title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The first-generation Eclipse underwent minor styling changes during its production; 1992–1994 models have updated sheet metal and are easily distinguishable from earlier model years. The most notable is that the 1990-1991 models have pop-up headlights, whereas 1992-1994 models have exposed aerodynamic headlights. The Eclipse was revised for the 1995 model year as the second generation.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse was available in five trim levels during its first-generation production run. AWD models were not available until halfway through the first model year.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: These models varied significantly in drivetrains and available options, and included some variance in appearance, as higher trim lines added different front and rear fascia panels and surrounding trim, with the GSX model getting a notably different styling package from the others.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The basic driveline layout of the Eclipse is a transverse-mounted 4-cylinder Mitsubishi 4G37 or 4G63 engine situated on the left-hand side of the car driving an automatic or manual transmission on the right-hand side. AWD models have a different transmission which includes a limited-slip center differential and output shaft for a transfer case, which drives the rear differential (also available as limited-slip) and half-shafts.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The 4G37 and 4G63 engines are gasoline inline-fours. The 4G63 has an iron engine block with an aluminum cylinder head and is equipped with two balance shafts. The turbocharged version of the 4G63 (sometimes referred to as the 4G63T) has a lower compression ratio of 7.8:1 and oil squirters under the pistons for better cooling from extra heat created by forced induction. The turbocharged 4G63 engine received an internal update during the 1992 model year. The engines built from 1989 through April 1992 have 6-bolt motors. Beginning in May 1992, Mitsubishi revised the engine to a 7-bolt design. The bolts refer to the number of bolts on the flywheel that connects to the crankshaft.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In March 1998, Mitsubishi issued a recall (bulletin 98V069001) for all 1990-1998 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSXs citing, "Lockup of the transfer case can occur due to insufficient lubrication. The condition can cause a loss of vehicle control increasing the risk of a crash." The dealers would inspect the vehicles for the adequacy of the transfer case oil volume, transfer case oil leakage, and operational degradation of the transfer case mechanism. The transfer case itself did not leak but rather the brass plug in the center of the transfer case yoke would leak. Mitsubishi estimated 24,275 vehicles were affected.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined crash test ratings of the 1G Eclipse:


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse was redesigned in 1994 (for the 1995 model year) and included standard dual airbags, more rounded styling, a larger interior, and a new engine made by Chrysler for the base model. The second-generation car maintained the market focus of the first generation car but had numerous changes to appeal to a broader market. A convertible model, named the Eclipse Spyder, was introduced in 1996 offered in two trim levels; the GS and the GS-T. The Spyder GS was powered by a 2.4 L 4-cylinder naturally-aspirated 4G64 engine. The Spyder GS-T was fitted with Mitsubishi's turbocharged 4G63 engine. The GSX model was also powered by this engine but with the addition of a high performance all-wheel-drive system. No convertible model was powered by the Chrysler's 420a engine, nor was there a convertible with all-wheel-drive.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The turbocharged engine option continued as the 4G63. It was updated for more power as compared to the previous generation ( vs ). The naturally aspirated cars had two different 4-cylinder engines depending on the market. The US version engines produced 140 hp, found only in the RS and GS trims, and were a modified version of the Chrysler Neon engine, the 420A, manufactured by Chrysler and delivered to and installed at the Diamond Star Motors facility. The European market engines were a naturally aspirated 4G63 with . International market Eclipses made less horsepower than their Japanese domestic market relatives when equipped with the 4G63 (, ), due to emissions regulations.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: This model exceeded Japanese government's compact car regulations regarding exterior dimensions (maximum width of ), therefore incurred a more expensive annual road tax obligation.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: A special version of the Eclipse, called the "10th Anniversary OZ Rally", was sold at the end of the 1999 model run with unique 16-inch Enkei wheels with the OZ Racing logo. It also included the leather interior package, accented exhaust exit, “silver” gauges, mud flaps, and hoop-style spoiler that were available as standard equipment on GS-T and GSX models. The special edition package was only offered with the 420A engine.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: A unique version of the 2G Eclipse was sold in some European countries. It used a naturally aspirated Mitsubishi 4G63 motor, similar to what was available in the 1G, unique side-view mirrors, and amber rear turn signals.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: A minor style revision was applied for the 1997 model year. The front grille opening was given a more aggressive profile. The headlights were given a sharper slant on the inner edges, and the previous all-chrome fixture interior changed to a black interior with chrome reflector inserts. The driving lights were revised from a reflector type to a smaller projection type. The rear bumper cap was altered and had the reverse lights restyled and moved out into the bumper fascia, away from their original central position by the license plate bracket. The GS-T coupe and GSX received a large rear spoiler. The interior color choices also changed from blue and grey in 1995–1996 model years to black/grey, tan/black, and grey in the 1997–1999 model years. A black leather interior option was only available in 1999; the package included all seats (with the 'Mitsubishi' logo embroidered on both of the fronts), door inserts, and a center console armrest.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse was available in seven trim levels: Base [Only available in 1996.5 (mid-model year)], RS (Rally Sport), GS (Grand Sport), GS Spyder, GS-T (Grand Sport Turbo), GS-T Spyder, and GSX (Grand Sport X=AWD).


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The basic driveline layout of the Eclipse is a transverse-mounted 4-cylinder Chrysler 420A, Mitsubishi 4G64, or 4G63 engine. The Mitsubishi motors are mounted in the same orientation as the first generation cars. The 420A-powered cars had the engine mounted on the right side of the car, and further back in the chassis. AWD models had a similar transmission to the first generation car. The second-generation GSX also had a stronger carrier/differential when equipped with the limited-slip option.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: All motors are four-cylinder gasoline engines. All have cast iron blocks with aluminum cylinder heads. The 4G63/4G64 engines retain the balance shafts for smoother operation, while the 420a does not. The 1995–1999 turbo engines were given an increased compression ratio of 8.5:1, up from 7.8:1, and a smaller turbo, a Garrett T25 set to in place of the previous Mitsubishi TD04-13G turbocharger (automatic cars) and TD05-14B turbocharger (manual cars). This was done to minimize turbo lag, which was an undesirable trait for mass-market appeal in the U.S. These changes led to increased horsepower and torque vs. the previous 1G turbos. The 2G turbo cars produced at 6,000 rpm ( at 6,000 rpm with automatic transmission) and at 3,000 rpm ( at 3,000 rpm with automatic transmission.)


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The 4G63T engines found in 1990–1994 models have a throttle body compared to the 1995–1999 MY's . The intake ports on the head and runners of the intake manifold are also larger on the 1G. They also have larger crankshaft bearing journals to allow better lubrication. Because they look similar, it is important to note that the 1990-1994 cylinder head is more on the side of high air volume, while the 1995-1999 cylinder head is more on the side of high air velocity.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Mitsubishi Motors quietly updated its 4G63 engine in 1998 and 1999. The crankshaft is more precisely shaved and cut compared to previous years. It is identical to that used in the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, which was not yet sold in North America until 2003. The thrust bearings have been revised to a "split" type to allow better lubrication and self-alignment with the crankshaft. It also had improved tuning and functionality thanks to a new ECU, which was similar to Lancer Evolution ECUs. Although originally deactivated to protect the drivetrain, it included advanced features such as launch control, boost control, adjustable rev-limit, fuel system control as well as fuel and boost map selection for certain Mitsubishi Heavy Industries turbochargers.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The second-generation Eclipse received numerous Technical Service Bulletins (TSB) affecting a variety of issues with the car however there was one notable powertrain recall. In March 1998, Mitsubishi issued a recall (bulletin 98V069001) for all 1990-1998 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSXs citing, "Lockup of the transfer case can occur due to insufficient lubrication. The condition can cause a loss of vehicle control increasing the risk of a crash." The dealers would inspect the vehicles for the adequacy of the transfer case oil volume, transfer case oil leakage, and operational degradation of the transfer case mechanism. The transfer case itself did not leak but rather the brass plug in the center of the transfer case yoke would leak. Mitsubishi estimated 24,275 vehicles were affected.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Another issue that impacted the mid 1995-1997 Eclipse GS-T/GSX (4G63 equipped vehicles) is thrust bearing failure commonly referred to in the Eclipse community as "crankwalk." Mitsubishi never publicly addressed the issue via a recall or TSB. There were a variety of symptoms however the most common symptom of crankwalk is the clutch pedal would stick to the floor upon making a left turn. If crankwalk occurred, it typically meant engine failure. In 1998, Mitsubishi revised manufacturing processes to correct the issue.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: All 2G Eclipses came standard with driver and front-passenger airbags, side-guard door beams, front and rear body structure crumple zones, 5 mph energy-absorbing bumpers, safety-cage body construction, 4-wheel disc brakes (except RS), three-point ELR/ALR lap/shoulder safety belts (ELR only for the driver) and height-adjustable front shoulder belts. Anti-lock brakes were optional on all models (except for RS).


