title: Hanja

text: The Chinese language, however, was quite different from the Korean language, consisting of terse, often monosyllabic words with a strictly analytic, SVO structure in stark contrast to the generally polysyllabic, very synthetic, SOV structure, with various grammatical endings that encoded person, levels of politeness and case. Despite the adoption of literary Chinese as the written language, Chinese never replaced Korean as the spoken language, even amongst the scholars that had immersed themselves into its study.


title: Hanja

text: The first attempts to make literary Chinese texts more accessible to Korean readers were "hanmun" passages written in Korean word order. This would later develop into the "gugyeol" () or 'separated phrases,' system. Chinese texts were broken into meaningful blocks, and in the spaces were inserted "hanja" used to represent the sound of native Korean grammatical endings. As literary Chinese was very terse, leaving much to be understood from context, insertion of occasional verbs and grammatical markers helped to clarify the meaning. For instance, the "hanja" " was used for its native Korean gloss whereas " was used for its Sino-Korean pronunciation, and combined into " and read "hani" (), 'to do (and so).' Special symbols were sometimes used to aid in the reordering of words in approximation of Korean grammar. It was similar to the "kanbun" () system developed in Japan to render Chinese texts. The system was not a translation of Chinese into Korean, but an attempt to make Korean speakers knowledgeable in "hanja" overcome the difficulties in interpreting Chinese texts. Although it was developed by scholars of the early Goryeo Kingdom (918 - 1392), "gugyeol" was of particular importance during the Joseon period, extending into the first decade of the twentieth century, since all civil servants were required to be able to read, translate and interpret Confucian texts and commentaries.


title: Hanja

text: The first attempt at transcribing Korean in "hanja" was the "idu" (), or 'official reading,' system that began to appear after 500 AD. In this system, the "hanja" were chosen for their equivalent native Korean gloss. For example, the "hanja" " signifies 'no winter' or 'not winter' and has the formal Sino-Korean pronunciation of () "budong", similar to Mandarin "bù dōng". Instead, it was read as "andeul" () which is the Middle Korean pronunciation of the characters' native gloss and is ancestor to modern "anneunda" (), 'do not' or 'does not.' The various "idu" conventions were developed in the Goryeo period but was particularly associated with the "jung-in" (), the upper middle class of the early Joseon period.


title: Hanja

text: A subset of "idu" was known as "hyangchal" (), 'village notes,' and was a form of "idu" particularly associated with the "hyangga" () the old poetry compilations and some new creations preserved in the first half of the Goryeo period when its popularity began to wane. In the "hyangchal" or 'village letters' system, there was free choice in how a particular "hanja" was used. For example, to indicate the topic of Princess Shenhua, the half-sister of Emperor Jiajing of the Ming Dynasty was recorded as " in "hyangchal" and was read as (), "seonhwa gongju-nim-eun" where " is read in Sino-Korean, as it is a Chinese name and the Sino-Korean term for 'princess' was already adopted as a loan word. The "hanja" ',' however, were read according to their native pronunciation but was not used for its literal meaning signifying 'the prince steals' but the native postpositions () "nim", the honorific marker used after professions and titles, and "eun", the topic marker. In mixed script, this would be rendered as '.' The "idu" and its "hyangchal" variant were similar to the Japanese "man'yogana" () system that would develop much later in Japan. "Idu" and its "hyangchal" variant were mostly replaced by mixed-script writing with "hangul" although "idu" was not officially discontinued until 1894 when reforms abolished its usage in administrative records of civil servants. Even with "idu", most literature and official records were still recorded in literary Chinese until 1910.


title: Hanja

text: The foremost problem at the centre of this debate is the use of Hanja. Mixed script was a commonly used means of writing, although Hangŭl exclusive writing has been used concurrently, in Korea after the decline of literary Chinese, known as "hanmun" (Korean: 한문; Hanja: 漢文). Mixed script could be commonly found in non-fiction writing, news papers, etc. until the enacting of Park Chung-hee's 5 Year Plan for Hangŭl Exclusivity "hangŭl jŏnyong ogaenyŏn gyehuik an" (Korean: 한글전용 5개년 계획안; Hanja: 한글專用 5個年 計劃案) in 1968 banned the use and teaching of Hanja in public schools, as well as forbade its use in the military, with the goal of completely eliminating Hanja in writing by 1972 through legislative and executive means. However, due to public backlash, in 1972 Park's government allowed for the teaching of Hanja in special classes but maintained a ban on Hanja use in textbooks and other learning materials outside of the classes. This reverse step however, was optional so the availability of Hanja education was dependent on the school one went to. Park's Hanja ban was not formally lifted until 1992 under the government of Kim Young-Sam. In 1999 the government of Kim Dae-Jung actively promoted Hanja by placing it on signs on the road, at bus stops, and in subways. In 1999 Han Mun was reintroduced as a school elective and in 2001 the Hanja Proficiency Test "hanja nŭngryŏk gŏmjŏng sihŏm" (Korean: 한자능력검정시험; Hanja: 漢字能力檢定試驗) was introduced. In 2005 an older law, the Law Concerning Hangul Exclusivity "hangŭl jŏnyonge gwahak pŏmnyul" (Korean: 한글전용에 관한 법률; Hanja: 한글專用에 關한 法律) was repealed as well. In 2013 all elementary schools in Seoul started teaching Hanja. However, the result is that Koreans who were educated in this period having never been formally educated in Hanja are unable to use them and thus the use of Hanja has plummeted in orthography until the modern day. Where Hanja is now very rarely used and is almost only used for abbreviations in newspaper headlines (e.g. 中 for China, 韓 for Korea, 美 for the United States, 日 for Japan, etc.), for clarification in text where a word might be confused for another due to homophones (e.g. 이사장(李 社長) vs. 이사장(理事長)), or for stylistic use such as the 辛 (Korean: 신라면; Hanja: 辛拉麵) used on Shin Ramyŏn packaging.


title: Hanja

text: A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism. The major Chinese text that introduced Hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text "Cheonjamun" (; "Thousand Character Classic").


title: Hanja

text: Although Koreans had to learn Classical Chinese to be properly literate for the most part, some additional systems were developed which used simplified forms of Chinese characters that phonetically transcribe Korean, including hyangchal (), gugyeol (), and idu ().


title: Hanja

text: One way of adapting Hanja to write Korean in such systems (such as Gugyeol) was to represent native Korean grammatical particles and other words solely according to their pronunciation. For example, Gugyeol uses the characters to transcribe the Korean word "hăni", which in modern Korean means "does, and so". In Chinese, however, the same characters are read in Mandarin as the expression "wéi ní", meaning "becoming a nun". This is a typical example of Gugyeol words where the radical () is read in Korean for its meaning (hă—"to do"), whereas the suffix , ni (meaning "nun"), is used phonetically.


title: Hanja

text: Hanja were the sole means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great invented and promoted Hangul in the 15th century. Even after the invention of Hangul, however, most Korean scholars continued to write in "hanmun", although Hangul did see considerable popular use.


title: Hanja

text: Hangul effectively replaced Hanja in official and scholarly writing only in the 20th century. Since June 1949, Hanja have not officially been used in North Korea, and, in addition, most texts are now most commonly written horizontally instead of vertically. Many words borrowed from Chinese have also been replaced in the North with native Korean words. Nevertheless, a large number of Chinese-borrowed words are still widely used in the North (although written in Hangul), and Hanja still appear in special contexts, such as recent North Korean dictionaries. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some Hanja remain in common usage in some contexts.


title: Hanja

text: Each Hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements. The vast majority of Hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few Hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways.


title: Hanja

text: The historical use of Hanja in Korea has had a change over time. Hanja became prominent in use by the elite class between the 3rd and 4th centuries by the Three Kingdoms. The use came from Chinese that migrated into Korea. With them they brought the writing system Hanja. Thus the hanja being used came from the characters already being used by the Chinese at the time.


title: Hanja

text: Since Hanja was primarily used by the elite and scholars, it was hard for others to learn, thus much character development was limited. Scholars in the 4th century used this to study and write Confucian classics. Character formation is also coined to the Idu form which was a Buddhist writing system for Chinese characters. This practice however was limited due to the opinion of Buddhism whether it was favorable at the time or not.


title: Hanja

text: To aid in understanding the meaning of a character, or to describe it orally to distinguish it from other characters with the same pronunciation, character dictionaries and school textbooks refer to each character with a combination of its sound and a word indicating its meaning. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called "eumhun" (; from "sound" + "meaning," "teaching").


title: Hanja

text: The word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean (i.e., non-Chinese) origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used.


title: Hanja

text: South Korean primary schools ceased the teaching of Hanja in elementary schools in the 1970s, although they are still taught as part of the mandatory curriculum in grade 6. They are taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum. Formal Hanja education begins in grade 7 (junior high school) and continues until graduation from senior high school in grade 12.


title: Hanja

text: A total of 1,800 Hanja are taught: 900 for junior high, and 900 for senior high (starting in grade 10). Post-secondary Hanja education continues in some liberal-arts universities. The 1972 promulgation of basic Hanja for educational purposes changed on December 31, 2000, to replace 44 Hanja with 44 others.


title: Hanja

text: South Korea's Ministry of Education generally encourages all primary schools to offer Hanja classes. Officials said that learning Chinese characters could enhance students' Korean-language proficiency. Initially announced as a mandatory requirement, it is now considered optional.


title: Hanja

text: Though North Korea rapidly abandoned the general use of Hanja soon after independence, the number of Hanja taught in primary and secondary schools is actually greater than the 1,800 taught in South Korea. Kim Il-sung had earlier called for a gradual elimination of the use of Hanja, but by the 1960s, he had reversed his stance; he was quoted as saying in 1966, "While we should use as few Sinitic terms as possible, students must be exposed to the necessary Chinese characters and taught how to write them."


title: Hanja

text: As a result, a Chinese-character textbook was designed for North Korean schools for use in grades 5–9, teaching 1,500 characters, with another 500 for high school students. College students are exposed to another 1,000, bringing the total to 3,000.


