title: Rocket

text: A rocket design can be as simple as a cardboard tube filled with black powder, but to make an efficient, accurate rocket or missile involves overcoming a number of difficult problems. The main difficulties include cooling the combustion chamber, pumping the fuel (in the case of a liquid fuel), and controlling and correcting the direction of motion.


title: Rocket

text: Rockets consist of a propellant, a place to put propellant (such as a propellant tank), and a nozzle. They may also have one or more rocket engines, directional stabilization device(s) (such as fins, vernier engines or engine gimbals for thrust vectoring, gyroscopes) and a structure (typically monocoque) to hold these components together. Rockets intended for high speed atmospheric use also have an aerodynamic fairing such as a nose cone, which usually holds the payload.


title: Rocket

text: As well as these components, rockets can have any number of other components, such as wings (rocketplanes), parachutes, wheels (rocket cars), even, in a sense, a person (rocket belt). Vehicles frequently possess navigation systems and guidance systems that typically use satellite navigation and inertial navigation systems.


title: Rocket

text: Rocket engines employ the principle of jet propulsion. The rocket engines powering rockets come in a great variety of different types; a comprehensive list can be found in the main article, Rocket engine. Most current rockets are chemically powered rockets (usually internal combustion engines, but some employ a decomposing monopropellant) that emit a hot exhaust gas. A rocket engine can use gas propellants, solid propellant, liquid propellant, or a hybrid mixture of both solid and liquid. Some rockets use heat or pressure that is supplied from a source other than the chemical reaction of propellant(s), such as steam rockets, solar thermal rockets, nuclear thermal rocket engines or simple pressurized rockets such as water rocket or cold gas thrusters. With combustive propellants a chemical reaction is initiated between the fuel and the oxidizer in the combustion chamber, and the resultant hot gases accelerate out of a rocket engine nozzle (or nozzles) at the rearward-facing end of the rocket. The acceleration of these gases through the engine exerts force ("thrust") on the combustion chamber and nozzle, propelling the vehicle (according to Newton's Third Law). This actually happens because the force (pressure times area) on the combustion chamber wall is unbalanced by the nozzle opening; this is not the case in any other direction. The shape of the nozzle also generates force by directing the exhaust gas along the axis of the rocket.


title: Rocket

text: Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust. For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene burned with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen or nitric acid to produce large volumes of very hot gas. The oxidiser is either kept separate and mixed in the combustion chamber, or comes premixed, as with solid rockets.


title: Rocket

text: Sometimes the propellant is not burned but still undergoes a chemical reaction, and can be a 'monopropellant' such as hydrazine, nitrous oxide or hydrogen peroxide that can be catalytically decomposed to hot gas.


title: Rocket

text: Alternatively, an inert propellant can be used that can be externally heated, such as in steam rocket, solar thermal rocket or nuclear thermal rockets.


title: Rocket

text: For smaller, low performance rockets such as attitude control thrusters where high performance is less necessary, a pressurised fluid is used as propellant that simply escapes the spacecraft through a propelling nozzle.


title: Rocket

text: The first liquid-fuel rocket, constructed by Robert H. Goddard, differed significantly from modern rockets. The rocket engine was at the top and the fuel tank at the bottom of the rocket, based on Goddard's belief that the rocket would achieve stability by "hanging" from the engine like a pendulum in flight. However, the rocket veered off course and crashed away from the launch site, indicating that the rocket was no more stable than one with the rocket engine at the base.


title: Rocket

text: Rockets or other similar reaction devices carrying their own propellant must be used when there is no other substance (land, water, or air) or force (gravity, magnetism, light) that a vehicle may usefully employ for propulsion, such as in space. In these circumstances, it is necessary to carry all the propellant to be used.


title: Rocket

text: Some military weapons use rockets to propel warheads to their targets. A rocket and its payload together are generally referred to as a "missile" when the weapon has a guidance system (not all missiles use rocket engines, some use other engines such as jets) or as a "rocket" if it is unguided. Anti-tank and anti-aircraft missiles use rocket engines to engage targets at high speed at a range of several miles, while intercontinental ballistic missiles can be used to deliver multiple nuclear warheads from thousands of miles, and anti-ballistic missiles try to stop them. Rockets have also been tested for reconnaissance, such as the Ping-Pong rocket, which was launched to surveil enemy targets, however, recon rockets have never come into wide use in the military.


title: Rocket

text: Sounding rockets are commonly used to carry instruments that take readings from to above the surface of the Earth.


title: Rocket

text: Rocket engines are also used to propel rocket sleds along a rail at extremely high speed. The world record for this is Mach 8.5.


title: Rocket

text: Larger rockets are normally launched from a launch pad that provides stable support until a few seconds after ignition. Due to their high exhaust velocity——rockets are particularly useful when very high speeds are required, such as orbital speed at approximately . Spacecraft delivered into orbital trajectories become artificial satellites, which are used for many commercial purposes. Indeed, rockets remain the only way to launch spacecraft into orbit and beyond. They are also used to rapidly accelerate spacecraft when they change orbits or de-orbit for landing. Also, a rocket may be used to soften a hard parachute landing immediately before touchdown (see retrorocket).


title: Rocket

text: Rockets were used to propel a line to a stricken ship so that a Breeches buoy can be used to rescue those on board. Rockets are also used to launch emergency flares.


title: Rocket

text: Some crewed rockets, notably the Saturn V and Soyuz, have launch escape systems. This is a small, usually solid rocket that is capable of pulling the crewed capsule away from the main vehicle towards safety at a moments notice. These types of systems have been operated several times, both in testing and in flight, and operated correctly each time.


title: Rocket

text: This was the case when the Safety Assurance System (Soviet nomenclature) successfully pulled away the L3 capsule during three of the four failed launches of the Soviet moon rocket, N1 vehicles 3L, 5L and 7L. In all three cases the capsule, albeit uncrewed, was saved from destruction. Only the three aforementioned N1 rockets had functional Safety Assurance Systems. The outstanding vehicle, 6L, had dummy upper stages and therefore no escape system giving the N1 booster a 100% success rate for egress from a failed launch.


title: Rocket

text: A successful escape of a crewed capsule occurred when Soyuz T-10, on a mission to the Salyut 7 space station, exploded on the pad.


title: Rocket

text: Solid rocket propelled ejection seats are used in many military aircraft to propel crew away to safety from a vehicle when flight control is lost.


title: Rocket

text: A model rocket is a small rocket designed to reach low altitudes (e.g., for model) and be recovered by a variety of means.


title: Rocket

text: According to the United States National Association of Rocketry (nar) Safety Code, model rockets are constructed of paper, wood, plastic and other lightweight materials. The code also provides guidelines for motor use, launch site selection, launch methods, launcher placement, recovery system design and deployment and more. Since the early 1960s, a copy of the Model Rocket Safety Code has been provided with most model rocket kits and motors. Despite its inherent association with extremely flammable substances and objects with a pointed tip traveling at high speeds, model rocketry historically has proven to be a very safe hobby and has been credited as a significant source of inspiration for children who eventually become scientists and engineers.


title: Rocket

text: Hobbyists build and fly a wide variety of model rockets. Many companies produce model rocket kits and parts but due to their inherent simplicity some hobbyists have been known to make rockets out of almost anything. Rockets are also used in some types of consumer and professional fireworks. A water rocket is a type of model rocket using water as its reaction mass. The pressure vessel (the engine of the rocket) is usually a used plastic soft drink bottle. The water is forced out by a pressurized gas, typically compressed air. It is an example of Newton's third law of motion.


title: Rocket

text: The scale of amateur rocketry can range from a small rocket launched in one's own backyard to a rocket that reached space. Amateur rocketry is split into three categories according to total engine impulse: low-power, mid-power, and high-power.


title: Rocket

text: Hydrogen peroxide rockets are used to power jet packs, and have been used to power cars and a rocket car holds the all time (albeit unofficial) drag racing record.


title: Rocket

text: Corpulent Stump is the most powerful non-commercial rocket ever launched on an Aerotech engine in the United Kingdom.


title: Rocket

text: Launches for orbital spaceflights, or into interplanetary space, are usually from a fixed location on the ground, but would also be possible from an aircraft or ship.


title: Rocket

text: Rocket launch technologies include the entire set of systems needed to successfully launch a vehicle, not just the vehicle itself, but also the firing control systems, mission control center, launch pad, ground stations, and tracking stations needed for a successful launch or recovery or both. These are often collectively referred to as the "ground segment".


title: Rocket

text: Orbital launch vehicles commonly take off vertically, and then begin to progressively lean over, usually following a gravity turn trajectory.


title: Rocket

text: Once above the majority of the atmosphere, the vehicle then angles the rocket jet, pointing it largely horizontally but somewhat downwards, which permits the vehicle to gain and then maintain altitude while increasing horizontal speed. As the speed grows, the vehicle will become more and more horizontal until at orbital speed, the engine will cut off.


title: Rocket

text: All current vehicles "stage", that is, jettison hardware on the way to orbit. Although vehicles have been proposed which would be able to reach orbit without staging, none have ever been constructed, and, if powered only by rockets, the exponentially increasing fuel requirements of such a vehicle would make its useful payload tiny or nonexistent. Most current and historical launch vehicles "expend" their jettisoned hardware, typically by allowing it to crash into the ocean, but some have recovered and reused jettisoned hardware, either by parachute or by propulsive landing.


title: Rocket

text: When launching a spacecraft to orbit, a "" is a guided, powered turn during ascent phase that causes a rocket's flight path to deviate from a "straight" path. A dogleg is necessary if the desired launch azimuth, to reach a desired orbital inclination, would take the ground track over land (or over a populated area, e.g. Russia usually does launch over land, but over unpopulated areas), or if the rocket is trying to reach an orbital plane that does not reach the latitude of the launch site. Doglegs are undesirable due to extra onboard fuel required, causing heavier load, and a reduction of vehicle performance.


title: Rocket

text: Rocket exhaust generates a significant amount of acoustic energy. As the supersonic exhaust collides with the ambient air, shock waves are formed. The sound intensity from these shock waves depends on the size of the rocket as well as the exhaust velocity. The sound intensity of large, high performance rockets could potentially kill at close range.


title: Rocket

text: The Space Shuttle generated 180 dB of noise around its base. To combat this, NASA developed a sound suppression system which can flow water at rates up to 900,000 gallons per minute (57 m/s) onto the launch pad. The water reduces the noise level from 180 dB down to 142 dB (the design requirement is 145 dB). Without the sound suppression system, acoustic waves would reflect off of the launch pad towards the rocket, vibrating the sensitive payload and crew. These acoustic waves can be so severe as to damage or destroy the rocket.