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined crash test ratings of the 2G Eclipse:


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse underwent a change into its third generation in 1999, closely applying the Mitsubishi SST design study which debuted at the 1998 North American International Auto Show. It was the first concept vehicle exhibited by Mitsubishi at an auto show in the U.S.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Two new powertrain options were available, a 2.4 L 16-valve SOHC 4-cylinder 4G64 and a 24v SOHC 3.0 L V6 (6G72). AWD was no longer an option. The suspension setup was modified to provide a softer and more compliant ride quality.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The third-generation Eclipse shared its powertrain with the 8th generation Galant. In late 2001, the power of the GT trim was lowered to as a result of tightened emission standards forcing MMNA to adopt the California emissions standards for all variants of the car, rather than selling independent 'Federal Specification' and 'California Specifications' versions.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In mid-2002, the GTS trim was introduced for the 2003 model year. This vehicle included an engine with a 10:1 compression ratio, revised camshaft profile, and an improved Mitsubishi Variable Induction Management (MVIM) air intake system that gave the car an extra and a slightly improved power curve. The 2003–2005 GTS coupe, GTS Spyder and GT Spyder shared the new engine while the GT coupe retained the powertrain.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: With the introduction of the 2003 GTS model, the Eclipse saw minor changes including a redesigned front bumper with slotted fog lights, as well as a recoloring of the taillights. On the interior, the gauge face changed, and the door panels were also redesigned. Newly designed five-spoke chrome wheels were offered with the GT and GTS trims.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 2004, Mitsubishi Motors imported the Eclipse Spyder to the Japanese Domestic Market as a special edition.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse was available in 7 trim levels: RS, GS, GS Spyder, GT, GT Spyder, GTS, and GTS Spyder. All trim levels (besides RS and the Spyder) came with an automatic tilt and retracting sunroof. All models were front-wheel drive (FWD). The GTS trims were introduced for the 2003 model year. For the 2005 model year, the RS trim was discontinued and a special "Remix Edition" GS trim package was introduced, which included chrome wheels, identifying placards, and the premium interior package from the GT and GTS models, which was not previously offered on the GS trim.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The third generation Eclipse utilized two distinct Mitsubishi engines: The SOHC 4G64 2.4 L 16-valve four-cylinder and SOHC 6G72 3.0 L 24-valve V6. Both engines use cast iron blocks with aluminum cylinder heads. The four-cylinder, found in the RS, GS, and GS Spyder trims, used a 9:1 compression ratio and produced an output of and of torque throughout all years.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The 3.0 L V6, however, used in GT and GT Spyder models, produced in Federal Specifications between 2000-2001 and in all GT models in California Specifications, all years with a static compression ratio of 9:1. In 2003, the 3.0 L V6 was improved for the GTS and GT/GTS Spyder, using a revised camshaft profile, raised compression ratio of 10:1 and variable-length MVIM intake manifold. This engine produced .


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) has determined crash test ratings of Eclipse of different model years:


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Mitsubishi Eclipse EV is a prototype electric vehicle with a lightweight electric motor and lithium-ion batteries in the chassis of a third-generation Eclipse. It is powered by manganese lithium-ion batteries made by Japan Storage Battery, which have 65% reduced charging time over nickel-hydrogen batteries.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The prototype model participated in the 2001 Shikoku EV Rally, a circuit around the perimeter of Shikoku, Japan, where it drove in excess of on a single battery charge.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Another substantial styling revision was introduced, with the fourth-generation model taking some of the profile from the second generation model but maintaining a front fascia consistent with Mitsubishi's corporate styling features of the time. Drivetrain features include a 3.8 L MIVEC V6 engine for the GT trim, 2009 and newer models have . The GS has a 2.4 L MIVEC four-cylinder engine, both derived from the Mitsubishi PS platform family, with which the Eclipse shares many mechanical components. Like the 2004 Galant and third-generation Eclipse, the fourth-generation Eclipse is FWD only, although a concept model has been produced by Mitsubishi and Ralliart with a MillenWorks designed hybrid-electric AWD platform, the 4G63 engine from the Lancer Evolution, and more aggressive body styling with imitation carbon fiber accents. The V6 produces and of torque.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The fourth-generation "Spyder" (convertible) Eclipse was released for the 2007 model year at the North American International Auto Show.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: For the 2010 model year in the U.S., its primary market, the Eclipse was available in five trim levels: GS, GS Sport Spyder, SE, GT, and GT Spyder. In Mexico, the GT Spyder is known as the Eclipse Convertible. In Canada, the GT trim is known as the GT-P.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Options Include - Sun & Sound package with a power sunroof is paired with a 650-watt Rockford Fosgate audio system. Boasting nine speakers including a trunk-mounted subwoofer, a 6-CD in-dash changer, and steering-wheel-mounted audio controls, the package also includes a central display with outside temperature and compass readings and an electrochromic rear-view mirror.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Options Include - GS Deluxe Leather Package: Leather front seating surfaces. Heated front seats. Heated side mirrors. Outside temperature indicator and compass in the center dash display.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Options Include- Premium Sport Package with seven-spoke alloy wheels, leather front seating surfaces, a power sunroof, an eight-way-adjustable (six power) driver's seat, alloy pedals, heated front seats, heated door mirrors, automatic dimming rear-view mirror, air-conditioning, and a 650-watt Rockford Fosgate audio system with nine speakers that included a 10-in (254 mm) trunk-mounted subwoofer, a 6-CD/MP3-compatible in-dash changer, and steering wheel-mounted audio controls.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Options Include - GT Premium Sport Package: 18-inch alloy wheels. Leather front seating surfaces. 6-way power driver's seat. Heated front seats. Heated side mirrors. Aluminum pedals. Automatic climate control. Wind Deflector


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Mitsubishi Eclipse was given a minor facelift for the 2009 model year, the front fascia changed the fog lights and deleted the triangle housing the "three diamond" logo used to sit on in the grille; the rear fascia changed the "Eclipse" insignia from an indent to raised silver letters. An option to add a dual exhaust and projector H.I.D. headlamps also became available. The V6 engine now rated at and of torque in part due to the more open front fascia as well as a new stock dual exhaust system. It was unveiled at the 2008 Chicago Auto Show.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: For 2011, the Mitsubishi Eclipse featured a "blackout" roof, similar to the 1990 model. Mitsubishi also lowered the suspension of Eclipse about half an inch to create a lower center of gravity. A rear backup camera and Bluetooth hands free calling to the Sun and sound package were included. In the GS trim, the car gets the same 18-inch wheels and blackout front end as the GT model called the GS Sport.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: For the 2012 model year, the Eclipse received three slight changes: brake override logic, a clear lip spoiler on the GT trim, and one new exterior color. According to a review and rating by "Motor Trend", the fourth-generation Eclipse was described as "dated" - but its "exterior design still stands out among sporty coupes currently available." The 2012 model year Eclipse was now six years old and "is still trying to pass itself off as a sporty two-door." This was the final model year, albeit a short run because production ended in August 2011.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The last Eclipse to roll off the assembly line was built on 16 August 2011, painted Kalapana Black, its color was chosen by members of Mitsubishi's Facebook community, who picked from a historical Eclipse color palette. This was the only Eclipse equipped with both the 3.8L/265 hp V-6 engine and the commemorative SE package, as well as special 18-inch Dark Argent alloy wheels and one of a kind graphics. It is also built with a sunroof, leather interior, 650W Rockford Fosgate 9-speaker audio system with Sirius XM, hands-free Bluetooth phone interface, rear-view camera, and HID headlights. The car was auctioned off by Mecum Auctions in St. Charles, Illinois on 17 September 2012, for $35,000. Proceeds went to the Japanese Red Cross to aid victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: The Eclipse, and its Chrysler-branded counterparts, have competed in Sports Car Club of America (SCCA) events.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 1995, a GT2 class specification Eclipse GSX was entered into the annual 24 Hours of Daytona endurance race. It was placed on grid number 74, at the back in last place. It moved up to 24th place overall finish without any issues. It nearly set a new record as well, passing a total of 50 cars. In 1998, it entered the race again but was now in a lower specification class (GT3/GTS3) It finished in 24th place. In 1999, the Eclipse made its final appearance in the race, achieving 39th place, after posting 455 laps. The name of the team was Spirit of Daytona and their sponsor was Daytona Mitsubishi. Craig Conway, Eric Van Cleef, and Todd Flis were the drivers.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 2004 and 2005, Greg Collier won the NASA Super Unlimited class national title in a Plymouth Laser RS Turbo. These wins were over purpose built Ferrari Challenge and Porsche Carrera Cup race cars.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 2009 and 2010, an Eclipse Spyder GS-T driven by Matt Andrews and Andrew Brilliant won the Super Lap Battle Limited championship in Willow Springs, California.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: In 2012, a heavily built and tuned Mitsubishi Eclipse piloted by Mark Rybníček won the Czech Hill Climb championship. Other drivers such as Karel Stehlik and David Komarek have used Eclipses in hill climb competition as well. Some of engines produce as much as . They also have short transmission gears to accelerate into triple-digit speeds.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Brent Rau has won three world drag racing championships using an Eclipse; IDRC, NDRA, and NHRA. Many other notable names have also claimed big wins piloting Eclipses for drag racing as well.


title: Mitsubishi Eclipse

text: Jett Racing entered a 3rd generation Eclipse for drag racing competition. As of 2014, they hold the world record for the world's fastest four cylinder. It has and is RWD. It is capable of over . On 29 November 2018, they ran 6.2 seconds in the quarter-mile with 225 MPH for the top speed.


title: Beatnik

text: Beatniks were members of a social movement in the 1950s that subscribed to an anti-materialistic lifestyle.


title: Beatnik

text: In 1948, Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase "Beat Generation", generalizing from his social circle to characterize the underground, anticonformist youth gathering in New York at that time. The name came up in conversation with John Clellon Holmes, who published an early Beat Generation novel titled "Go" (1952), along with the manifesto "This Is the Beat Generation" in "The New York Times Magazine". In 1954, Nolan Miller published his third novel "Why I Am So Beat" (Putnam), detailing the weekend parties of four students.


title: Beatnik

text: "Beat" came from underworld slang—the world of hustlers, drug addicts, and petty thieves, where Allen Ginsberg and Kerouac sought inspiration. "Beat" was slang for "beaten down" or downtrodden, but to Kerouac and Ginsberg, it also had a spiritual connotation as in "beatitude". Other adjectives discussed by Holmes and Kerouac were "found" and "furtive". Kerouac felt he had identified (and was the embodiment of) a new trend analogous to the influential Lost Generation.


title: Beatnik

text: In "Aftermath: The Philosophy of the Beat Generation," Kerouac criticized what he saw as a distortion of his visionary, spiritual ideas:


title: Beatnik

text: The Beat Generation, that was a vision that we had, John Clellon Holmes and I, and Allen Ginsberg in an even wilder way, in the late Forties, of a generation of crazy, illuminated hipsters suddenly rising and roaming America, serious, bumming and hitchhiking everywhere, ragged, beatific, beautiful in an ugly graceful new way—a vision gleaned from the way we had heard the word "beat" spoken on street corners on Times Square and in the Village, in other cities in the downtown city night of postwar America—beat, meaning down and out but full of intense conviction. We'd even heard old 1910 Daddy Hipsters of the streets speak the word that way, with a melancholy sneer. It never meant juvenile delinquents, it meant characters of a special spirituality who didn't gang up but were solitary Bartlebies staring out the dead wall window of our civilization ...


