title: Pint

text: Historically, units called a pint (or the equivalent in the local language) were used across much of Europe, with values varying between countries from less than half a litre to over one litre. Within continental Europe, these pints were replaced with liquid measures based on the metric system during the 19th century. The term is still in limited use in parts of France, where means an imperial quart, which is 2 imperial pints, whereas a pint is —and Central Europe, notably some areas of Germany and Switzerland, where is colloquially used for roughly half a litre. In Spanish holiday resorts frequented by British tourists, 'pint' is often taken to mean a beer glass (especially a dimple mug). Half-pint 285 mL, and pint mugs , 570 mL, may therefore be referred to as ('half jar/jug') and ('large jar/jug').


title: Pint

text: In the British and Irish metrication processes, the pint was replaced by metric units as the legally defined primary unit of measure for trading by volume or capacity, except for the sale of draught beer and cider, and milk in returnable containers. As a supplementary unit, the pint can still be used in those countries in all circumstances. UK legislation mandates that draught beer and cider must be sold in a third of a pint, two thirds of a pint or multiples of half a pint, which must be served in stamped, measured glasses or from government-stamped meters. Milk, in returnable containers may come in pints without the metric equivalent stated. However all other goods apart from the aforementioned exceptions must be sold or labelled in metric units. Milk in plastic containers mostly comes multiples of 1 pint sizes, but are required to display the metric equivalent on packaging. Filtered milk, and UHT Milk sold in the UK is commonly sold in multiples of 1 litre bottles or containers.


title: Pint

text: In Australia and New Zealand, a subtle change was made to 1 pint milk bottles during the conversion from imperial to metric in the 1970s. The height and diameter of the milk bottle remained unchanged, so that existing equipment for handling and storing the bottles was unaffected, but the shape was adjusted to increase the capacity from 568 mL to 600 mL—a conveniently rounded metric measure. Such milk bottles are no longer officially referred to as pints. However, the "pint glass" in pubs in Australia remains closer to the standard imperial pint, at 570 mL. It holds about 500 mL of beer and about 70 mL of froth, except in South Australia, where a pint is served in a 425 mL glass and a 570 mL glass is called an "imperial pint". In New Zealand, there is no longer any legal requirement for beer to be served in standard measures: in pubs, the largest size of glass, which is referred to as a pint, varies, but usually contains 425 mL.


title: Pint

text: After metrication in Canada, milk and other liquids in pre-packaged containers came in metric sizes so conversion issues could no longer arise. Draft beer in Canada, when advertised as a "pint", is legally required to be an imperial pint (568 mL). With the allowed margin of error of 0.5 fluid ounces, a "pint" that is less than 554 mL of beer is an offence, though this regulation is often violated and rarely enforced. To avoid legal issues, many drinking establishments are moving away from using the term "pint" and are selling "glasses" or "sleeves" of beer, neither of which have a legal definition.


title: Pint

text: A 375 mL bottle of liquor in the US and the Canadian maritime provinces is sometimes referred to as a "pint" and a 200 mL bottle is called a "half-pint", harking back to the days when liquor came in US pints, fifths, quarts, and half-gallons. Liquor in the US has been sold in metric-sized bottles since 1980 although beer is still sold in US traditional units.


title: Naphtha

text: Mixtures labelled "naphtha" have been produced from natural gas condensates, petroleum distillates, and the distillation of coal tar and peat. In different industries and regions "naphtha" may also be crude oil or refined products such as kerosene.


title: Naphtha

text: The word "naphtha" is from Latin and Ancient Greek (νάφθα), derived from Middle Persian "naft" ("wet", "naphtha"), the latter meaning of which was an assimilation from the Akkadian "napṭu" (see Semitic relatives such as Arabic "nafṭ" ["petroleum"], Syriac ܢܰܦܬܳܐ "naftā") and Hebrew נֵפְט "neft" (meaning petroleum).


title: Naphtha

text: There is a hypothesis that the word is connected with the name of the Indo-Iranian god Apam Napat, which occurs in Vedic and in Avestic; the name means "grandson of (the) waters", and the Vedas describe him as emerging from water golden and shining "with bright rays", perhaps inspired by a burning seepage of natural gas.


title: Naphtha

text: The Greek word designates one of the materials used to stoke the fiery furnace in the Song of the Three Children (possibly 1st or 2nd cent. BC). The translation of Charles Brenton renders this as "rosin". The book of II Maccabees (2nd cent. BC) tells how a "thick water" was put on a sacrifice at the time of Nehemiah and when the sun shone it caught fire. It adds that "those around Nehemiah termed this 'Nephthar', which means Purification, but it is called Nephthaei by the many."


title: Naphtha

text: The naptha of antiquity is explained to be a "highly flammable light fraction of petroleum, an extremely volatile, strong-smelling, gaseous liquid, common in oil deposits of the Near East"; it was a chief ingredient in incendiary devices described by Latin authors of the Roman period.


title: Naphtha

text: Solvent naphtha has denoted a product (xylene or trimethylbenzenes) derived by fractional distillation from petroleum; these mineral spirits, also known as "Stoddard Solvent", was originally the main active ingredient in Fels Naptha laundry soap.