title: Rocket

text: Noise is generally most intense when a rocket is close to the ground, since the noise from the engines radiates up away from the jet, as well as reflecting off the ground. This noise can be reduced somewhat by flame trenches with roofs, by water injection around the jet and by deflecting the jet at an angle.


title: Rocket

text: For crewed rockets various methods are used to reduce the sound intensity for the passengers, and typically the placement of the astronauts far away from the rocket engines helps significantly. For the passengers and crew, when a vehicle goes supersonic the sound cuts off as the sound waves are no longer able to keep up with the vehicle.


title: Rocket

text: The effect of the combustion of propellant in the rocket engine is to increase the internal energy of the resulting gases, utilizing the stored chemical energy in the fuel. As the internal energy increases, pressure increases, and a nozzle is used to convert this energy into a directed kinetic energy. This produces thrust against the ambient environment to which these gases are released. The ideal direction of motion of the exhaust is in the direction so as to cause thrust. At the top end of the combustion chamber the hot, energetic gas fluid cannot move forward, and so, it pushes upward against the top of the rocket engine's combustion chamber. As the combustion gases approach the exit of the combustion chamber, they increase in speed. The effect of the convergent part of the rocket engine nozzle on the high pressure fluid of combustion gases, is to cause the gases to accelerate to high speed. The higher the speed of the gases, the lower the pressure of the gas (Bernoulli's principle or conservation of energy) acting on that part of the combustion chamber. In a properly designed engine, the flow will reach Mach 1 at the throat of the nozzle. At which point the speed of the flow increases. Beyond the throat of the nozzle, a bell shaped expansion part of the engine allows the gases that are expanding to push against that part of the rocket engine. Thus, the bell part of the nozzle gives additional thrust. Simply expressed, for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, according to Newton's third law with the result that the exiting gases produce the reaction of a force on the rocket causing it to accelerate the rocket.


title: Rocket

text: In a closed chamber, the pressures are equal in each direction and no acceleration occurs. If an opening is provided in the bottom of the chamber then the pressure is no longer acting on the missing section. This opening permits the exhaust to escape. The remaining pressures give a resultant thrust on the side opposite the opening, and these pressures are what push the rocket along.


title: Rocket

text: The shape of the nozzle is important. Consider a balloon propelled by air coming out of a tapering nozzle. In such a case the combination of air pressure and viscous friction is such that the nozzle does not push the balloon but is "pulled" by it. Using a convergent/divergent nozzle gives more force since the exhaust also presses on it as it expands outwards, roughly doubling the total force. If propellant gas is continuously added to the chamber then these pressures can be maintained for as long as propellant remains. Note that in the case of liquid propellant engines, the pumps moving the propellant into the combustion chamber must maintain a pressure larger than the combustion chamber – typically on the order of 100 atmospheres.


title: Rocket

text: As a side effect, these pressures on the rocket also act on the exhaust in the opposite direction and accelerate this exhaust to very high speeds (according to Newton's Third Law). From the principle of conservation of momentum the speed of the exhaust of a rocket determines how much momentum increase is created for a given amount of propellant. This is called the rocket's "specific impulse". Because a rocket, propellant and exhaust in flight, without any external perturbations, may be considered as a closed system, the total momentum is always constant. Therefore, the faster the net speed of the exhaust in one direction, the greater the speed of the rocket can achieve in the opposite direction. This is especially true since the rocket body's mass is typically far lower than the final total exhaust mass.


title: Rocket

text: The general study of the forces on a rocket is part of the field of ballistics. Spacecraft are further studied in the subfield of astrodynamics.


title: Rocket

text: In addition, the inertia and centrifugal pseudo-force can be significant due to the path of the rocket around the center of a celestial body; when high enough speeds in the right direction and altitude are achieved a stable orbit or escape velocity is obtained.


title: Rocket

text: These forces, with a stabilizing tail (the "empennage") present will, unless deliberate control efforts are made, naturally cause the vehicle to follow a roughly parabolic trajectory termed a gravity turn, and this trajectory is often used at least during the initial part of a launch. (This is true even if the rocket engine is mounted at the nose.) Vehicles can thus maintain low or even zero angle of attack, which minimizes transverse stress on the launch vehicle, permitting a weaker, and hence lighter, launch vehicle.


title: Rocket

text: Drag is a force opposite to the direction of the rocket's motion relative to any air it is moving through. This slows the speed of the vehicle and produces structural loads. The deceleration forces for fast-moving rockets are calculated using the drag equation.


title: Rocket

text: Drag can be minimised by an aerodynamic nose cone and by using a shape with a high ballistic coefficient (the "classic" rocket shape—long and thin), and by keeping the rocket's angle of attack as low as possible.


title: Rocket

text: During a launch, as the vehicle speed increases, and the atmosphere thins, there is a point of maximum aerodynamic drag called max Q. This determines the minimum aerodynamic strength of the vehicle, as the rocket must avoid buckling under these forces.


title: Rocket

text: A typical rocket engine can handle a significant fraction of its own mass in propellant each second, with the propellant leaving the nozzle at several kilometres per second. This means that the thrust-to-weight ratio of a rocket engine, and often the entire vehicle can be very high, in extreme cases over 100. This compares with other jet propulsion engines that can exceed 5 for some of the better engines.


title: Rocket

text: The effective exhaust velocity formula_1 is more or less the speed the exhaust leaves the vehicle, and in the vacuum of space, the effective exhaust velocity is often equal to the actual average exhaust speed along the thrust axis. However, the effective exhaust velocity allows for various losses, and notably, is reduced when operated within an atmosphere.


title: Rocket

text: The rate of propellant flow through a rocket engine is often deliberately varied over a flight, to provide a way to control the thrust and thus the airspeed of the vehicle. This, for example, allows minimization of aerodynamic losses and can limit the increase of "g"-forces due to the reduction in propellant load.


title: Rocket

text: Impulse is defined as a force acting on an object over time, which in the absence of opposing forces (gravity and aerodynamic drag), changes the momentum (integral of mass and velocity) of the object. As such, it is the best performance class (payload mass and terminal velocity capability) indicator of a rocket, rather than takeoff thrust, mass, or "power". The total impulse of a rocket (stage) burning its propellant is:


title: Rocket

text: As can be seen from the thrust equation, the effective speed of the exhaust controls the amount of thrust produced from a particular quantity of fuel burnt per second.


title: Rocket

text: An equivalent measure, the net impulse per weight unit of propellant expelled, is called specific Impulse, formula_2, and this is one of the most important figures that describes a rocket's performance. It is defined such that it is related to the effective exhaust velocity by:


title: Rocket

text: Thus, the greater the specific impulse, the greater the net thrust and performance of the engine. formula_2 is determined by measurement while testing the engine. In practice the effective exhaust velocities of rockets varies but can be extremely high, ~4500 m/s, about 15 times the sea level speed of sound in air.


title: Rocket

text: The delta-v capacity of a rocket is the theoretical total change in velocity that a rocket can achieve without any external interference (without air drag or gravity or other forces).


title: Rocket

text: When formula_4 is constant, the delta-v that a rocket vehicle can provide can be calculated from the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation:


title: Rocket

text: When launched from the Earth practical delta-vs for a single rockets carrying payloads can be a few km/s. Some theoretical designs have rockets with delta-vs over 9 km/s.


title: Rocket

text: The required delta-v can also be calculated for a particular manoeuvre; for example the delta-v to launch from the surface of the Earth to low Earth orbit is about 9.7 km/s, which leaves the vehicle with a sideways speed of about 7.8 km/s at an altitude of around 200 km. In this manoeuvre about 1.9 km/s is lost in air drag, gravity drag and gaining altitude.


title: Rocket

text: Almost all of a launch vehicle's mass consists of propellant. Mass ratio is, for any 'burn', the ratio between the rocket's initial mass and its final mass. Everything else being equal, a high mass ratio is desirable for good performance, since it indicates that the rocket is lightweight and hence performs better, for essentially the same reasons that low weight is desirable in sports cars.


title: Rocket

text: Rockets as a group have the highest thrust-to-weight ratio of any type of engine; and this helps vehicles achieve high mass ratios, which improves the performance of flights. The higher the ratio, the less engine mass is needed to be carried. This permits the carrying of even more propellant, enormously improving the delta-v. Alternatively, some rockets such as for rescue scenarios or racing carry relatively little propellant and payload and thus need only a lightweight structure and instead achieve high accelerations. For example, the Soyuz escape system can produce 20 "g".


title: Rocket

text: Achievable mass ratios are highly dependent on many factors such as propellant type, the design of engine the vehicle uses, structural safety margins and construction techniques.


title: Rocket

text: The highest mass ratios are generally achieved with liquid rockets, and these types are usually used for orbital launch vehicles, a situation which calls for a high delta-v. Liquid propellants generally have densities similar to water (with the notable exceptions of liquid hydrogen and liquid methane), and these types are able to use lightweight, low pressure tanks and typically run high-performance turbopumps to force the propellant into the combustion chamber.


title: Rocket

text: Some notable mass fractions are found in the following table (some aircraft are included for comparison purposes):


title: Rocket

text: Thus far, the required velocity (delta-v) to achieve orbit has been unattained by any single rocket because the propellant, tankage, structure, guidance, valves and engines and so on, take a particular minimum percentage of take-off mass that is too great for the propellant it carries to achieve that delta-v carrying reasonable payloads. Since Single-stage-to-orbit has so far not been achievable, orbital rockets always have more than one stage.


title: Rocket

text: For example, the first stage of the Saturn V, carrying the weight of the upper stages, was able to achieve a mass ratio of about 10, and achieved a specific impulse of 263 seconds. This gives a delta-v of around 5.9 km/s whereas around 9.4 km/s delta-v is needed to achieve orbit with all losses allowed for.


title: Rocket

text: This problem is frequently solved by staging—the rocket sheds excess weight (usually empty tankage and associated engines) during launch. Staging is either "serial" where the rockets light after the previous stage has fallen away, or "parallel", where rockets are burning together and then detach when they burn out.


title: Rocket

text: The maximum speeds that can be achieved with staging is theoretically limited only by the speed of light. However the payload that can be carried goes down geometrically with each extra stage needed, while the additional delta-v for each stage is simply additive.