title: Beatnik

text: Kerouac explained what he meant by "beat" at a Brandeis Forum, "Is There A Beat Generation?", on November 8, 1958, at New York's Hunter College Playhouse. The seminar's panelists were Kerouac, James A. Wechsler, Princeton anthropologist Ashley Montagu and author Kingsley Amis. Wechsler, Montagu, and Amis wore suits, while Kerouac was clad in black jeans, ankle boots and a checkered shirt. Reading from a prepared text, Kerouac reflected on his beat beginnings:


title: Beatnik

text: It is because I am Beat, that is, I believe in beatitude and that God so loved the world that He gave His only begotten son to it ... Who knows, but that the universe is not one vast sea of compassion actually, the veritable holy honey, beneath all this show of personality and cruelty?


title: Beatnik

text: Kerouac's statement was later published as "The Origins of the Beat Generation" ("Playboy", June 1959). In that article, Kerouac noted how his original beatific philosophy had been ignored amid maneuvers by several pundits, among them San Francisco newspaper columnist Herb Caen, to alter Kerouac's concept with jokes and jargon:


title: Beatnik

text: I went one afternoon to the church of my childhood and had a vision of what I must have really meant with "Beat"... the vision of the word Beat as being to mean beatific ... People began to call themselves beatniks, beats, jazzniks, bopniks, buggies, and finally, I was called the "avatar" of all this.


title: Beatnik

text: In light of what he considered "beat" to mean and what "beatnik" had come to mean, Kerouac once observed to a reporter, "I'm not a beatnik, I'm a Catholic", showing the reporter a painting of Pope Paul VI and saying, "You know who painted that? Me."


title: Beatnik

text: In her memoir, "Minor Characters", Joyce Johnson described how the stereotype was absorbed into American culture:


title: Beatnik

text: Kerouac biographer Ann Charters noted that the term "Beat" was appropriated to become a Madison Avenue marketing tool:


title: Beatnik

text: Lee Streiff, an acquaintance of many members of the movement who went on to become one of its chroniclers, believed that the news media saddled the movement for the long term with a set of false images:


title: Beatnik

text: The origin of the word "beatnik" is traditionally ascribed to Herb Caen from his column in the "San Francisco Chronicle" on April 2, 1958, where he wrote "Look magazine, preparing a picture spread on S.F.'s Beat Generation (oh, no, not AGAIN!), hosted a party in a No. Beach house for 50 Beatniks, and by the time word got around the sour grapevine, over 250 bearded cats and kits were on hand, slopping up Mike Cowles' free booze. They're only Beat, y'know, when it comes to work ..." It is claimed that Caen coined the term by adding the Yiddish suffix "-nik" to "Beat" as in the Beat Generation.


title: Beatnik

text: However an earlier source from 1954, or possibly 1957 after the launch of Sputnik, is ascribed to Ethel (Etya) Gechtoff, the well-known owner of a San Francisco Art Gallery.


title: Beatnik

text: Objecting to the term, Allen Ginsberg wrote to "The New York Times" to deplore "the foul word beatnik," commenting, "If beatniks and not illuminated Beat poets overrun this country, they will have been created not by Kerouac but by industries of mass communication which continue to brainwash man."


title: Beatnik

text: In the vernacular of the period, "Beat" referred to Beat culture, attitude and literature; while "beatnik" referred to a stereotype found in cartoon drawings and (in some cases at worst) twisted, sometimes violent media characters. In 1995, film scholar Ray Carney wrote about the authentic beat attitude as differentiated from stereotypical media portrayals of the beatnik:


title: Beatnik

text: Much of Beat culture represented a negative stance rather than a positive one. It was animated more by a vague feeling of cultural and emotional displacement, dissatisfaction, and yearning, than by a specific purpose or program ... It was many different, conflicting, shifting states of mind.


title: Beatnik

text: Since 1958, the terms Beat Generation and Beat have been used to describe the antimaterialistic literary movement that began with Kerouac in the 1940s and continued into the 1960s. The Beat philosophy of antimaterialism and soul searching influenced 1960s musicians such as Bob Dylan, the early Pink Floyd and The Beatles.


title: Beatnik

text: However, the soundtrack of the beat movement was the modern jazz pioneered by saxophonist Charlie Parker and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, which the media dubbed bebop. Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg spent much of their time in New York jazz clubs such as the Royal Roost, Minton's Playhouse, Birdland and the Open Door, "shooting the breeze" and "digging the music". Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie and Miles Davis rapidly became what Ginsberg dubbed "secret heroes" to this group of aesthetes. The Beat authors borrowed much from the jazz/hipster slang of the 1940s, peppering their works with words such as "square", "cats", "cool" and "dig".


title: Beatnik

text: At the time the term "beatnik" was coined, a trend existed among young college students to adopt the stereotype. Men emulated the trademark look of bebop trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie by wearing goatees, horn-rimmed glasses and berets, rolling their own cigarettes, and playing bongos. Fashions for women included black leotards and long, straight, unadorned hair, in a rebellion against the middle-class culture of beauty salons. Marijuana use was associated with the subculture, and during the 1950s, Aldous Huxley's "The Doors of Perception" further influenced views on drugs.


title: Beatnik

text: By 1960, a small "beatnik" group in Newquay, Cornwall, England (including a young Wizz Jones) had attracted the attention and abhorrence of their neighbours for growing their hair beyond shoulder length, resulting in a television interview with Alan Whicker on BBC television's "Tonight" series.


title: Beatnik

text: The Beat philosophy was generally countercultural and antimaterialistic, and stressed the importance of bettering one's inner self over material possessions. Some Beat writers, such as Alan Watts, began to delve into Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Taoism. Politics tended to be liberal, left-wing and anti-war, with support for causes such as desegregation (although many of the figures associated with the original Beat movement, particularly Kerouac, embraced libertarian and conservative ideas). An openness to African American culture and arts was apparent in literature and music, notably jazz. While Caen and other writers implied a connection with communism, no obvious or direct connection occurred between Beat philosophy, as expressed by the literary movement's leading authors, and that of the communist movement, other than the antipathy both philosophies shared towards capitalism. Those with only a superficial familiarity with the Beat movement often saw this similarity and assumed the two movements had more in common.


title: Beatnik

text: The Beat movement introduced Asian religions to Western society. These religions provided the Beat generation with new views of the world and corresponded with its desire to rebel against conservative middle-class values of the 1950s, old post-1930s radicalism, mainstream culture, and institutional religions in America.


title: Beatnik

text: By 1958, many Beat writers published writings on Buddhism. This was the year Jack Kerouac published his novel "The Dharma Bums", whose central character (whom Kerouac based on himself) sought Buddhist contexts for events in his life.


title: Beatnik

text: Allen Ginsberg's spiritual journey to India in 1963 also influenced the Beat movement. After studying religious texts alongside monks, Ginsberg deduced that what linked the function of poetry to Asian religions was their mutual goal of achieving ultimate truth. His discovery of Hindu mantra chants, a form of oral delivery, subsequently influenced Beat poetry. Beat pioneers who followed a Buddhism-influenced spiritual path felt that Asian religions offered a profound understanding of human nature and insights into the being, existence and reality of mankind. Many of the Beat advocates believed that the core concepts of Asian religious philosophies had the means of elevating American society's consciousness, and these concepts informed their main ideologies.


title: Beatnik

text: Notable Beat writers such as Kerouac, Ginsberg, and Gary Snyder were drawn to Buddhism to the extent that they each, at different periods in their lives, followed a spiritual path in their quests to provide answers to universal questions and concepts. As a result, the Beat philosophy stressed the bettering of the inner self and the rejection of materialism, and postulated that East Asian religions could fill a religious and spiritual void in the lives of many Americans.


title: Beatnik

text: Many scholars speculate that Beat writers wrote about Eastern religions to encourage young people to practice spiritual and sociopolitical action. Progressive concepts from these religions, particularly those regarding personal freedom, influenced youth culture to challenge capitalist domination, break their generation's dogmas, and reject traditional gender and racial rules.


title: Beatnik

text: Beatnik art is the direction of contemporary art that originated in the United States as part of the beat movement in the 1960s. The movement itself, unlike the so-called "lost generation" did not set itself the task of changing society, but tried to distance itself from it, while at the same time trying to create its own counter-culture. The art created by artists was influenced by jazz, drugs, occultism, and other attributes of beat movement.


title: Beatnik

text: The scope of the activity was concentrated in the cultural circles of New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco and North Carolina. Prominent representatives of the trend were artists Wallace Berman, Jay DeFeo, Jess Collins, Robert Frank, Claes Oldenburg and Larry Rivers.


title: Beatnik

text: The culture of the beat generation has become a kind of intersection for representatives of the creative intellect of the United States associated with visual and performing art, which are usually attributed to other areas and trends of artistic expression, such as assemblage, happening, funk art and neo-dadaism. They made efforts to destroy the wall between art and real life, so that art would become a living experience in cafes or jazz clubs, and not remain the prerogative of galleries and museums. Many works of artists of the movement were created on the verge of various types of art.


title: Beatnik

text: Artists wrote poetry and poets painted, something like this can describe the processes taking place within the framework of the movement. Performances were a key element in the art of beats, whether it was the Theatrical Event of 1952 at Black Mountain College or Jack Kerouac typing in 1951 the novel "On the Road" on a typewriter in a single session on a single roll of 31 meter long paper.


title: Beatnik

text: Representatives of the movement were united by hostility to traditional culture with its conformism and brightly degenerate commercial component. They also did not like the approach of traditional culture to hushing up the dark side of American life - violence, corruption, social inequality, racism. They tried through art to create a new way of life based on the ideals of rebellion and freedom.


title: Beatnik

text: Critics highlight the artist Wallace Berman as the main representative of the movement. In his work concentrated many of the characteristic features of hipsters, especially in his collages made on photocopied photographs, which are a mixture of elements of pop art and mysticism. Among other artists and works, one can single out the work "The Rose" by the artist Jay DeFeo, the work on which was carried out for seven years, a huge painting-assembly weighing about a ton with a width of up to 20 centimeters.


title: Beatnik

text: Alan Bisbort's survey, "Beatniks: A Guide to an American Subculture", was published by Greenwood Press in 2009 as part of the Greenwood Press Guides to Subcultures and Countercultures series. The book includes a timeline, a glossary and biographical sketches. Others in the Greenwood series: "Punks", "Hippies", "Goths" and "Flappers".