title: Naphtha

text: The usage of the term "naphtha" during this time typically implies petroleum naphtha, a colorless liquid with a similar odor to gasoline. However, "coal tar naphtha", a reddish brown liquid that is a mixture of hydrocarbons (toluene, xylene, and cumene, etc.), could also be intended in some contexts.


title: Naphtha

text: It enters the word napalm, a contraction of the "na" of "naphthenic acid" and "palm" of "palmitic acid", originally made from a mixture of naphthenic acid combined with aluminium and magnesium salts of palmitic acid. Naphtha is the root of the word naphthalene, and can also be recognised in the word phthalate, and the paint colour phthalo blue.


title: Naphtha

text: In older usage, "naphtha" simply meant crude oil, but this usage is now obsolete in English. There are a number of cognates to the word in different modern languages, typically signifying "petroleum" or "crude oil".


title: Naphtha

text: The Ukrainian and Belarusian word ("nafta"), Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian "nafta" and the Persian "naft" () mean "crude oil". The Russian word нефть ("neft<nowiki>'</nowiki>") means "crude oil", but нафта ("nafta") is a synonym of ligroin. Also, in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Italy, Serbia, Slovenia, Macedonia "nafta" (нафта in Cyrillic) is colloquially used to indicate diesel fuel and crude oil. In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, "nafta" was historically used for both diesel fuel and crude oil, but its use for crude oil is now obsolete and it generally indicates diesel fuel. In Bulgarian, "nafta" means diesel fuel, while "neft", as well as "petrol" (петрол in Cyrillic), means crude oil. "Nafta" is also used in everyday parlance in Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay to refer to gasoline/petrol. In Poland, the word ' means kerosene, and colloquially crude oil (technical name for crude oil is ', also colloquially used for diesel fuel as ""). In Flemish, the word "naft(e)" is used colloquially for gasoline.


title: Naphtha

text: Various qualifiers have been added to the term "naphtha" by different sources in an effort to make it more specific:


title: Naphtha

text: Another source which differentiates "light" and "heavy" comments on the hydrocarbon structure, but offers a less precise dividing line:


title: Naphtha

text: Both of these are useful definitions, but they are incompatible with one another and the latter does not provide for mixes containing both six and seven carbon atoms per molecule. These terms are also sufficiently broad that they are not widely useful.


title: Naphtha

text: Naphtha is used to dilute heavy crude oil to reduce its viscosity and enable/facilitate transport; undiluted heavy crude cannot normally be transported by pipeline, and may also be difficult to pump onto oil tankers. Other common dilutants include natural-gas condensate and light crude. However, naphtha is a particularly efficient dilutant and can be recycled from diluted heavy crude after transport and processing. The importance of oil dilutants has increased as global production of lighter crude oils has fallen and shifted to exploitation of heavier reserves.


title: Naphtha

text: Light naphtha is used as a fuel in some commercial applications. One notable example is wick-based cigarette lighters, such as the Zippo, which draw “lighter fluid”—naphtha—into a wick from a reservoir to be ignited using the flint and wheel.


title: Naphtha

text: It is also a fuel for camping stoves and oil lanterns, known as “white gas”, where naphtha’s low boiling point makes it easy to ignite. Naphtha is sometimes preferred over kerosene as it clogs fuel lines less. The outdoor equipment manufacturer MSR published a list of tradenames and translations to help outdoor enthusiasts obtain the correct products in various countries.


title: Naphtha

text: Naptha was also historically used as a fuel in some small launch boats where steam technology was impractical; most were built to circumvent safety laws relating to traditional steam launches.


title: Naphtha

text: The safety data sheets (SDSs) from various naphtha vendors indicate various hazards such as flammable mixture of hydrocarbons: flammability, carcinogenicity, skin and airway irritation, etc.


title: Naphtha

text: Humans can be exposed to naphtha in the workplace by inhalation, ingestion, dermal contact, and eye contact. The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for naphtha in the workplace as 100 ppm (400 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 100 ppm (400 mg/m) over an 8-hour workday. At levels of 1000 ppm, which equates to 10 times the lower exposure limit, naphtha is immediately dangerous to life and health.


title: Das Kapital

text: Das Kapital, also known as Capital: A Critique of Political Economy or sometimes simply Capital (, ; 1867–1883), is a foundational theoretical text in materialist philosophy, critique of political economy and politics by Karl Marx. Marx aimed to reveal the economic patterns underpinning the capitalist mode of production in contrast to classical political economists such as Adam Smith, Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo and John Stuart Mill. While Marx did not live to publish the planned second, third and fourth parts, the second and third volumes were completed from his notes and published after his death by his colleague Friedrich Engels; the fourth volume was completed and published after Engels's death by Marxist philosoper Karl Kautsky. "Das Kapital" is the most cited book published before 1950 in the social sciences.


