosecuted for this occupation.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: On 3 September 2009, six members of the Serbian IWA section (ASI-MUR), including then-IWA General Secretary Ratibor Trivunac, were arrested on suspicion of international terrorism, a charge that the international and other anarchist groups heavily disputed. Shortly after their arrest, an open letter was circulated by Serbian academics criticizing the charges and the attitude of the Serbian police. The six were indicted on 7 December, and after a lengthy trial procedure, Trivunac and the other five anarchists were freed on 17 February 2010. On 10 December 2009, the FAU local in Berlin was effectively banned as a union following a public industrial dispute at the city's Babylon cinema. At the 14th annual congress of the IWA, which was held in Brazil in December 2009, the first time the congress had been held outside Europe, motions of support were passed for the "Belgrade Six" and FAU while members of the Solidarity Federation temporarily took over duties as Secretariat. The International's Norwegian section subsequently took on the Secretariat role in 2010. As part of the anti-austerity movement in Europe, various IWA sections have been highly active in the 2008–2012 period, with the CNT taking a leading role in agitating for the general strikes that have occurred in Spain, the USI in Milan taking on anti-austerity campaigns in the health service and the ZSP organizing tenants against abuses in rented accommodation.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The most significant organised anarchist movement today is in Spain in the form of the Confederación General del Trabajo (CGT) and the CNT. CGT membership was estimated at 100,000 in 2003. The regions with the largest CNT membership are the Centre (Madrid and surrounding area), the North (Basque country), Andalucía, Catalonia and the Balearic Islands. The CNT opposes the union elections and workplace committees model and is critical of labour reforms and the UGT and the CCOO, standing instead on a platform of "reivindicación"; that is, "return of what is due", or social revolution.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: The following organizations are anarcho-syndicalist and revolutionary syndicalist federations and trade unions from around the world.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Green syndicalism is a synthesis of anarcho-syndicalism and environmentalism, arguing that protection of the environment depends on decentralization, regionalism, direct action, autonomy, pluralism and federation. It primarily draws inspiration from the green bans in Australia, the efforts of workers at Lucas Aerospace to convert their factories away from armaments production and Judi Bari's efforts in the IWW to organise timber workers and environmentalists in Northern California. Green Syndicalism has been advocated for at various times by Confédération Nationale du Travail, Confederación General de Trabajadores and the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Anarcho-syndicalists believe that direct action carried out by workers as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position, would allow workers to liberate themselves.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organisations that oppose the wage system will eventually form the basis of a new society and should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; instead, the workers alone should decide on what affects them. Rudolf Rocker is one of the most influential figures in the anarcho-syndicalist movement.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Noam Chomsky, influenced by Rocker, wrote the introduction to a modern edition of "Anarcho-syndicalism: Theory and Practice". A member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), Chomsky is a self-described anarcho-syndicalist, a position that he sees as the appropriate application of classical liberal political theory to contemporary industrial society:


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Anarcho-syndicalism has been criticised as anachronistic by some contemporary anarchists. In 1992, Murray Bookchin spoke against its reliance on an outdated view of work:


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Bookchin has said that it prioritizes the interests of the working class instead of communal freedom for society as a whole; this view ultimately prevents a true revolution. He argues that in instances like the Spanish Revolution, it was despite the syndicalist-minded CNT leadership that the revolution occurred.


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Direct action, one of the main staples of anarcho-syndicalism, would extend into the political sphere, according to its supporters. To them, the labour council is the federation of all workplace branches of all industries in a geographical area "territorial basis of organisation linkage brought all the workers from one area together and fomented working-class solidarity over and before corporate solidarity". Rudolf Rocker argued:


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: Anarcho-syndicalism, therefore, is not apolitical but instead sees political and economic activity as the same. Unlike the propositions of some of its critics, anarcho-syndicalism is different from reformist union activity in that it aims to obliterate capitalism as "[anarcho-syndicalism] has a double aim: with tireless persistence, it must pursue betterment of the working class's current conditions. But, without letting themselves become obsessed with this passing concern, the workers should take care to make possible and imminent the essential act of comprehensive emancipation: the expropriation of capital".


title: Anarcho-syndicalism

text: While collectivist and communist anarchists criticise syndicalism as having the potential to exclude the voices of citizens and consumers outside of the union, anarcho-syndicalists argue that labour councils will work outside of the workplace and within the community to encourage community and consumer participation in economic and political activity (even workers and consumers outside of the union or nation) and will work to form and maintain the institutions necessary in any society such as schools, libraries, homes and so on. Bookchin argues:


title: Steve Miller Band

text: The Steve Miller Band is an American rock band formed in 1966 in San Francisco, California. The band is led by Steve Miller on guitar and lead vocals. The group had a string of mid- to late-1970s hit singles that are staples of classic rock, as well as several earlier psychedelic rock albums. Miller left his first band to move to San Francisco and form the Steve Miller Blues Band. Shortly after Harvey Kornspan negotiated the band's contract with Capitol Records in 1967, the band shortened its name to the Steve Miller Band. In February 1968, the band recorded its debut album, "Children of the Future". It went on to produce the albums "Sailor", "Brave New World", "Your Saving Grace", "Number 5", "Rock Love", "Fly Like an Eagle", "Book of Dreams", among others. The band's "Greatest Hits 1974–78", released in 1978, sold over 13 million copies. In 2016, Steve Miller was inducted as a solo artist in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: In 1965, after moving to Chicago to play the blues, Steve Miller and keyboardist Barry Goldberg founded the Goldberg-Miller Blues Band along with bassist Roy Ruby, rhythm guitarist Craymore Stevens, and drummer Maurice McKinley. The band contracted to Epic Records and recorded a single, "The Mother Song", which they performed on "Hullabaloo", before Miller left the group and moved to San Francisco.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: Miller then formed The Steve Miller Blues Band. Harvey Kornspan, managing partner, wrote and negotiated the band's contract ($860,000 over five years as well as $25,000 of promotion money that was to be spent at the band's discretion) with Capitol/EMI Records then-president Alan Livingston in 1967. Shortly after, the band's name was shortened to The Steve Miller Band at the recommendation of George Martin in order to broaden its appeal. The band, consisting of Miller, guitarist James Cooke, bassist Lonnie Turner, drummer Tim Davis (who replaced the departing Lance Haas on drums) and Jim Peterman on Hammond B3 organ, backed Chuck Berry at a gig at the Fillmore Auditorium that was released as the live album, "Live at Fillmore Auditorium". Guitarist Boz Scaggs joined the band soon after and the group performed at the Magic Mountain Festival (festival was held June 10/11, 1967) and the following week at the Monterey Pop Festival (festival was held June 16/17/18, 1967).