title: Hanja

text: Because many different Hanja—and thus, many different words written using Hanja—often share the same sounds, two distinct Hanja words ("Hanjaeo") may be spelled identically in the phonetic Hangul alphabet. Hanja's language of origin, Chinese, has many homophones, and Hanja words became even more homophonic when they came into Korean, since Korean lacks a tonal system, which is how Chinese distinguishes many words that would otherwise be homophonic. For example, while , , and are all phonetically distinct in Mandarin (pronounced "dào", "dāo", and "dǎo" respectively), they are all pronounced "do" (도) in Korean. For this reason, Hanja are often used to clarify meaning, either on their own without the equivalent Hangul spelling or in parentheses after the Hangul spelling as a kind of gloss. Hanja are often also used as a form of shorthand in newspaper headlines, advertisements, and on signs, for example the banner at the funeral for the sailors lost in the sinking of ROKS Cheonan (PCC-772).


title: Hanja

text: In South Korea, Hanja are used most frequently in ancient literature, legal documents, and scholarly monographs, where they often appear without the equivalent Hangul spelling. Usually, only those words with a specialized or ambiguous meaning are printed in Hanja. In mass-circulation books and magazines, Hanja are generally used rarely, and only to gloss words already spelled in Hangul when the meaning is ambiguous. Hanja are also often used in newspaper headlines as abbreviations or to eliminate ambiguity.


title: Hanja

text: In formal publications, personal names are also usually glossed in Hanja in parentheses next to the Hangul. Aside from academic usage, Hanja are often used for advertising or decorative purposes in South Korea, and appear frequently in athletic events and cultural parades, packaging and labeling, dictionaries and atlases. For example, the Hanja ("sin" or "shin", meaning spicy) appears prominently on packages of Shin Ramyun noodles. In contrast, North Korea eliminated the use of Hanja even in academic publications by 1949 on the orders of Kim Il-sung, a situation that has since remained unchanged.


title: Hanja

text: In modern Korean dictionaries, all entry words of Sino-Korean origin are printed in Hangul and listed in Hangul order, with the Hanja given in parentheses immediately following the entry word.


title: Hanja

text: This practice helps to eliminate ambiguity, and it also serves as a sort of shorthand etymology, since the meaning of the Hanja and the fact that the word is composed of Hanja often help to illustrate the word's origin.


title: Hanja

text: As an example of how Hanja can help to clear up ambiguity, many homophones can be distinguished by using hanja. An example is the word (sudo), which may have meanings such as:


title: Hanja

text: Hanja dictionaries for specialist usage – "Jajeon" () or "Okpyeon" () – are organized by radical (the traditional Chinese method of classifying characters).


title: Hanja

text: Korean personal names, including all Korean surnames and most Korean given names, are based on Hanja and are generally written in it, although some exceptions exist. On business cards, the use of Hanja is slowly fading away, with most older people displaying their names exclusively in Hanja while most of the younger generation using both Hangul and Hanja. Korean personal names usually consist of a one-character family name ("seong", ) followed by a two-character given name ("ireum", ). There are a few two-character family names (e.g. , Namgung), and the holders of such names—but not only them—tend to have one-syllable given names. Traditionally, the given name in turn consists of one character unique to the individual and one character shared by all people in a family of the same sex and generation (see Generation name).


title: Hanja

text: During the Japanese administration of Korea (1910–1945), Koreans were forced to adopt Japanese-style names, including polysyllabic readings of the Hanja, but this practice was reversed by post-independence governments in Korea. Since the 1970s, some parents have given their children given names that are simply native Korean words. Popular ones include "Haneul"—meaning "sky"—and "Iseul"—meaning "morning dew". Nevertheless, on official documents, people's names are still recorded in both Hangul and in Hanja.


title: Hanja

text: Due to standardization efforts during Goryeo and Joseon eras, native Korean placenames were converted to Hanja, and most names used today are Hanja-based. The most notable exception is the name of the capital, Seoul, a native Korean word meaning "capital" with no direct Hanja conversion; the Hanja "gyeong" (, "capital") is sometimes used as a back-rendering. For example, disyllabic names of railway lines, freeways, and provinces are often formed by taking one character from each of the two locales' names; thus,


title: Hanja

text: Most atlases of Korea today are published in two versions: one in Hangul (sometimes with some English as well), and one in Hanja. Subway and railway station signs give the station's name in Hangul, Hanja, and English, both to assist visitors (including Chinese or Japanese who may rely on the Hanja spellings) and to disambiguate the name.


title: Hanja

text: Hanja are still required for certain disciplines in academia, such as Oriental Studies and other disciplines studying Chinese, Japanese or historic Korean literature and culture, since the vast majority of primary source text material are written in Hanzi, Kanji or Hanja.


title: Hanja

text: For the traditional creative arts such as calligraphy and painting, a knowledge of Hanja is needed to write and understand the various scripts and inscriptions, as is the same in China and Japan. Many old songs and poems are written and based on Hanja characters.


title: Hanja

text: On 9 September 2003, the celebration for the 55th anniversary of North Korea appeared a float decorated with the situation of North Korean people welcomes Kim Il-Sung, which including a banner with Kim Il-Sung's name written with Hanja.


title: Hanja

text: Opinion surveys in South Korea regarding the issue of Hanja use have had mixed responses in the past. Hanja terms are also expressed through Hangul, the standard script in the Korean language. Hanja use within general Korean literature has declined since the 1980s because formal Hanja education in South Korea does not begin until the seventh year of schooling, due to changes in government policy during the time.


title: Hanja

text: In 1956, one study found mixed-script Korean text (in which Sino-Korean nouns are written using Hanja, and other words using Hangul) were read faster than texts written purely in Hangul; however, by 1977, the situation had reversed. In 1988, 65% of one sample of people without a college education "evinced no reading comprehension of any but the most common hanja" when reading mixed-script passages.


title: Hanja

text: A small number of characters were invented by the Koreans themselves. These characters are called "gukja" (, literally "national characters"). Most of them are for proper names (place-names and people's names) but some refer to Korean-specific concepts and materials. They include (; "dap"; "paddy field"), (; "jang", "wardrobe"), (; "Dol", a character only used in given names), (; "So", a rare surname from Seongju), and (; "Gi", an old name referring to Kumgangsan).


title: Hanja

text: Further examples include ( "bu"), ( "tal"), ( "pyeon"), ( "ppun"), and ( "myeong"). See Korean gukja characters at Wiktionary for more examples.


title: Hanja

text: Compare to the parallel development in Japan of , of which there are hundreds, many rarely used—these were often developed for native Japanese plants and animals.


title: Hanja

text: Some Hanja characters have simplified forms (, "yakja") that can be seen in casual use. An example is , which is a cursive form of (meaning "nothing").


title: Hanja

text: Each Hanja character is pronounced as a single syllable, corresponding to a single composite character in Hangul. The pronunciation of Hanja in Korean is by no means identical to the way they are pronounced in modern Chinese, particularly Mandarin, although some Chinese dialects and Korean share similar pronunciations for some characters. For example, "print" is "yìnshuā" in Mandarin Chinese and "inswae" () in Korean, but it is pronounced "insah" in Shanghainese (a Wu Chinese dialect).


title: Hanja

text: One difference is the loss of tone from standard Korean while most Chinese dialects retain tone. In other aspects, the pronunciation of Hanja is more conservative than most northern and central Chinese dialects, for example in the retention of labial consonant codas in characters with labial consonant onsets, such as the characters ( "beop") and ( "beom"); labial codas existed in Middle Chinese but do not survive intact in most northern and central Chinese varieties today, and even in many southern Chinese varieties that still retain labial codas, including Cantonese and Hokkien, labial codas in characters with labial onsets are replaced by their dental counterparts.


title: Hanja

text: Due to divergence in pronunciation since the time of borrowing, sometimes the pronunciation of a Hanja and its corresponding hanzi may differ considerably. For example, ("woman") is "nǚ" in Mandarin Chinese and "nyeo" () in Korean. However, in most modern Korean dialects (especially South Korean ones), is pronounced as "yeo" () when used in an initial position, due to a systematic elision of initial "n" when followed by "y" or "i". Additionally, sometimes a Hanja-derived word will have altered pronunciation of a character to reflect Korean pronunciation shifts, for example, mogwa "quince" from mokgwa , and moran "Paeonia suffruticosa" from mokdan .


title: Hanja

text: There are some pronunciation correspondence between the onset, rhyme, and coda between Cantonese and Korean.


title: Hanja

text: When learning how to write Hanja, students are taught to memorize the native Korean pronunciation for the Hanja's meaning and the Sino-Korean pronunciations (the pronunciation based on the Chinese pronunciation of the characters) for each Hanja respectively so that students know what the syllable and meaning is for a particular Hanja. For example, the name for the Hanja is (mul-su) in which (mul) is the native Korean pronunciation for "water", while (su) is the Sino-Korean pronunciation of the character. The naming of Hanja is similar to if "water", "horse" and "gold" were named "water-aqua", "horse-equus", or "gold-aurum" based on a hybridization of both the English and the Latin names. Other examples include (saram-in) for "person/people", (keul-dae) for "big/large/great", (jageul-so) for "small/little", (arae-ha) for "underneath/below/low", (abi-bu) for "father", and (naraireum-han) for "Han/Korea".


title: Agate

text: Agate () is a common rock formation, consisting of chalcedony and quartz as its primary components, with a wide variety of colors. Agates are primarily formed within volcanic and metamorphic rocks. The ornamental use of agate was common in Ancient Greece, in assorted jewelry and in the seal stones of Greek warriors, while bead necklaces with pierced and polished agate date back to the 3rd millennium BCE in the Indus Valley civilisation.


title: Agate

text: The stone was given its name by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and naturalist, who discovered the stone along the shore line of the Dirillo River or Achates () in Sicily, sometime between the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.