title: Beatnik

text: "Tales of Beatnik Glory: Volumes I and II", by Ed Sanders, is, as its name suggests, a collection of short stories, and a definitive introduction to the beatnik scene as lived by its participants. The author, who went on to found the Fugs, lived in the beatnik epicenter of Greenwich Village and the Lower East Side in the late 1950s and early 1960s.


title: Beatnik

text: Among the humor books, "Beat, Beat, Beat" was a 1959 Signet paperback of cartoons by Phi Beta Kappa Princeton graduate William F. Brown, who looked down on the movement from his position in the TV department of the Batten, Barton, Durstine & Osborn advertising agency.


title: Beatnik

text: "Suzuki Beane" (1961), by Sandra Scoppettone with Louise Fitzhugh illustrations, was a Bleecker Street beatnik spoof of Kay Thompson's "Eloise" series (1956–59).


title: Beatnik

text: In the 1960s, the comic book Justice League of America's sidekick Snapper Carr was also portrayed as a stereotypical beatnik, down to his lingo and clothes. The DC Comics character Jonny Double is also portrayed as a beatnik.


title: Beatnik

text: In San Francisco, Jerry and Estelle Cimino operate their Beat Museum, which began in 2003 in Monterey, California, and moved to San Francisco in 2006.


title: Beatnik

text: Ed "Big Daddy" Roth used fiberglass to build his Beatnik Bandit in 1960. Today, this car is in the National Automobile Museum in Reno, Nevada.


title: Human sex ratio

text: In anthropology and demography, the human sex ratio is the ratio of males to females in a population. Like most sexual species, the sex ratio in humans is close to 1:1. In humans, the natural ratio at birth between males and females is slightly biased towards the male sex: it is estimated to be about 1.05 or 1.06 or within a narrow range from 1.03 to 1.06 males per female.


title: Human sex ratio

text: More data are available for humans than for any other species, and the human sex ratio is more studied than that of any other species, but interpreting these statistics can be difficult. The sex ratio of the total population is affected by various factors including natural factors, exposure to pesticides and environmental contaminants, war casualties, effects of war on men, sex-selective abortions, infanticides, aging, gendercide and problems with birth registration.


title: Human sex ratio

text: The sex ratio for the entire world population is approximately 101 males to 100 females (2021 est.). Human sex ratios, either at birth or in the population as a whole, can be reported in any of four ways: the ratio of males to females, the ratio of females to males, the proportion of males, or the proportion of females. If there are 108,000 males and 100,000 females the ratio of males to females is 1.080 and the proportion of males is 51.9%. Scientific literature often uses the proportion of males. This article uses the ratio of males to females, unless specified otherwise.


title: Human sex ratio

text: In a study around 2002, the natural sex ratio at birth was estimated to be within a narrow range of 1.07 to 1.03


title: Human sex ratio

text: males/female. Some scholars suggest that countries considered to have significant practices of prenatal sex-selection are those with birth sex ratios of 1.08 and above (selection against females) and 1.02 and below (selection against males). This assumption has been questioned by some scholars.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Infant mortality is significantly higher in boys than girls in most parts of the world. Often this is explained as due to biological and genetic sex differences, with boys more biologically vulnerable to premature death and disease. Recent studies have found that numerous preconception or prenatal environmental factors affect the probabilities of a baby being conceived male or female. It has been proposed that these environmental factors also explain sex differences in mortality. In most populations, adult males tend to have higher death rates than adult females of the same age (even after allowing for causes specific to females such as death in childbirth), due to both natural causes such as heart attacks and strokes, which account for by far the majority of deaths, and also violent causes, such as homicide and warfare. Thus females have a higher life expectancy. For example, in the United States, as of 2006, an adult non-elderly male was 3 to 6 times more likely to become a victim of a homicide and 2.5 to 3.5 times more likely to die in an accident than a female of the same age.


title: Human sex ratio

text: In the United States, the sex ratios at birth over the period 1970–2002 were 1.05 for the white non-Hispanic population, 1.04 for Mexican Americans, 1.03 for African Americans and Indians, and 1.07 for mothers of Chinese or Filipino ethnicity. Among Western European countries around 2001, the ratios ranged from 1.04 in Belgium to 1.07 in Switzerland, Italy, Ireland and Portugal. In the aggregated results of 56 demographic and health surveys in African countries, the ratio is 1.03, albeit with considerable country-to-country variation.


title: Human sex ratio

text: There is controversy about whether sex ratios outside the 1.03–1.07 range are due to sex selection, as suggested by some scholars, or due to natural causes. Some scholars argue that strong socioeconomic factors such as the dowry system in India and the one child policy of China are responsible for prenatal sex selection. In a widely cited article, Amartya Sen supported such views. Other researchers argue that an unbalanced sex ratio should not be automatically held as evidence of prenatal sex selection; Michel Garenne reports that many African nations have, over decades, had birth sex ratios below 1.00: that is, more girls are born than boys. Angola, Botswana and Namibia have reported birth sex ratios between 0.94 and 0.99, which is quite different from the presumed "normal" sex ratio, meaning that significantly more girls have been born in such societies.


title: Human sex ratio

text: In an extensive study, carried out around 2005, of sex ratio at birth in the United States from 1940 over 62 years, statistical evidence suggested the following:


title: Human sex ratio

text: The human sex ratio at birth has been an object of study since early in the history of statistics, as it is easily recorded and a large number for sufficiently large populations. An early researcher was John Arbuthnot (1710), who in modern terms, performed statistical hypothesis testing, computing the p-value (via a sign test), interpreted it as statistical significance, and rejected the null hypothesis.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Human sex at birth was also analyzed and used as an example by Jacob Bernoulli in "Ars Conjectandi" (1713), in which an unequal sex ratio is a natural example of a Bernoulli trial with uneven odds. Willem 's Gravesande (1774) also studied it. Pierre-Simon Laplace (1778) used human sex ratio as an example in his development of probability theory. He considered the statistics of almost half a million births; the statistics showed an excess of boys compared to girls. He concluded by calculation of a p-value that the excess was a real, but unexplained, effect.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Fisher's principle is an explanation of why the sex ratio of most species is approximately 1:1. Outlined by Ronald Fisher in his 1930 book, it is an argument in terms of parental expenditure. Essentially he argues that the 1:1 ratio is the evolutionarily stable strategy.


title: Human sex ratio

text: The natural factors that affect the human sex ratio are an active area of scientific research. Over 1000 articles have been published in various journals. Two of the often cited reviews of scientific studies on human sex ratio are by W. H. James. The scientific studies are based on extensive birth and death records in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Europe. A few of these studies extend to over 100 years of yearly human sex ratio data for some countries. These studies suggest that the human sex ratio, both at birth and as a population matures, can vary significantly according to a large number of factors, such as paternal age, maternal age, multiple births, birth order, gestation weeks, race, parent's health history, and parent's psychological stress. Remarkably, the trends in human sex ratio are not consistent across countries at a given time, or over time for a given country. In economically developed countries, as well as developing countries, these scientific studies have found that the human sex ratio at birth has historically varied between 0.94 and 1.15 for natural reasons.


title: Human sex ratio

text: James cautions that available scientific evidence stands against the above assumptions and conclusions. He reports that there is an excess of males at birth in almost all human populations, and the natural sex ratio at birth is usually between 1.02 and 1.08. However, the ratio may deviate significantly from this range for natural reasons.


title: Human sex ratio

text: An analysis study from 2015 showed that human sex ratio at conception is roughly 50%, but rises due to total mortality surplus of female embryos. A dataset of 139,704 embryos derived from assisted reproductive technology showed a male sex ratio of 50,2%. A dataset of 4,999 embryos from induced abortions showed a rate of 51,1% for the first trimester and 55,9% for the last two trimesters.


title: Human sex ratio

text: A 1999 scientific paper published by Jacobsen reported the sex ratio for 815,891 children born in Denmark between 1980 and 1993. They studied the birth records to identify the effects of multiple birth, birth order, age of parents and the sexes of preceding siblings on the proportion of males using contingency tables, chi-squared tests and regression analysis. The secondary sex ratio decreased with increasing number of children per plural birth and with paternal age, whereas no significant independent effect was observed for maternal age, birth order, or other natural factors.


title: Human sex ratio

text: A 2009 research paper published by Branum et al. reports the sex ratio derived from data in United States birth records over a 25-year period (1981–2006). This paper reports that the sex ratio at birth for the white ethnic group in the United States was 1.04 when the gestational age was 33–36 weeks, but 1.15 for gestational ages of less than 28 weeks, 28–32 weeks, and 37 or more weeks. This study also found that the sex ratios at birth in the United States, between 1981 and 2006, were lower in both black and Hispanic ethnic groups when compared with non-Hispanic white ethnic group.


title: Human sex ratio

text: A research group led by Ein-Mor reported that sex ratio does not seem to change significantly with either maternal or paternal age. Neither gravidity nor parity seem to affect the male-to-female ratio. However, there is a significant association of sex ratio with the length of gestation. These Ein-mor conclusions have been disputed. For example, James suggested that Ein-Mor results are based on some demographic variables and a small data set, a broader study of variables and larger population set suggests human sex ratio shows substantial variation for various reasons and different trend effects of length of gestation than those reported by Ein-Mor. In another study, James has offered the hypothesis that human sex ratios, and mammalian sex ratios in general, are causally related to the hormone levels of both parents at the time of conception. This hypothesis is yet to be tested and proven true or false over large population sets.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Various scientists have examined the question whether human birth sex ratios have historically been affected by environmental stressors such as climate change and global warming. Several studies show that high temperature raises proportion of male births, but the reasons for this are disputed. Catalano et al. report that cold weather is an environmental stressor, and women subjected to colder weather abort frail male fetuses in greater proportion, thereby lowering birth sex ratios. Cold weather stressors also extend male longevity, thereby raising the human sex ratio at older ages. The Catalano team found that a 1 °C increase in annual temperature predicts one more male than expected for every 1,000 females born in a year.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Helle et al. studied 138 years of human birth sex ratio data, from 1865 to 2003. They find an increased excess of male births during periods of exogenous stress (World War II) and during warm years. In the warmest period over the 138 years, the birth sex ratio peaked at about 1.08 in Northern Europe. The increase in the sex ratio for each 1 °C increase in temperature was approximately the same as the result found by the Catalano team.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Causes of stress during gestation, such as maternal malnutrition, generally appear to increase fetal deaths, particularly among males, resulting in a lower sex ratio at birth. A higher incidence of Hepatitis B virus in a population is believed to increase the sex ratio, while some unexplained environmental health hazards are thought to have the opposite effect.