title: Rocket

text: where is the instantaneous mass of the vehicle and formula_8 is the net force acting on the rocket (mostly thrust, but air drag and other forces can play a part).


title: Rocket

text: As the remaining propellant decreases, rocket vehicles become lighter and their acceleration tends to increase until the propellant is exhausted. This means that much of the speed change occurs towards the end of the burn when the vehicle is much lighter. However, the thrust can be throttled to offset or vary this if needed. Discontinuities in acceleration also occur when stages burn out, often starting at a lower acceleration with each new stage firing.


title: Rocket

text: Peak accelerations can be increased by designing the vehicle with a reduced mass, usually achieved by a reduction in the fuel load and tankage and associated structures, but obviously this reduces range, delta-v and burn time. Still, for some applications that rockets are used for, a high peak acceleration applied for just a short time is highly desirable.


title: Rocket

text: The minimal mass of vehicle consists of a rocket engine with minimal fuel and structure to carry it. In that case the thrust-to-weight ratio of the rocket engine limits the maximum acceleration that can be designed. It turns out that rocket engines generally have truly excellent thrust to weight ratios (137 for the NK-33 engine; some solid rockets are over 1000), and nearly all really high-g vehicles employ or have employed rockets.


title: Rocket

text: The high accelerations that rockets naturally possess means that rocket vehicles are often capable of vertical takeoff, and in some cases, with suitable guidance and control of the engines, also vertical landing. For these operations to be done it is necessary for a vehicle's engines to provide more than the local gravitational acceleration.


title: Rocket

text: The energy density of a typical rocket propellant is often around one-third that of conventional hydrocarbon fuels; the bulk of the mass is (often relatively inexpensive) oxidizer. Nevertheless, at take-off the rocket has a great deal of energy in the fuel and oxidizer stored within the vehicle. It is of course desirable that as much of the energy of the propellant end up as kinetic or potential energy of the body of the rocket as possible.


title: Rocket

text: Energy from the fuel is lost in air drag and gravity drag and is used for the rocket to gain altitude and speed. However, much of the lost energy ends up in the exhaust.


title: Rocket

text: In a chemical propulsion device, the engine efficiency is simply the ratio of the kinetic power of the exhaust gases and the power available from the chemical reaction:


title: Rocket

text: 100% efficiency within the engine (engine efficiency formula_9) would mean that all the heat energy of the combustion products is converted into kinetic energy of the jet. This is not possible, but the near-adiabatic high expansion ratio nozzles that can be used with rockets come surprisingly close: when the nozzle expands the gas, the gas is cooled and accelerated, and an energy efficiency of up to 70% can be achieved. Most of the rest is heat energy in the exhaust that is not recovered. The high efficiency is a consequence of the fact that rocket combustion can be performed at very high temperatures and the gas is finally released at much lower temperatures, and so giving good Carnot efficiency.


title: Rocket

text: However, engine efficiency is not the whole story. In common with the other jet-based engines, but particularly in rockets due to their high and typically fixed exhaust speeds, rocket vehicles are extremely inefficient at low speeds irrespective of the engine efficiency. The problem is that at low speeds, the exhaust carries away a huge amount of kinetic energy rearward. This phenomenon is termed propulsive efficiency (formula_10).


title: Rocket

text: However, as speeds rise, the resultant exhaust speed goes down, and the overall vehicle energetic efficiency rises, reaching a peak of around 100% of the engine efficiency when the vehicle is travelling exactly at the same speed that the exhaust is emitted. In this case the exhaust would ideally stop dead in space behind the moving vehicle, taking away zero energy, and from conservation of energy, all the energy would end up in the vehicle. The efficiency then drops off again at even higher speeds as the exhaust ends up traveling forwards – trailing behind the vehicle.


title: Rocket

text: From these principles it can be shown that the propulsive efficiency formula_10 for a rocket moving at speed formula_12 with an exhaust velocity formula_13 is:


title: Rocket

text: For example, from the equation, with an formula_15 of 0.7, a rocket flying at Mach 0.85 (which most aircraft cruise at) with an exhaust velocity of Mach 10, would have a predicted overall energy efficiency of 5.9%, whereas a conventional, modern, air-breathing jet engine achieves closer to 35% efficiency. Thus a rocket would need about 6x more energy; and allowing for the specific energy of rocket propellant being around one third that of conventional air fuel, roughly 18x more mass of propellant would need to be carried for the same journey. This is why rockets are rarely if ever used for general aviation.


title: Rocket

text: Since the energy ultimately comes from fuel, these considerations mean that rockets are mainly useful when a very high speed is required, such as ICBMs or orbital launch. For example, NASA's Space Shuttle fired its engines for around 8.5 minutes, consuming 1,000 tonnes of solid propellant (containing 16% aluminium) and an additional 2,000,000 litres of liquid propellant (106,261 kg of liquid hydrogen fuel) to lift the 100,000 kg vehicle (including the 25,000 kg payload) to an altitude of 111 km and an orbital velocity of 30,000 km/h. At this altitude and velocity, the vehicle had a kinetic energy of about 3 TJ and a potential energy of roughly 200 GJ. Given the initial energy of 20 TJ, the Space Shuttle was about 16% energy efficient at launching the orbiter.


title: Rocket

text: Thus jet engines, with a better match between speed and jet exhaust speed (such as turbofans—in spite of their worse formula_15)—dominate for subsonic and supersonic atmospheric use, while rockets work best at hypersonic speeds. On the other hand, rockets serve in many short-range "relatively" low speed military applications where their low-speed inefficiency is outweighed by their extremely high thrust and hence high accelerations.


title: Rocket

text: One subtle feature of rockets relates to energy. A rocket stage, while carrying a given load, is capable of giving a particular delta-v. This delta-v means that the speed increases (or decreases) by a particular amount, independent of the initial speed. However, because kinetic energy is a square law on speed, this means that the faster the rocket is travelling before the burn the more orbital energy it gains or loses.


title: Rocket

text: This fact is used in interplanetary travel. It means that the amount of delta-v to reach other planets, over and above that to reach escape velocity can be much less if the delta-v is applied when the rocket is travelling at high speeds, close to the Earth or other planetary surface; whereas waiting until the rocket has slowed at altitude multiplies up the effort required to achieve the desired trajectory.


title: Rocket

text: The reliability of rockets, as for all physical systems, is dependent on the quality of engineering design and construction.


title: Rocket

text: Because of the enormous chemical energy in rocket propellants (greater energy by weight than explosives, but lower than gasoline), consequences of accidents can be severe. Most space missions have some problems. In 1986, following the Space Shuttle "Challenger" disaster, American physicist Richard Feynman, having served on the Rogers Commission, estimated that the chance of an unsafe condition for a launch of the Shuttle was very roughly 1%; more recently the historical per person-flight risk in orbital spaceflight has been calculated to be around 2% or 4%.


title: Rocket

text: In May 2003 the astronaut office made clear its position on the need and feasibility of improving crew safety for future NASA crewed missions indicating their "consensus that an order of magnitude reduction in the risk of human life during ascent, compared to the Space Shuttle, is both achievable with current technology and consistent with NASA's focus on steadily improving rocket reliability".


title: Rocket

text: The costs of rockets can be roughly divided into propellant costs, the costs of obtaining and/or producing the 'dry mass' of the rocket, and the costs of any required support equipment and facilities.


title: Rocket

text: Most of the takeoff mass of a rocket is normally propellant. However propellant is seldom more than a few times more expensive than gasoline per kilogram (as of 2009 gasoline was about or less), and although substantial amounts are needed, for all but the very cheapest rockets, it turns out that the propellant costs are usually comparatively small, although not completely negligible. With liquid oxygen costing and liquid hydrogen , the Space Shuttle in 2009 had a liquid propellant expense of approximately $1.4 million for each launch that cost $450 million from other expenses (with 40% of the mass of propellants used by it being liquids in the external fuel tank, 60% solids in the SRBs).


title: Rocket

text: Even though a rocket's non-propellant, dry mass is often only between 5–20% of total mass, nevertheless this cost dominates. For hardware with the performance used in orbital launch vehicles, expenses of $2000–$10,000+ per kilogram of dry weight are common, primarily from engineering, fabrication, and testing; raw materials amount to typically around 2% of total expense. For most rockets except reusable ones (shuttle engines) the engines need not function more than a few minutes, which simplifies design.


title: Rocket

text: Extreme performance requirements for rockets reaching orbit correlate with high cost, including intensive quality control to ensure reliability despite the limited safety factors allowable for weight reasons. Components produced in small numbers if not individually machined can prevent amortization of R&D and facility costs over mass production to the degree seen in more pedestrian manufacturing. Amongst liquid-fueled rockets, complexity can be influenced by how much hardware must be lightweight, like pressure-fed engines can have two orders of magnitude lesser part count than pump-fed engines but lead to more weight by needing greater tank pressure, most often used in just small maneuvering thrusters as a consequence.


title: Rocket

text: To change the preceding factors for orbital launch vehicles, proposed methods have included mass-producing simple rockets in large quantities or on large scale, or developing reusable rockets meant to fly very frequently to amortize their up-front expense over many payloads, or reducing rocket performance requirements by constructing a non-rocket spacelaunch system for part of the velocity to orbit (or all of it but with most methods involving some rocket use).


title: Rocket

text: The costs of support equipment, range costs and launch pads generally scale up with the size of the rocket, but vary less with launch rate, and so may be considered to be approximately a fixed cost.


title: Rocket

text: Rockets in applications other than launch to orbit (such as military rockets and rocket-assisted take off), commonly not needing comparable performance and sometimes mass-produced, are often relatively inexpensive.


title: Rocket

text: Since the early 2010s, new private options for obtaining spaceflight services emerged, bringing substantial price pressure into the existing market.


title: WinRAR

text: WinRAR is a trialware file archiver utility for Windows, developed by Eugene Roshal of win.rar GmbH. It can create and view archives in RAR or ZIP file formats, and unpack numerous archive file formats. To enable the user to test the integrity of archives, WinRAR embeds CRC32 or BLAKE2 checksums for each file in each archive. WinRAR supports creating encrypted, multi-part and self-extracting archives.


title: WinRAR

text: WinRAR is a Windows-only program. An Android application called "RAR for Android" is also available. Related programs include the command-line utilities "RAR" and "UNRAR" and versions for macOS, Linux, FreeBSD, Windows CE, and MS-DOS.