title: Agate

text: Agate minerals have the tendency to form on or within pre-existing rocks, creating difficulties in accurately determining their time of formation. Their host rocks have been dated to have formed as early as the Archean Eon. Agates are most commonly found as nodules within the cavities of volcanic rocks. These cavities are formed from the gases trapped within the liquid volcanic material forming vesicles. Cavities are then filled in with silica-rich fluids from the volcanic material, layers are deposited on the walls of the cavity slowly working their way inwards. The first layer deposited on the cavity walls is commonly known as the priming layer. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposition may cause a corresponding variation in the successive layers. These variations in layers result in bands of chalcedony, often alternating with layers of crystalline quartz forming banded agate. Hollow agates can also form due to the deposition of liquid-rich silica not penetrating deep enough to fill the cavity completely. Agate will form crystals within the reduced cavity, and the apex of each crystal may point towards the center of the cavity.


title: Agate

text: The priming layer is often dark green, but can be modified by iron oxide resulting in a rust like appearance. Agate is a very durable and therefore is often seen detached from its eroding matrix, once removed, the outer surface is usually pitted and rough from filling the cavity of its former matrix. Agates have also been found in sedimentary rocks, normally in limestone or dolomite; these sedimentary rocks acquire cavities often from decomposed branches or other buried organic material. If silica-rich fluids are able to penetrate into these cavities agates can be formed.


title: Agate

text: "Lace agate" is a variety that exhibits a lace-like pattern with forms such as eyes, swirls, bands or zigzags. "Blue lace agate" is found in Africa and is especially hard. "Crazy lace agate," typically found in Mexico, is often brightly colored with a complex pattern, demonstrating randomized distribution of contour lines and circular droplets, scattered throughout the rock. The stone is typically coloured red and white but is also seen to exhibit yellow and grey combinations as well.


title: Agate

text: "Moss agate", as the name suggests, exhibits a moss-like pattern and is of a greenish colour. The coloration is not created by any vegetative growth, but rather through the mixture of chalcedony and oxidized iron hornblende. "Dendritic agate" also displays vegetative features, including fern-like patterns formed due to the presence of manganese and iron oxides.


title: Agate

text: "Turritella agate" ("Elimia tenera)" is formed from the shells of fossilized freshwater Turritella gastropods with elongated spiral shells. Similarly, coral, petrified wood, porous rocks and other organic remains can also form agate.


title: Agate

text: "Coldwater agates", such as the Lake Michigan cloud agate, did not form under volcanic processes, but instead formed within the limestone and dolomite strata of marine origin. Like volcanic-origin agates, Coldwater agates formed from silica gels that lined pockets and seams within the bedrock. These agates are typically less colorful, with banded lines of grey and white chalcedony.


title: Agate

text: "Greek agate" is a name given to pale white to tan colored agate found in the former Greek colony of Sicily as early as 400 BCE. The Greeks used it for making jewelry and beads.


title: Agate

text: "Brazilian agate" is found as sizable geodes of layered nodules. These occur in brownish tones inter-layered with white and gray. It is often dyed in various colors for ornamental purposes.


title: Agate

text: "Polyhedroid agate" forms in a flat-sided shape similar to a polyhedron. When sliced, it often shows a characteristic layering of concentric polygons. It has been suggested that growth is not crystallographically controlled but is due to the filling-in of spaces between pre-existing crystals which have since dissolved.


title: Agate

text: "Iris agate" is a finely-banded and usually colorless agate, that when thinly sliced, exhibits spectral decomposition of white light into its constituent colors, requiring 400 to up to 30,000 bands per inch.


title: Agate

text: Other forms of agate include "Holley blue agate" (also spelled "Holly blue agate"), a rare dark blue ribbon agate found only near Holley, Oregon; Lake Superior agate; "Carnelian agate" (has reddish hues); "Botswana agate"; "plume agate"; "condor agate"; "tube agate" containing visible flow channels or pinhole-sized "tubes"; "fortification agate" with contrasting concentric banding reminiscent of defensive ditches and walls around ancient forts; "Binghamite", a variety found only on the Cuyuna iron range (near Crosby) in Crow Wing County, Minnesota; "fire agate" showing an iridescent, internal flash or "fire," the result of a layer of clear agate over a layer of hydrothermally deposited hematite; "Patuxent River stone", a red and yellow form of agate only found in Maryland; and "enhydro agate", which contains tiny inclusions of water, sometimes with air bubbles.


title: Agate

text: Agate is one of the most common materials used in the art of hardstone carving, and has been recovered at a number of ancient sites, indicating its widespread use in the ancient world; for example, archaeological recovery at the Knossos site on Crete illustrates its role in Bronze Age Minoan culture. It has also been used for centuries for leather burnishing tools.


title: Agate

text: The decorative arts use it to make ornaments such as pins, brooches or other types of jewellery, paper knives, inkstands, marbles and seals. Agate is also still used today for decorative displays, cabochons, beads, carvings and Intarsia art as well as face-polished and tumble-polished specimens of varying size and origin. Idar-Oberstein was one of the centers which made use of agate on an industrial scale. Where in the beginning locally found agates were used to make all types of objects for the European market, this became a globalized business around the turn of the 20th century: Idar-Oberstein imported large quantities of agate from Brazil, as ship's ballast. Making use of a variety of proprietary chemical processes, they produced colored beads that were sold around the globe. Agates have long been used in arts and crafts. The sanctuary of a Presbyterian church in Yachats, Oregon, has six windows with panes made of agates collected from the local beaches.


title: Agate

text: Industrial uses of agate exploit its hardness, ability to retain a highly polished surface finish and resistance to chemical attack. It has traditionally been used to make knife-edge bearings for laboratory balances and precision pendulums, and sometimes to make mortars and pestles to crush and mix chemicals.


title: Agate

text: Respiratory diseases such as silicosis, and a higher incidence of tuberculosis among workers involved in the agate industry, have been studied in India and China.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: , sometimes abbreviated as LOTGH, LOGH or in Japanese (and also depicted as Heldensagen vom Kosmosinsel in the anime intro), is a series of science fiction novels written by Yoshiki Tanaka. In humanity's distant future, two interstellar states – the monarchic Galactic Empire and the democratic Free Planets Alliance – are embroiled in a never-ending war. The story focuses on the exploits of rivals Reinhard von Lohengramm and Yang Wen-li, as they rise to power and fame in the Galactic Empire and the Free Planets Alliance, respectively.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: An anime adaptation of the novels, produced by Kitty Films, ran from 1988 to 1997. There is also a manga based on the novels, with art by Katsumi Michihara. In addition, there are several video game adaptations, with the most recent release in 2008 being a real-time strategy game. The series did not receive an official English release until 2015, when North American anime and manga distributor Viz Media announced they had acquired the license to the novels. On the same day, North American anime licensor Sentai Filmworks announced their license to the anime; the anime was later released on Hidive in 2017. A new anime adaptation by Production I.G is being released since 2018.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: In AD 2801, the Galactic Federation is formed, resulting in political power moving away from the planet Earth (now named Terra) and the Space Era calendar replacing the Gregorian calendar, with 2801 AD now being SE 1. Rudolf von Goldenbaum, an ex-admiral turned dictatorial politician, is elected to power. After declaring himself Emperor Rudolf I, absolute monarch of the renamed Galactic Empire, he restarts the calendar again, beginning the Imperial Calendar on SE 310/AD 3110. His regime adopts extremist policies, including the suppression of any opposition and the extermination of anyone perceived too weak (such as the disabled and the poor), which is carried out until his death in IC 42/SE 351/AD 3151. He also moves the capital of the Empire to the planet Odin, the third planet in the Valhalla system.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: In IC 164/SE 473/AD 3273, a group of serfs in the Altair star system manage to escape captivity and make "the Long March of 10,000 Light-Years" into the Sagittarius Arm to escape the Galactic Empire, located within the Orion Arm. These people set up the Free Planets Alliance, a democratic republic which uses the Space Era calendar, founding the Alliance in SE 527/IC 218/AD 3327 on the planet Heinessen. In SE 640/IC 331/AD 3440, the first battle between the Empire and Alliance occurs, resulting in a major Alliance victory. The two realms have been at war ever since.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: A third realm is also set up, the Dominion of Phezzan, a planet-state (city-state on a galactic scale) with connections to Terra. It technically remains a part of the Empire and pays tribute, but also maintains a relationship with the Alliance. Ruled by a domain lord called the "landsherr", Phezzan gains power by acting as both paragon and trickster, providing the only link between the Empire and Alliance, while simultaneously playing the two sides against one another.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The story is staged in the distant future within our own Milky Way Galaxy, starting in SE 796/IC 487/AD 3596. A portion of the galaxy is filled with terraformed worlds, inhabited by interstellar traveling human beings. For 150 years, two mighty space powers have intermittently warred with each other: the Galactic Empire and the Free Planets Alliance.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Within the Galactic Empire, based on mid-19th-century Prussia, an ambitious military genius, Reinhard von Müsel, later conferred the name Reinhard von Lohengramm, is rising to power. He is driven by the desire to free his sister Annerose, who was taken by the Kaiser as a concubine. Later, he wants not only to end the corrupt Goldenbaum dynasty, but also to defeat the Free Planets Alliance and unify the whole galaxy under his rule.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: In the Free Planets Alliance Star Fleet is another genius, Yang Wen-li. He originally aspired to become a historian through a military academy, and joined the tactical division only out of need for tuition money. He was rapidly promoted to commodore because he demonstrated excellence in military strategy in a number of decisive battles and conflicts. He becomes the arch-rival of Reinhard, though they highly respect one another. Unlike Reinhard, he is better known for his underdog victories and accomplishments in overcoming seemingly impossible odds and mitigating collateral damages and casualties due to military operations.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: As a historian, Yang often predicts the motives behind his enemies, narrating the rich history of his world and offering commentary. One of his famous quotes is "There are few wars between good and evil; most are between one good and another good."