title: Steve Miller Band

text: In March 1968, while in England, the band recorded their debut album, "Children of the Future", at Olympic studios with Glyn Johns as engineer/producer. The album did not score among the Top 100 album chart. The visit itself got off to a poor start also as the group and their entourage were arrested for 'importing drugs and possession of a dangerous firearm'. Kornspan's wife had called Johns asking if he would appear as a character witness in the magistrate's court the day after the arrest and, hopefully, stand bail for them. Johns agreed and the group was released on condition that Johns would 'stand surety for their good behavior' for the rest of their time in England. Both accusations were dropped. The 'dangerous firearm' turned out to be a non-working flare gun that was being used as a wall decoration in the house where the group was staying. The 'imported drugs' happened to be some hash that was buried in the middle of a large fruitcake that had been sent to the group by a stateside friend, totally unbeknownst to anyone in the group.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: The second album "Sailor" appeared in October 1968 and climbed the "Billboard" chart to . Successes included the single "Living in the USA." "Brave New World" (, 1969) featured the songs "Space Cowboy" and "My Dark Hour". Paul McCartney, credited as "Paul Ramon", played drums, bass and sang backing vocals on "My Dark Hour". This was followed by "Your Saving Grace" (, 1969) and "Number 5" (, 1970). In 1971, Miller broke his neck in a car accident. Capitol Records released the album "Rock Love", featuring unreleased live performances and studio material. This is one of two Steve Miller Band albums not to be released on CD, the other being "Recall the Beginning...A Journey from Eden". In 1972, the double album compilation "Anthology" was released, containing 16 songs from the band's first six of seven albums.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: The style and personnel of the band changed radically with "The Joker" (, 1973), concentrating on straightforward rock and leaving the psychedelic blues side of the band behind. The title track, "The Joker", became a single and was certified platinum, reaching over one million sales. It was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA on January 11, 1974.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: Three years later, the band returned with the album "Fly Like an Eagle", which charted at . Three singles were released from the album: "Take the Money and Run" (), "Fly Like an Eagle" () and their second success, "Rock'n Me". Miller credits the guitar introduction to "Rock'n Me" as a tribute to the Free song, "All Right Now".


title: Steve Miller Band

text: "Book of Dreams" (, 1977) also included three successes: "Jet Airliner" (), "Jungle Love" () (later becoming the song played over the opening credits of the 8th season of the sitcom "Everybody Loves Raymond"), and "Swingtown" (). 1982's "Abracadabra" album gave Steve Miller his third success with the title track. Miller's hit pushed Chicago's "Hard to Say I'm Sorry" out of the spot, just as his "Rock'n Me" had knocked Chicago's "If You Leave Me Now" out of the spot in 1976.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: "Bingo!", an album of blues and R&B covers, was released on June 15, 2010. "Let Your Hair Down", a companion release to "Bingo!", was released 10 months later, on April 18, 2011.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: Founding member Tim Davis died from complications due to diabetes on September 20, 1988, at the age of 44. Long-time band member Norton Buffalo died from lung cancer on October 30, 2009. John King (drummer during "The Joker" era) died after a short bout with kidney cancer on October 26, 2010. James Cooke died from cancer on 16 May 2011. Original bassist Lonnie Turner died from lung cancer on April 28, 2013. His time with the band led to songs such as Jet Airliner, Swingtown, Take the Money And Run, Jungle Love and many more. Blues guitarist Jacob Peterson officially joined the band before the Spring 2011 tour. Following Petersen joining the band, longtime guitarist Kenny Lee Lewis switched instruments to become the band's full-time bassist. In 2014, Steve Miller Band toured with fellow San Francisco rock band Journey.


title: Steve Miller Band

text: When it was announced that Steve Miller would be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a solo artist without his band, Miller told "Rolling Stone", "It wasn’t my decision, and I didn’t have any input into any of it. If they had asked me what do, I think I would have said, 'Here’s a list of everyone that was ever in my band. They all ought to be here.'"


title: Steve Miller Band

text: The group has been releasing albums and singles since 1968 and currently has released 18 studio albums, six live albums, seven (official) compilation albums, and at least 29 singles.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophyll (also chlorophyl) is any of several related green pigments found in cyanobacteria and in the chloroplasts of algae and plants. Its name is derived from the Greek words , ("pale green") and , ("leaf"). Chlorophyll allow plants to absorb energy from light.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophylls absorb light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as well as the red portion. Conversely, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the spectrum. Hence chlorophyll-containing tissues appear green because green light, diffusively reflected by structures like cell walls, is less absorbed. Two types of chlorophyll exist in the photosystems of green plants: chlorophyll "a" and "b".


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophyll was first isolated and named by Joseph Bienaimé Caventou and Pierre Joseph Pelletier in 1817.


title: Chlorophyll

text: The presence of magnesium in chlorophyll was discovered in 1906, and was that element's first detection in living tissue.


title: Chlorophyll

text: After initial work done by German chemist Richard Willstätter spanning from 1905 to 1915, the general structure of chlorophyll "a" was elucidated by Hans Fischer in 1940. By 1960, when most of the stereochemistry of chlorophyll "a" was known, Robert Burns Woodward published a total synthesis of the molecule. In 1967, the last remaining stereochemical elucidation was completed by Ian Fleming, and in 1990 Woodward and co-authors published an updated synthesis. Chlorophyll "f" was announced to be present in cyanobacteria and other oxygenic microorganisms that form stromatolites in 2010; a molecular formula of CHONMg and a structure of (2-formyl)-chlorophyll "a" were deduced based on NMR, optical and mass spectra.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophyll molecules are arranged in and around photosystems that are embedded in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. In these complexes, chlorophyll serves three functions:


title: Chlorophyll

text: The two currently accepted photosystem units are and which have their own distinct reaction centres, named P700 and P680, respectively. These centres are named after the wavelength (in nanometers) of their red-peak absorption maximum. The identity, function and spectral properties of the types of chlorophyll in each photosystem are distinct and determined by each other and the protein structure surrounding them.


title: Chlorophyll

text: The function of the reaction center of chlorophyll is to absorb light energy and transfer it to other parts of the photosystem. The absorbed energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in a process called charge separation. The removal of the electron from the chlorophyll is an oxidation reaction. The chlorophyll donates the high energy electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron, via many intermediates in the thylakoid membrane, by electrons coming, ultimately, from Photosystem II. Electron transfer reactions in the thylakoid membranes are complex, however, and the source of electrons used to reduce P700 can vary.


title: Chlorophyll

text: The electron flow produced by the reaction center chlorophyll pigments is used to pump H ions across the thylakoid membrane, setting up a proton-motive force a chemiosmotic potential used mainly in the production of ATP (stored chemical energy) or to reduce NADP to NADPH. NADPH is a universal agent used to reduce CO into sugars as well as other biosynthetic reactions.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Reaction center chlorophyll–protein complexes are capable of directly absorbing light and performing charge separation events without the assistance of other chlorophyll pigments, but the probability of that happening under a given light intensity is small. Thus, the other chlorophylls in the photosystem and antenna pigment proteins all cooperatively absorb and funnel light energy to the reaction center. Besides chlorophyll "a", there are other pigments, called accessory pigments, which occur in these pigment–protein antenna complexes.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Several chlorophylls are known. All are defined as derivatives of the parent chlorin by the presence of a fifth, ketone-containing ring beyond the four pyrrole-like rings. Most chlorophylls are classified as chlorins, which are reduced relatives of porphyrins (found in hemoglobin). They share a common biosynthetic pathway with porphyrins, including the precursor uroporphyrinogen III. Unlike hemes, which contain iron bound to the N4 center, most chlorophylls bind magnesium. The axial ligands attached to the Mg center are often omitted for clarity. Appended to the chlorin ring are various side chains, usually including a long phytyl chain (). The most widely distributed form in terrestrial plants is chlorophyll "a". The only difference between chlorophyll "a" and chlorophyll "b" is that the former has a methyl group where the latter has a formyl group. This difference causes a considerable difference in the absorption spectrum, allowing plants to absorb a greater portion of visible light.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophylls can be extracted from the protein into organic solvents. In this way, the concentration of chlorophyll within a leaf can be estimated. Methods also exist to separate chlorophyll "a" and chlorophyll "b".