title: Human sex ratio

text: The effects of gestational environment on human sex ratio are complicated and unclear, with numerous conflicting reports. For example, Oster et al. examined a data set of 67,000 births in China, 15 percent of whom were Hepatitis B carriers. They found no effect on birth sex ratio from Hepatitis B presence in either mothers or fathers.


title: Human sex ratio

text: A 2007 survey by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program noted abnormally low sex ratios in Russian Arctic villages and Inuit villages in Greenland and Canada, and attributed this imbalance to high levels of endocrine disruptors in the blood of inhabitants, including PCBs and DDT. These chemicals are believed to have accumulated in the tissues of fish and animals that make up the bulk of these populations' diets. However, as noted in the Social factors section below, it is important to exclude alternative explanations, including social ones, when examining large human populations whose composition by ethnicity and race may be changing.


title: Human sex ratio

text: A 2008 report provides further evidence of effects of feminizing chemicals on male development in each class of vertebrate species as a worldwide phenomenon, possibly leading to a decline in the sex ratio in humans and a possible decline in sperm counts. Out of over 100,000 recently introduced chemicals, 99% are poorly regulated.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Other scientific studies suggest that environmental effects on human sex ratio at birth are either limited or not properly understood. For example, a research paper published in 1999, by scientists from Finland's National Public Health Institute, reports the effect of environmental chemicals and changes in sex ratio over 250 years in Finland. This scientific team evaluated whether Finnish long-term data are compatible with the hypothesis that the decrease in the ratio of male to female births in industrial countries is caused by environmental factors. They analyzed the sex ratio of births from the files of Statistics Finland and all live births in Finland from 1751 to 1997. They found an increase in the proportion of males from 1751 to 1920; this was followed by a decrease and interrupted by peaks in births of males during and after World War I and World War II. None of the natural factors such as paternal age, maternal age, age difference of parents or birth order could explain the time trends. The scientists found that the peak sex ratio precedes the period of industrialization and the introduction of pesticides or hormonal drugs, rendering a causal association between environmental chemicals and human sex ratio at birth unlikely. Moreover, these scientists claim that the trends they found in Finland are similar to those observed in other countries with higher levels of pollution and much greater pesticide use.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Some studies have found that certain kinds of environmental pollution, specifically dioxins, are associated with a lower sex ratio.


title: Human sex ratio

text: As an example of how the social composition of a human population may produce unusual changes in sex ratios, in a study in several counties of California where declining sex ratios had been observed, Smith and Von Behren observe "In the raw data, the male birth proportion is indeed declining. However, during this period, there were also shifts in demographics that influence the sex ratio. Controlling for birth order, parents' age, and race/ethnicity, different trends emerged. White births (which account for over 80%) continued to show a statistically significant decline, while other racial groups showed non-statistically significant declines (Japanese-American, Native American, other), with little or no change (Black American), or an increase (Chinese-American). Finally, when the white births were divided into Hispanic and non-Hispanic (possible since 1982), it was found that both white subgroups suggest an increase in male births." They concluded "that the decline in male births in California is largely attributable to changes in demographics."


title: Human sex ratio

text: Increased sex ratio during and after a war is called the returning soldier effect. There is still no clear explanation of its mechanics.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Several studies have examined human birth sex ratio data to determine whether there is a natural relationship between the age of the mother or father and the birth sex ratio. For example, Ruder has studied 1.67 million births in 33 states in the United States to investigate the effect of parents' ages on birth sex ratios. Similarly, Jacobsen et al. have studied 820,000 births in Denmark with the same goal. These scientists find that maternal age has no statistically significant role on the human birth sex ratio. However, they report a significant effect of paternal age. Significantly more male babies were born per 1000 female babies to younger fathers than to older fathers. These studies suggest that social factors such as early marriage and males siring their children at a young age may play a role in raising birth sex ratios in certain societies.


title: Human sex ratio

text: It has been shown on a sample of 86,436 human births from a US population-based survey that 51.4% boys were born among together living married parents, 52.2% among together living unmarried parents and only 49.9% boys among apart living parents.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Catalano has examined the hypothesis that population stress induced by a declining economy reduces the human sex ratio. He compared the sex ratio in East and West Germany for the years 1946 to 1999, with genetically similar populations. The population stressors theory predicts that the East German sex ratio should have been lower than expected in 1991, when East Germany's economy collapsed, than in previous years. The hypothesis further suggests that, over time, East German birth sex ratios should generally be lower than the observed sex ratios found in West Germany for the same years. According to Catalano's study, the birth sex ratio data from East Germany and West Germany over 45 years support the hypothesis. The sex ratio in East Germany was also at its lowest in 1991. According to Catalano's study, assuming women in East Germany did not opt to abort male fetuses more than female fetuses, the best hypothesis is that a collapsing economy lowers the human birth sex ratio, while a booming economy raises the birth sex ratio. Catalano notes that these trends may be related to the observed trend of an elevated occurrence of very low birth-weight babies from maternal stress, during certain macroeconomic circumstances.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Sex-selective abortion and infanticide are thought to significantly skew the naturally occurring ratio in some populations, such as China, where the introduction of ultrasound scans in the late 1980s has led to a birth sex ratio (males to females) of 1.181 (2010 official census data for China). The 2011 India census reports India's sex ratio in the 0–6 age bracket at 1.088. The 2011 birth sex ratios for China and India are significantly above the mean ratio recorded in the United States from 1940 through 2002 (1.051); however, their birth sex ratios are within the 0.98–1.14 range observed in the United States for major ethnic groups over the same time period. Along with Asian countries, a number of European, Middle Eastern, and Latin American countries have recently reported high birth sex ratios in the 1.06 to 1.14 range. High birth sex ratios, according to some studies, can be caused in part by social factors.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Another hypothesis has been inspired by the recent and persistent high birth sex ratios observed in Georgia and Armenia—both predominantly Orthodox Christian societies—and Azerbaijan, a predominantly Muslim society. Since their independence from the Soviet Union, the birth sex ratio in these Caucasus countries has risen sharply, to between 1.11 and 1.20, among the world's highest. Mesle et al. consider the hypothesis that the high birth sex ratio may be because of the social trend of more than two children per family, and birth order possibly affects the sex ratio in this region of the world. They also consider the hypothesis that sons are preferred in these countries of the Caucasus, the spread of scans and there being a practice of sex-selective abortion; however, the scientists admit that they do not have definitive proof that sex-selective abortion is actually happening or that there are no natural reasons for the persistently high birth sex ratios.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Reported sex ratios at birth for some human populations may be influenced not only by cultural preferences and social practices that favor the birth or survival of one sex over the other but also by incomplete or inaccurate reporting or recording of the births or the survival of infants. Even what constitutes a live birth or infant death may vary from one population to another. For example, for most of the 20th century in Russia (and the Soviet Union), extremely premature newborns (less than 28 weeks gestational age, or less than 1000 grams in weight, or less than 35 centimeters in length) were not counted as a live birth until they had survived for seven days; if that infant died in those first 168 hours it, would not be counted as an infant death. This led to serious underreporting of the infant mortality rate (by 22% to 25%) relative to standards recommended by the World Health Organization.


title: Human sex ratio

text: When unusual sex ratios at birth (or any other age) are observed, it is important to consider misreporting, misrecording, or under-registration of births or deaths as possible causes. Some researchers have, in part, attributed the high sex ratios reported in mainland China in the last 25 years to the underreporting of the births of female children after the implementation of the one-child policy, though alternative explanations are now generally more widely accepted, including, above all, the use of ultrasound technology and sex-selective abortion of female fetuses and, probably to a more limited degree, neglect or in some cases infanticide of females. In the case of China, because of deficiencies in the vital statistics registration system, studies of sex ratios at birth have relied either on special fertility surveys, whose accuracy depends on full reporting of births and survival of both male and female infants, or on the national population census from which both birth rates and death rates are calculated from the household's reporting of births and deaths in the 18 months preceding the census. To the extent that this underreporting of births or deaths is sex-selective, both fertility surveys and censuses may inaccurately reflect the actual sex ratios at birth.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Gender imbalance is a disparity between males and females in a population. As stated above, males usually exceed females at birth but subsequently experience different mortality rates due to many possible causes such as differential natural death rates, war casualties, and deliberate gender control.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Commonly, countries with notable gender imbalances have three characteristics in common. The first is a rapid decline in fertility, either because of preference for smaller families or to comply with their nation's population control measures. Second, there is social pressure for women to give birth to sons, often because of a cultural preference for male heirs. Third, families have widespread access to technology to selectively abort female foetuses.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Some of the factors suggested as causes of the gender imbalance are sex-selective abortion and infanticide, large-scale migration, and behavioral factors statistically linked with sex ratio, such as excessive drinking and violence. Gender imbalance may result in the threat of social unrest, especially in the case of an excess of low-status young males unable to find spouses, and being recruited into the service of militaristic political factions. Economic factors such as male-majority industries and activities, such as the petrochemical, agriculture, engineering, military, and technology industries, also have created a male gender imbalance in some areas dependent on these industries.


title: Human sex ratio

text: One study found that the male-to-female sex ratio in the German state of Bavaria fell as low as 0.60 after the end of World War II for the most severely affected age cohort (those between 21 and 23 years old in 1946). This same study found that out-of-wedlock births spiked from approximately 10–15% during the inter-war years up to 22% at the end of the war. This increase in out-of-wedlock births was attributed to a change in the marriage market caused by the decline in the sex ratio.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Qatar has the highest male-to-female ratio, with 2.87 males/female. For the group aged below 15, Sierra Leone has the highest female-to-male ratio with 0.96 males/female, and the Republic of Georgia and the People's Republic of China are tied for the highest male-to-female ratio with 1.13 males/female (according to the 2006 CIA World Factbook).