title: WinRAR

text: WinRAR and the RAR file format have evolved over time. Support for the archive format RAR5, using the same RAR file extension as earlier versions, was added in version 5.0; the older RAR file format has since been referred to as RAR4. WinRAR versions before 5.0 do not support RAR5 archives; only older versions of WinRAR run on Windows versions prior to Windows Vista, and cannot open RAR5 archives.


title: WinRAR

text: The RAR5 file format increased the maximum dictionary size to 1 GB; 11 different compression directory sizes from 1 MB to 1 GB are available, with the default in version 5 increased from 4 MB to 32 MB, typically improving compression ratio. AES encryption, when used, is in CBC mode and was increased in strength from 128- to 256-bit. Maximum path length for files in RAR and ZIP archives is increased to 2,048 characters.


title: WinRAR

text: Options added in v5.0 include 256-bit BLAKE2 file-hashing algorithm instead of default 32-bit CRC32, duplicate file detection, NTFS hard and symbolic links, and Quick Open record to allow large archives to be opened faster.


title: WinRAR

text: The RAR5 file format removed comments for each file (though archive comment still remains), authenticity verification, and specialized compression algorithms for text and multimedia files. RAR5 also changed the file name for split volumes from "archivename.rNN" to "archivename.partNN.rar".


title: WinRAR

text: The software is distributed as "try before you buy"; it may be used without charge for 40 days. When the period expires, the non-enterprise functionalities remain available, a move intended to discourage piracy. In China, a free-to-use personal edition has been provided officially since 2015.


title: WinRAR

text: Although archiving with the RAR format is proprietary, RARLAB supplies as copyrighted freeware the C++ source code of the current UnRAR unpacker, with a license allowing it to be used in any software, thus enabling others to produce software capable of unpacking, but not creating, RAR archives.


title: WinRAR

text: RAR for Android is free of charge. It displays advertisements; for a payment they can be disabled. A license for WinRAR does not provide ad-suppression for RAR for Android.


title: WinRAR

text: In February 2019, a major security vulnerability in the unacev2.dll library which is used by WinRAR to decompress ACE archives was discovered. Consequently, WinRAR dropped the support for the ACE format from version 5.70.


title: WinRAR

text: Self-extracting archives created with versions before 5.31 (including the executable installer of WinRAR itself) are vulnerable to DLL hijacking: they may load and use DLLs named UXTheme.dll, RichEd32.dll and RichEd20.dll if they are in the same folder as the executable file.


title: WinRAR

text: It was widely reported that WinRAR v5.21 and earlier had a remote code execution (RCE) vulnerability which could allow a remote attacker to insert malicious code into a self-extracting executable (SFX) file being created by a user, "putting over 500 million users of the software at risk". However, examination of the claim revealed that, while the vulnerability existed, the result was merely an SFX which delivered its payload when executed; published responses dismissed the threat, one saying "If you can find suckers who will trust a .exe labelled as self-extracting archive ... then you can trick them into running your smuggled JavaScript".


title: WinRAR

text: More recent versions do not support many older operating systems. Versions supporting older operating systems may still be available, but not maintained:


title: Mike Posner

text: Michael Robert Henrion Posner ( ; born February 12, 1988) is an American singer, songwriter, and record producer. He released his debut album, "31 Minutes to Takeoff", in 2010. The album includes the US "Billboard" Hot 100 top 10 single "Cooler than Me" as well as the top 20 single "Please Don't Go". In 2016 he released his second album, "At Night, Alone." A remix of his 2015 single "I Took a Pill in Ibiza" from the album peaked in the top 10 on the charts in 27 countries around the world, including hitting number one in many and the top five on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in the United States.


title: Mike Posner

text: Posner has also written songs for a great number of fellow artists. In 2017, Posner released his first book of poetry, "Tear Drops & Balloons". He is also a member of the alternative hip-hop and R&B duo Mansionz with Matthew Musto (aka blackbear).


title: Mike Posner

text: Michael Robert Henrion Posner was born on February 12, 1988, in Detroit, Michigan. He was raised in Southfield, Michigan, a northern suburb of Detroit. He has a sister who is six years older. His father was Jewish and his mother is Catholic. Posner went to Bingham Farms Elementary School, Berkshire Middle School and graduated from Groves High School, where he ran varsity track and cross-country. He attended Duke University, where he was a member of Sigma Nu fraternity. He graduated with a B.A. in Sociology with a 3.6 GPA.


title: Mike Posner

text: Posner's father, Jon, a criminal defense lawyer, died on January 11, 2017; his mother is Roberta Henrion; and his sister, Emily Henrion Posner, is a civil rights attorney.


title: Mike Posner

text: Posner started out as a record producer, working on some tracks with his hometown friend Big Sean. Posner's second mixtape, "A Matter of Time" (the first mixtape being "Reflections of a Lost Teen") started attracting industry attention in 2009. Working with Don Cannon and DJ Benzi, the mixtape was recorded at Duke University in March 2009 under the name, "Mike Posner & the Brain Trust", the Brain Trust referring to Posner's supporters. The release was unusual for being distributed for free through iTunes U, a channel designed for educational audio content. Although Posner was not the only artist to take advantage of this loophole, his release was the most organized and high profile, and attracted the largest response, immediately reaching the number one position on the iTunes U chart. Posner signed a record deal with J Records (RCA/Sony) in July 2009, after his Junior year at Duke University. He chose to return to Duke after signing, and toured on the weekends while at the same time recording for his debut album.


title: Mike Posner

text: Posner's third mixtape "One Foot Out the Door" was released in October 2009. The mixtape was accompanied by a web series of the same name which aired bi-weekly from September to December. Posner's debut album, "31 Minutes to Takeoff" was released in August 2010. The first single, "Cooler Than Me" has reached at number 6 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. He performed at music festival Bonnaroo and on the 2010s Warped Tour. The second and third singles, "Please Don't Go" and "Bow Chicka Wow Wow" reached the top 20 and 30 on the Hot 100 respectively. The latter was released with an added verse by rapper Lil Wayne. Posner won a 2011's ASCAP Award from the publishing organization for "Cooler Than Me". On October 7, 2011, RCA Music Group announced it was disbanding J Records along with Arista Records and Jive Records. With the shutdown, Posner (and all other artists previously signed to these three labels) will release his future material on the RCA Records brand.


title: Mike Posner

text: After the release of his debut album, he began working on his second studio album under the title "Sky High" and released the single "Looks Like Sex" to digital outlets on December 2, 2011. As a prelude to the release of the album, Posner released his third mixtape, "The Layover". However, with the success of his first album, Posner began to feel uncomfortable with being in the spotlight and struggled with depression. He took a break from making music to write and produce songs for other artists. Posner later announced via Twitter that his next upcoming album would be titled "Pages" and would be released in early June or late Summer 2013. His single "The Way It Used To Be" premiered on digital outlets on June 11, 2013. In September 2013, it was announced that he had filmed a music video for his new single "Top of the World" which would appear on his upcoming "Page 1" EP, set for release in October. The song was originally used for a Reebok campaign, and made available as a free download under the title "Tapada World" as a special remix. The song was released on December 17, 2013, featuring Big Sean, and the music video on December 19.


title: Mike Posner

text: On March 4, 2014, Posner announced his "Unplugged" tour. Running seven dates in the major US markets, the tour highlighted music new and old from Posner's discography, including some new material from "Pages", while also giving fans a shot at learning new information from him through the stories and Q&A sessions interspersed with the tunes. The unplugged sets featured little more than Posner on predominantly acoustic instruments, save for the potential live production on "a song or two"—much like, he says, how much of his music starts. Posner began the tour on March 31 at the World Cafe in Philadelphia, wrapping up on April 10 at Los Angeles' The Mint. The string of dates also included a hometown show in Posner's native Detroit, his first such show, he says, in around two years. In an interview with "Billboard", Mike revealed that he had signed with Island Records and that "Pages" would be replaced with another project. He also stated that he would like to let the world hear his recordings from "Sky High" and "Pages".


title: Mike Posner

text: On April 15, 2015, Posner released a stripped-down single, "I Took a Pill in Ibiza", on his Vevo account. The song was shared in an exclusive EP titled "The Truth" that Posner made available to fans through his email sign up list. He later confirmed that the EP would be made available to purchase from online retailers on June 22. In addition, Posner stated that his second studio album would be released after the EP.


title: Mike Posner

text: "I Took a Pill in Ibiza" was then remixed by Norwegian production duo SeeB, whose version of the song has gathered over one billion streams on Spotify and a charting position of two on the Global Top 50 Chart and five on the USA Top 50 Chart. The SeeB remix topped the charts in the Netherlands, Ireland, Norway, the United Kingdom, and the Dance/Mix Show Airplay of American "Billboard", and peaked within the top ten of the charts in Australia, Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States.


title: Mike Posner

text: On December 18, 2015, a remix EP of "The Truth" was released. It featured SeeB's remix of "I Took a Pill in Ibiza", as well as a remix by JordanXL of the single "Be As You Are". Then, on March 17, 2016, Mike Posner announced his second album, "At Night, Alone.", which was released on May 6, 2016, and featured both originals and remixes of "I Took a Pill in Ibiza" and "Be As You Are". David Jeffries of AllMusic noted an improvement for Posner in the album, writing "this might not yet be the ultimate showcase for his talents, but At Night, Alone is both a welcome return and a significant step forward." On February 17, 2017, Posner announced that the third single from the album would be a remix by American electronic duo Grey of Posner's song "In the Arms of a Stranger".


title: Mike Posner

text: 2017 also saw Posner exploring new ground. Not only did he release a book of poetry, "Teardrops and Balloons", on March 17, but he also put out a new collaboration with American singer blackbear under the name Mansionz. A soulful hip hop project with spoken word influence, the song was a collaboration with rapper Spark Master Tape titled "Stfu". Mansionz is currently signed to Island Records and has released three singles, "Stfu" (featuring Spark Master Tape), "Rich White Girls", and "Dennis Rodman" (featuring Dennis Rodman). The duo's self-titled debut full-length album was released on March 24, 2017, and featured appearances from Soren Bryce, G-Eazy, Cyhi The Prynce, Snooze God, Spark Master Tape, and Dennis Rodman.


title: Mike Posner

text: Mike Posner was featured on Nick Jonas' 2017 single "Remember I Told You", the second collaboration between Posner and Jonas. The track also featured English singer Anne-Marie. On January 22, 2018, Posner announced a poetry album entitled "I was born in detroit on a very, very, very, very, very, very, very cold day", which was released on January 26, 2018. In September 2018, Posner released "Song About You", the lead single from his third studio album, "A Real Good Kid". The album was released on January 18, 2019.