title: Chlorophyll

text: In diethyl ether, chlorophyll "a" has approximate absorbance maxima of 430 nm and 662 nm, while chlorophyll "b" has approximate maxima of 453 nm and 642 nm. The absorption peaks of chlorophyll "a" are at 465 nm and 665 nm. Chlorophyll "a" fluoresces at 673 nm (maximum) and 726 nm. The peak molar absorption coefficient of chlorophyll "a" exceeds 10 M cm, which is among the highest for small-molecule organic compounds. In 90% acetone-water, the peak absorption wavelengths of chlorophyll "a" are 430 nm and 664 nm; peaks for chlorophyll "b" are 460 nm and 647 nm; peaks for chlorophyll "c" are 442 nm and 630 nm; peaks for chlorophyll "c" are 444 nm and 630 nm; peaks for chlorophyll "d" are 401 nm, 455 nm and 696 nm.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Ratio fluorescence emission can be used to measure chlorophyll content. By exciting chlorophyll "a" fluorescence at a lower wavelength, the ratio of chlorophyll fluorescence emission at and can provide a linear relationship of chlorophyll content when compared with chemical testing. The ratio "F"/"F" provided a correlation value of "r" 0.96 compared with chemical testing in the range from 41 mg m up to 675 mg m. Gitelson also developed a formula for direct readout of chlorophyll content in mg m. The formula provided a reliable method of measuring chlorophyll content from 41 mg m up to 675 mg m with a correlation "r" value of 0.95.


title: Chlorophyll

text: In some plants, chlorophyll is derived from glutamate and is synthesised along a branched biosynthetic pathway that is shared with heme and siroheme.


title: Chlorophyll

text: This converion forms an ester of the carboxylic acid group in chlorophyllide "a" with the 20-carbon diterpene alcohol phytol. Chlorophyll "b" is made by the same enzyme acting on chlorophyllide "b".


title: Chlorophyll

text: In Angiosperm plants, the later steps in the biosynthetic pathway are light-dependent. Such plants are pale (etiolated) if grown in darkness. Non-vascular plants and green algae have an additional light-independent enzyme and grow green even in darkness.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Chlorophyll is bound to proteins. Protochlorophyllide, one of the biosynthetic intermediates, occurs mostly in the free form and, under light conditions, acts as a photosensitizer, forming free radicals, which can be toxic to the plant. Hence, plants regulate the amount of this chlorophyll precursor. In angiosperms, this regulation is achieved at the step of aminolevulinic acid (ALA), one of the intermediate compounds in the biosynthesis pathway. Plants that are fed by ALA accumulate high and toxic levels of protochlorophyllide; so do the mutants with a damaged regulatory system.


title: Chlorophyll

text: The process of plant senescence involves the degradation of chlorophyll: for example the enzyme chlorophyllase () hydrolyses the phytyl sidechain to reverse the reaction in which chlorophylls are biosynthesised from chlorophyllide "a" or "b". Since chlorophyllide "a" can be converted to chlorophyllide "b" and the latter can be re-esterified to chlorophyll "b", these processes allow cycling between chlorophylls "a" and "b". Moreover, chlorophyll "b" can be directly reduced (via ) back to chlorophyll "a", completing the cycle.


title: Chlorophyll

text: In later stages of senescence, chlorophyllides are converted to a group of colourless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCC's) with the general structure:


title: Chlorophyll

text: These compounds have also been identified in ripening fruits and they give characteristic autumn colours to deciduous plants.


title: Chlorophyll

text: The chlorophyll maps show milligrams of chlorophyll per cubic meter of seawater each month. Places where chlorophyll amounts were very low, indicating very low numbers of phytoplankton, are blue. Places where chlorophyll concentrations were high, meaning many phytoplankton were growing, are yellow. The observations come from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Aqua satellite. Land is dark gray, and places where MODIS could not collect data because of sea ice, polar darkness, or clouds are light gray. The highest chlorophyll concentrations, where tiny surface-dwelling ocean plants are thriving, are in cold polar waters or in places where ocean currents bring cold water to the surface, such as around the equator and along the shores of continents. It is not the cold water itself that stimulates the phytoplankton. Instead, the cool temperatures are often a sign that the water has welled up to the surface from deeper in the ocean, carrying nutrients that have built up over time. In polar waters, nutrients accumulate in surface waters during the dark winter months when plants cannot grow. When sunlight returns in the spring and summer, the plants flourish in high concentrations.


title: Chlorophyll

text: Synthetic chlorophyll is registered as a food additive colorant, and its E number is E140. Chefs use chlorophyll to color a variety of foods and beverages green, such as pasta and spirits. Absinthe gains its green color naturally from the chlorophyll introduced through the large variety of herbs used in its production. Chlorophyll is not soluble in water, and it is first mixed with a small quantity of vegetable oil to obtain the desired solution.