title: Human sex ratio

text: The value for the entire world population is 1.01 males/female, with 1.07 at birth, 1.06 for those under 15, 1.02 for those between 15 and 64, and 0.78 for those over 65.


title: Human sex ratio

text: The "First World" G7 members all have a gender ratio in the range of 0.95–0.98 for the total population, of 1.05–1.07 at birth, of 1.05–1.06 for the group below 15, of 1.00–1.04 for the group aged 15–64, and of 0.70–0.75 for those over 65.


title: Human sex ratio

text: Countries on the Arabian peninsula tend to have a 'natural' ratio of about 1.05 at birth but a very high ratio of males for those over 65 (Saudi Arabia 1.13, Arab Emirates 2.73, Qatar 2.84), indicating either an above-average mortality rate for females or a below-average mortality for males, or, more likely in this case, a large population of aging male guest workers. Conversely, countries of Northern and Eastern Europe (the Baltic states, Belarus, Ukraine, Russia) tend to have a 'normal' ratio at birth but a very low ratio of males among those over 65 (Russia 0.46, Latvia 0.48, Ukraine 0.52); similarly, Armenia has a far above average male ratio at birth (1.17), and a below-average male ratio above 65 (0.67). This effect may be caused by emigration and higher male mortality as a result of higher Soviet-era deaths; it may also be related to the enormous (by western standards) rate of alcoholism in the former Soviet states. Another possible contributory factor is an aging population, with a higher than normal proportion of relatively elderly people, given that, due to higher differential mortality rates, the ratio of males to females reduces for each year of age.


title: Human sex ratio

text: In the evolutionary biology of sexual reproduction the operational sex ratio (OSR), is the ratio of sexually competing males that are ready to mate to sexually competing females that are ready to mate, or alternatively the local ratio of fertilizable females to sexually active males at any given time. This is different from the physical sex ratio because it does not take into account sexually inactive or non-competitive individuals (individuals that do not compete for mates).


title: Human sex ratio

text: There are several social consequences of an imbalanced sex ratio. It may also become a factor in societal and demographic collapse. For example, the native population of Cusco, Peru at the time of the Spanish conquest was stressed by an imbalance in the sex ratio between men and women. Analyses of how sex ratio imbalances affect personal consumption and intra-household distribution were pioneered by Gary Becker, Shoshana Grossbard-Shechtman, and Marcia Guttentag and Paul Secord.


title: Human sex ratio

text: High ratios of males have a positive effect on marital fertility and women's share of household consumption, and negative effects on non-marital cohabitation and fertility and women's labor supply. It has been shown that the labor supply of married women in the U.S , over time, varies inversely with the sex ratio.


title: Human sex ratio

text: One study used 2021 National Archive of Criminal Justice Data and 2016 U.S. Census Bureau data to show the impact of different gender ratios on men's violence against women in 3165 U.S. cities and counties. The sex ratio ranged from 40% men to 60% men in the data. Rates of violence were lowest in places with a 51% male ratio. For lower and higher proportions of males, the more the ratio deviated from the average, the higher was the violence.


title: Polygon

text: In geometry, a polygon () is a plane figure that is described by a finite number of straight line segments connected to form a closed "polygonal chain" (or "polygonal circuit"). The bounded plane region, the bounding circuit, or the two together, may be called a polygon.


title: Polygon

text: The segments of a polygonal circuit are called its "edges" or "sides". The points where two edges meet are the polygon's "vertices" (singular: vertex) or "corners". The interior of a solid polygon is sometimes called its "body". An "n"-gon is a polygon with "n" sides; for example, a triangle is a 3-gon.


title: Polygon

text: A simple polygon is one which does not intersect itself. Mathematicians are often concerned only with the bounding polygonal chains of simple polygons and they often define a polygon accordingly. A polygonal boundary may be allowed to cross over itself, creating star polygons and other self-intersecting polygons.


title: Polygon

text: A polygon is a 2-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. There are many more generalizations of polygons defined for different purposes.


title: Polygon

text: The word "polygon" derives from the Greek adjective πολύς ("polús") 'much', 'many' and γωνία ("gōnía") 'corner' or 'angle'. It has been suggested that γόνυ ("gónu") 'knee' may be the origin of "gon".


title: Polygon

text: The property of regularity may be defined in other ways: a polygon is regular if and only if it is both isogonal and isotoxal, or equivalently it is both cyclic and equilateral. A non-convex regular polygon is called a "regular star polygon".


title: Polygon

text: Any polygon has as many corners as it has sides. Each corner has several angles. The two most important ones are:


title: Polygon

text: In this section, the vertices of the polygon under consideration are taken to be formula_6 in order. For convenience in some formulas, the notation will also be used.


title: Polygon

text: The signed area depends on the ordering of the vertices and of the orientation of the plane. Commonly, the positive orientation is defined by the (counterclockwise) rotation that maps the positive -axis to the positive -axis. If the vertices are ordered counterclockwise (that is, according to positive orientation), the signed area is positive; otherwise, it is negative. In either case, the area formula is correct in absolute value. This is commonly called the "shoelace formula" or "surveyor's formula".


title: Polygon

text: The area "A" of a simple polygon can also be computed if the lengths of the sides, "a", "a", ..., "a" and the exterior angles, "θ", "θ", ..., "θ" are known, from:


title: Polygon

text: If the polygon can be drawn on an equally spaced grid such that all its vertices are grid points, Pick's theorem gives a simple formula for the polygon's area based on the numbers of interior and boundary grid points: the former number plus one-half the latter number, minus 1.


title: Polygon

text: For any two simple polygons of equal area, the Bolyai–Gerwien theorem asserts that the first can be cut into polygonal pieces which can be reassembled to form the second polygon.


title: Polygon

text: The lengths of the sides of a polygon do not in general determine its area. However, if the polygon is simple and cyclic then the sides "do" determine the area. Of all "n"-gons with given side lengths, the one with the largest area is cyclic. Of all "n"-gons with a given perimeter, the one with the largest area is regular (and therefore cyclic).


title: Polygon

text: The area of a regular polygon is given in terms of the radius "r" of its inscribed circle and its perimeter "p" by


title: Polygon

text: The area of a regular "n"-gon in terms of the radius "R" of its circumscribed circle can be expressed trigonometrically as:


title: Polygon

text: The area of a regular "n"-gon inscribed in a unit-radius circle, with side "s" and interior angle formula_16 can also be expressed trigonometrically as:


title: Polygon

text: The area of a self-intersecting polygon can be defined in two different ways, giving different answers:


title: Polygon

text: Using the same convention for vertex coordinates as in the previous section, the coordinates of the centroid of a solid simple polygon are


title: Polygon

text: For triangles (), the centroids of the vertices and of the solid shape are the same, but, in general, this is not true for . The centroid of the vertex set of a polygon with vertices has the coordinates


title: Polygon

text: The word "polygon" comes from Late Latin "polygōnum" (a noun), from Greek πολύγωνον ("polygōnon/polugōnon"), noun use of neuter of πολύγωνος ("polygōnos/polugōnos", the masculine adjective), meaning "many-angled". Individual polygons are named (and sometimes classified) according to the number of sides, combining a Greek-derived numerical prefix with the suffix "-gon", e.g. "pentagon", "dodecagon". The triangle, quadrilateral and nonagon are exceptions.


title: Polygon

text: Beyond decagons (10-sided) and dodecagons (12-sided), mathematicians generally use numerical notation, for example 17-gon and 257-gon.


title: Polygon

text: Exceptions exist for side counts that are easily expressed in verbal form (e.g. 20 and 30), or are used by non-mathematicians. Some special polygons also have their own names; for example the regular star pentagon is also known as the pentagram.


title: Polygon

text: To construct the name of a polygon with more than 20 and less than 100 edges, combine the prefixes as follows. The "kai" term applies to 13-gons and higher and was used by Kepler, and advocated by John H. Conway for clarity of concatenated prefix numbers in the naming of quasiregular polyhedra, though not all sources use it.


title: Polygon

text: Polygons have been known since ancient times. The regular polygons were known to the ancient Greeks, with the pentagram, a non-convex regular polygon (star polygon), appearing as early as the 7th century B.C. on a krater by Aristophanes, found at Caere and now in the Capitoline Museum.


title: Polygon

text: The first known systematic study of non-convex polygons in general was made by Thomas Bradwardine in the 14th century.


title: Polygon

text: In 1952, Geoffrey Colin Shephard generalized the idea of polygons to the complex plane, where each real dimension is accompanied by an imaginary one, to create complex polygons.


title: Polygon

text: Polygons appear in rock formations, most commonly as the flat facets of crystals, where the angles between the sides depend on the type of mineral from which the crystal is made.


title: Polygon

text: Regular hexagons can occur when the cooling of lava forms areas of tightly packed columns of basalt, which may be seen at the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland, or at the Devil's Postpile in California.


title: Polygon

text: In biology, the surface of the wax honeycomb made by bees is an array of hexagons, and the sides and base of each cell are also polygons.


title: Polygon

text: In computer graphics, a polygon is a primitive used in modelling and rendering. They are defined in a database, containing arrays of vertices (the coordinates of the geometrical vertices, as well as other attributes of the polygon, such as color, shading and texture), connectivity information, and materials.


title: Polygon

text: Any surface is modelled as a tessellation called polygon mesh. If a square mesh has points (vertices) per side, there are "n" squared squares in the mesh, or 2"n" squared triangles since there are two triangles in a square. There are vertices per triangle. Where "n" is large, this approaches one half. Or, each vertex inside the square mesh connects four edges (lines).


title: Polygon

text: The imaging system calls up the structure of polygons needed for the scene to be created from the database. This is transferred to active memory and finally, to the display system (screen, TV monitors etc.) so that the scene can be viewed. During this process, the imaging system renders polygons in correct perspective ready for transmission of the processed data to the display system. Although polygons are two-dimensional, through the system computer they are placed in a visual scene in the correct three-dimensional orientation.


title: Polygon

text: In computer graphics and computational geometry, it is often necessary to determine whether a given point formula_23 lies inside a simple polygon given by a sequence of line segments. This is called the point in polygon test.