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Besides the two main heroes, the story is full of vivid characters and intricate politics. All types of characters – from high nobility, admirals, and politicians, to common soldiers and farmers – are interwoven into the story. The story frequently switches away from the main heroes to the Unknown Soldier fighting for his life on the battlefield.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: There is a third neutral power nominally attached to the Galactic Empire, the Phezzan Dominion, a planet-state that trades with both warring powers. There is also a Terraism cult, which believes that humans should go back to Earth, gaining popularity throughout the galaxy. Throughout the story, executive political figures of Phezzan, in concert with the upper-hierarchy of the Terraism cult, orchestrate a number of conspiracies to shift the tide of the galactic war to favor their objectives. The name "Phezzan" is a reference to Fezzan, a region of modern Libya that played an analogous historical role to the one in the anime.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Christopher Farris of the Anime News Network wrote that the novels focus on "personal matters of the main players" instead of being "rote historical accounts", while the 1988-1997 anime series focuses on "the big picture of the war", with multiple characters chronicled, and the 2018 series focuses "only on the major plays by our two main actors to fit within its shorter, more focused format."


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The series proper is based on a ten-novel series written by Yoshiki Tanaka, as well as a number of other shorter stories set in the same universe. It won the Seiun Award for "Best Novel of the Year" in 1988. On July 2, 2015, Viz Media had announced that it had licensed the novels for release in North America under their Haikasoru imprint. The company had only initially licensed the first three novels, but stated that it would license more if sales are good. The first novel, "Dawn", was released on March 8, 2016. The company eventually licensed and released all the novels, and the final volume, "Sunset", was released on November 19, 2019. The novels were translated by Daniel Huddleston, Tyran Grillo and Matt Treyvaud. First three novels were also released as audiobooks.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: is the first animated adaptation of Yoshiki Tanaka's "Legend of the Galactic Heroes" series of novels. It was originally released in Japan on 6 February 1988. The film chronicles the first combat encounter between Reinhard von Müsel (who later adopted the Lohengramm name) and Yang Wen-li, the two primary protagonists of the series. The main original video animation (OVA) series followed only months later.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: is the second and longest-running animated adaptation of Tanaka's series of novels. It was released in direct home video installments during four separate periods between December 1988 and March 1997. The OVA comprises 110 episodes. It was later shown on television and has seen multiple releases on both DVD and Blu-ray formats. It is also known by the (grammatically incorrect) German title Heldensagen vom Kosmosinsel, which is used in its opening credits.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: is the third animated adaptation of Tanaka's novels. It was originally released on home video in Japan in October 1992, then released in cinemas in December of that year. Its art style is notable in that it follows the art style of the Katsumi Michihara's manga rather than the other animated works. Its ending theme song is "Futari Mita Yume ~Two of Us~", performed and composed by Hiroyuki Matsuda, written by Gorou Matsui, and arranged by David Campbell.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: is the fourth animated adaptation of Tanaka's novels. It was originally released in Japan on 18 December 1993. It expands upon the events covered in the first two episodes of the 1988 OVA series.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: is the fifth animated adaptation (counting films) of Tanaka's novel series. It was originally released in Japan between February 1998 and July 2000. It served as a prequel to the main series.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Series 1, released in 1998, is the first animated adaptation of the "Legend of the Galactic Heroes Gaiden", or side stories, series of novels, consisting of adaptations of the short stories "Silver-White Valley", "Dream of the Morning, Song of Night", "Disgrace", and the novel "A Hundred Billion Stars, a Hundred Billion Lights".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Series 2, released between December 1999 and June 2000, is the second animated adaptation of the side stories from the "Legend of the Galactic Heroes" series of novels, consisting of the adaptations of the novels "Spiral Labyrinth" and part of "The Star Crusher" ("The Third Tiamat Battle"), as well as the original stories "The Mutineer", "The Duellist", and "The Retriever".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: started being produced by Production I.G during 2017. Shunsuke Tada directed the series and Noboru Takagi supervised the scripts. Yoko Kikuchi, Iwao Teraoka, and Katsura Tsushima designed the characters. The mecha designs by Naoyuki Kato were drafted by Atsushi Takeuchi, Shinji Usui, and Shinobu Tsuneki. DMM Pictures, Shochiku, and Tokuma Shoten were credited with production of the anime, alongside Production I.G. The anime stars Mamoru Miyano as Reinhard von Lohengramm, Kenichi Suzumura as Yang Wen-li, and Yuichiro Umehara as Siegfried Kircheis. The series premiered from April 3 to June 26, 2018, and ran for 12 episodes. The opening theme is "Binary Star" by SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]:Uru, and the ending theme is "Wish" by Elisa.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: A second season, premiered in Japanese theaters as three films, each with four episodes, in 2019. The films premiered on September 27, October 25, and November 29, 2019, respectively. The ending theme for the films is "Tranquility" by SawanoHiroyuki[nZk]:Anly. It was broadcast on TV with a reairing of the first season in 2020.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: A third season, premiered in Japanese theaters as a three-part film series in 2022 on March 4, April 1, and May 13, respectively. The opening theme for the films is "dust" by SennaRin, while the ending theme is "melt" by SennaRin.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: A fourth season, premiered in Japanese theaters as a three-part film series in 2022 on September 30, October 28, and November 25, respectively.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: An English dub pilot was produced by Outis Productions and Ocean Productions in 1999. The dubbed episodes were the episodes 51 and 52. The dub was never picked up due to a lack of interest.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: On 2 July 2015, Sentai Filmworks announced their license to the anime series at their panel at Anime Expo, and later commented that they hoped to create the "definitive release".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: On 20 June 2017, Sentai Filmworks announced the streaming release on Hidive's anime streaming service starting the same day.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The first manga adaptation was authored by Katsumi Michihara, and adapts the first two volumes of the original novel. It was published from 1986 to 2000, and collected in eleven volumes. A four-volume continuation, "Legend of the Galactic Heroes: Portrait of Heroes", was published from 2006 to 2012. This manga story is faithful to the original, possibly more faithful than the anime. However, there are some changes that could be considered major, e.g. the gender of several characters is changed. Akira Kasahara cooperated in drawing mechanics. Michihara also adapted the side story "Golden Wings" into a one-shot manga of the same name in August 1986.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: A manga adaptation by Ryu Fujisaki started in Shueisha's "Weekly Young Jump" on October 8, 2015. The manga was transferred to "Ultra Jump" on February 19, 2020. Shueisha has compiled its chapters into individual "tankōbon" volumes, with the first volume being released on February 19, 2016. As of August 19, 2022, 24 volumes have been published.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: In February 2014, the most recent stage production of "Legend of the Galactic Heroes" opened, and it ended with an announcement of a new anime adaptation. Tanaka's secretary, Hirofumi Adachi, confirmed the news and relayed the producer's comments that the new anime is not a remake of the earlier anime, but another anime adaptation of the original novels with a new staff.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The series received several reviews in English media, years or even decades before its official release.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The English debut of the novel series in 2016 was described as long-awaited and overdue. "Publishers Weekly" criticized the David Huddleston's translation of the first novel, "Dawn", stating it was "a slog". The novel as-a-whole was criticized for the "shallow" female characters. Also that year, reviewing the same book for the "Forbes" portal, Ollie Barder was much more positive, noting that the series is "an epic space opera that needs to be read" and "a fascinating novel and essential reading for anyone that enjoys immaculately complex fiction". Rachel S. Cordasco, reviewing the novel series in "Locus Magazine" in 2020, praised the work as "a remarkable series... a multi-layered, multi-textual work [that] tells different stories on multiple levels", also observing that it is not just a space opera, but also, an "in-depth historiography" of the future military conflict, comparing it to the 18th-century historical work "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: In 2017, the 1988–1997 anime's official English release received a number of reviews in the English media. Anne Laurenroth of the Anime News Network gave a positive review, stating that despite its length, it has, arranged well in advance, "one of the most satisfying anime endings ever written". Daryl Surat, writing for "Otaku Magazine", called the series "anime's greatest sci-fi epic".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: Takumi Sato noted that the character of Reinhard von Lohengramm as depicted in the anime could be related to the "aestheticization of Hitler's image", comparing this phenomenon to similar Japanese works, such as "Space Battleship Yamato".


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The series has been described as "highly influential" in the development of Chinese online literature.


title: Legend of the Galactic Heroes

text: The historiographical aspects of the show have been analyzed by a Polish scholar, Arkadiusz Bożejewicz.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: Vincent James McMahon (July 6, 1914 – May 24, 1984), sometimes referred to as Vince McMahon Sr., was an American professional wrestling promoter. He is best known for running the Capitol Wrestling Corporation, which was later renamed WWWF (World Wide Wrestling Federation) and WWF (World Wrestling Federation) during his tenure and is currently called WWE (World Wrestling Entertainment), from 1953 to 1982, as well as for being the father of his successor, Vincent K. McMahon.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: Vincent James McMahon was born on July 6, 1914, in Harlem, New York to Rose (née Davis) and Roderick James "Jess" McMahon, a successful boxing, wrestling and concert promoter, who had worked with legendary Madison Square Garden promoter Tex Rickard. His parents were both of Irish descent. He had an older brother, Roderick James Jr., and a younger sister, Dorothy.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: McMahon saw the tremendous potential for growth that the pro wrestling industry had in the era following World War II, especially with the development of television and its need for new programming. Similar to boxing, wrestling took place primarily within a small ring and could be covered adequately by one or two cameras, and venues for it could readily be assembled in television studios, lessening production costs.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: McMahon's group, the Capitol Wrestling Corporation, which was later renamed World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) and the World Wrestling Federation (WWF), came to dominate professional wrestling in the 1950s and 1960s in the nation's most populous area, the Northeast. His control was primarily in Baltimore, New York, and New Jersey. Despite its name, the WWWF was, like all professional wrestling promotions of that era, mostly a regional operation. It was however the one that came to dominate the most lucrative region. In 1956, McMahon began airing his matches on television on Wednesday nights on the DuMont Network. The telecast originated from an old barn in Washington, D.C. It was one of the struggling network's last live sports telecasts before it went out of business the following year; however, WABD, DuMont's flagship station in New York (Now Fox-owned WNYW), kept the show after becoming an independent station, airing wrestling on Saturday nights until 1971.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: In her biography, wrestler The Fabulous Moolah claimed that McMahon was one of the first promoters to split gate proceeds with his wrestlers. Unlike his son, McMahon believed that the job of a promoter should be kept backstage or behind the scenes and should never interfere with the action in the ring. As a result, McMahon almost never came down to the squared circle. He can however clearly be seen standing ringside during the infamous Madison Square Garden "Alley Fight" between Sgt. Slaughter and Pat Patterson. Though McMahon appeared in the movie "The Wrestler" in a cast that was dominated by contemporary wrestlers, he believed that wrestlers should remain wrestlers and not branch off into other forms of media. Accordingly, he disapproved of Hulk Hogan's appearance in "Rocky III" in 1982, leading to Hogan's temporary departure from the WWF for Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association. When his son purchased the WWF, he felt differently than his father on the issue. He rehired Hogan as his top star and avidly supported wrestlers branching out into other fields, as well as cross-promotions with various musicians, actors, and other personalities outside of wrestling.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: In 1982, McMahon sold the parent company of the World Wrestling Federation to his son Vince McMahon and his company Titan Sports, Inc. His son, much to his father's initial concern, set out to make the WWF national and eventually worldwide in scope. "Had my father known what I was going to do", the younger McMahon told "Sports Illustrated" in 1991, "he never would have sold his stock to me." The younger McMahon's competitive tactics were successful, and the WWF quickly became the most prominent exponent of "sports entertainment". His son Vince was running his father's promotion, which since 2002 has been called World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). McMahon's grandchildren Shane and Stephanie also work for the WWF/E. McMahon was posthumously inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame Class of 1996, by his grandson, Shane.