title: Chlorophyll

text: A 2002 study found that "leaves exposed to strong light contained degraded major antenna proteins, unlike those kept in the dark, which is consistent with studies on the illumination of isolated proteins". This appeared to the authors as support for the hypothesis that "active oxygen species play a role in vivo" in the short-term behaviour of plants.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: Jana Gana Mana () is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language legal thriller film directed by Dijo Jose Antony and starring Prithviraj Sukumaran, Suraj Venjaramoodu, Pasupathi Raj, G. M. Sundar, Mamta Mohandas, Sri Divya. The film was released on 28 April 2022 which received positive reviews for narrative style, cast performances and technical aspects.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: The possible murder of Prof. Saba Mariyam, a strong and socially-responsible college professor, from the Central University in Ramanagara, leads to protests organized by the college students led by Gouri Lakshmi, who wants to seek justice for Saba's death. They get brutally suppressed by the state police. This incident evokes strong protests and demonstrations against police brutality across the country. Under pressure, the Karnataka government appoints ACP Sajjan Kumar to solve Saba Mariyam's murder case.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: When Sajjan starts investigating the case, He finds that four people had burnt her to death and arrests them, but before he could present them before the court, he gets taken off the case. This is because of certain wheels that have been turned in the top police tiers, as a consequence of the political connections of the accused. Out of desperation that they might escape judicial punishment, Sajjan takes them to a location under the guise of recreating the crime for evidence and shoots them to death. The encounter leads to Sajjan becoming a hero in the eyes of the public. However, a few Human rights activists files a complaint against the encounter, which leads to a court case.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: The defence is represented by Adv. Aravind Swaminathan, who reveals to the court and the entire country that this entire case was a huge plot by the Karnataka government to retain their position in the coming elections and the mastermind behind the plan was Sajjan. In reality, Saba was killed by a fellow colleague Vydharshan, against whom she had filed charges for treating Vidya, a student badly because of her caste and her subsequent suicide, by running his car over her and that this mere hit and run case had become the national headline the very next day. When this news reached the Home Minister Nageshwara Rao, he got advised by Sajjan to use this as an opportunity to gain popular support in the coming elections as the IB reports states that Nageshwara Rao's party will lose power.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: Sajjan gets arrested but, again in another turn of events, it is revealed that it was Sajjan himself who gave all the details of his wrongdoings to Aravind through his fellow police officer Murthy, out of guilt. This was his chance at redemption. Sajjan is now in prison where Murthy meets him and reveals about Vydharshan's arrest and Aravind's past. Aravind was a former DCP who went against Nageshwara Rao and suffered personal losses of losing his wife Padma and was sent to prison on false charges. After learning about Saba's case from Murthy, Aravind used this case to destroy Nageshwara Rao's life as vengeance. Aravind gets rid of his crutches and prepares himself to kill Nageshwara Rao.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: The film is produced by Supriya Menon and Listin Stephen. The film stars Prithviraj Sukumaran, Suraj Venjaramoodu, Pasupathi Raj, G. M. Sundar and Mamta Mohandas.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: "Jana Gana Mana" released on 28 April 2022. The film was previously scheduled to release in late 2021, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic in India. The film was released in Malayalam along with the dubbed version in Tamil, Telugu and Kannada.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: The digital streaming rights of the film were bought by Netflix and streaming started from 2 June 2022.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: "Jana Gana Mana" received positive reviews from critics and audience alike. Deepa Soman of The Times of India gave the film 3.5 out of 5 writing "Those who love a good political crime thriller inspired from real-life incidents can feast on Jana Gana Mana, that teaches you to think, question, challenge and more as a common man who consumes news at its face value." Pinkvilla gave 3.5/5 and wrote, An engaging Social drama about social conscience and asking the right questions. The Indian Express wrote "Prithviraj steals the show in this preachy and patronising political thriller". The New Indian express wrote "Prithviraj-starrer is an epic, high-impact political thriller". Ancy K Sunny of The Week rated 3.5 out of 5 and wrote "Suraj Venjaramoodu steals the show in a thought-provoking political thriller". Sreeju Sudhakaran of LatestLY gave the film a rating of 3/5 and wrote "Prithviraj Sukumaran, Suraj Venjaramoodu's Film Makes All The Right Noises in a Wobbly, Cramped Screenplay".


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: The film is loosely based on several real-life incidents of extrajudicial killings in India, including the 2016 suicide of Rohith Vemula, 2018 murder of a tribal man in Kerala, the 2019 Hyderabad gang rape case and the 2019 suicide of Fathima Latheef.


title: Jana Gana Mana (2022 film)

text: On 29 March 2022, during the press event of the film, Prithviraj revealed that the pre-production works of the sequel of the film had already begun. He also revealed that the visuals featured in the teaser and trailer of the movie were from the second part of the film. The first part would primarily feature flashback sequences while the second part would feature the story taking place during the current time.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Poorna Jagannathan is an American producer and actress of Indian descent. She is best known for her portrayal of Safar Khan in the HBO drama miniseries "The Night Of", as well for her role as Nalini Vishwakumar in the Netflix teen comedy series "Never Have I Ever" by Mindy Kaling. She also co-conceived, produced and acted in the play "Nirbhaya", written and directed by Yael Farber. Dealing with sexual violence, the play won the prestigious 2013 Amnesty International Award and was called by The Telegraph as the "One of the most powerful pieces of theater you'll ever see". It's also considered one of the most impactful moments in India's history of women's empowerment.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Her father, G. Jagannathan, was an Indian diplomat. Poorna was born in Tunis, Tunisia and grew up in Pakistan, Ireland, India, Brazil and Argentina. She speaks Tamil, Hindi, English, Spanish and Portuguese. She attended the University of Brasília before graduating in journalism from the University of Maryland, College Park. On a scholarship, she began a Master of Fine Arts in acting at the Actors Studio Drama School at Pace University. Although she dropped out after the first year, she continued to study acting under her mentor, Elizabeth Kemp, whom she met there. Poorna went on to train at The Barrow Group where she is currently a board and company member and cites the The Barrow Group as the place she learned how to become a professional, working actor. Before her career as an actor, Poorna spent 15 years working in advertising at agencies like TBWA\Worldwide, Ogilvy, and Deutsch Inc. before starting her own consultancy, Cowgirls & Indians.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Poorna has appeared on several TV shows like "Big Little Lies", "Better Call Saul" and "Ramy". She played Blacklister #44 on "The Blacklist", and appeared as the guest lead on "" for their 18th year's double-season-finale episodes. In 2017, she played one of the leads in A24's film "Share". "Share" premiered at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival, winning Best Screenplay and Best Actor, and was immediately acquired by HBO.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Poorna also won critical acclaim for her role as a spunky, irreverent journalist in the 2011 Bollywood film "Delhi Belly". "The Village Voice" said that "the most enjoyably subversive element is Poorna Jagannathan as the self-sufficient bachelorette who waylays Tashi on his way to the altar. Rangy, corkscrew-haired, with a wary demeanor that can't long be upset by anything, she's a happy departure from the usual run of Xeroxed, pedestaled beauties." "Mumbai Mirror" said, "Poorna Jagannathan, an offbeat choice, is remarkably subtle and does a brilliant job." The "Daily News and Analysis" said that Poorna shines in the film, and that "her bohemian sex appeal" is "a refreshing change from the prim and proper 'heroine' we are used to watching." The editor of "Outlook Lounge" said that Poorna's performance was a "masterclass in effortless acting". In 2019, "Delhi Belly" was named one of the top 25 Bollywood movies of the decade by FilmCompanion.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: In 2012, Deadline.com reported that Poorna had joined the cast of the HBO show "The Night Of" as a series regular. Her performance in "The Night Of" received rave reviews; Vinnie Mancuso of "Observer" wrote, "Poorna Jagannathan, who has been putting in one of the year's most heartbreaking performances, continues to shine..." Vikram Murthi from "Vulture" wrote "Poorna Jagannathan's subtle performance really shines ... Her facial reactions convey such a profound array of emotions." "Variety" Sonia Saraiya wrote that her performance was "quietly devastating".


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: In September 2016, it was announced that Poorna had joined the cast of "Gypsy" as a series regular. The Netflix produced series was led by Naomi Watts but was not renewed for another season. In May 2018, Deadline announced that Poorna had joined the cast of the HBO series "Big Little Lies" as a recurring character named Katie Richmond.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Poorna's comic performance in "Room 104" was widely praised by critics. Kathryn VanArendonk of "Vulture" wrote, "But Jagannathan's Divya is even better. Even without a physical presence, Divya is still immediately recognizable as a character. At times she's breezily unconcerned, at other moments, she's sharply chastising her son for his brusqueness. Her delivery is the bedrock of the episode's sense of humor."