title: Das Kapital

text: In "Das Kapital" (1867), Marx proposes that the motivating force of capitalism is in the exploitation of labor, whose unpaid work is the ultimate source of surplus value. The owner of the means of production is able to claim the right to this surplus value because they are legally protected by the ruling regime through property rights and the legally established distribution of shares which are by law distributed only to company owners and their board members. The historical section shows how these rights were acquired in the first place chiefly through plunder and conquest and the activity of the merchant and "middle-man". In producing capital, the workers continually reproduce the economic conditions by which they labour. "Das Kapital" proposes an explanation of the "laws of motion" of the capitalist economic system from its origins to its future by describing the dynamics of the accumulation of capital, the growth of wage labour, the transformation of the workplace, the concentration of capital, commercial competition, the banking system, the decline of the profit rate, land-rents, "et cetera". The critique of the political economy of capitalism proposes:


title: Das Kapital

text: After two decades of economic study and preparatory work (especially regarding the theory of surplus value), the first volume appeared in 1867 as "The Production Process of Capital". After Marx's death in 1883, Engels introduced Volume II: "The Circulation Process of Capital" in 1885; and Volume III: "The Overall Process of Capitalist Production" in 1894 from manuscripts and the first volume. These three volumes are collectively known as "Das Kapital".


title: Das Kapital

text: "Capital, Volume I" (1867) is a critical analysis of political economy, meant to reveal the contradictions of the capitalist mode of production, how it was the precursor of the socialist mode of production and of the class struggle rooted in the capitalist social relations of production. The first of three volumes of "Das Kapital" was published on 14 September 1867, dedicated to Wilhelm Wolff and was the sole volume published in Marx's lifetime.


title: Das Kapital

text: "Capital, Volume II", subtitled "The Process of Circulation of Capital", was prepared by Engels from notes left by Marx and published in 1885. It is divided into three parts:


title: Das Kapital

text: In "Volume II", the main ideas behind the marketplace are to be found, namely how value and surplus-value are realized. Its dramatis personae, not so much the worker and the industrialist (as in Volume I), but rather the money owner and money lender, the wholesale merchant, the trader and the entrepreneur or functioning capitalist. Moreover, workers appear in Volume II essentially as buyers of consumer goods and therefore as sellers of the commodity labour power, rather than producers of value and surplus-value, although this latter quality established in Volume I remains the solid foundation on which the whole of the unfolding analysis is based.


title: Das Kapital

text: Marx wrote in a letter sent to Engels on 30 April 1868: "In Book 1 [...] we content ourselves with the assumption that if in the self-expansion process £100 becomes £110, the latter will find "already in existence in the market" the elements into which it will change once more. But now we investigate the conditions under which these elements are found at hand, namely the social intertwining of the different capitals, of the component parts of capital and of revenue (= s)". This intertwining, conceived as a movement of commodities and of money, enabled Marx to work out at least the essential elements, if not the definitive form of a coherent theory of the trade cycle, based upon the inevitability of periodic disequilibrium between supply and demand under the capitalist mode of production (Ernest Mandel, Intro to Volume II of "Capital", 1978). Part 3 is the point of departure for the topic of capital accumulation which was given its Marxist treatment later in detail by Rosa Luxemburg, among others.


title: Das Kapital

text: "Capital, Volume III", subtitled "The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole", was prepared by Engels from notes left by Marx and published in 1894. It is divided into seven parts:


title: Das Kapital

text: The work is best known today for Part 3 which in summary says that as the organic fixed capital requirements of production rise as a result of advancements in production generally, the rate of profit tends to fall. This result which orthodox Marxists believe is a principal contradictory characteristic leading to an inevitable collapse of the capitalist order was held by Marx and Engels to—as a result of various contradictions in the capitalist mode of production—result in crises whose resolution necessitates the emergence of an entirely new mode of production as the culmination of the same historical dialectic that led to the emergence of capitalism from prior forms.


title: Das Kapital

text: The purpose of "Das Kapital" (1867) was a scientific foundation for the politics of the modern labour movement. The analyses were meant "to bring a science, by criticism, to the point where it can be dialectically represented" and so "reveal the law of motion of modern society" to describe how the capitalist mode of production was the precursor of the socialist mode of production. The argument is a critique of the classical economics of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill and Benjamin Franklin, drawing on the dialectical method that G. W. F. Hegel developed in "Science of Logic" and "The Phenomenology of Spirit". Other intellectual influences on "Capital" were the French socialists Charles Fourier, Henri de Saint-Simon, Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.


title: Das Kapital

text: At university, Marx wrote a dissertation comparing the philosophy of nature in the works of the philosophers Democritus (circa 460–370 BC) and Epicurus (341–270 BC). The logical architecture of "Das Kapital" is derived in part from the "Politics" and the "Nicomachean Ethics" by Aristotle, including the fundamental distinction between use value and exchange value, the syllogisms (C-M-C' and M-C-M') for simple commodity circulation and the circulation of value as capital. Moreover, the description of machinery under capitalist relations of production as "self-acting automata" derives from Aristotle's speculations about inanimate instruments capable of obeying commands as the condition for the abolition of slavery. In the 19th century, Marx's research of the available politico-economic literature required twelve years, usually in the British Library in London.


title: Das Kapital

text: At the time of his death (1883), Marx had prepared the manuscript for "Das Kapital, Volume IV", a critical history of theories of surplus value of his time, the 19th century, based on the earlier manuscript "Theories of Surplus Value" (1862–63). The philosopher Karl Kautsky (1854–1938) published a partial edition of Marx's surplus-value critique and later published a full, three-volume edition as "Theorien über den Mehrwert" ("Theories of Surplus Value", 1905–1910). The first volume was published in English as "A History of Economic Theories" (1952).