title: Vincent J. McMahon

text: McMahon had two sons with his first wife, Victoria "Vicky" H. Askew (née Hanner) (July 11, 1920 – January 20, 2022): Roderick James "Rod" McMahon III (October 12, 1943 – January 20, 2021), and Vince McMahon (born August 24, 1945). McMahon married his second wife, Juanita Wynne Johnston (December 20, 1916 – January 19, 1998), and the couple retired to Fort Lauderdale. McMahon would not live to see his company grow from a territorial promotion to what is now a worldwide organization. On May 24, 1984, McMahon died at age 69 from pancreatic cancer. McMahon and his wife Juanita are buried at Our Lady Queen of Heaven Catholic Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Rozonda Ocielian Thomas (born February 27, 1971), better known by her stage name Chilli, is an American singer, dancer and actress who was a member of the group TLC, one of the best-selling girl groups of the late 20th century.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Thomas was born in Columbus, Georgia and graduated from Benjamin Elijah Mays High School in 1989. Her father, Abdul Ali, is of Bangladeshi and Arab descent, and her mother, Ava Thomas, is African American. Thomas, who had been raised by her mother, later allowed the "Sally Jessy Raphael" television talk show to air footage of her meeting her father for the first time in 1996, when she was 25.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: When she was a child, her great grandmother, whom she called Big Mama, took her to the Seventh-day Adventist Church.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Thomas was first a dancer for Damian Dame. In 1991, she joined TLC, replacing founding member Crystal Jones, and was nicknamed "Chilli" by Lisa Lopes so that the group could retain the name TLC. The group went on to sell over 65 million records worldwide and became the best-selling American girl group of all-time; only the Spice Girls has sold more. Chilli has won four Grammy Awards for her work with TLC.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Since the death of group member Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes in April 2002, Thomas and Tionne "T-Boz" Watkins have occasionally performed as a duo. In 2009, Thomas and Watkins performed a series of concerts in Asia.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In late 2011, VH1 announced plans to produce a biopic on TLC to air in 2013. Thomas and Watkins signed on as producers. Actress and singer Keke Palmer portrayed Thomas in "".


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2019, Thomas lost her voice and was ordered by doctors not to sing. TLC then had to cancel their singing for the California State Fair and the Stanislaus State Fair.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Thomas began working on her solo album in 2000 after the completion of promotion for TLC's third album, "FanMail" (1999). She ceased production when work began on the next TLC album, "3D" (2002). In 2006, rumors circulated that she had signed a four-album deal with singer/rapper Akon's label Kon Live Distribution. She later denied these reports and confirmed that she was entertaining offers from other record labels. It was confirmed that the name of the album would be titled "Bi-Polar", but due to scheduling conflicts and constant delays, the album was shelved. The album was once rumored to include work by Missy Elliott as well as tracks produced by T-Pain and Tricky Stewart. Certain tracks that were intended for the album were leaked from 2006 to 2008. A track titled "Gameproof", which featured her TLC bandmate T-Boz, was leaked in spring 2006. On February 16, 2007, "Straight Jack", a track featuring Missy Elliott and produced by Polow da Don was leaked. The track entered the Deutsche Black Chart in at #35. In early April 2008, Thomas's first official solo single, "Dumb, Dumb, Dumb" was released.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2012, Thomas appeared as the leading lady in R&B singer Tyrese's music video for his single "Nothing On You."


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In January 2016, she released a new solo single, "Body", which served to promote her new fitness workout campaign.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Thomas made guest appearances on television shows such as "The Parkers", "Single Ladies", "That 70s Show," "Living Single" and "Strong Medicine". In 1992, she made a brief cameo in the video for "Jump" by Kriss Kross. In 2000, she was featured in the made-for-television movies "A Diva's Christmas Carol" and "Love Song" (with close friend Monica), and in the film "Snow Day". In 2001, she co-starred in the action film "Ticker," directed by Albert Pyun and "House Party 3". She also played a small role in the 1998 film "Hav Plenty". She appeared again on the show's second season performing her unreleased track, "Flirt", written by Tiyon "TC" Mack and produced by Soundz.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In June 2009, VH1 announced the airing of a reality TV series starring Thomas. The series, "What Chilli Wants", which documents Thomas's quest to find love and manage her life with the help of love and relationship expert Tionna Tee Smalls, premiered on April 11, 2010. The second season of "What Chilli Wants" premiered on January 2, 2011. In 2011, Thomas made cameo appearances throughout the first season of VH1's "Single Ladies".


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2013, Thomas became a member of "Team Guy" on the second season of Food Network's "". She appeared naked in a PETA anti-circus ad campaign. Thomas also appeared on episode 14 of WWE Countdown where she spoke about The Rock. Thomas was a judge for truTV's reality series Fake Off which premiered on October 27, 2014.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2016, she joined the cast of the film "Marshall" which is a biopic on the life of Thurgood Marshall; she plays Zora Neale Hurston.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: At age 20, Thomas became pregnant by producer Dallas Austin; however due to career aspirations and the outside pressures, she aborted the pregnancy. She later revealed that she regretted the decision. Thomas and Austin continued their relationship, and would later have one son, Tron Austin (born June 2, 1997).


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2001, Thomas began dating Usher, after she starred in his music videos for "U Remind Me", "U Got It Bad", and “U Don’t Have to Call”. Their relationship lasted for two years: they broke up in December 2003, followed by a media frenzy surrounding the personal nature of Usher's fourth album, "Confessions". His fans inferred the reason he and Thomas split is due to infidelity on his part, giving allusions to the lyrics of the songs. In an interview on "The Bert Show" on the Atlanta radio channel Q100 on February 17, 2004, Thomas claimed that Usher cheated on her: "Usher did the ultimate no-no to me...I will never be with him again, and that is that". Usher defended: "it just didn't work out. But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash. That ain't what broke it up".


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: Thomas and the rest of the members of TLC were big proponents of encouraging safe sex. For the music video of the song, "Ain't 2 Proud 2 Beg" Thomas and other band members wore condoms on their clothing. In 2003, Thomas and Watkins teamed up with Agouron Pharmaceuticals to create a national education program about HIV/AIDS. The program supplied people with information about HIV/AIDS, including prevention and treatment.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2012, Thomas started a non-profit organization called "Chilli's Crew". The organization is an Atlanta-based program targeted at helping girls between the ages of 13-17 build healthy levels of self-esteem.


title: Rozonda Thomas

text: In 2013, Thomas took a stand against cyberbullying after her son Tron was a victim. The gossip site MediaTakeOut.com targeted Thomas's son because of his apparel and questioned his sexuality. In response, Thomas created a petition through change.org to get the article deleted from the site and to stop staff members from gossiping about minors entirely. In her petition, she described what cyberbullying is and statistics about some of the victims. The site ended up removing the article and issuing an apology to her son.


title: Silicone

text: A silicone or polysiloxane is a polymer made up of siloxane (−RSi−O−SiR−, where R = organic group). They are typically colorless oils or rubber-like substances. Silicones are used in sealants, adhesives, lubricants, medicine, cooking utensils, thermal insulation, and electrical insulation. Some common forms include silicone oil, silicone grease, silicone rubber, silicone resin, and silicone caulk.


title: Silicone

text: More precisely called polymerized siloxanes or polysiloxanes, silicones consist of an inorganic silicon–oxygen backbone chain (⋯−Si−O−Si−O−Si−O−⋯) with two organic groups attached to each silicon center. Commonly, the organic groups are methyl. The materials can be cyclic or polymeric. By varying the −Si−O− chain lengths, side groups, and crosslinking, silicones can be synthesized with a wide variety of properties and compositions. They can vary in consistency from liquid to gel to rubber to hard plastic. The most common siloxane is linear polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), a silicone oil. The second-largest group of silicone materials is based on silicone resins, which are formed by branched and cage-like oligosiloxanes.


title: Silicone

text: F. S. Kipping coined the word "silicone" in 1901 to describe the formula of polydiphenylsiloxane, PhSiO (Ph denoting phenyl, CH), by analogy with the formula of the ketone benzophenone, PhCO (his term was originally "silicoketone"). Kipping was well aware that polydiphenylsiloxane is polymeric whereas benzophenone is monomeric and noted the contrasting properties of PhSiO and PhCO. The discovery of the structural differences between Kipping's molecules and the ketones means that "silicone" is no longer the correct term (though it remains in common usage) and that the term "siloxane" is preferred according to the nomenclature of modern chemistry.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone is often confused with silicon, but they are distinct substances. Silicon is a chemical element, a hard dark-grey semiconducting metalloid, which in its crystalline form is used to make integrated circuits ("electronic chips") and solar cells. Silicones are compounds that contain silicon, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and perhaps other kinds of atoms as well, and have many very different physical and chemical properties.