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: She is currently a series regular on Mindy Kaling's "Never Have I Ever", which debuted in 2020 and went on to win the People's Choice Awards for all three seasons consecutively. Poorna's performance as Nalini Vishwakumar was lauded by critics and her nuanced portrayal of an immigrant woman has been regarded as groundbreaking and a first for television. Sonia Saraiya from "Vanity Fair" said, "I’ve seen a lot of actors attempt to flesh out the stereotypically demanding Indian mom, but I’ve never seen anyone do it as well as Jagannathan does... It’s the little things: the nearly untraceable Indian accent, the mumbled exclamations in a different language, the slight gestures and paranoiac side-eyes of the Indian aunty, the seemingly effortless bridging of the paradox between ancient tradition and modern necessity." Jinal Bhatt from Mashable.com wrote, "Poorna Jagannathan has been a revelation in this series, and I’d say she puts forth one of the best portrayals of Indian-American mothers we’ve seen. Some of the #JustMomThings she says penetrate through the screen and hit you while you watch! But her dynamic with Devi is beautiful in the subtext." John Anderson from "The Wall Street Journal" said that she "is a hilarious mix of Indian tradition, widowhood, creeping Americanization and the flat delivery of a sentencing judge." Delia Cai from "Vanity Fair" says, "By following Nalini’s story beyond the basic assimilation arc and exploring her character via universal themes of parenting, loss, and intergenerational family ties, we get a fully three-dimensional character who is easily the best part of the show."


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: In 2018, Poorna lent her voice to three podcasts in the "Good Night Stories for Rebel Girls" series, based on "The New York Times Best Seller list" books by Elena Favilli and Francesca Cavallo. She read the stories of Mary Kom, Margaret Hamilton and Madam C. J. Walker. The series was named among the 50 best podcasts for 2018 by "Time" and won the 2019 People's Choice Podcast Award in the Education category.


title: Poorna Jagannathan

text: Moved by a gang rape and murder in Delhi on December 16, 2012, Poorna initiated, produced and acted in a testimonial play called "Nirbhaya" (, a pseudonym given to the victim). The play uses the rape and death of Jyoti Singh Pandey to break the silence around sexual violence. Poorna collaborated with internationally acclaimed playwright and director, Yaël Farber, to build the play. "Nirbhaya" opened at the Assembly Hall in August 2013 during the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. It won the coveted 2013 Amnesty International Award as well as the Scotsman Fringe First and Herald Angel Awards.and received excellent reviews from leading publications. The "Sunday Herald" called "Nirbhaya" "One of the most powerful and urgent pieces of human rights theatre ever made". In March 2014, "Nirbhaya" was the centerpiece performance for Southbank's "Women of the World" festival where it played to sold-out houses in the UK. After a successful Kickstarter campaign to fund an India tour, "Nirbhaya" opened to critical acclaim in India on March 17, 2014, playing to sold-out houses in Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore. In August 2014, "The Guardian" audiences voted "Nirbhaya" among the top 10 "best fringe moments" in the Edinburgh Festival's history. "Nirbhaya" opened to rave reviews at The Culture Project in New York City in May 2015, and rose to become "The New York Times" Critics' Pick. The play toured for three years in multiple cities in Ireland, Canada, the UK, India and the U.S. Many reviewers stated that it was one of the most political and deeply moving pieces of theater ever made. "Nirbhaya" is considered one of the most impactful moments in India's history of the women's empowerment movement.


title: Virtual machine

text: In computing, a virtual machine (VM) is the virtualization/emulation of a computer system. Virtual machines are based on computer architectures and provide functionality of a physical computer. Their implementations may involve specialized hardware, software, or a combination.


title: Virtual machine

text: Some virtual machine emulators, such as QEMU and video game console emulators, are designed to also emulate (or "virtually imitate") different system architectures thus allowing execution of software applications and operating systems written for another CPU or architecture. Operating-system-level virtualization allows the resources of a computer to be partitioned via the kernel. The terms are not universally interchangeable.


title: Virtual machine

text: A "virtual machine" was originally defined by Popek and Goldberg as "an efficient, isolated duplicate of a real computer machine." Current use includes virtual machines that have no direct correspondence to any real hardware.


title: Virtual machine

text: The physical, "real-world" hardware running the VM is generally referred to as the 'host', and the virtual machine emulated on that machine is generally referred to as the 'guest'. A host can emulate several guests, each of which can emulate different operating systems and hardware platforms.


title: Virtual machine

text: The desire to run multiple operating systems was the initial motive for virtual machines, so as to allow time-sharing among several single-tasking operating systems. In some respects, a system virtual machine can be considered a generalization of the concept of virtual memory that historically preceded it. IBM's CP/CMS, the first systems to allow full virtualization, implemented time sharing by providing each user with a single-user operating system, the Conversational Monitor System (CMS). Unlike virtual memory, a system virtual machine entitled the user to write privileged instructions in their code. This approach had certain advantages, such as adding input/output devices not allowed by the standard system.


title: Virtual machine

text: As technology evolves virtual memory for purposes of virtualization, new systems of memory overcommitment may be applied to manage memory sharing among multiple virtual machines on one computer operating system. It may be possible to share "memory pages" that have identical contents among multiple virtual machines that run on the same physical machine, what may result in mapping them to the same physical page by a technique termed kernel same-page merging (KSM). This is especially useful for read-only pages, such as those holding code segments, which is the case for multiple virtual machines running the same or similar software, software libraries, web servers, middleware components, etc. The guest operating systems do not need to be compliant with the host hardware, thus making it possible to run different operating systems on the same computer (e.g., Windows, Linux, or prior versions of an operating system) to support future software.


title: Virtual machine

text: The use of virtual machines to support separate guest operating systems is popular in regard to embedded systems. A typical use would be to run a real-time operating system simultaneously with a preferred complex operating system, such as Linux or Windows. Another use would be for novel and unproven software still in the developmental stage, so it runs inside a sandbox. Virtual machines have other advantages for operating system development and may include improved debugging access and faster reboots.


title: Virtual machine

text: Multiple VMs running their own guest operating system are frequently engaged for server consolidation.


title: Virtual machine

text: A process VM, sometimes called an "application virtual machine", or "Managed Runtime Environment" (MRE), runs as a normal application inside a host OS and supports a single process. It is created when that process is started and destroyed when it exits. Its purpose is to provide a platform-independent programming environment that abstracts away details of the underlying hardware or operating system and allows a program to execute in the same way on any platform.


title: Virtual machine

text: A process VM provides a high-level abstraction that of a high-level programming language (compared to the low-level ISA abstraction of the system VM). Process VMs are implemented using an interpreter; performance comparable to compiled programming languages can be achieved by the use of just-in-time compilation.


title: Virtual machine

text: This type of VM has become popular with the Java programming language, which is implemented using the Java virtual machine. Other examples include the Parrot virtual machine and the .NET Framework, which runs on a VM called the Common Language Runtime. All of them can serve as an abstraction layer for any computer language.