title: Das Kapital

text: "Capital, Volume I" (1867) was published in Marx's lifetime. The marginal utility principle came out in 1870. By that time, Marx already had the other two volumes done, and he believed that in order to publish the other two volumes, he had to first debunk the marginal utility principle. Marx tried to debunk it, but he died in 1883 before he could do so to his satisfaction. After his death, Friedrich Engels had possession of the remaining two volumes. Engels edited and published volume II (1885) and "Capital, Volume III" (1894) as the work of Marx.


title: Das Kapital

text: The first translated publication of "Das Kapital" was in the Russian Empire in March 1872. It was the first foreign publication and the English edition appeared in 1887. Despite Russian censorship proscribing "the harmful doctrines of socialism and communism", the Russian censors considered "Das Kapital" as a "strictly scientific work" of political economy, the content of which did not apply to monarchic Russia, where "capitalist exploitation" had never occurred and was officially dismissed, given "that very few people in Russia will read it, and even fewer will understand it". Nonetheless, Marx acknowledged that Russia was the country where "Das Kapital" "was read and valued more than anywhere". For instance, the Russian edition was the fastest selling as 3,000 copies were sold in one year while the German edition took five years to sell 1,000, therefore the Russian translation sold fifteen times faster than the German original.


title: Das Kapital

text: The foreign editions of "Capital. Critique of Political Economy" (1867) by Karl Marx include a Russian translation by the revolutionary socialist Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876). Eventually, Marx's work was translated into all major languages. The English translation of volume 1 by Samuel Moore and Eleanor Marx's partner Edward Aveling, overseen by Engels, was published in 1887 as "Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production" by Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, & Co. This was reissued in the 1970s by Progress Publishers in Moscow, while a more recent English translation was made by Ben Fowkes and David Fernbach (the Penguin edition). The definitive critical edition of Marx's works, known as MEGA II ("Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe")


title: Das Kapital

text: , includes "Das Kapital" in German (only the first volume is in French) and shows all the versions and alterations made to the text as well as a very extensive apparatus of footnotes and cross-references.


title: Das Kapital

text: The first unabridged translation of Das Kapital to Bengali was done by professor Piyush Dasgupta. It was published in six volumes by Baniprakash, Kolkata, India between 1974 and 1983.


title: Das Kapital

text: In 2012, Red Quill Books released "Capital: In Manga!", a comic book version of Volume I which is an expanded English translation of the successful 2008 Japanese pocket version "Das Kapital" known as "Manga de Dokuha".


title: Das Kapital

text: In 2017, the historian Gareth Stedman Jones wrote in the Books and Arts section of the scientific journal "Nature": Positive reception also cited the soundness of the methodology used in producing the book, which is called immanent critique. This approach, which starts from simple category and gradually unfolds into complex categories, employed "internal" criticism that finds contradiction within and between categories while discovering aspects of reality that the categories cannot explain. This meant that Marx had to build his arguments on historical narratives and empirical evidence rather than the arbitrary application of his ideas in his evaluation of capitalism.


title: Das Kapital

text: On the other hand, "Das Kapital" has also received criticism. There are theorists who claimed that this text was unable to reconcile capitalist exploitation with prices dependent upon subjective wants in exchange relations. Marxists generally reply that only socially necessary labor time, that is, labor which is spent on commodities for which there is market-demand, can be considered productive labour and therefore exploited on Marx's account. There are also those who argued that Marx's so-called immiseration thesis is presumed to mean that the proletariat is absolutely immiserated. The existing scholarly consensus tends towards the opposite view that Marx believed that only relative immiseration would occur, that is, a fall in labor's share of output. Marx himself frequently polemicized against the view "that the amount of real wages ... is a fixed amount."


title: Magnolia

text: Magnolia is a large genus of about 210 to 340 flowering plant species in the subfamily Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae. It is named after French botanist Pierre Magnol.


title: Magnolia

text: "Magnolia" is an ancient genus. Appearing before bees evolved, the flowers are theorized to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles.


title: Magnolia

text: To avoid damage from pollinating beetles, the carpels of "Magnolia" flowers are extremely tough. Fossilized specimens of "M. acuminata" have been found dating to 20 million years ago, and fossils of plants identifiably belonging to the Magnoliaceae date to 95 million years ago. Another aspect of "Magnolia" considered to represent an ancestral state is that the flower bud is enclosed in a bract rather than in sepals; the perianth parts are undifferentiated and called tepals rather than distinct sepals and petals. "Magnolia" shares the tepal characteristic with several other flowering plants near the base of the flowering plant lineage such as "Amborella" and "Nymphaea" (as well as with many more recently derived plants such as "Lilium").


title: Magnolia

text: The natural range of "Magnolia" species is a disjunct distribution, with a main center in east and southeast Asia and a secondary center in eastern North America, Central America, the West Indies, and some species in South America.


title: Magnolia

text: Magnolias are spreading, evergreen or deciduous trees or shrubs, characterised by large fragrant flowers which may be bowl-shaped or star-shaped, in shades of white, pink, purple, green or yellow. In deciduous species the blooms often appear before the leaves, in spring. Cone-like fruits are often produced in autumn.


title: Magnolia

text: As with all Magnoliaceae, the perianth is undifferentiated, with 9–15 tepals in three or more whorls. The flowers are bisexual with numerous adnate carpels and stamens are arranged in a spiral fashion on the elongated receptacle. The fruit dehisces along the dorsal sutures of the carpels. The pollen is monocolpate, and the embryo development is of the Polygonum type.