title: Silicone

text: Compounds containing silicon–oxygen double bonds, now called silanones, but which could deserve the name "silicone", have long been identified as intermediates in gas-phase processes such as chemical vapor deposition in microelectronics production, and in the formation of ceramics by combustion. However, they have a strong tendency to polymerize into siloxanes. The first stable silanone was obtained in 2014 by A. Filippou and others.


title: Silicone

text: Most common are materials based on polydimethylsiloxane, which is derived by hydrolysis of dimethyldichlorosilane. This dichloride reacts with water as follows:


title: Silicone

text: The polymerization typically produces linear chains capped with Si−Cl or Si−OH (silanol) groups. Under different conditions, the polymer is a cyclic, not a chain.


title: Silicone

text: For consumer applications such as caulks silyl acetates are used instead of silyl chlorides. The hydrolysis of the acetates produces the less dangerous acetic acid (the acid found in vinegar) as the reaction product of a much slower curing process. This chemistry is used in many consumer applications, such as silicone caulk and adhesives.


title: Silicone

text: Branches or crosslinks in the polymer chain can be introduced by using organosilicone precursors with fewer alkyl groups, such as methyl trichlorosilane and methyltrimethoxysilane. Ideally, each molecule of such a compound becomes a branch point. This process can be used to produce hard silicone resins. Similarly, precursors with three methyl groups can be used to limit molecular weight, since each such molecule has only one reactive site and so forms the end of a siloxane chain.


title: Silicone

text: When silicone is burned in air or oxygen, it forms solid silica (silicon dioxide, SiO) as a white powder, char, and various gases. The readily dispersed powder is sometimes called silica fume. The pyrolysis of certain polysiloxanes under an inert atmosphere is a valuable pathway towards the production of amorphous silicon oxycarbide ceramics, also known as polymer derived ceramics. Polysiloxanes terminated with functional ligands such as vinyl, mercapto or acrylate groups have been cross linked to yield preceramic polymers, which can be photopolymerised for the additive manufacturing of polymer derived ceramics by stereolithography techniques.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone can be developed into rubber sheeting, where it has other properties, such as being FDA compliant. This extends the uses of silicone sheeting to industries that demand hygiene, for example, food and beverage, and pharmaceuticals.


title: Silicone

text: Silicones are used in many products. "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry" lists the following major categories of application: Electrical (e.g. insulation), electronics (e.g., coatings), household (e.g., sealants and cooking utensils), automobile (e.g. gaskets), airplane (e.g., seals), office machines (e.g. keyboard pads), medicine and dentistry (e.g. tooth impression molds), textiles and paper (e.g. coatings). For these applications, an estimated 400,000 tonnes of silicones were produced in 1991. Specific examples, both large and small are presented below.


title: Silicone

text: In the automotive field, silicone grease is typically used as a lubricant for brake components since it is stable at high temperatures, is not water-soluble, and is far less likely than other lubricants to foul. DOT 5 brake fluids are based on liquid silicones.


title: Silicone

text: Automotive spark plug wires are insulated by multiple layers of silicone to prevent sparks from jumping to adjacent wires, causing misfires. Silicone tubing is sometimes used in automotive intake systems (especially for engines with forced induction).


title: Silicone

text: Sheet silicone is used to manufacture gaskets used in automotive engines, transmissions, and other applications.


title: Silicone

text: Automotive body manufacturing plants and paint shops avoid silicones, as trace contamination may cause "fish eyes", which are small, circular craters which mar a smooth finish.


title: Silicone

text: Additionally, silicone compounds such as silicone rubber are used as coatings and sealants for airbags; the high strength of silicone rubber makes it an optimal adhesive and sealant for high impact airbags. Silicones in combination with thermoplastics provide improvements in scratch and mar resistance and lowered coefficient of friction.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone is a widely used material in the aerospace industry due to its sealing properties, stability across an extreme temperature range, durability, sound dampening and anti-vibration qualities, and naturally flame retardant properties. Maintaining extreme functionality is paramount for passenger safety in the aerospace industry, so each component on an aircraft requires high-performance materials.


title: Silicone

text: Specially developed aerospace grades of silicone are stable from , these grades can be used in the construction of gaskets for windows and cabin doors. During operation, aircraft go through large temperature fluctuations in a relatively short period of time; from freezing temperatures when flying at full altitude to the ambient temperatures when on the ground in hot countries. Silicone rubber can be molded with tight tolerances ensuring gaskets form airtight seals both on the ground and in the air, where atmospheric pressure decreases.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone rubber's resistance to heat corrosion enables it to be used for gaskets in aircraft engines where it will outlast other types of rubber, both improving aircraft safety and reducing maintenance costs. The silicone acts to seal instrument panels and other electrical systems in the cockpit, protecting printed circuit boards from the risks of extreme altitude such as moisture and extremely low temperature. Silicone can be used as a sheath to protect wires and electrical components from any dust or ice that may creep into a plane's inner workings.


title: Silicone

text: As the nature of air travel results in much noise and vibration, powerful engines, landings, and high speeds all need to be considered to ensure passenger comfort and safe operation of the aircraft. As silicone rubber has exceptional noise reduction and anti-vibration properties, it can be formed into small components and fitted into small gaps ensuring all equipment can be protected from unwanted vibration such as overhead lockers, vent ducts, hatches, entertainment system seals, and LED lighting systems.


title: Silicone

text: Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) based binders along with ammonium perchlorate (NHClO) are used as fast burning solid propellants in rockets.


title: Silicone

text: The strength and reliability of silicone rubber are widely acknowledged in the construction industry. One-part silicone sealants and caulks are in common use to seal gaps, joints and crevices in buildings. One-part silicones cure by absorbing atmospheric moisture, which simplifies installation. In plumbing, silicone grease is typically applied to O-rings in brass taps and valves, preventing lime from sticking to the metal.


title: Silicone

text: Structural silicone has also been used in curtain wall building façades since 1974 when the Art Institute of Chicago became the first building to receive exterior glass fixed only with the material. Silicone membranes have been used to cover and restore industrial roofs, thanks to its extreme UV resistance, and ability to keep their waterproof performance for decades.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone films can be applied to such silica-based substrates as glass to form a covalently bonded hydrophobic coating. Such coatings were developed for use on aircraft windshields to repel water and to preserve visibility, without requiring mechanical windshield wipers which are impractical at supersonic speeds. Similar treatments were eventually adapted to the automotive market in products marketed by Rain-X and others.


title: Silicone

text: Many fabrics can be coated or impregnated with silicone to form a strong, waterproof composite such as silnylon.


title: Silicone

text: A silicone polymer can be suspended in water by using stabilizing surfactants. This allows water-based formulations to be used to deliver many ingredients that would otherwise require a stronger solvent, or be too viscous to use effectively. For example, a waterborne formulation using a silane's reactivity and penetration ability into a mineral-based surface can be combined with water-beading properties from a siloxane to produce a more-useful surface protection product.


title: Silicone

text: As a low-taint, non-toxic material, silicone can be used where contact with food is required. Silicone is becoming an important product in the cookware industry, particularly bakeware and kitchen utensils.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone is used as an insulator in heat-resistant potholders and similar items; however, it is more conductive of heat than similar less dense fiber-based products. Silicone oven mitts are able to withstand temperatures up to , making it possible to reach into boiling water.


title: Silicone

text: Other products include molds for chocolate, ice, cookies, muffins, and various other foods; non-stick bakeware and reusable mats used on baking sheets; steamers, egg boilers or poachers; cookware lids, pot holders, trivets, and kitchen mats.


title: Silicone

text: Silicones are used as active compounds in defoamers due to their low water solubility and good spreading properties.


title: Silicone

text: Liquid silicone can be used as a dry cleaning solvent, providing an alternative to the traditional chlorine-containing perchloroethylene (perc) solvent. The use of silicones in dry cleaning reduces the environmental effect of a typically high-polluting industry.


title: Silicone

text: Electronic components are sometimes encased in silicone to increase stability against mechanical and electrical shock, radiation and vibration, a process called "potting". Silicones are used where durability and high performance are demanded of components under extreme environmental conditions, such as in space (satellite technology). They are selected over polyurethane or epoxy encapsulation when a wide operating temperature range is required (−65 to 315 °C). Silicones also have the advantage of little exothermic heat rise during cure, low toxicity, good electrical properties, and high purity.


title: Silicone

text: Silicones are often components of thermal pastes used to improve heat transfer from power-dissipating electronic components to heat sinks.


title: Silicone

text: The use of silicones in electronics is not without problems, however. Silicones are relatively expensive and can be attacked by certain solvents. Silicone easily migrates as either a liquid or vapor onto other components. Silicone contamination of electrical switch contacts can lead to failures by causing an increase in contact resistance, often late in the life of the contact, well after any testing is completed. Use of silicone-based spray products in electronic devices during maintenance or repairs can cause later failures.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone foam has been used in North American buildings in an attempt to firestop openings within the fire-resistance-rated wall and floor assemblies to prevent the spread of flames and smoke from one room to another. When properly installed, silicone-foam firestops can be fabricated for building code compliance. Advantages include flexibility and high dielectric strength. Disadvantages include combustibility (hard to extinguish) and significant smoke development.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone-foam firestops have been the subject of controversy and press attention due to smoke development from pyrolysis of combustible components within the foam, hydrogen gas escape, shrinkage, and cracking. These problems have led to reportable events among licensees (operators of nuclear power plants) of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).