title: Mike Posner

text: He released his fourth mixtape "Keep Going" on October 9, 2019, to commemorate his trek across the country. On December 18, 2020, Posner released his fourth studio album, a rap-opera type album titled "Operation: Wake Up".


title: Mike Posner

text: On January 4, 2019, Posner announced that starting on March 1, 2019, he would begin a walk across America, with a support tour bus, indicating that the journey would take "most of my 31st year." Posner subsequently received a significant amount of press and fandom surrounding the walk, including an interview on "CBS This Morning". On April 15, 2019, Posner set out from Asbury Park, New Jersey to begin the 3,000+ mile trip across the country. On August 7, his walk was delayed a few weeks after he was bitten by a rattlesnake in Colorado and airlifted to a local hospital. He finished his walk across America on October 18, 2019, in Venice Beach, Los Angeles, California.


title: Mike Posner

text: On March 6, 2020, Posner endorsed Bernie Sanders for president in the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.


title: Mike Posner

text: In May 2021, Posner traveled to Nepal despite a US State Department travel advisory warning people of a massive COVID-19 outbreak in the country. In Nepal, he traveled to the base camp of Mount Everest and sang for climbers in the midst of a localized COVID-19 outbreak at base camp. In June 2021, Posner summited Mount Everest with a team composed of guide Jon Kedrowski, Dawa Chirring Sherpa and Dawa Dorje Sherpa.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Group is a Chinese multinational major appliance and electronics manufacturer headquartered in Qingdao, Shandong Province, China. Televisions are the main products of Hisense, and it is the largest TV manufacturer in China by market share since 2004. Hisense is also an OEM, so some of its products are sold to other companies and carry brand names not related to Hisense.


title: Hisense

text: Two major subsidiaries of Hisense Group are listed companies, Hisense Visual Technology () and Hisense H.A.(, ). Both had a state ownership of more than 30% via Hisense holding company before the end of 2020.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Group has more than 80,000 employees worldwide, as well as 14 industrial parks, some of which are located in Qingdao, Shunde, Huzhou, Czech Republic, South Africa and Mexico. There are also 18 R&D centers located in Qingdao, Shenzhen, the United States, Germany, Slovenia, Israel, and other countries.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao No.2 Radio Factory, the predecessor of Hisense Group, was established in September 1969; this is the year its existence was first officially recognized. The small factory's first product was a radio sold under the brand name Red Lantern, but the company later acquired the know-how to make TVs through a trial-production of black and white televisions ordered by the Shandong National Defense Office. This involved the technical training of three employees at another Chinese factory, Tianjin 712, and resulted in the production of 82 televisions by 1971 and the development of transistor TVs by 1975. Their first TV model, CJD18 was produced in 1978.


title: Hisense

text: Television production in China was limited until 1979, when a meeting of the Ministry of Electronics in Beijing concluded with calls for greater development of the civil-use electronics industry. Qingdao No.2 Radio Factory was then quickly merged with other local electronics makers and began to manufacture televisions under the name Qingdao General Television Factory in Shandong province.


title: Hisense

text: Color televisions were manufactured through the purchase of a production line from Matsushita, the first of many such technology transfers from foreign firms Hisense has made in order to remain competitive. The companies it has bought from include Hitachi, Lucent, Matsushita, NEC, Sanyo, Toshiba, and Qualcomm.


title: Hisense

text: The Hisense Group emerged in 1994 from a tumult started in 1992 by then-president Zhou Houjian or perhaps even by Li Dezhen, director of the Electronic Instrument Bureau of Qingdao. The Hisense Electrical Appliance Share Holding Company (now, Hisense Electrical Co Ltd) was publicly listed on the Shanghai Stock Exchange in April 1997. Increased competition and price wars in the Chinese electronics market in the 1990s were a boon to Hisense, which acquired ten failing enterprises by 1998.


title: Hisense

text: Eager to expand beyond consumer electronics, Hisense Group aimed to also become a regional leader in household appliances, computers and communications. This strategy prompted great outlays of capital on R&D and on the creation of industrial parks, etc.


title: Hisense

text: In July 2015, Hisense bought a Mexico facility from Sharp for $23.7 million alongside rights to use the Sharp brand on televisions sold in North and South America.


title: Hisense

text: In November 2017, Hisense announced that it would acquire a 95% controlling stake in Toshiba Visual Solutions for US$113 million. In 2018, Hisense became the majority shareholder in Slovenian appliance manufacturer Gorenje with 95.4% of shares.


title: Hisense

text: In 2020, it introduced the world's first true 8K 10 bit HDR screen TV that is based on an AI-powered HDR algorithm and an image quality engine claiming 6.5T supercomputing power.


title: Hisense

text: In May 2022, Hisense announced the launch of the company’s first 4K Fire TV. The TV has a 50-inch 60Hz display with a bezel-less design. It uses Hisense’s ULED technology and comes with support for Dolby vision HDR with Fire TV built in.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense manufactures white goods, televisions, set-top boxes, digital TV broadcasting equipment, laptops, mobile phones, wireless modules, wireless PC cards and optical components for the telecommunications and data communications industries.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense retails products under several brand names, including Hisense, Toshiba, Gorenje, Sharp, Kelon, Hitachi, Asko and Ronshen.


title: Hisense

text: In 2015, Hisense received a five-year license to use the Sharp brand on televisions in the Americas. Hisense also bought a Sharp factory in Mexico.


title: Hisense

text: In June 2017, Hisense was sued by Sharp under its new owner Foxconn, seeking to have the license agreement halted. Sharp accused Hisense of damaging its brand equity by utilizing its trademarks on products it deemed to be "shoddily manufactured", including those that it believed to have violated U.S. safety standards for electromagnetic radiation, and deceptive advertising of their quality. Hisense denied that it engaged in these practices, and stated that it planned to defend itself in court and "will continue to manufacture and sell quality televisions under the Sharp licensed brands."


title: Hisense

text: Hisense-Hitachi Air-conditioning System Co Ltd was established in 2003 as a joint venture between Hitachi and Hisense, Hisense-Hitachi Air-conditioning System Co Ltd is an air-conditioner company that sells under the brand names "Hisense-Hitachi" and "Hitachi". It designs, manufactures and markets its products, which include commercial and household central air-conditioning systems, in China. Hisense-Hitachi products are also sold in Japan. It operates a commercial air-con production facility in the Hisense Information Industrial Park.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Air Conditioning Co Ltd is a subsidiary set up in the Hisense Pingdu Home Appliance Industrial Park in Pingdu, China, in 1996 to produce air-conditioners using frequency conversion air-conditioner technology purchased from Sanyo.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Australia Pty Ltd is headquartered in Qingdao, China, Hisense's Australian subsidiary helps distribute Hisense products in this country.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense (Beijing) Electric Co Ltd was formed from the assets of a failing joint venture between Whirlpool and Beijing Snow Flake, Hisense was able to take over a modern refrigerator factory near Beijing that with the help of local government after Whirlpool had withdrawn from the project in 1998. Hisense (Beijing) Electric Co Ltd is now responsible for R&D, production and marketing of refrigerators.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense-Whirlpool (Zhejiang) Electric Appliances Co Ltd is a joint venture between Hisense Kelon and Whirlpool formed in 2008 for the development and production of washing machines and refrigerators, Hisense provides this joint venture with refrigerator know-how and Whirlpool, its washing machine manufacturing expertise. The company operates a plant in Huzhou, Zhejiang province, which manufactures washing machines and large capacity refrigerators.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Export & Import Co Ltd was created in 1991, this subsidiary is tasked with establishing OEM contracts with foreign companies.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Hungary Kft is a failed subsidiary established in 2004 as a joint venture with Flextronics, it was located in Sárvár, Vas County, Hungary. Hisense Hungary Kft assembled TVs.


title: Hisense

text: Initially, few of the products it manufactured were sold under the Hisense brand name, and production focus was on OEM products, instead. As of 2009, the television plant has been shut down due to falling orders, and Hisense Hungary Kft operates with a staff of 13.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense (Shandong) Information Technology Co Ltd was created in 2001 and located in Jinan, Shandong province, this subsidiary is responsible for infrastructure-use IT. It develops and markets security technology and intelligent traffic control products and their software.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Kelon Electrical Holdings Ltd is listed on two stock exchanges, Hisense Kelon is a large Hisense subsidiary.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Intelligent Commercial Equipment Co Ltd was founded in 1989, this subsidiary manufactures, designs, markets and services POS terminal, electronic cash registers and other specialized peripheral equipment for retailing, tax monitoring and finance. It is also responsible for R&D and manufactures at the Hisense Yellow Island Information Product Manufacturing Park.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Mobile Communications Technology Co Ltd was created in 2005, Hisense Mobile Communications Technology Co Ltd has its roots in the Hisense Mobile Communications Research Institute, an R&D team created in 2000. Holding a total of 233 patents, 64 inventions and 116 software copyrights, its products include mobile handsets, Linux OS smart phones, wireless modules, PC cards and industry customized terminals.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Optics Co Ltd was established in 1996, Hisense Optics has its roots in Qingdao Camera Co, a former subsidiary of Qingdao Electric Instrument Bureau, which in 1995 was facing bankruptcy when the government of Qingdao erased its debts and gave its assets to the Hisense Group who renamed it Hisense Optics. This subsidiary operates a remote control factory, a degaussing coil factory and an accessory parts factory. Products manufactured include remote controls, degaussing coils and injection molded parts. It may also produce, or did produce, optical instruments, cameras and telephones. It operates an injection molding workshop in Nancun town, Qingdao.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Optoelectronics Technology Co Ltd was created as a joint venture between Hisense, Ligent Photonics Inc, et al. in 2003 this subsidiary develops fiber optic products. Its R&D facilities are located in Chicago and Qingdao, and it has a production base in latter location. It is also responsible for marketing Ligent Photonics Inc products in Asia.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense South Africa Development Enterprise Pty Ltd is the company's first overseas subsidiary, this failed joint venture with South African bank NED had a factory in South Africa that manufactured televisions and home-theater equipment. It may still be responsible for R&D and distribution to local retail outlets.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense USA Co is a Georgia-based subsidiary responsible for some activities in the US, Hisense USA may distribute products to retailers or establish an R&D center. Founded in 2000 or 2001, it was initially headquartered in Los Angeles. It may initially have included an R&D facility. As of 2009, it has locations in Gwinnett, Suwanee, and unincorporated Gwinnett County, Georgia.