title: Yakuts

text: The Yakuts, or the Sakha (, ; , ), are a Turkic ethnic group who mainly live in the Republic of Sakha in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenk Districts of the Krasnoyarsk region. The Yakut language belongs to the Siberian branch of the Turkic languages. The Russian word was taken from Evenk . The Yakuts call themselves , or (Yakut: Уран Саха, "Uran Sakha") in some old chronicles.


title: Yakuts

text: An early work on the Yakut ethnogenesis was drafted by the Russian Collegiate Assessors I. Evers and S. Gornovsky in the late 18th century. At an unspecified time in the past certain tribes resided around the western shore of the Aral Sea. These peoples later migrated eastward and settled near the Tunka Goltsy mountains of modern Buryatia. Pressure from the expansionist Mongolian Empire later made many of those around the Tunka Goltsy relocate to the Lena River. Several additional Altai-Sayan region tribes later arrived on the Lena to flee from the Mongols. The subsequent cultural melding that occurred between these incoming migrants eventually created the Yakuts. The Sagay Khakas of Abakan River were presented as the origin of the ethnonym Sakha by Evers and Gornovsky.


title: Yakuts

text: In the mid-19th century Nikolai S. Schukin wrote "A Trip to Yakutsk” based on his experiences visiting the area. He presented a somewhat different origin of the Yakuts based upon local oral histories. Groups of Khakas inhabiting the southern Yenisey watershed migrated north to the Nizhnyaya Tunguska River to the Lena Plateau and finally onward to the Lena River. Schukin is credited as introducing the concept of Yenisey Khakas as the ancestors of the Yakut into Russian historiography. The most authoritative account in support of the Yenisey origin hypothesis was written by Nikolai N. Kozmin in 1928. He concluded that some Khakas moved from the Yenisey to the Angara River due to difficulties in the regional economy. In the 12th century Buryats arrived at Lake Baikal and through military force pushed the Khakas to the Lena.


title: Yakuts

text: In 1893 Turkologist scholar Vasily Radlov connected the Kurykans or Gǔlìgān () Tiele people from Chinese historical accounts with the Yakuts. They are mentioned as 7th century tributaries of the Tang Dynasty, reportedly living on the Angara and around Lake Baikal. Radlov hypothesized they were a mixture of Tungusic and Uyghur peoples and the forebears of the Yakut.


title: Yakuts

text: The Khoro (Khorin, Khorolors) Yakut maintain their progenitor was Uluu Khoro, rather than Omogoy or Ellei. Scholarship has not definitively established their ancestral ethnic affiliations. Their homeland was somewhere in the south and called Khoro sire. When the Khorolors arrived in the Middle Lena remains uncertain, with scholars estimating from the first millennium to the 16th century CE.


title: Yakuts

text: Among scholars a commonly accepted hypothesis is that the Khoro Yakut originate from the Khori Buryat of Lake Baikal, and therefore spoke a Turko-Mongolic language. This is largely based on their similar ethnonyms. Proponents see the word Khoro as arising from the Tibetan word hor (). For example, according to G. N. Runyanstev, during the 6th through 10th centuries CE the inhabitants of Lake Baikal were called Chor.


title: Yakuts

text: This premise is not universally accepted and has been challenged by some researchers. George de Roerich has argued that the word is based on the Chinese word hu (), a term used as general reference by the Chinese to refer to various Iranian or Turkic-Mongolian peoples of Central Asia. In contemporary Tibetan hor is used to describe any pastoralist "nomad of mixed origin" regardless of their ethnonym. After researching their origins, Ksenofontov concluded that while the Khorolors were "formed from parts of some alien tribe that mixed with the Yakuts", there was no compelling evidence connecting them with the Khori Buryat.


title: Yakuts

text: A more recent argument by Zoriktuev proposes that the Khorolors were originally Paleo-Asians from the Lower Amur River. In contrast to their Yakut relatives, Khoro folklore focuses largely on the Raven, with some tales about the Eagle as well. In the mid 18th century Lindenau noted the Khorolors focused their religious devotion on the Raven, who was alternatively referred to as “Our ancestor”, "Our deity", and “Our grandfather" by the Khorolors. This reverence arises from the Raven enabling a struggling human (either the first Khoro man or his mother) to survive by giving a flint and tinder box. Their mythos is similar to cultures from both sides of the Bering Sea; the Haida, Tlingit, Tshisham of the North American Pacific Northwest Coast and the Paleoasians of the Siberian Coast like the Chukchi, Itelmen, and Koryaks all share reverence for the Raven.


title: Yakuts

text: Many researchers have concluded that the Yakut ethnogenesis was an admixture of Turko-Mongols migrating from Lake-Baikal and native Yukaghir and Tungusitic peoples residing around the Lena River. Okladnikov detailed this conceived admixture process as the following:"...the Turkic-speaking ancestors of the Yakuts not only pushed out the aborigines but also subjected them to their influence by peaceful means; they assimilated and absorbed them into their mass... With this, the local tribes lost the former ethnic name and a proper ethnic consciousness, no longer separating themselves from the mass of Yakuts, and [were] not opposed to them... Consequently, as a result of the mixing with Northern aborigines, the southern ancestors of the Yakuts supplemented their culture and language with new features distinguishing them from other steppe tribes."


title: Yakuts

text: In 1996 Aleksei N. Alekseev and S. I. Nikolaeva-Somogotto alternatively proposed that Paleo-Asian and Samoyedic peoples populations instead intermarried with the incoming Turko-Mongols, for which there is some evidence.


title: Yakuts

text: Traditional Yakut histories contain stories of the aboriginal peoples of Yakutia. From the subarctic Bulunsky and Verkhoyansky Districts accounts state that the Black Yukaghir (Yakut: хара дъукаагырдар) descended from migrants pushed north from the Lena River. Related stories recorded in Ust'-Aldanskiy Ulus and Megino-Kangalassky District mention certain tribes leaving the region due to rising pressure from the incoming Yakuts. While some remained and intermarried with the newcomer, most went to the northern tundra.


title: Yakuts

text: The Ymyyakhtakh are an ancient people of the Lena River. A burial ground was excavated and anthropologists I.I. Gokhman and L.F. Tomtosova studied the human remains and published their results in 1992. They concluded that some of the Late Neolithic population took part in the formation of the modern Yakuts. The consistency of related artistic embellishments on the traditional clothing of the Buryat, Samoyed, and Yakut led one scholar to conclude they are related. Toponymic data of Yakutia indicates there was once a presence of Paleoasian and Samoyed habitation in the region. Vilyui Tumats reportedly practiced anthropophagy and seen as an "ethnocultural marker" of the Samoyedic peoples.


title: Yakuts

text: The Tumat stand out in Yakut tradition as a numerous and powerful society, with constant conflict once happening with them on the Vilyuy River. Their households were semi-subterranean with sod roofing and are comparable to traditional Samoyed dwellings. The term Doubo () was used in medieval Chinese historical works in reference to the Sayano-Altai forest peoples. Vasily Radlov concluded that Doubo referred to the Samoyedic peoples. Doubo is additionally seen as the origin of the ethnonym "Tumat" by L. P. Potapov.


title: Yakuts

text: The Yakuts called the Tumat people "Dyirikinei" or "chipmunk people" (Yakut: Sдьирикинэй), arising from the Tumatian "tail-coat." Bundles of deer fur were dyed with red ocher and sewn into Tumatian jackets as adornments. Tumat hats were likewise dyed red. This style was likely spread by the Tumatians to some Tungusic peoples. Similar clothing has been reported during the 17th century for the Evenks on the upper Angara and for Evens residing on the lower Kolyma in the early 19th century. Additionally there are many similarities between the clothing of the Tumats and Altaic cultures. Archeological work on Pazyryk culture sites have turned up both hats dyed red and tail-coats made of sables. While the "tails" were not dyed red, they were sewn with red dyed thread. Stylistic and design choices are also comparable to traditional Khakas and Kumandin clothing.


title: Yakuts

text: Some peaceable interactions including intermarriage did occur with the Tumats. One such example is the life of Džaardaakh (), a Tumatian woman. She was renowned for her physical strength and martial repute as an archer. However Džaardaakh eventually married a Yakut man and is considered a notable ancestor of the local Vilyuy Yakut. The origin of her name has been linked to a Yukaghir word for ice (Yukaghir: йархан).


title: Yakuts

text: The ancestors of Yakuts were Kurykans who migrated from Yenisey river to Lake Baikal and were subject to a certain Mongolian admixture prior to migration in the 7th century. The Yakuts originally lived around Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal. Beginning in the 13th century they migrated to the basins of the Middle Lena, the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers under the pressure of the rising Mongols. The northern Yakuts were largely hunters, fishermen and reindeer herders, while the southern Yakuts raised cattle and horses.


title: Yakuts

text: In the 1620s the Tsardom of Muscovy began to move into their territory and annexed or settled down on it, imposed a fur tax and managed to suppress several Yakut rebellions between 1634 and 1642. The tsarist brutality in collection of the pelt tax ("yasak") sparked a rebellion and aggression among the Yakuts and also Tungusic-speaking tribes along the River Lena in 1642. The voivode Peter Golovin, leader of the tsarist forces, responded with a reign of terror: native settlements were torched and hundreds of people were killed. The Yakut population alone is estimated to have fallen by 70 percent between 1642 and 1682, mainly because of smallpox and other infectious diseases.


title: Yakuts

text: In the 18th century the Russians reduced the pressure, gave Yakut chiefs some privileges, granted freedom for all habitats, gave them all their lands, sent Eastern Orthodox missions, and educated the Yakut people regarding agriculture. The discovery of gold and, later, the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway, brought ever-increasing numbers of Russians into the region. By the 1820s almost all the Yakuts claimed to have converted to the Russian Orthodox church, but they retained (and still retain) a number of shamanist practices. Yakut literature began to rise in the late 19th century, and a national revival occurred in the early 20th century.


title: Yakuts

text: The last conflict of the Russian Civil War, known as the Yakut Revolt, occurred here when Cornet Mikhail Korobeinikov, a White Russian officer, led an uprising and a last stand against the Red Army.


title: Yakuts

text: In 1922, the new Soviet government named the area the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. In the late 1920s through the late 1930s, Yakut people were systematically persecuted, when Joseph Stalin launched his collectivization campaign. It is possible that hunger and malnutrition during this period resulted in a decline in the Yakut total population from 240,500 in 1926 to 236,700 in 1959. By 1972, the population began to recover.