title: Silicone

text: Silicone is a popular alternative to traditional metals (such as silver and gold) with jewelry, specifically rings. Silicone rings are commonly worn in professions where metal rings can lead to injuries, such as electrical conduction and ring avulsions. During the mid-2010's, some professional athletes began wearing silicone rings as an alternative during games.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone greases are used for many purposes, such as bicycle chains, airsoft gun parts, and a wide range of other mechanisms. Typically, a dry-set lubricant is delivered with a solvent carrier to penetrate the mechanism. The solvent then evaporates, leaving a clear film that lubricates but does not attract dirt and grit as much as an oil-based or other traditional "wet" lubricant.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone is used in microfluidics, seals, gaskets, shrouds, and other applications requiring high biocompatibility. Additionally, the gel form is used in bandages and dressings, breast implants, testicle implants, pectoral implants, contact lenses, and a variety of other medical uses.


title: Silicone

text: Scar treatment sheets are often made of medical grade silicone due to its durability and biocompatibility. Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is often used for this purpose, since its specific crosslinking results in a flexible and soft silicone with high durability and tack. It has also been used as the hydrophobic block of amphiphilic synthetic block copolymers used to form the vesicle membrane of polymersomes.


title: Silicone

text: Illicit cosmetic silicone injections may induce chronic and definitive silicone blood diffusion with dermatologic complications.


title: Silicone

text: Ophthalmology uses many products such as silicone oil used to replace the vitreous humor following vitrectomy, silicone intraocular lenses following cataract extraction, silicone tubes to keep a nasolacrimal passage open following dacryocystorhinostomy, canalicular stents for canalicular stenosis, punctual plugs for punctual occlusion in dry eyes, silicone rubber and bands as an external tamponade in tractional retinal detachment, and anteriorly-located break in rhegmatogenous retinal detachment.


title: Silicone

text: Two-part silicone systems are used as rubber molds to cast resins, foams, rubber, and low-temperature alloys. A silicone mold generally requires little or no mold-release or surface preparation, as most materials do not adhere to silicone. For experimental uses, ordinary one-part silicone can be used to make molds or to mold into shapes. If needed, common vegetable cooking oils or petroleum jelly can be used on mating surfaces as a mold-release agent.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone cooking molds used as bakeware do not require coating with cooking oil; in addition, the flexibility of the rubber allows the baked food to be easily removed from the mold after cooking.


title: Silicone

text: Silicones are ingredients widely used in skincare, color cosmetic and hair care applications. Some silicones, notably the amine functionalized amodimethicones, are excellent hair conditioners, providing improved compatibility, feel, and softness, and lessening frizz. The phenyl dimethicones, in another silicone family, are used in reflection-enhancing and color-correcting hair products, where they increase shine and glossiness (and possibly impart subtle color changes). Phenyltrimethicones, unlike the conditioning amodimethicones, have refractive indices (typically 1.46) close to that of a human hair (1.54). However, if included in the same formulation, amodimethicone and phenyltrimethicone interact and dilute each other, making it difficult to achieve both high shine and excellent conditioning in the same product.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone rubber is commonly used in baby bottle nipples (teats) for its cleanliness, aesthetic appearance, and low extractable content.


title: Silicone

text: Silly Putty and similar materials are composed of silicones dimethyl siloxane, polydimethylsiloxane, and decamethyl cyclopentasiloxane, with other ingredients. This substance is noted for its unusual characteristics, e.g., that it bounces, but breaks when given a sharp blow; it will also flow like a liquid and form a puddle given enough time.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone "rubber bands" are a long-lasting popular replacement refill for real rubber bands in the 2013 fad "rubber band loom" toys at two to four times the price (in 2014). Silicone bands also come in bracelet sizes that can be custom embossed with a name or message. Large silicone bands are also sold as utility tie-downs.


title: Silicone

text: Formerol is a silicone rubber (marketed as Sugru) used as an arts-and-crafts material, as its plasticity allows it to be molded by hand like modeling clay. It hardens at room temperature and it is adhesive to various substances including glass and aluminum.


title: Silicone

text: In making aquariums, manufacturers now commonly use 100% silicone sealant to join glass plates. Glass joints made with silicone sealant can withstand great pressure, making obsolete the original aquarium construction method of angle-iron and putty. This same silicone is used to make hinges in aquarium lids or for minor repairs. However, not all commercial silicones are safe for aquarium manufacture, nor is silicone used for the manufacture of acrylic aquariums as silicones do not have long-term adhesion to plastics.


title: Silicone

text: The global demand for silicones approached US$12.5  billion in 2008, approximately 4% up from the previous year. It continues similar growth in the following years to reach $13.5  billion by 2010. The annual growth is expected to be boosted by broader applications, introduction of novel products and increasing awareness of using more environmentally friendly materials.


title: Silicone

text: The leading global manufacturers of silicone base materials belong to three regional organizations: the European Silicone Center (CES) in Brussels, Belgium; the Environment Health and Safety Council (SEHSC) in Herndon, Virginia, US; and the Silicone Industry Association of Japan (SIAJ) in Tokyo, Japan. Dow Corning Silicones, Evonik Industries, Momentive Performance Materials, Milliken and Company (SiVance Specialty Silicones), Shin-Etsu Silicones, Wacker Chemie, Bluestar Silicones, JNC Corporation, Wacker Asahikasei Silicone, and Dow Corning Toray represent the collective membership of these organizations. A fourth organization, the Global Silicone Council (GSC) acts as an umbrella structure over the regional organizations. All four are non-profit, having no commercial role; their primary missions are to promote the safety of silicones from a health, safety, and environmental perspective. As the European chemical industry is preparing to implement the Registration, Evaluation, and Authorisation of Chemicals (REACH) legislation, CES is leading the formation of a consortium of silicones, silanes, and siloxanes producers and importers to facilitate data and cost-sharing.


title: Silicone

text: Silicone compounds are pervasive in the environment. Particular silicone compounds, cyclic siloxanes D and D, are air and water pollutants and have negative health effects on test animals. They are used in various personal care products. The European Chemicals Agency found that "D is a persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic (PBT) substance and D is a very persistent, very bioaccumulative (vPvB) substance". Other silicones biodegrade readily, a process that is accelerated by a variety of catalysts, including clays. Cyclic silicones have been shown to involve the occurrence of silanols during biodegradation in mammals. The resulting silanediols and silanetriols are capable of inhibiting hydrolytic enzymes such as thermolysin, acetycholinesterase, however, the doses required for inhibition are by orders of magnitude higher than the ones resulting from the accumulated exposure to consumer products containing cyclomethicone.


title: Silicone

text: At around in an oxygen-containing atmosphere, PDMS releases traces of formaldehyde (but lesser amounts than other common materials such as polyethylene.) At this temperature, silicones were found to have lower formaldehyde generation than mineral oil and plastics (less than 3 to 48 µg CHO/(g·hr) for a high consistency silicone rubber, versus around 400 µg CHO/(g·hr) for plastics and mineral oil). By , copious amounts of formaldehyde have been found to be produced by all silicones (1,200 to 4,600 µg CHO/(g·hr)).


title: Heilung

text: Heilung is an experimental folk music band made up of members from Denmark, Norway, and Germany. Their music is based on texts and runic inscriptions from Germanic peoples of the Iron Age, and Viking Age. Heilung describe their music as "amplified history from early medieval northern Europe". Their music is usually about Germanic deities, The Jǫtnar, and valkyries. "" is a German noun meaning "healing" in English.


title: Heilung

text: Heilung was founded in 2014 in Copenhagen, Denmark by vocalist Kai Uwe Faust (a German tattoo artist who specializes in Old Norse tattoos) and Danish producer Christopher Juul. Juul, who had operated his own recording studio, Lava, in Copenhagen since 2003, admired Faust's visual work as a tattoo artist, so they struck a deal: Faust offered Juul some free tattoos in exchange for help recording some poems. Thus Heilung was started.


title: Heilung

text: Later in 2015 Maria Franz (Juul's longtime girlfriend and a singer in progressive rock/pop-rock band Euzen in which Juul also played piano and electronics) started to work with Heilung – originally as a session vocalist. In 2015, the band self-released their debut album, "Ofnir", and soon after that Maria Franz became the band's third official member.


title: Heilung

text: The band's first performances in 2017 were at Castlefest and at the Midgardsblot Metalfestival. The Castlefest performance was recorded and released with the title "Lifa" on YouTube and as a live album. Their 2017 performance at Midgardsblot was listed by "Metal Hammer" as one of the ten best performances of 2017. Later that year, the band signed a contract with the label Season of Mist.


title: Heilung

text: On 20 April 2018, the two previously self-released albums "Ofnir" and "Lifa" were reissued on vinyl and CD.


title: Heilung

text: The band composed the soundtrack for "". Fragments of Heilung's music were used during season six of the popular television series "Vikings".


title: Heilung

text: Heilung released their third studio album, "Drif", on 19 August 2022 through Season of Mist. The album peaked at No. 9 and No. 25 in the German and Austrian album charts respectively.


title: Heilung

text: According to Faust, the name of the band, "Heilung", which means "healing" in German, says something about the style of the band: "The listener is supposed to be left at ease and in a relaxed state after a magical musical journey that is at times turbulent". The recordings of the band are not limited to music, but also contain poems and the spoken word.


title: Heilung

text: The references to the early ages of European Civilization are also made by using texts from historical artefacts or historical poems. The languages used are varied, with German, English, Gothic, Old High German, Icelandic, Latin, Old English, Proto-Norse, Proto-Germanic, and Viking age Old Norse being used.


title: Heilung

text: As instruments, items are used that may have been already available to humans in the Iron Age, such as drums, bones or spears. According to an August 2018 interview, the instruments they use consist of:


title: Heilung

text: Faust's throat singing recalls the Tibetan or Mongolian style. Juul uses a chirping whisper as vocals.


title: Heilung

text: Elaborately designed costumes are worn by the band members on stage. These are partly based on the "spiritual traditions of the Eurasian circumpolar peoples", or are historically correct reproductions of Nordic Bronze Age clothing.


title: Heilung

text: Heilung was nominated in the "Best Underground Band" category for a Metal Hammer Golden Gods Award in 2018.


title: Heilung

text: Heilung tied for the World Traditional Award in the 18th Independent Music Awards with the song Norupo.