title: Virtual machine

text: A special case of process VMs are systems that abstract over the communication mechanisms of a (potentially heterogeneous) computer cluster. Such a VM does not consist of a single process, but one process per physical machine in the cluster. They are designed to ease the task of programming concurrent applications by letting the programmer focus on algorithms rather than the communication mechanisms provided by the interconnect and the OS. They do not hide the fact that communication takes place, and as such do not attempt to present the cluster as a single machine.


title: Virtual machine

text: Unlike other process VMs, these systems do not provide a specific programming language, but are embedded in an existing language; typically such a system provides bindings for several languages (e.g., C and Fortran). Examples are Parallel Virtual Machine (PVM) and Message Passing Interface (MPI). They are not strictly virtual machines because the applications running on top still have access to all OS services and are therefore not confined to the system model.


title: Virtual machine

text: Both system virtual machines and process virtual machines date to the 1960s and continue to be areas of active development.


title: Virtual machine

text: "System virtual machines" grew out of time-sharing, as notably implemented in the Compatible Time-Sharing System (CTSS). Time-sharing allowed multiple users to use a computer concurrently: each program appeared to have full access to the machine, but only one program was executed at the time, with the system switching between programs in time slices, saving and restoring state each time. This evolved into virtual machines, notably via IBM's research systems: the M44/44X, which used partial virtualization, and the CP-40 and SIMMON, which used full virtualization, and were early examples of hypervisors. The first widely available virtual machine architecture was the CP-67/CMS (see History of CP/CMS for details). An important distinction was between using multiple virtual machines on one host system for time-sharing, as in M44/44X and CP-40, and using one virtual machine on a host system for prototyping, as in SIMMON. Emulators, with hardware emulation of earlier systems for compatibility, date back to the IBM System/360 in 1963, while the software emulation (then-called "simulation") predates it.


title: Virtual machine

text: "Process virtual machines" arose originally as abstract platforms for an intermediate language used as the intermediate representation of a program by a compiler; early examples date to around 1966. An early 1966 example was the O-code machine, a virtual machine that executes O-code (object code) emitted by the front end of the BCPL compiler. This abstraction allowed the compiler to be easily ported to a new architecture by implementing a new back end that took the existing O-code and compiled it to machine code for the underlying physical machine. The Euler language used a similar design, with the intermediate language named "P" (portable). This was popularized around 1970 by Pascal, notably in the Pascal-P system (1973) and Pascal-S compiler (1975), in which it was termed p-code and the resulting machine as a p-code machine. This has been influential, and virtual machines in this sense have been often generally called p-code machines. In addition to being an intermediate language, Pascal p-code was also executed directly by an interpreter implementing the virtual machine, notably in UCSD Pascal (1978); this influenced later interpreters, notably the Java virtual machine (JVM). Another early example was SNOBOL4 (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual machine, which was then targeted to physical machines by transpiling to their native assembler via a macro assembler. Macros have since fallen out of favor, however, so this approach has been less influential. Process virtual machines were a popular approach to implementing early microcomputer software, including Tiny BASIC and adventure games, from one-off implementations such as Pyramid 2000 to a general-purpose engine like Infocom's z-machine, which Graham Nelson argues is "possibly the most portable virtual machine ever created".


title: Virtual machine

text: which pushed just-in-time (JIT) compilation forward as an implementation approach that uses process virtual machine.


title: Virtual machine

text: A related language that produced a lot of virtual machine innovation was the Self programming language, which pioneered adaptive optimization and generational garbage collection. These techniques proved commercially successful in 1999 in the HotSpot Java virtual machine.


title: Virtual machine

text: Other innovations include having a register-based virtual machine, to better match the underlying hardware, rather than a stack-based virtual machine, which is a closer match for the programming language; in 1995, this was pioneered by the Dis virtual machine for the Limbo language. OpenJ9 is an alternative for HotSpot JVM in OpenJDK and is an open source eclipse project claiming better startup and less resource consumption compared to HotSpot.


title: Virtual machine

text: In full virtualization, the virtual machine simulates enough hardware to allow an unmodified "guest" OS (one designed for the same instruction set) to be run in isolation. This approach was pioneered in 1966 with the IBM CP-40 and CP-67, predecessors of the VM family.


title: Virtual machine

text: Examples outside the mainframe field include Parallels Workstation, Parallels Desktop for Mac, VirtualBox, Virtual Iron, Oracle VM, Virtual PC, Virtual Server, Hyper-V, VMware Workstation, VMware Server (discontinued, formerly called GSX Server), VMware ESXi, QEMU, Adeos, Mac-on-Linux, Win4BSD, Win4Lin Pro, and Egenera vBlade technology.


title: Virtual machine

text: In hardware-assisted virtualization, the hardware provides architectural support that facilitates building a virtual machine monitor and allows guest OSes to be run in isolation.


title: Virtual machine

text: Hardware-assisted virtualization was first introduced on the IBM System/370 in 1972, for use with VM/370, the first virtual machine operating system offered by IBM as an official product.


title: Virtual machine

text: In 2005 and 2006, Intel and AMD provided additional hardware to support virtualization. Sun Microsystems (now Oracle Corporation) added similar features in their UltraSPARC T-Series processors in 2005. Examples of virtualization platforms adapted to such hardware include KVM, VMware Workstation, VMware Fusion, Hyper-V, Windows Virtual PC, Xen, Parallels Desktop for Mac, Oracle VM Server for SPARC, VirtualBox and Parallels Workstation.


title: Virtual machine

text: In 2006, first-generation 32- and 64-bit x86 hardware support was found to rarely offer performance advantages over software virtualization.


title: Virtual machine

text: In operating-system-level virtualization, a physical server is virtualized at the operating system level, enabling multiple isolated and secure virtualized servers to run on a single physical server. The "guest" operating system environments share the same running instance of the operating system as the host system. Thus, the same operating system kernel is also used to implement the "guest" environments, and applications running in a given "guest" environment view it as a stand-alone system. The pioneer implementation was FreeBSD jails; other examples include Docker, Solaris Containers, OpenVZ, Linux-VServer, LXC, AIX Workload Partitions, Parallels Virtuozzo Containers, and iCore Virtual Accounts.


title: Wix.com

text: Wix.com Ltd. () is an Israeli software company, publicly listed in the US, that provides cloud-based web development services. It allows users to create HTML5 websites and mobile sites through the use of online drag and drop tools. Along with its headquarters and other offices in Israel, Wix also has offices in Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Ireland, Japan, Lithuania, Poland, the Netherlands, the United States, Ukraine, and Singapore.


title: Wix.com

text: Users can use applications for social media, e-commerce, online marketing, contact forms, e-mail marketing, and community forums to their web sites. The Wix website builder is built on a freemium business model, earning its revenues through premium upgrades. According to W3Techs, Wix is used by 2.3% of the top 10 million websites.