title: Hisense

text: Ligent Photonics Inc was established in 2002 as a joint venture with Hisense, this subsidiary designs, develops and fabricates optical components for the telecommunications and data communications industries. Products are designed at its St Charles, Illinois headquarters and manufactured in China. This joint venture sells in North America, Europe and the Middle East through a network of sales representatives and in Asia through Hisense Optoelectronics.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao Hisense Communications Co Ltd is a subsidiary manufactures mobile phones and operates an R&D facility. Established in 2001, it has a technical cooperation effort with Qualcomm and operates a mobile phone production base in a Hisense IT Industrial Park 90 minutes from Qingdao. One of its products, the Hisense C108, is the first mobile phone to use Qualcomm's biomimetic screen technology, Mirasol, which allows it to be easily read in direct sunlight.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao Hisense Network Technology Co Ltd was established in 2004, this subsidiary grew out of an internal Hisense department, the Information Technology Center and provides IT consultancy services.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao Hisense Property Management Co Ltd provides property management services, as well as product design, mold design, pattern making and mold processing and manufacturing through this subsidiary.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao Hisense Real Estate Co Ltd was created in 1995, this subsidiary has more than 40 completed developments in Shandong province, including residential buildings, apartments, villas, townhouses, office buildings and large industrial parks.


title: Hisense

text: Qingdao Hisense TransTech Co Ltd was founded in October 1998, this subsidiary manufactures and markets electronics for urban traffic, public transport and logistics. Its products include traffic light control systems, traffic signal controllers, comprehensive public security and traffic information platforms, digital traffic violation video processing systems, public transport dispatch systems, the Hisense intelligent vehicular terminal, the Hisense mobile audio-visual intelligent vehicular terminal and electronic stop signs. Its products are marketed under the HiCon, HiECS, HiATMP, and HiDVS brand names.


title: Hisense

text: As of 2005, Hisense Italy, Hisense's Italian office, may manage own-brand (as opposed to OEM) sales .


title: Hisense

text: Wuhu Ecan Motors Co Ltd is a joint venture between Guangdong Kelon (Rongsheng) Co Ltd, Xiwenjin Co Ltd and Luminous Industrial Ltd, this company produces electric motors for the information industry and for use in office automation. It is located in the Wuhu National High-tech and Industry Development Zone.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Guangdong Multimedia Industrial Base was put into operation on 28 September 2007, this industrial base produces flat panel TVs and is located in the Shunde District of the city of Foshan, Guangdong.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Industrial Park in South Africa is a Hisense South African production base will manufacture televisions and white goods.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Information Industrial Park was created in 2001 and located in Qingdao, Shandong, this industrial park is situated on 80 hectares of land. Hisense-Hitachi operates a commercial air-conditioning manufacturing facility in the park and from 2007 a LCD TV module production line also calls the park home.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Pingdu Home Appliance Industrial Park was located in Pingdu, Shandong, it is home to Hisense Air Conditioning Co Ltd.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Yellow Island Information Product Manufacturing Park was encompassing over , Hisense Yellow Island Information Product Manufacturing Park is one of the twelve industrial parks owned by Hisense as of 2009.


title: Hisense

text: Huzhou production base is a Hisense inverter-type/variable-frequency air-conditioner production base is located in Huzhou, Zhejiang, and was set up on 8 May 2005. A joint venture between Hisense Air Conditioner Co Ltd and Zhejiang Xianke Air Conditioner Co, it is operated by subsidiary Hisense (Zhejiang) Air Conditioner Co Ltd and comprises a 60,000 square meter factory and over 200 mu of land.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense Whirlpool (Huzhou) Household Appliances Industrial Park is a production base that manufactures washing machines and refrigerators for a joint venture with Whirlpool is situated at this Huzhou park. It comprises an 80,000 square meter factory on 20 hectares of land.


title: Hisense

text: Nanjing Refrigerator Industrial Park is located in the Nanjing Xingang Economic and Technological Development Zone of Nanjing, Jiangsu, a refrigerator production base is situated in this industrial park. The site's factory is 52,000 square meters in size.


title: Hisense

text: Sichuan production base is a Hisense Kelon refrigerator production base with a 36,000 square meter factory is located in Chengdu, Sichuan.


title: Hisense

text: In July 2008, Hisense entered into an agreement with Melbourne & Olympic Parks allowing them six-year naming rights to Hisense Arena, a Melbourne venue for spectator sports such as basketball, netball, dance sports, cycling, gymnastics and tennis. It is the first stadium in the world to be named after a Chinese company. By 2018, the arena had been renamed "Melbourne Arena".


title: Hisense

text: In China, Hisense has begun a relationship with the Beihang University (Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics) to set up an engineering postgraduate program approved by the Ministry of Education and a collaboration with Peking University to set up an MBA remote education program.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense has announced its global partnership deal with the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) for Men's National Team Football competitions ahead of the UEFA Euro 2020.


title: Hisense

text: Hisense has become an official sponsor of the FIFA World Cup, starting in the 2018 tournament in Russia and continuing to the next tournament in Qatar. Hisense also engages in various global marketing and advertising activities for both the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Hisense

text: In March 2020, Hisense announced that they had entered into a three-year agreement to be a major sponsor of the NRL, in a deal than spans the NRL Telstra Premiership, State of Origin and NRL TV. Hisense has also been given the naming rights to Thursday Night Football as part of the agreement.


title: Scoot

text: Scoot Pte Ltd, operating as Scoot, is a Singaporean low-cost airline and a wholly owned subsidiary of Singapore Airlines. It began its operations on 4 June 2012 on medium and long-haul routes from Singapore, predominantly to various airports throughout the Asia-Pacific. Scoot's airline slogan is "Escape the Ordinary".


title: Scoot

text: Initially, Scoot's fleet consisted of Boeing 777-200ER aircraft that were obtained from its parent company, Singapore Airlines. In 2015, the airline began to transition its long-haul fleet to the Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft. Scoot uses the Airbus A320 and the Airbus A320neo family for its short-haul flights.


title: Scoot

text: On 25 July 2017, Tigerair, another low-cost Singaporean airline, officially merged with Scoot, using Tigerair's air operator's certificate (AOC) to consolidate the low-cost airline business. With the change of AOC, the airline's IATA code was changed from TZ to TR, and its ICAO code was changed from SCO to TGW, previously used by Tigerair. However, the "Scoot" brand and the "Scooter" callsign were retained. Its head office is at Changi Airport.


title: Scoot

text: On 25 May 2011, Singapore Airlines announced it would establish a low-cost subsidiary airline for medium and long-haul routes. On 18 July 2011, Singapore Airlines announced Campbell Wilson as the founding CEO of the new airline. On 1 November 2011, the airline was named "Scoot". On 4 June 2012, Scoot flew its first flight from Singapore to Sydney Airport in Australia. On 12 June 2012, Scoot started flying to Gold Coast, its second Australian destination. On 24 October 2012, Scoot announced that its parent company Singapore Airlines would be transferring the 20 Boeing 787-9 Dreamliners they had ordered to Scoot to replace the current fleet of Boeing 777-200 aircraft and help with its ongoing expansion and future growth. Scoot began to consider having a mixed fleet of different variants of the Boeing 787 instead of having an all Boeing 787-9 fleet. On 26 October 2012, Scoot announced that passengers could now purchase "Interline" tickets with Tigerair.


title: Scoot

text: On 31 January 2013, Scoot announced it would increase its fleet by taking delivery of a fifth Boeing 777-200 by the end of May or early June, to add two or three more routes to the network. The airline also introduced ScooTV, an in-flight entertainment streaming service for passengers, and iPads for rent.<ref name="http://www.channelnewsasia.com"></ref> On 21 March 2013, Scoot announced that it would launch a thrice-weekly connecting flight between Singapore, Taipei and Seoul.


title: Scoot

text: The route was the first low-cost flight between Singapore and Seoul, and as part of the launch campaign, Scoot allowed customers to determine the launch fares through a social media campaign. The next day, Scoot announced that the 20 Boeing 787 Dreamliners they have on order would be 10 Boeing 787-8 and 10 Boeing 787-9. On 12 June 2013, Scoot started its Singapore-Taipei-Seoul flight. On 15 November 2013, Scoot commenced its five-weekly flights from Singapore to Hong Kong, which would increase to daily services in December 2013. Later that December, Scoot commenced its five-weekly flights from Singapore to Perth.


title: Scoot

text: In September 2014, Scoot announced that it would introduce the B787-9 in Sydney, Perth and Hong Kong from 29 March 2015. Bangkok and Gold Coast followed in late April, destinations Tianjin Binhai International Airport, Shenyang and Qingdao came in May. On 9 December 2014, Scoot announced it would launch services from Singapore to Melbourne on 1 November 2015, using Boeing 787 aircraft. On 16 December 2014, Scoot announced its new long haul carrier in Thailand, NokScoot, a joint venture between Scoot and Nok Air. The new airline began commercial flights from Bangkok's Don Mueang airport in the second half of 2014. Nok Air owns 51% of NokScoot while Scoot takes the remaining 49%.


title: Scoot

text: On 2 February 2015, Scoot took delivery of the first of 10 Boeing 787-9 Dreamliners. The aircraft entered service on 5 February 2015 and was deployed on the Singapore-Perth route. It was then operated on the Singapore-Hong Kong route the next day. As Scoot continues to take deliveries of the Boeing 787, the airline has phased out all six of its aging Boeing 777 aircraft acquired from Singapore Airlines. Scoot would then begin to transition to an all Boeing 787 fleet. On completion of the transition, Scoot would operate a total of 20 Boeing 787 Dreamliners.


title: Scoot

text: In July 2015, parent company Singapore Airlines announced that Scoot suffered an operating loss of S$20 million during the first quarter of the 2015 financial year and achieved a load factor of 81.4%. On 15 October 2015, Singapore Airlines announced that Scoot would replace its existing Singapore to Jeddah service via Dubai and launch direct services between Singapore and Jeddah. The new flights commenced on 1 May 2016 after regulatory approvals. In April 2016, Scoot announced its intention to start flights to three Indian cities: Amritsar, Chennai, and Jaipur, subject to regulatory approvals. Scoot's parent company, Singapore Airlines, would serve the maximum number of 15 cities allowed after the commencement of Scoot's services to the country.