title: Whey

text: Whey is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained. It is a byproduct of the manufacturing of cheese or casein and has several commercial uses. Sweet whey is a byproduct resulting from the manufacture of rennet types of hard cheese, like cheddar or Swiss cheese. Acid whey (also known as sour whey) is a byproduct brought out during the making of acid types of dairy products, such as strained yogurt.


title: Whey

text: Whey proteins consist of α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, serum albumin, immunoglobulins, and proteose peptones.


title: Whey

text: Whey protein is the collection of globular proteins isolated from whey. The protein in cow's milk is 20% whey protein and 80% casein protein, whereas the protein in human milk is 60% whey and 40% casein. The protein fraction in whey constitutes approximately 10% of the total dry solids in whey. This protein is typically a mixture of beta-lactoglobulin (~48-58%), alpha-lactalbumin (~13-19%), bovine serum albumin (~6%)(see also serum albumin), and immunoglobulins. These are soluble in their native forms, independent of pH.


title: Whey

text: The amino acid cysteine in whey protein is a substrate for the synthesis of glutathione in the body which is a ubiquitous cellular antioxidant; laboratory experiments have suggested that whey protein and its components might reduce the risk of cancer in animals, suggesting an avenue for future medical research.


title: Whey

text: To produce cheese, rennet or an edible acid is added to heated milk. This makes the milk coagulate or curdle, separating the milk solids (curds) from the liquid whey. Sweet whey is the byproduct of rennet-coagulated cheese, and acid whey (also called sour whey) is the byproduct of acid-coagulated cheese. Sweet whey has a pH greater than or equal to 5.6; acid whey has a pH less than or equal to 5.1.


title: Whey

text: Whey is left over when milk is coagulated during the process of cheese production and contains everything that is soluble from milk after the pH is dropped to 4.6 during the coagulation process. It is a 5% solution of lactose in water, with some minerals and lactalbumin. The fat is removed and then processed for human foods. Processing can be done by simple drying, or the relative protein content can be increased by removing lipids and other non-protein materials. For example, spray drying after membrane filtration separates the proteins from whey.


title: Whey

text: Whey can be denatured by heat. High heat (such as the sustained high temperatures above 72 °C associated with the pasteurization process) denatures whey proteins. While native whey protein does not aggregate upon renneting or acidification of milk, denaturing the whey protein triggers hydrophobic interactions with other proteins, and the formation of a protein gel. Heat-denatured whey can still cause allergies in some people.


title: Whey

text: Whey is used to produce whey cheeses such as ricotta, brunost, and whey butter and many other products for human consumption. The fat content of whey is low; for example 1,000 pounds of whey are required to make a few pounds of whey butter. It is also an additive in many processed foods, including breads, crackers, and commercial pastry, and in animal feed. Whey proteins consist primarily of α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin. Sweet whey contains glycomacropeptide (GMP). It is also an abundant source of lactose which can further be used for the synthesis of lactose-based bioactive molecules.


title: Whey

text: Dairy whey remaining from home-made cheesemaking has many uses. It is a dough conditioner and can be substituted for skimmed milk in most baked good recipes that require milk (bread, pancakes, muffins, etc.).


title: Whey

text: Throughout history, whey was a popular drink in inns and coffee houses. When Joseph Priestley was at college at Daventry Academy, 1752–1755, he records that, on the morning of Wednesday, 22 May 1754, he "went with a large company to drink whey." This was probably "sack whey" or "wine whey".


title: Whey

text: Another use of whey is to make "cream of tartar whey": "Put a pint of blue milk [skim milk] over the fire, when it begins to boil, put in two tea spoonfuls of cream of tartar, then take it off the fire, and let it stand till the curd settles to the bottom of the pan, then put it into a basin to cool, and drink it milk warm.”(this is known as heat-acid coagulation)


title: Whey

text: In areas where cheese is made, excess whey byproduct is sometimes sprayed over hay fields as a fertilizer.


title: Whey

text: Historically whey, being a byproduct of cheese making, was considered a waste product and was pumped into rivers and streams in the U.S. Since the whey contained protein, this practice led to the growth of large concentrations of algae. These were deemed to be a hazard to the ecosystem because they prevented sunlight and oxygen from reaching the water. The government eventually prohibited this practice which led to a disposal problem for producers of other dairy products. Their first solution was to use it as a cheap filler in the production of ice cream. Whey eventually found its way into innumerable other products as a filler and ultimately into a number of health food products where it remains a popular supplement.


title: Whey

text: Whey protein is commonly marketed as a dietary supplement, and various health claims have been attributed to it in the alternative medicine community. Although whey proteins are responsible for some milk allergies, the major allergens in milk are the caseins. It is sold as a nutritional supplement.


title: Whey

text: Whey is the primary ingredient in most protein powders, which are used primarily by athletes and bodybuilders to obtain the necessary amounts of protein for muscle building/maintenance on a daily basis. Whey protein has a high level of leucine, one of the three branched-chain amino acids, making it ideal for muscle growth and repair. Whey is pasteurized, just like any milk, to assure that no harmful bacteria are breeding in the liquid. It is heated to and is then cooled back down to . Studies have shown that this process of using extreme temperatures eliminates 99.7% of bacteria without coagulating the protein into a solid mass. Next, the whey must be filtered, and so is loaded into a massive web of ceramic filters and stainless steel turbines. These machines work to separate out the lactose as well as the fats, leaving a liquid of 90% whey protein.


title: Whey

text: Hydrolysates are whey proteins that are predigested and partially hydrolyzed for the purpose of easier metabolizing, but their cost is generally higher. Highly hydrolysed whey may be less allergenic than other forms of whey, due to the fact that the short chain peptides obtained by hydrolysis are less antigenic, because of the elimination of sequential epitopes.


title: Whey

text: Native whey protein is extracted from skim milk, not obtained as a byproduct of cheese production, and is produced as a concentrate and isolate.


title: Whey

text: Cream can be skimmed from whey. Whey cream is saltier, tangier, and "cheesier" than ("sweet") cream skimmed from milk, and can be used to make whey butter. Due to the low fat content of whey the yield is not high, with typically two to five parts of butter manufactured from the whey of 1,000 parts milk. Whey cream and butter are suitable for making butter-flavoured food, as they have a stronger flavour of their own. They are also cheaper to manufacture than sweet cream and butter.


title: Whey

text: Because whey contains lactose, it should be avoided by those who are lactose intolerant. When used as a food additive, whey can contribute to quantities of lactose far above the level of tolerance of most lactose-intolerant individuals.


title: Whey

text: In 2005 researchers at Lund University in Sweden found that whey can help regulate and reduce spikes in blood sugar levels in people with type 2 diabetes by increasing insulin secretion.


title: Whey

text: Dairy products produce higher insulin responses (Insulin index, II, 90–98) than expected from their comparatively low glycemic indices (GI 15–30). Insulinogenic effects from dairy products have been observed in healthy subjects, both when ingested as a single meal, and when included into a mixed meal. The insulin-releasing capacity of dairy products has been attributed to the protein fraction, particularly the whey fraction, and the subsequent release of amino acids during digestion has been proposed to underlie the insulinogenic properties of milk.


title: Whey

text: People can be allergic to whey or other milk proteins (an allergy not be confused with lactose intolerance). As whey proteins are altered by high temperatures, whey-sensitive people may be able to tolerate evaporated, boiled, or sterilized milk. Hard cheeses are high in casein, but low in whey proteins, and are the least allergenic for those allergic to whey proteins. However, casein proteins (which are heat-stable) are the most important allergens in cheese, and an individual may be allergic to either or both types of protein.


title: Whey

text: In 2010 a panel of the European Food Safety Authority examined health claims made for whey protein. For the following claims either no references were provided for the claimed effect or the provided studies did not test the claims, or reported conflicting results:


title: Whey

text: For the studies around muscle mass and strength whey protein was compared to other protein sources. This is important to note, since protein is necessary for building muscles and this study proved that whey protein is not better for building strength and size than other protein sources.


title: Whey

text: On the basis of the data presented, the 2010 panel concluded that a cause and effect relationship between the consumption of whey protein and these claims had not been established.


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: Inspector Morse is a British detective drama television series based on a series of novels by Colin Dexter. It starred John Thaw as Detective Chief Inspector Morse and Kevin Whately as Sergeant Lewis. The series comprises 33 two-hour episodes (100 minutes excluding commercials) produced between 1987 and 2000. Dexter made uncredited cameo appearances in all but three of the episodes.


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: In 2018, the series was named the greatest British crime drama of all time by "Radio Times"’ readers. In 2000, the series was ranked 42 on the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute.


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: The series was made by Zenith Productions for Central Independent Television, and first shown in the UK on the ITV network of regional broadcasters. Between 1995 and 1996 the commissioning company was Carlton Television, and towards the end of the series it was a joint venture by Carlton and WGBH.


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: Every episode involved a new murder investigation and depicted a complete story. Writer Anthony Minghella scripted three, including the first, "The Dead of Jericho"', which aired on 6 January 1987 featuring Gemma Jones, Patrick Troughton, and James Laurenson. Its other writers included Julian Mitchell (10 episodes), Daniel Boyle (five), and Alma Cullen (four), and its directors included John Madden (four episodes), Herbert Wise (three), Peter Hammond (three), Adrian Shergold (three), and Danny Boyle (two).


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: "Morse" is frequently repeated on the principal and subsidiary ITV channels (ITV, ITV2, ITV3, ITV4) in the UK, although repeat broadcasts also aired on Channel 4 during the show's original run. Repeats are also shown on television channels in other European countries and in Australia.


title: Inspector Morse (TV series)

text: Morse was played by John Thaw and his assistant, Detective Sergeant Lewis, by Kevin Whately. The character of Lewis was transformed from the elderly Welshman and ex-boxer of the novels to a much younger Geordie police sergeant with a family, as a foil to Morse's cynical streak. Morse's first name, Endeavour, is revealed on only one occasion, when he explains to a lady friend that his father was obsessed with Captain James Cook, so he was named after HMS "Endeavour". On other occasions, he usually answers, "Morse. Everyone just calls me Morse." or dryly replies "Inspector", when asked what his first name is.