title: Wix.com

text: Wix was founded in 2006 by Israeli developers Avishai Abrahami, Nadav Abrahami, and Giora Kaplan. Headquartered in Tel Aviv, Wix was backed by investors Insight Venture Partners, Mangrove Capital Partners, Bessemer Venture Partners, DAG Ventures, and Benchmark Capital. The company entered an open beta phase in 2007 using a platform based on Adobe Flash.


title: Wix.com

text: By April 2010 Wix had 3.5 million users and raised US$10 million in Series C funding provided by Benchmark Capital and existing investors Bessemer Venture Partners and Mangrove Capital Partners. In March 2011, Wix had 8.5 million users and raised US$40 million in Series D funding, bringing its total funding to that date to US$61 million.


title: Wix.com

text: In June 2011, Wix launched the Facebook store module, making its first step into the social commerce trend. In March 2012, Wix launched a new HTML5 site builder, replacing the Adobe Flash technology. In October 2012, Wix launched an app market for users to sell applications built with the company's automated web development technology. Wix's software development kit lets app developers create and offer web apps to Wix users.


title: Wix.com

text: On 15 May 2014, Wix launched the WixHive API which allows Wix apps within a user web site to capture and share their visitor data (such as contact information, messages, purchases and bookings) with other installed apps within the same web site.


title: Wix.com

text: In August 2014, Wix launched Wix Hotels, a booking system for hotels, bed and breakfasts, and vacation rentals which use Wix websites. Wix Music was launched in 2015 as a platform for independent musicians to market and sell their music. Wix Restaurants was launched in 2016.


title: Wix.com

text: In December 2017, Wix Code, an API for adding database collections and custom JavaScript scripting, was released. In March 2020, Wix Code was re-branded to Corvid API, and then in January 2021 re-branded from Corvid to Velo, to avoid resemblance to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Wix.com

text: In December 2018, Wix launched Ascend by Wix, a suite of 20 products that lets entrepreneurs start, manage and promote a business directly from the Wix web development platform.


title: Wix.com

text: Wix introduced Wix Fitness, an all-in-one solution for fitness entrepreneurs to grow and promote their business and manage customer relationships in November 2019.


title: Wix.com

text: In February 2020, Wix unveiled Editor X, a new platform to offer advanced capabilities for designers and web agencies.


title: Wix.com

text: As of June 2020, with the continuous improvement to its features updates and releases, Wix claimed it had more than 180 million registered users from 190 countries around the world.


title: Wix.com

text: At the end of 2020, and as a result of Adobe's decision to end their support for the Flash Player, Wix stopped allowing their users to create websites in the Flash Editor as well as getting support for the Flash sites and deleting all the Flash sites, thus officially ending the life of Wix's first product.


title: Wix.com

text: In 2021, Wix partnered with Vistaprint and then partnered with LegalZoom a year later to better support entrepreneurs starting a business.


title: Wix.com

text: On 5 November 2013, Wix had an initial public offering on NASDAQ, raising about US$127 million for the company and some share holders.


title: Wix.com

text: In April 2014, Wix announced the acquisition of Appixia, an Israeli startup for creating native mobile commerce (mCommerce) apps. In October 2014, Wix announced its acquisition of OpenRest, a developer of online ordering systems for restaurants.


title: Wix.com

text: In February 2020, Wix acquired Inkfrog for eBay sellers to enable marketplace and sales channel integrations.


title: Wix.com

text: In May 2021, Wix acquired Rise.ai, the gift card and customer re-engagement solution for online brands. A month later, Wix acquired Modalyst, a leading marketplace and dropshipping platform.


title: Wix.com

text: Users must purchase premium packages to connect their sites to their own domains, remove Wix ads, access the form builder, add e-commerce capabilities, or buy extra data storage and bandwidth.


title: Wix.com

text: Wix provides customizable website templates and a drag-and-drop HTML5 web site builder that includes apps, graphics, image galleries, fonts, vectors, animations and other options. Users also may opt to create their web sites from scratch. In October 2013, Wix introduced a mobile editor to allow users to adjust their sites for mobile viewing.


title: Wix.com

text: Wix App Market offers both free and subscription-based applications, with a revenue split of 80% for the developer and 20 percent for Wix. Customers can integrate third-party applications into their own web sites, such as photograph feeds, blogging, music playlists, online community, e-mail marketing, and file management.


title: Wix.com

text: In October 2016, there was a controversy over Wix's use of WordPress's GPL-licensed code. In response, Avishai Abrahami, Wix's CEO, published an answer explaining which open-source code was used and how Wix collaborates with the open-source community. However, it was subsequently noted that collaboration with the open-source community was not sufficient under the terms of the GPL license, which requires any code built on GPL-licensed code to be released under the same license.


title: Wix.com

text: On 31 May 2021, a Wix-hosted website run by exiled Hong Kong activists (2021hkcharter.com) was shut down at the request of the Hong Kong Police. This was the first known case of Hong Kong's National Security Law being used to censor content on an overseas website. Wix later apologized for "mistakenly removing the website" and reinstated the website after it had been down for four days.


title: Induction motor

text: An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.


title: Induction motor

text: Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are self-starting, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFD) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications. Squirrel-cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency drive applications.


title: Induction motor

text: In 1824, the French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields, termed Arago's rotations. By manually turning switches on and off, Walter Baily demonstrated this in 1879, effectively the first primitive induction motor.


title: Induction motor

text: The first commutator-free single-phase AC induction motor was invented by Hungarian engineer Ottó Bláthy; he used the single-phase motor to propel his invention, the electricity meter.


title: Induction motor

text: The first AC commutator-free polyphase induction motors were independently invented by Galileo Ferraris and Nikola Tesla, a working motor model having been demonstrated by the former in 1885 and by the latter in 1887. Tesla applied for US patents in October and November 1887 and was granted some of these patents in May 1888. In April 1888, the "Royal Academy of Science of Turin" published Ferraris's research on his AC polyphase motor detailing the foundations of motor operation. In May 1888 Tesla presented the technical paper "A New System for Alternating Current Motors and Transformers" to the "American Institute of Electrical Engineers" (AIEE)


title: Induction motor

text: George Westinghouse, who was developing an alternating current power system at that time, licensed Tesla's patents in 1888 and purchased a US patent option on Ferraris' induction motor concept. Tesla was also employed for one year as a consultant. Westinghouse employee C. F. Scott was assigned to assist Tesla and later took over development of the induction motor at Westinghouse. Steadfast in his promotion of three-phase development, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky invented the cage-rotor induction motor in 1889 and the three-limb transformer in 1890. Furthermore, he claimed that Tesla's motor was not practical because of two-phase pulsations, which prompted him to persist in his three-phase work. Although Westinghouse achieved its first practical induction motor in 1892 and developed a line of polyphase 60 hertz induction motors in 1893, these early Westinghouse motors were two-phase motors with wound rotors until B. G. Lamme developed a rotating bar winding rotor.


title: Induction motor

text: The General Electric Company (GE) began developing three-phase induction motors in 1891. By 1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a cross-licensing agreement for the bar-winding-rotor design, later called the squirrel-cage rotor. Arthur E. Kennelly was the first to bring out the full significance of complex numbers (using "j" to represent the square root of minus one) to designate the 90º rotation operator in analysis of AC problems. GE's Charles Proteus Steinmetz greatly developed application of AC complex quantities including an analysis model now commonly known as the induction motor Steinmetz equivalent circuit.