title: Magnolia

text: Taxonomists, including James E. Dandy in 1927, have long had an interest in observing fruits of Magnoliaceae and have often used the differences, or perceived differences, in fruit characters to justify systems for classification.


title: Magnolia

text: The name "Magnolia" first appeared in 1703 in the "Genera" of Charles Plumier (1646–1704), for a flowering tree from the island of Martinique ("talauma"). It was named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol. English botanist William Sherard, who studied botany in Paris under Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a pupil of Magnol, was most probably the first after Plumier to adopt the genus name "Magnolia". He was at least responsible for the taxonomic part of Johann Jacob Dillenius's "Hortus Elthamensis" and of Mark Catesby's "Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands". These were the first works after Plumier's "Genera" that used the name "Magnolia", this time for some species of flowering trees from temperate North America. The species that Plumier originally named "Magnolia" was later described as "Annona dodecapetala" by Lamarck, and has since been named "Magnolia plumieri" and "Talauma plumieri" (and still a number of other names) but is now known as "Magnolia dodecapetala".


title: Magnolia

text: Carl Linnaeus, who was familiar with Plumier's "Genera", adopted the genus name "Magnolia" in 1735 in his first edition of "Systema Naturae", without a description, but with a reference to Plumier's work. In 1753, he took up Plumier's "Magnolia" in the first edition of "Species Plantarum". There he described a monotypic genus, with the sole species being "Magnolia virginiana". Since Linnaeus never saw a herbarium specimen (if there ever was one) of Plumier's "Magnolia" and had only his description and a rather poor picture at hand, he must have taken it for the same plant which was described by Catesby in his 1730 "Natural History of Carolina". He placed it in the synonymy of "Magnolia virginiana" var. "fœtida", the taxon now known as "Magnolia grandiflora". Under "Magnolia virginiana" Linnaeus described five varieties ("glauca", "fœtida", "grisea", "tripetala", and "acuminata"). In the tenth edition of "Systema Naturae" (1759), he merged "grisea" with "glauca", and raised the four remaining varieties to species status.


title: Magnolia

text: By the end of the 18th century, botanists and plant hunters exploring Asia began to name and describe the "Magnolia" species from China and Japan. The first Asiatic species to be described by western botanists were "Magnolia denudata", "Magnolia liliiflora", "Magnolia coco" and "Magnolia figo". Soon after that, in 1794, Carl Peter Thunberg collected and described "Magnolia obovata" from Japan and at roughly the same time "Magnolia kobus" was also first collected.


title: Magnolia

text: With the number of species increasing, the genus was divided into the two subgenera "Magnolia" and "Yulania". "Magnolia" contains the American evergreen species "M. grandiflora", which is of horticultural importance, especially in the southeastern United States, and "M. virginiana", the type species. "Yulania" contains several deciduous Asiatic species, such as "M. denudata" and "M. kobus", which have become horticulturally important in their own right and as parents in hybrids. Classified in "Yulania", is also the American deciduous "M. acuminata" (cucumber tree), which has recently attained greater status as the parent responsible for the yellow flower color in many new hybrids.


title: Magnolia

text: Relations in the family Magnoliaceae have been puzzling taxonomists for a long time. Because the family is quite old and has survived many geological events (such as ice ages, mountain formation, and continental drift), its distribution has become scattered. Some species or groups of species have been isolated for a long time, while others could stay in close contact. To create divisions in the family (or even within the genus "Magnolia"), solely based upon morphological characters, has proven to be a nearly impossible task.


title: Magnolia

text: By the end of the 20th century, DNA sequencing had become available as a method of large-scale research on phylogenetic relationships. Several studies, including studies on many species in the family Magnoliaceae, were carried out to investigate relationships. What these studies all revealed was that genus "Michelia" and "Magnolia" subgenus "Yulania" were far more closely allied to each other than either one of them was to "Magnolia" subgenus "Magnolia". These phylogenetic studies were supported by morphological data.


title: Magnolia

text: As nomenclature is supposed to reflect relationships, the situation with the species names in "Michelia" and "Magnolia" subgenus "Yulania" was undesirable. Taxonomically, three choices are available:


title: Magnolia

text: "Magnolia" subgenus "Magnolia" cannot be renamed because it contains "M. virginiana", the type species of the genus and of the family.


title: Magnolia

text: Not many "Michelia" species have so far become horticulturally or economically important, apart for their wood. Both subgenus "Magnolia" and subgenus "Yulania" include species of major horticultural importance, and a change of name would be very undesirable for many people, especially in the horticultural branch. In Europe, "Magnolia" even is more or less a synonym for "Yulania", since most of the cultivated species on this continent have "Magnolia (Yulania) denudata" as one of their parents. Most taxonomists who acknowledge close relations between "Yulania" and "Michelia" therefore support the third option and join "Michelia" with "Magnolia".