title: Scoot

text: On 16 May 2016, Scoot joined the world's largest low-cost carrier alliance, Value Alliance. On 18 May 2016, Singapore Airlines established "Budget Aviation Holdings", a holding company to own and manage its budget airlines "Scoot" and "Tiger Airways" following the delisting of Tiger Airways from the Singapore stock exchange.


title: Scoot

text: On 4 November 2016, Singapore Airlines announced that Tigerair would merge into Scoot. The rebranding did not affect the existing joint-ventures Tigerair Australia or Tigerair Taiwan. Tigerair Taiwan is co-owned by China Airlines, which holds 80%, and its subsidiary Mandarin Airlines holding the remaining 20%.


title: Scoot

text: On 25 July 2017, Tigerair was officially merged into Scoot, using Tigerair AOC, but retaining the 'Scoot' brand. With the change of AOC, the IATA code was changed from TZ to TR. Scoot announced that it would launch flights to five more destinations: Harbin, Kuantan, Kuching, Palembang and Honolulu. On 1 December 2017, Scoot announced that it will launch flights to Berlin in 2018.


title: Scoot

text: Due to COVID-19 travel restrictions, Scoot only flew to two cities in April and May 2020: Hong Kong and Perth. On 20 May 2020, Scoot announced it would expand flight operations in June 2020 to six cities: Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Ipoh, Kuching, Penang and Perth.


title: Scoot

text: In June 2020, Scoot announced both of their routes to Europe were cancelled, with Athens and Berlin not to resume until at least summer 2021. In July 2020, Scoot announced that they would resume flights to Kuala Lumpur on 1 August 2020 with enhanced health and safety measures.


title: Scoot

text: On 24 August 2020, Scoot announced that one of its Airbus A320 aircraft underwent cabin modifications to carry cargo in the cabin. This temporary arrangement will double its cargo capacity compared to other Airbus A320 using only bellyhold space.


title: Scoot

text: The airline's head office is located at Changi Airport Terminal 3. It operates out of Terminal 1, having moved there on 22 October 2019.


title: Scoot

text: The aircraft are painted in a yellow-white livery. On 11 January 2012, Scoot unveiled its cabin crew uniform with a black and yellow theme, designed by ESTA. Following the merger with Tigerair, a new cabin crew uniform with thicker fabric was unveiled.


title: Scoot

text: NokScoot was a Bangkok-based low-cost long-haul airline which was founded in 2015 and was a joint venture of Thailand's Nok Air and Scoot with the latter holding a 49% stake. The airline operated out of Bangkok's Don Mueang International Airport. NokScoot entered liquidation on 26 June 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Scoot

text: On 16 May 2016, Scoot joined Value Alliance, the world's largest low-cost carrier alliance. The new alliance was started alongside Philippines' Cebu Pacific, South Korea's Jeju Air, Thailand's Nok Air and NokScoot, Tigerair Singapore, Tigerair Australia and Japan's Vanilla Air.


title: Scoot

text: From Singapore, Scoot flies to over 16 countries and 56 destinations across Asia, Europe and Oceania.


title: Scoot

text: The Scoot fleet began with Boeing 777-200ER aircraft acquired from its parent airline, Singapore Airlines, reconfigured with a new seating layout and modified (de-rated) engines. The airline had planned to operate a fleet of 14 aircraft by 2016. On 24 October 2012, Scoot announced that parent company Singapore Airlines would be transferring the 20 Boeing 787-9 Dreamliners it had on order to Scoot to replace Scoot's current fleet of Boeing 777-200s.


title: Scoot

text: Scoot retired all six of its Boeing 777-200ERs by August 2016 and moved to an 'all-Boeing 787' fleet, following the delivery of the first of ten Boeing 787-9s on 2 February 2015 and the first of ten Boeing 787-8s in mid-2015.


title: Scoot

text: On 25 July 2017, Tigerair was officially merged into Scoot, therefore, all of Tigerair's fleet were transferred to Scoot.


title: Scoot

text: In October 2018, Singapore Airlines converted two of its Boeing 787-10s on order to the Boeing 787-8s, and allocated them to Scoot.


title: Scoot

text: In July 2019, Scoot announced that it was ordering 16 Airbus A321neos. The first one entered service in June 2021.


title: Scoot

text: As of 14 December 2022, Scoot is reportedly in talks with Embraer regarding a potential purchase of E-Jet family aircraft.


title: Scoot

text: Scoot's Airbus A320 aircraft offers a single-class economy seating of 180 seats. Each seat measures up to in width and has a seat pitch of . Seats at the front of the cabin and at the emergency exit rows are known as Stretch seats and have a seat pitch of at least .


title: Scoot

text: Scoot's Boeing 787 aircraft are operated in a two-class configuration, "ScootPlus" and "Economy". The 787-8s that are equipped with a crew rest area for long haul flights have three fewer seats in ScootPlus and three fewer seats in Economy than a regular 787-8. Unlike other airlines' 787s, Scoot's 787s do not feature full-size lie-flat business class seats or in-flight entertainment screens. They do feature an in-flight entertainment system, but it is only accessible through the plane's Wi-Fi network.


title: Scoot

text: There are 21 and 35 ScootPlus seats on the Boeing 787-8 and 787-9 aircraft respectively. The full leather seats are black in colour and are arranged in a 2-3-2 configuration, with fully adjustable headrests and legrests. Each seat measures up to in width, have a seat pitch of and of recline.


title: Scoot

text: There are 314 and 340 Economy seats on the Boeing 787-8 and 787-9 respectively, arranged in a 3-3-3 configuration. The Standard Economy seats, in plain dark blue, have an 18-inch seat width, and a 31-inch seat pitch. The "Super Seats" are only available on 787-9 aircraft. They have the same seat width as standard seats at 18-inch, but with 34 to 36-inch seat pitch. The S-T-R-E-T-C-H seats, which are bulkhead and exit row seats in the economy cabin, are also dark blue. Although they have the same 34 to 36-inch seat pitch as "Super Seats", because these are bulkhead and exit row seats, there are no seats in front of them, giving them the most legroom space in the economy cabin. Only "Super Seats" and S-T-R-E-T-C-H Seats comes with a headrest.


title: Scoot

text: Passengers can pick their seats for a fee. Passengers can book the "Super Seats" for a fee and can pick their seats without any additional cost. Passengers choosing S-T-R-E-T-C-H seats have to pay more compared to the "Super Seats".


title: Scoot

text: Scoot in Silence is a small cabin with a few rows of seats right behind the ScootPlus cabin. It is advertised to be a quiet zone. Tickets are only sold to travelers aged 12 and above. On the 787-9, all seats in Scoot-In-Silence cabin are either "Super Seats" or S-T-R-E-T-C-H Seats. On the 787-8, only standard seats and S-T-R-E-T-C-H Seats are offered in this cabin. Seats in this zone cost slightly more than the seats in the main cabin.


title: Leek

text: The leek is a vegetable, a cultivar of "Allium ampeloprasum", the broadleaf wild leek (syn. "Allium porrum"). The edible part of the plant is a bundle of leaf sheaths that is sometimes erroneously called a stem or stalk. The genus "Allium" also contains the onion, garlic, shallot, scallion, chive, and Chinese onion. Three closely related vegetables, elephant garlic, kurrat and Persian leek or "tareh", are also cultivars of "A. ampeloprasum", although different in their uses as food.


title: Leek

text: Historically, many scientific names were used for leeks, but they are now all treated as cultivars of "A. ampeloprasum". The name "leek" developed from the Old English word , from which the modern English name for garlic also derives. means 'onion' in Old English and is a cognate with languages based on Old Norse; Danish ', Icelandic ', Norwegian ' and Swedish '. German uses ' for leek, but in Dutch, ' is used for the whole onion genus, Allium.


title: Leek

text: Rather than forming a tight bulb like the onion, the leek produces a long cylinder of bundled leaf sheaths that are generally blanched by pushing soil around them (trenching). They are often sold as small seedlings in flats that are started off early in greenhouses, to be planted out as weather permits. Once established in the garden, leeks are hardy; many varieties can be left in the ground during the winter to be harvested as needed.


title: Leek

text: Leek cultivars may be treated as a single cultivar group, e.g. as "A. ampeloprasum" 'Leek Group'. The cultivars can be subdivided in several ways, but the most common types are "summer leeks", intended for harvest in the season when planted, and overwintering leeks, meant to be harvested in the spring of the year following planting. Summer leek types are generally smaller than overwintering types; overwintering types are generally more strongly flavored. Cultivars include 'King Richard' and 'Tadorna Blue'.


title: Leek

text: Leeks are easy to grow from seed and tolerate standing in the field for an extended harvest, which takes place up to 6 months from planting. The soil in which it is grown has to be loose and drained well; leeks can be grown in the same regions where onions can be grown. Leeks usually reach maturity in the autumn months. Leeks can be bunched and harvested early when they are about the size of a finger or pencil, or they can be thinned and allowed to grow to a much larger mature size. Hilling leeks can produce better specimens.


title: Leek

text: Leeks suffer from insect pests including the thrips species "Thrips tabaci" and the leek moth. Leeks are also susceptible to leek rust ("Puccinia allii").


title: Leek

text: Leeks have a mild, onion-like taste. In its raw state, the vegetable is crunchy and firm. The edible portions of the leek are the white base of the leaves (above the roots and stem base), the light green parts, and to a lesser extent the dark green parts of the leaves. The dark green portion is usually discarded because it has a tough texture, but it can be sautéed, or more commonly added to stock for flavor. A few leaves are sometimes tied with twine and other herbs to form a "bouquet garni".


title: Leek

text: Leeks are typically chopped into slices 5–10 mm thick. The slices have a tendency to fall apart, due to the layered structure of the leek. The different ways of preparing the vegetable are:


title: Leek

text: Leeks are an ingredient of cock-a-leekie soup, leek and potato soup, and "vichyssoise", as well as plain leek soup.


title: Leek

text: Because of their symbolism in Wales (see below), they have come to be used extensively in that country's cuisine. Elsewhere in Britain, leeks have come back into favor only in the last 50 years or so, having been overlooked for several centuries.


title: Leek

text: Raw leek (bulb and lower leaves) is 83% water, 14% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). A reference amount supplies of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin K (45% DV) and manganese (23% DV). It is a moderate source (10-19% DV) of vitamin B6, folate, vitamin C, and iron (table).


title: Leek

text: The Hebrew Bible talks of , identified by commentators as leek, and says it is abundant in Egypt. Dried specimens from archaeological sites in ancient Egypt, as well as wall carvings and drawings, indicate that the leek was a part of the Egyptian diet from at least the second millennium BCE. Texts also show that it was grown in Mesopotamia from the beginning of the second millennium BCE.