title: Yakuts

text: Currently, Yakuts form a large plurality of the total population within the vast Sakha Republic. According to the 2010 Russian census, there were a total of 466,492 Yakuts residing in the Sakha Republic during that year, or 49.9% of the total population of the Republic.


title: Yakuts

text: The Yakuts engage in animal husbandry, traditionally having focused on rearing horses, mainly the Yakutian horse, reindeer and the ('Yakutian cow'), a hardy kind of cattle known as Yakutian cattle which is well adapted to the harsh local weather.


title: Yakuts

text: Certain rock formations named Kigilyakh, as well as places such as Ynnakh Mountain, are held in high esteem by Yakuts.


title: Yakuts

text: The cuisine of Sakha prominently features the traditional drink kumis, dairy products of cow, mare, and reindeer milk, sliced frozen salted fish stroganina (), loaf meat dishes (), venison, frozen fish, thick pancakes, and —a millet porridge with butter and horse fat. () or , a popular dessert, is made of cow milk or cream with various berries. is a traditional fish salad. This cuisine is only used in Yakutia.


title: Yakuts

text: According to the 2010 census, some 87% of the Yakuts in the Sakha Republic are fluent in the Yakut (or Sakha) language, while 90% are fluent in Russian. The Sakha/Yakut language belongs to the Northern branch of the Siberian Turkic languages. It is most closely related to the Dolgan language, and also to a lesser extent related to Tuvan and Shor.


title: Yakuts

text: The primary Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup for the Yakut is N-M231. While found in around 89% of the general population, in northern Yakutia it is closer to 71%. N-M231 is shared with various other Eastern Siberian populations. The remaining haplogroups are approximately: 4% C-M217 (including subclades C-M48 and C-M407), 3.5% R1a-M17 (including subclade R1a-M458), and 2.1% N-P43, with sporadic instances of I-M253, R1b-M269, J2, and Q.


title: Yakuts

text: According to Adamov, haplogroup N1c1 makes up 94% of the Sakha population. This genetic bottleneck has been dated approximately to 1300 CE ± 200 ybp and speculated to have caused by high mortality rates in warfare and later relocation to the Middle Lena River.


title: Yakuts

text: The primary mitochondrial DNA haplogroups are haplogroup C at 36% to 45.7% and haplogroup D at 25.7% to 32.9% of the Yakut. Minor Eastern Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups include: 5.2% G, 4.49% F, 3.55% M13a1b, 1.89% A, 1.18% Y1a, 1.18% B, 0.95% Z3, and 0.71% M7. Western Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups make up 9.93% of the Yakut, which include: 3.55% H, 1.42% W, 1.42%J1c5, 1.18% T2, 1.18% HV1a1a, 0.47% R1b2a, 0.47% U5b1b1a, and 0.24% U4d2.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Blue-eyed soul (also called white soul) is rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul music performed by white artists. The term was coined in the mid-1960s, to describe white artists whose sound was similar to that of the predominantly-black Motown and Stax record labels. Though many R&B radio stations in the United States in that period would only play music by black musicians, some began to play music by white acts considered to have "soul feeling"; their music was then described as "blue-eyed soul."


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Georgie Woods, a Philadelphia radio DJ, is thought to have coined the term "blue-eyed soul" in 1964, initially to describe The Righteous Brothers, then white artists in general who received airplay on rhythm and blues radio stations. The Righteous Brothers in turn named their 1964 LP "Some Blue-Eyed Soul". According to Bill Medley of the Righteous Brothers, R&B radio stations who played their songs were surprised to find them to be white when they turned up for interviews, and one DJ in Philadelphia (unnamed by Medley but probably Georgie Woods) started saying "Here's my blue-eyed soul brothers", and it became a code to signal to the audience that they were white singers. The popularity of The Righteous Brothers who had a hit with "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" is thought to have started the trend of R&B radio stations to play songs by white artists in the mid-1960s, a more integrative approach that was then popular with their audience. The term blue-eyed soul was then applied to such artists as Sonny & Cher, Tom Jones, Barry McGuire, and Roy Head.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: White musicians playing R&B music, however, began before the term blue-eyed soul was coined. For instance, in the early 1960s, one of the rare female blue-eyed soul singers was Timi Yuro, whose vocal delivery and repertoire were influenced by African American singers such as Dinah Washington.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Lonnie Mack's 1963 gospel-infused vocals earned him widespread critical acclaim as a blue-eyed soul singer. Groups such as The Rascals had soul-tinged pop songs, but it was the soulful vocals of Felix Cavaliere that gave them the blue-eyed soul sound. By the mid-1960s, British singers Dusty Springfield, Eric Burdon, and Tom Jones had become leading vocal stars of the emerging style. Other notable UK exponents of blue-eyed soul included The Spencer Davis Group (featuring Steve Winwood), Van Morrison, and archetypal mod band The Small Faces, whose sound was heavily influenced by the Stax label's house band Booker T. & the M.G.'s. Blonde, blue-eyed soul singer Chris Clark became the first white singer to have an R&B hit with "Love's Gone Bad" with Motown Records in 1966. In 1969, Kiki Dee became the first British artist to sign and record with Motown. Some British rock groups of the 1960s—such as the Spencer Davis Group, the Animals, the Rolling Stones ("My Girl"), and the Who ("Heat Wave")—covered Motown and rhythm and blues tracks. In 1967, Jerry Lee Lewis, whose latter days at Sun Records (1961–63) had been characterized by R&B covers, recorded an album for Smash entitled "Soul My Way". Delaney and Bonnie (Bramlett) produced the blue-eyed soul album "Home" on Stax in 1969. Michael Sembello, who left home at age 17 to tour with Stevie Wonder, wrote and performed on numerous blue-eyed soul hits for Wonder, Brian McKnight, David Sanborn, Bill Champlin, and Bobby Caldwell. Todd Rundgren began his career in Woody's Truck Stop, a group based on the model of the Paul Butterfield Blues Band.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: After splitting from Big Brother and the Holding Company, Janis Joplin formed a new backup group, the Kozmic Blues Band, composed of session musicians like keyboardist Stephen Ryder and saxophonist Cornelius "Snooky" Flowers, as well as former Big Brother and the Holding Company guitarist Sam Andrew and future Full Tilt Boogie Band bassist Brad Campbell. The band was influenced by the Stax-Volt rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul bands of the 1960s, as exemplified by Otis Redding and the Bar-Kays.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Hamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds and the Grass Roots both had successful blue-eyed soul singles; the former with "Don't Pull Your Love" (1971) and the latter with "Two Divided by Love" (1971) and "The Runway" (1972). In 1973, the American band Stories and the Canadian group Skylark had successes with their respective blue-eyed soul singles "Brother Louie" and "Wildflower". In February 1975, Tower of Power became the first white/mixed act to appear on "Soul Train". Also in 1975, David Bowie, another early white artist to appear on "Soul Train", released "Young Americans", a popular blue-eyed soul album which Bowie himself called “plastic soul." It featured the funk-inspired "Fame", which became Bowie's first number-one hit in the US. Hall & Oates' 1975 "Silver Album" (real title "Daryl Hall & John Oates") includes the ballad "Sara Smile", long considered a blue-eyed soul standard. "She's Gone", another soulful hit, was originally released in 1973 but did better as a re-release after "Sara Smile". Bobby Caldwell, one of the most notable purveyors of blue-eyed soul, released his enduring hit What You Won't Do for Love in 1978.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Blue-eyed soul music's chart success was at its highest when Hall and Oates' singles got heavy airplay on urban contemporary radio, as was the case with "I Can't Go for That (No Can Do)", "Kiss on My List", "One on One", "Say It Isn't So", "Adult Education", "Out of Touch", "Method of Modern Love", and "Everytime You Go Away". Most of those singles charted on the R&B and dance charts, including some number-one hits. In 1985, Simply Red released "Holding Back the Years", one of the most successful blue-eyed soul ballads; "Money's Too Tight (to Mention)" and other singles by the group also performed well.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Other successful blue-eyed soul songs of the 1980s include Phil Collins' cover of "You Can't Hurry Love" (1982); Culture Club's "Do You Really Want to Hurt Me" (1982), "Time (Clock of the Heart)" (1982) and "Church of the Poison Mind" (1983); Dexys Midnight Runners' "Come On Eileen" (1983); the Style Council's "Shout to the Top" (1984); Teena Marie's "Lovergirl" (1985); Paul Young's "Every Time You Go Away" (1985); Eurythmics' "Missionary Man" (1986), and Steve Winwood's "Roll with It" (1988). As the decade drew to a close, British artist Lisa Stansfield had considerable success on R&B radio, scoring three number-one R&B hits, the most popular being "All Around the World".


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: In the mid-1980s, George Michael found some success in the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs with hit singles such as "Careless Whisper" and "Everything She Wants" but it was not until he reinvented himself as a white soul singer with the release of his multi-platinum album "Faith" (1987). The album was notable for entering the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart at number one, making it the first album by a white artist to hit the top spot on that chart, mainly due to the gospel-influenced singles that were released from the album, most notably "Father Figure" and "One More Try". In 1989, he racked up three wins in the American Music Awards including Favorite Soul/R&B Male Artist and Favorite Soul/R&B Album for "Faith".


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Dance-pop singer Rick Astley shifted to blue-eyed soul and adult contemporary in the early 1990s with "Free", featuring the hit "Cry for Help".


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: Joss Stone received much acclaim soon after releasing her first album "The Soul Sessions" in 2003. Scottish musician Paolo Nutini whose first two albums influenced by soul music are certified quintuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. Adele's debut album "19" was a global success.


title: Blue-eyed soul

text: A backlash ensued in the late 1980s as some black people felt that white people were cashing in on the popularity of their music. The extent of the backlash, however, was not universally agreed upon. In 1989, "Ebony Magazine" published an article exploring whether white people were "taking over" R&B. The article featured various members of the music industry, both black and white, who believed collaboration was a unifying force, and there was agreement that the future of R&B was not compromised by the contemporary urban sound. A similar article in "Ebony", written in 1999 highlighted conflicting opinions about the "blue-eyed" influence; however, the source of contention was not about the artistic merit of blue-eyed soul, but rather the economic inequality that persisted in American life and within the music industry.