title: Induction motor

text: Induction motor improvements flowing from these inventions and innovations were such that a 100-horsepower induction motor currently has the same mounting dimensions as a 7.5-horsepower motor in 1897.


title: Induction motor

text: In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in synchronism with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a somewhat slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through an external impedance. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor, in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary winding(s).


title: Induction motor

text: The induced currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. The direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings, in agreement with Lenz's Law. The cause of induced current in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field. The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the applied mechanical load on the rotation of the rotor. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slightly slower than synchronous speed. The difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5% to 5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction motor's essential character is that torque is created solely by induction instead of the rotor being separately excited as in synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.


title: Induction motor

text: For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (formula_1); otherwise the magnetic field would not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called "slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as "asynchronous motors".


title: Induction motor

text: An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear induction motor which can directly generate linear motion. The generating mode for induction motors is complicated by the need to excite the rotor, which begins with only residual magnetization. In some cases, that residual magnetization is enough to self-excite the motor under load. Therefore, it is necessary to either snap the motor and connect it momentarily to a live grid or to add capacitors charged initially by residual magnetism and providing the required reactive power during operation. Similar is the operation of the induction motor in parallel with a synchronous motor serving as a power factor compensator. A feature in the generator mode in parallel to the grid is that the rotor speed is higher than in the driving mode. Then active energy is being given to the grid. Another disadvantage of the induction motor generator is that it consumes a significant magnetizing current I = (20–35)%.


title: Induction motor

text: where formula_4 is the frequency of the power supply, formula_5 is the number of magnetic poles, and formula_2 is the synchronous speed of the machine. For formula_4 in hertz and formula_1 synchronous speed in RPM, the formula becomes:


title: Induction motor

text: For example, for a four-pole, three-phase motor, formula_5 = 4 and formula_11 = 1,500 RPM (for formula_4 = 50 Hz) and 1,800 RPM (for formula_4 = 60 Hz) synchronous speed.


title: Induction motor

text: The number of magnetic poles, formula_5, is equal to the number of coil groups per phase. To determine the number of coil groups per phase in a 3-phase motor, count the number of coils, divide by the number of phases, which is 3. The coils may span several slots in the stator core, making it tedious to count them. For a 3-phase motor, if you count a total of 12 coil groups, it has 4 magnetic poles. For a 12-pole 3-phase machine, there will be 36 coils. The number of magnetic poles in the rotor is equal to the number of magnetic poles in the stator.


title: Induction motor

text: The two figures at right and left above each illustrate a 2-pole 3-phase machine consisting of three pole-pairs with each pole set 60° apart.


title: Induction motor

text: Slip, formula_15, is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same frequency, expressed in rpm, or in percentage or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus


title: Induction motor

text: formula_1 is stator electrical speed, formula_18 is rotor mechanical speed. Slip, which varies from zero at synchronous speed and 1 when the rotor is stalled, determines the motor's torque. Since the short-circuited rotor windings have small resistance, even a small slip induces a large current in the rotor and produces significant torque. At full rated load, slip varies from more than 5% for small or special purpose motors to less than 1% for large motors. These speed variations can cause load-sharing problems when differently sized motors are mechanically connected. Various methods are available to reduce slip, VFDs often offering the best solution.


title: Induction motor

text: The typical speed-torque relationship of a standard NEMA Design B polyphase induction motor is as shown in the curve at right. Suitable for most low performance loads such as centrifugal pumps and fans, Design B motors are constrained by the following typical torque ranges:


title: Induction motor

text: Over a motor's normal load range, the torque's slope is approximately linear or proportional to slip because the value of rotor resistance divided by slip, formula_19, dominates torque in a linear manner. As load increases above rated load, stator and rotor leakage reactance factors gradually become more significant in relation to formula_19 such that torque gradually curves towards breakdown torque. As the load torque increases beyond breakdown torque the motor stalls.


title: Induction motor

text: There are three basic types of small induction motors: split-phase single-phase, shaded-pole single-phase, and polyphase.


title: Induction motor

text: In two-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these require alterations to the stator such as shaded-poles to provide starting torque. A single phase induction motor requires separate starting circuitry to provide a rotating field to the motor. The normal running windings within such a single-phase motor can cause the rotor to turn in either direction, so the starting circuit determines the operating direction.


title: Induction motor

text: In certain smaller single-phase motors, starting is done by means of a copper wire turn around part of a pole; such a pole is referred to as a shaded pole. The current induced in this turn lags behind the supply current, creating a delayed magnetic field around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts sufficient rotational field energy to start the motor. These motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans and record players, as the required starting torque is low, and the low efficiency is tolerable relative to the reduced cost of the motor and starting method compared to other AC motor designs.


title: Induction motor

text: Larger single phase motors are split-phase motors and have a second stator winding fed with out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or having it receive different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding. In "capacitor-start" designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed, usually either by a centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or a thermistor which heats up and increases its resistance, reducing the current through the second winding to an insignificant level. The "capacitor-run" designs keep the second winding on when running, improving torque. A "resistance start" design uses a starter inserted in series with the startup winding, creating reactance.


title: Induction motor

text: Self-starting polyphase induction motors produce torque even at standstill. Available squirrel-cage induction motor starting methods include direct-on-line starting, reduced-voltage reactor or auto-transformer starting, star-delta starting or, increasingly, new solid-state soft assemblies and, of course, variable frequency drives (VFDs).


title: Induction motor

text: Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed-torque characteristics. The current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of the induced current. At standstill, the rotor current is the same frequency as the stator current, and tends to travel at the outermost parts of the cage rotor bars (by skin effect). The different bar shapes can give usefully different speed-torque characteristics as well as some control over the inrush current at startup.


title: Induction motor

text: Although polyphase motors are inherently self-starting, their starting and pull-up torque design limits must be high enough to overcome actual load conditions.


title: Induction motor

text: In wound rotor motors, rotor circuit connection through slip rings to external resistances allows change of speed-torque characteristics for acceleration control and speed control purposes.


title: Induction motor

text: Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the frequency, and cage induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Applications such as electric overhead cranes used DC drives or wound rotor motors (WRIM) with slip rings for rotor circuit connection to variable external resistance allowing considerable range of speed control. However, resistor losses associated with low speed operation of WRIMs is a major cost disadvantage, especially for constant loads. Large slip ring motor drives, termed slip energy recovery systems, some still in use, recover energy from the rotor circuit, rectify it, and return it to the power system using a VFD.


title: Induction motor

text: The speed of a pair of slip-ring motors can be controlled by a cascade connection, or concatenation. The rotor of one motor is connected to the stator of the other. If the two motors are also mechanically connected, they will run at half speed. This system was once widely used in three-phase AC railway locomotives, such as FS Class E.333. By the turn of this century, however, such cascade-based electromechanical systems became much more efficiently and economically solved using power semiconductor elements solutions.