title: Magnolia

text: The same goes, "mutatis mutandis", for the (former) genera "Talauma" and "Dugandiodendron", which are then placed in subgenus "Magnolia", and genus "Manglietia", which could be joined with subgenus "Magnolia" or may even earn the status of an extra subgenus. "Elmerrillia" seems to be closely related to "Michelia" and "Yulania", in which case it will most likely be treated in the same way as "Michelia" is now. The precise nomenclatural status of small or monospecific genera like "Kmeria", "Parakmeria", "Pachylarnax", "Manglietiastrum", "Aromadendron", "Woonyoungia", "Alcimandra", "Paramichelia" and "Tsoongiodendron" remains uncertain. Taxonomists who merge "Michelia" into "Magnolia" tend to merge these small genera into "Magnolia" s.l. as well. Botanists do not yet agree on whether to recognize a big "Magnolia" or the different small genera. For example, "Flora of China" offers two choices: a large genus "Magnolia" which includes about 300 species, everything in the Magnoliaceae except "Liriodendron" (tulip tree), or 16 different genera, some of them recently split out or re-recognized, each of which contains up to 50 species. The western co-author favors the big genus "Magnolia", whereas the Chinese recognize the different small genera.


title: Magnolia

text: Fossils assignable to "Magnolia" extend into the Paleogene, such as "Magnolia nanningensis," named for mummified wood from the Oligocene of Guangxi, China, which has a close affinity to members of the modern secton "Michelia".


title: Magnolia

text: In 2012, the Magnolia Society published on its website a classification of the genus produced by Richard B. Figlar, based on a 2004 classification by Figlar and Hans Peter Nooteboom. Species of "Magnolia" were listed under three subgenera, 12 sections, and 13 subsections. Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies have led to some revisions of this system; for example, the subgenus "Magnolia" was found not to be monophyletic. A revised classification in 2020, based on a phylogenetic analysis of complete chloroplast genomes, abandoned subgenera and subsections, dividing "Magnolia" into 15 sections. The relationships among these sections are shown in the following cladogram, as is the paraphyletic status of subgenus "Magnolia".


title: Magnolia

text: The table below compares the 2012 and 2020 classifications. (The exact circumscriptions of the corresponding taxa may not be the same.)


title: Magnolia

text: Anthers open by splitting at the front facing the centre of the flower, deciduous or evergreen, flowers produced after the leaves.


title: Magnolia

text: Anthers open by splitting at the sides, deciduous, flowers mostly produced before leaves (except "M. acuminata")


title: Magnolia

text: In general, the genus "Magnolia" has attracted horticultural interest. Some, such as the shrub "M. stellata" (star magnolia) and the tree "M." × "soulangeana" (saucer magnolia) flower quite early in the spring, before the leaves open. Others flower in late spring or early summer, including "M. virginiana" (sweetbay magnolia) and "M. grandiflora" (southern magnolia).


title: Magnolia

text: Hybridisation has been immensely successful in combining the best aspects of different species to give plants which flower at an earlier age than the parent species, as well as having more impressive flowers. One of the most popular garden magnolias, "M". × "soulangeana", is a hybrid of "M. liliiflora" and "M. denudata".


title: Magnolia

text: In the eastern United States, five native species are frequently in cultivation: "M. acuminata" (as a shade tree), "M. grandiflora", "M. virginiana", "M. tripetala", and "M. macrophylla". The last two species must be planted where high winds are not a frequent problem because of the large size of their leaves.


title: Magnolia

text: The flowers of many species are considered edible. In parts of England, the petals of "M. grandiflora" are pickled and used as a spicy condiment. In some Asian cuisines, the buds are pickled and used to flavor rice and scent tea. In Japan, the young leaves and flower buds of "Magnolia hypoleuca" are broiled and eaten as a vegetable. Older leaves are made into a powder and used as seasoning; dried, whole leaves are placed on a charcoal brazier and filled with miso, leeks, daikon, and shiitake, and broiled. There is a type of miso which is seasoned with magnolia, hoba miso.


title: Magnolia

text: The bark and flower buds of "M. officinalis" have long been used in traditional Chinese medicine, where they are known as "hou po" (厚朴). In Japan, "kōboku", "M. obovata", has been used in a similar manner.


title: Magnolia

text: The cucumbertree, "M. acuminata", grows to large size and is harvested as a timber tree in northeastern US forests. Its wood is sold as "yellow poplar" along with that of the tuliptree, "Liriodendron tulipifera". The Fraser magnolia, "M. fraseri", also attains enough size sometimes to be harvested, as well.


title: Magnolia

text: Magnolias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the giant leopard moth.


title: Magnolia

text: The aromatic bark contains magnolol, honokiol, 4-O-methylhonokiol, and obovatol. Magnolol and honokiol activate the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma.


title: Magnolia

text: Despite Meeropol's frequent mention of the South and magnolia trees, the horrific image which inspired his poem, Lawrence Beitler's 1930 photograph capturing the lynching of Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith following the robbery and murder of Claude Deteer, actually occurred in Marion, Indiana, where magnolia trees are less common.


title: Magnolia

text: The Canadian artist, Sarah Maloney, has created a series of sculptures of magnolia flowers in bronze and steel, entitled "First Flowers", in which she draws our attention to the dual symbols of beginnings in the flower, as both an evolutionary archetype and also one of the first trees to flower in spring (see illustration).