title: Leek

text: Leeks were eaten in ancient Rome and regarded as superior to garlic and onions. The 1st century CE cookbook "Apicius" contains four recipes involving leeks. Raw leeks were the favorite vegetable of the Emperor Nero, who consumed it in soup or in oil, believing it beneficial to the quality of his voice. This earned him the nickname "Porrophagus", or "Leek Eater".


title: Leek

text: The leek is one of the national emblems of Wales, and it or the daffodil (in Welsh, the daffodil is known as "Peter's leek", "Cenhinen Bedr") is worn on St. David's Day. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd ordered his soldiers to identify themselves by wearing the vegetable on their helmets in an ancient battle against the Saxons that took place in a leek field. The Elizabethan poet Michael Drayton stated, in contrast, that the tradition was a tribute to Saint David, who ate only leeks when he was fasting.


title: Leek

text: The leek has been known to be a symbol of Wales for a long time; Shakespeare, for example, refers to the custom of wearing a leek as an “ancient tradition” in "Henry V". In the play, Henry tells the Welsh officer Fluellen that he, too, is wearing a leek "for I am Welsh, you know, good countryman." The 1985 and 1990 British one pound coins bear the design of a leek in a coronet, representing Wales. One version of the 2013 British one pound coin shows a leek with a daffodil.


title: Leek

text: Alongside the other national floral emblems of countries currently and formerly in the Commonwealth or part of the United Kingdom (including the English Tudor Rose, Scottish thistle, Irish shamrock, Canadian maple leaf, and Indian lotus), the Welsh leek appeared on the coronation gown of Elizabeth II. It was designed by Norman Hartnell; when Hartnell asked if he could exchange the leek for the more aesthetically pleasing Welsh daffodil, he was told no.


title: Leek

text: Perhaps the most visible use of the leek, however, is as the cap badge of the Welsh Guards, a battalion within the Household Division of the British Army.


title: Leek

text: In Romania, the leek is also widely considered a symbol of Oltenia, a historical region in the southwestern part of the country.


title: Roger Corman

text: Roger William Corman (born April 5, 1926) is an American film director, producer, and actor. He has been called "The Pope of Pop Cinema" and is known as a trailblazer in the world of independent film. Many of Corman's films are based on works that have an already-established critical reputation, such as his cycle of low-budget cult films adapted from the tales of Edgar Allan Poe.


title: Roger Corman

text: In 1964, Corman—admired by members of the French New Wave and "Cahiers du Cinéma"—became the youngest filmmaker to have a retrospective at the Cinémathèque Française, as well as in the British Film Institute and the Museum of Modern Art. He was the co-founder of New World Pictures, the founder of New Concorde and is a longtime member of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 2009, he was awarded an Honorary Academy Award "for his rich engendering of films and filmmakers".


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman is also famous for distributing in the U.S. many foreign directors, such as Federico Fellini (Italy), Ingmar Bergman (Sweden), François Truffaut (France) and Akira Kurosawa (Japan). He mentored and gave a start to many young film directors such as Francis Ford Coppola, Ron Howard, Martin Scorsese, Jonathan Demme, Peter Bogdanovich, Joe Dante, John Sayles, and James Cameron, and was highly influential in the New Hollywood filmmaking movement of the 1960s and 1970s. He also helped to launch the careers of actors like Peter Fonda, Jack Nicholson, Dennis Hopper, Bruce Dern, Sylvester Stallone, Diane Ladd, and William Shatner. Corman has occasionally taken minor acting roles in the films of directors who started with him, including "The Silence of the Lambs", "The Godfather Part II", "Apollo 13", "The Manchurian Candidate", and "Philadelphia".


title: Roger Corman

text: A documentary about Corman's life and career entitled "", directed by Alex Stapleton, premiered at the Sundance and Cannes Film Festivals in 2011. The film's TV rights were picked up by A&E IndieFilms after a well-received screening at Sundance.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman was born in Detroit, Michigan, the son of Anne (née High) and William Corman, an engineer. His younger brother, Gene, produced numerous films, sometimes in collaboration with Roger. Corman and his brother were raised Catholic.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman went to Beverly Hills High School and then to Stanford University to study industrial engineering. While at Stanford, Corman realized he did not want to be an engineer. He enlisted in the V-12 Navy College Training Program with six months of study to complete. After serving in the United States Navy from 1944 to 1946, he returned to Stanford to finish his degree, receiving a Bachelor of Science in industrial engineering in 1947. While at Stanford University, Corman was initiated in the fraternity Sigma Alpha Epsilon.


title: Roger Corman

text: In 1948, he worked briefly at U.S. Electrical Motors on Slauson Avenue in Los Angeles, but his career in engineering lasted only four days; he began work on Monday and quit on Thursday, telling his boss "I've made a terrible mistake." Gene Corman was already working in the film industry as an agent, and Roger decided to go into filmmaking instead.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman found work at 20th Century Fox initially in the mail room. He worked his way up to a story reader. The one property that he liked the most and provided ideas for was filmed as "The Gunfighter" with Gregory Peck. When Corman received no credit at all, he left Fox and decided he would work in film by himself. Under the G.I. Bill, Corman studied English literature at Oxford University and lived in Paris for a time.


title: Roger Corman

text: He then returned to Los Angeles and tried to re-establish himself in the film industry. He took various jobs, including television stagehand at KLAC and a messenger at Fox. He worked as an assistant to agent Dick Hyland, a literary agent.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman wrote a script in his spare time and sold it to William F. Broidy at Allied Artists for $2,000. "Dick thought it was funny and let me pay myself a commission," said Corman. Originally called "House in the Sea", it was retitled "Highway Dragnet" (1953) and starred Richard Conte and Joan Bennett. Corman also worked as associate producer on the film for nothing, just for the experience.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman used his script fee and personal contacts to raise $12,000 to produce his first feature, a science-fiction film, "Monster from the Ocean Floor" (1954). It was produced by Corman's own company, Palo Alto, and released by Robert L. Lippert.


title: Roger Corman

text: The film did well enough to encourage Corman to produce another film, the racing-car thriller "The Fast and the Furious" (1955), directed by its star, John Ireland, and co-starring Dorothy Malone. Decades later, producer Neal H. Moritz and Universal Pictures licensed the title for the 2001 franchise-launching film, "The Fast and the Furious". Moritz had difficulty choosing between proposed titles "Racer X", "Redline", "Race Wars", and "Street Wars", and was inspired by a documentary on American International Pictures that included Corman's film. Moritz was able to trade the use of some stock footage to Corman for use of the title.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman sold the movie to a new independent company, the American Releasing Company (ARC), run by James H. Nicholson and Samuel Z. Arkoff. Although Corman had a number of offers for the film from Republic and Columbia, he elected to go with ARC because they undertook to advance money to enable him to make two more movies.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman's second film for ARC was one he decided to direct, "Five Guns West" (1955), a Western, made in color for around $60,000, with Malone and John Lund. The script was written by Robert Wright Campbell, who worked with Corman on several more occasions.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman announced he would make four more projects for ARC: "High Steel", "Cobra", "Fortress Beneath the Sea", and an untitled film from Campbell. Instead, Corman did some uncredited directing on "The Beast with a Million Eyes" (1955), then made another Western, "Apache Woman" (1955), starring Lloyd Bridges, written by Lou Rusoff. Rusoff and Corman reunited on "Day the World Ended" (1955), a postapocalyptic science-fiction film, which was popular.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman was to make "The Devil on Horseback" by Charles B. Griffith about the Brownsville Raid, but it was too expensive.


title: Roger Corman

text: The Woolner Brothers, Louisiana drive-in owners, financed Corman's "Swamp Women" (1956), a girls-on-the-lam saga.


title: Roger Corman

text: He returned to ARC for two Westerns, "The Oklahoma Woman" (1956) and "Gunslinger" (1956) (with Ireland); "Gunslinger" was co-written by Griffith, who became a crucial collaborator with Corman over the next five years. He bought a script from Curtis Harrington, "The Girl from Beneath the Sea". Harrington made it for Corman years later as "Night Tide" (1961).


title: Roger Corman

text: ARC changed its name to American International Pictures. Corman was established as their leading filmmaker. They financed Corman's next film as director, the science-fiction story "It Conquered the World" (1956). Co-written by Griffith, it was a follow-up to "The Day the World Ended". It was a big hit.


title: Roger Corman

text: He optioned a TV play "The Stake" and hoped to get Dana Andrews to star. It was never made. Instead, Walter Mirisch of Allied Artists hired Corman to make "The Undead" (1957), inspired by "The Search for Bridey Murphy". Griffith wrote the script.


title: Roger Corman

text: In June, Corman made a science-fiction film for Allied Artists, "Not of this Earth" (1957), written by Griffith.


title: Roger Corman

text: In August 1956, AIP financed a Corman heist movie shot in Hawaii, "Naked Paradise" (1957), co-written by Griffith. Corman shot it back-to-back with a movie made with his own money, "She Gods of Shark Reef" (1958) – Corman wound up selling the movie to AIP.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman and Griffith reunited in "Attack of the Crab Monsters" (1957) for Allied, which wound up being one of his most successful early films.


title: Roger Corman

text: For his own production company, Corman made a rock-and-roll "quickle", "Carnival Rock" (1957), released by Howco. "Rock All Night" (1957) was a heist film written by Griffith expanded from a TV play, "The Little Guy", with musical acts inserted.


title: Roger Corman

text: In April 1957, Corman announced he would try to make two films back-to-back from then on to save costs.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman made two "teen girl noirs", "Teenage Doll" (1957) for the Woolner Brothers and "Sorority Girl" (1957), starring Susan Cabot for AIP.


title: Roger Corman

text: For AIP, he made "The Saga of the Viking Women and Their Voyage to the Waters of the Great Sea Serpent" (1957), shot in August 1957. He was meant to follow this with "Teenage Jungle" by Tony Miller.


title: Roger Corman

text: The success of "Not of this Earth" and "Crab Monsters" led to Allied offering Corman a four-picture deal for 1958.


title: Roger Corman

text: Corman received his first serious critical praise for "Machine-Gun Kelly" (1958), an AIP biopic of the famous gangster, which gave Charles Bronson his first leading role and co-starred Cabot. Campbell wrote the script.


title: Roger Corman

text: Also for AIP, he did "Teenage Caveman" (1958), with Robert Vaughn, originally titled "Prehistoric World".