title: Secret Headquarters

text: Secret Headquarters is a 2022 American superhero comedy film directed by Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman, who co-wrote the movie with Christopher L. Yost and Josh Koenigsberg, based on a story by Yost. Starring Owen Wilson, Walker Scobell, Jesse Williams, Keith L. Williams, Momona Tamada, Charles Melton, and Michael Peña, the plot follows a child (Scobell) and his friends (K. L. Williams, Tamada) who begins to suspect his father (Wilson) might be a superhero after discovering a secret headquarters in his basement.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: The film premiered at the Signature Theater in Arlington, Virginia on August 8, 2022, and was released in the United States on August 12, 2022, on Paramount+. The film received generally mixed reviews from critics.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: Jack Kincaid is The Guard, a superhero chosen by an alien artifact to inherit its powers and save the world, but his hero duties cause him to neglect his parental duties to his son Charlie, driving a wedge between them. When Charlie stays at Jack's house for his birthday, he invites his friends Berger, Lizzie, and Maya over, where they find Jack's underground lair and find out his secret identity. Meanwhile, a weapons CEO named Ansel Argon wants to use The Guard's power source for his own sinister schemes.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: After the kids use Jack's gadgets, Argon's head mercenary, Sean Irons, brings his team to track down the power source. The kids fight back, and Jack manages to arrive just in time, but when Berger sends the source through a portal connected to his locker at school, Argon uses one of Jack's gadgets to get his own suit and kidnap Berger to find the source. Charlie leads his friends, plus Irons, to get their own gadgets to fight back. The showdown takes place during the school dance, ending with Charlie sending Argon through a portal to another dimension with a grenade. He ends up dancing with Maya and kissing her.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: • XP Zero electric motorcycle, designed by vehicle designer Hugo Eccles, manufactured by Untitled Motorcycles in California


title: Secret Headquarters

text: "Secret Headquarters" was announced on May 6, 2021, when it was reported that Henry Joost and Ariel Schulman would direct the film for Paramount Pictures and would also work on the current draft for the project with Josh Koenigsberg from an original idea by Christopher Yost. In May 2021, Owen Wilson was cast in an undisclosed role. Principal photography began in Atlanta, Georgia on May 25, 2021. In June, Michael Peña, Walker Scobell, Momona Tamada, Keith L. Williams, Abby James Witherspoon, and Kezii Curtis were all announced as part of the cast. In July 2021, Jesse Williams joined the cast as the villain. Lorne Balfe composed the score.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: "Secret Headquarters" was released on Paramount+ on August 12, 2022. It was originally scheduled to be released in theaters on August 5, 2022 before moving to streaming on the same date. The film's red carpet premiere took place at the Signature Theater in New York City on August 8, 2022.


title: Secret Headquarters

text: Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 47 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Protist

text: A protist () is any eukaryotic organism (that is, an organism whose cells contain a cell nucleus) that is not an animal, plant, or fungus. While it is likely that protists share a common ancestor (the last eukaryotic common ancestor), the exclusion of other eukaryotes means that protists do not form a natural group, or clade. Therefore, some protists may be more closely related to animals, plants, or fungi than they are to other protists. However, like the groups "algae", "invertebrates", and "protozoans", the biological category "protist" is used for convenience. Others classify any unicellular eukaryotic microorganism as a protist. The study of protists is termed protistology.


title: Protist

text: The classification of a third kingdom separate from animals and plants was first proposed by John Hogg in 1860 as the kingdom Protoctista; in 1866 Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom Protista as "the kingdom of primitive forms". Originally these also included prokaryotes, but with time these were removed to a fourth kingdom Monera.


title: Protist

text: In the popular five-kingdom scheme proposed by Robert Whittaker in 1969, Protista was defined as eukaryotic "organisms which are unicellular or unicellular-colonial and which form no tissues", and the fifth kingdom Fungi was established. In the five-kingdom system of Lynn Margulis, the term "protist" is reserved for microscopic organisms, while the more inclusive kingdom Protoctista (or protoctists) included certain large multicellular eukaryotes, such as kelp, red algae, and slime molds. Some use the term "protist" interchangeably with Margulis's "protoctist", to encompass both single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes, including those that form specialized tissues but do not fit into any of the other traditional kingdoms.


title: Protist

text: Besides their relatively simple levels of organization, protists do not necessarily have much in common. When used, the term "protists" is now considered to mean a paraphyletic assemblage of similar-appearing but diverse taxa (biological groups); these taxa do not have an exclusive common ancestor beyond being composed of eukaryotes, and have different life cycles, trophic levels, modes of locomotion, and cellular structures.


title: Protist

text: These examples are unicellular, although oomycetes can join to form filaments, and slime molds can aggregate into a tissue-like mass.


title: Protist

text: In cladistic systems (classifications based on common ancestry), there are no equivalents to the taxa Protista or Protoctista, as both terms refer to a paraphyletic group that spans the entire eukaryotic branch of the tree of life. In cladistic classification, the contents of Protista are mostly distributed among various "supergroups": examples include the


title: Protist

text: "Protista", "Protoctista", and "Protozoa" are therefore considered obsolete. However, the term "protist" continues to be used informally as a catch-all term for eukaryotic organisms that are not within other traditional kingdoms. For example, the word "protist pathogen" may be used to denote any disease-causing organism that is not plant, animal, fungal, prokaryotic, viral, or subviral.


title: Protist

text: The term "Protista" was first used by Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Protists were traditionally subdivided into several groups based on similarities to the "higher" kingdoms such as:


title: Protist

text: Some protists, sometimes called ambiregnal protists, have been considered to be both protozoa and algae or fungi (e.g., slime molds and flagellated algae), and names for these have been published under either or both of the "ICN" and the "ICZN". Conflicts, such as these – for example the dual-classification of Euglenids and Dinobryons, which are mixotrophic – is an example of why the kingdom Protista was adopted.


title: Protist

text: These traditional subdivisions, largely based on superficial commonalities, have been replaced by classifications based on phylogenetics (evolutionary relatedness among organisms).


title: Protist

text: Molecular analyses in modern taxonomy have been used to redistribute former members of this group into diverse and sometimes distantly related phyla. For instance, the water molds are now considered to be closely related to photosynthetic organisms such as Brown algae and Diatoms, the slime molds are grouped mainly under Amoebozoa, and the Amoebozoa itself includes only a subset of the "Amoeba" group, and significant number of erstwhile "Amoeboid" genera are distributed among Rhizarians and other Phyla.


title: Protist

text: However, the older terms are still used as informal names to describe the morphology and ecology of various protists. For example, the term "protozoa" is used to refer to heterotrophic species of protists that do not form filaments.


title: Protist

text: Among the pioneers in the study of the protists, which were almost ignored by Linnaeus except for some genera (e.g., "Vorticella, Chaos, Volvox, Corallina, Conferva, Ulva, Chara, Fucus"), were Leeuwenhoek, O. F. Müller, C. G. Ehrenberg and Félix Dujardin. The first groups used to classify microscopic organism were the Animalcules and the Infusoria. In 1818, the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss introduced the word "Protozoa" to refer to organisms such as ciliates and corals. After the cell theory of Schwann and Schleiden (1838–39), this group was modified in 1848 by Carl von Siebold to include only animal-like unicellular organisms, such as foraminifera and amoebae. The formal taxonomic category "Protoctista" was first proposed in the early 1860s by John Hogg, who argued that the protists should include what he saw as primitive unicellular forms of both plants and animals. He defined the Protoctista as a "fourth kingdom of nature", in addition to the then-traditional kingdoms of plants, animals and minerals. The kingdom of minerals was later removed from taxonomy in 1866 by Ernst Haeckel, leaving plants, animals, and the protists ("Protista"), defined as a "kingdom of primitive forms".


title: Protist

text: In 1938, Herbert Copeland resurrected Hogg's label, arguing that Haeckel's term "Protista" included anucleated microbes such as bacteria, which the term "Protoctista" (literally meaning "first established beings") did not. In contrast, Copeland's term included nucleated eukaryotes such as diatoms, green algae and fungi. This classification was the basis for Whittaker's later definition of Fungi, Animalia, Plantae and Protista as the four kingdoms of life. The kingdom Protista was later modified to separate prokaryotes into the separate kingdom of Monera, leaving the protists as a group of eukaryotic microorganisms. These five kingdoms remained the accepted classification until the development of molecular phylogenetics in the late 20th century, when it became apparent that neither protists nor monera were single groups of related organisms (they were not monophyletic groups).


title: Protist

text: Systematists today do not treat Protista as a formal taxon, but the term "protist" is still commonly used for convenience in two ways. The most popular contemporary definition is a phylogenetic one, that identifies a paraphyletic group: a protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (true) fungus; this definition excludes many unicellular groups, like the Microsporidia (fungi), many Chytridiomycetes (fungi), and yeasts (fungi), and also a non-unicellular group included in Protista in the past, the Myxozoa (animal). Some systematists judge paraphyletic taxa acceptable, and use Protista in this sense as a formal taxon (as found in some secondary textbooks, for pedagogical purpose).


title: Protist

text: The other definition describes protists primarily by functional or biological criteria: protists are essentially those eukaryotes that are never multicellular, that either exist as independent cells, or if they occur in colonies, do not show differentiation into tissues (but vegetative cell differentiation may occur restricted to sexual reproduction, alternate vegetative morphology, and quiescent or resistant stages, such as cysts); this definition excludes many brown, multicellular red and green algae, which may have tissues.


title: Protist

text: The taxonomy of protists is still changing. Newer classifications attempt to present monophyletic groups based on morphological (especially ultrastructural), biochemical (chemotaxonomy) and DNA sequence (molecular research) information. However, there are sometimes discordances between molecular and morphological investigations; these can be categorized as two types: (i) one morphology, multiple lineages (e.g. morphological convergence, cryptic species) and (ii) one lineage, multiple morphologies (e.g. phenotypic plasticity, multiple life-cycle stages).


title: Protist

text: Because the protists as a whole are paraphyletic, new systems often split up or abandon the kingdom, instead treating the protist groups as separate lines of eukaryotes. The recent scheme by Adl "et al." (2005) does not recognize formal ranks (phylum, class, etc.) and instead treats groups as clades of phylogenetically related organisms. This is intended to make the classification more stable in the long term and easier to update. Some of the main groups of protists, which may be treated as phyla, are listed in the taxobox, upper right. Many are thought to be monophyletic, though there is still uncertainty. For instance, the Excavata are probably not monophyletic and the chromalveolates are probably only monophyletic if the haptophytes and cryptomonads are excluded.


title: Protist

text: In 2015 a "Higher Level Classification of all Living Organisms" was arrived at by consensus with many authors including Cavalier-Smith. This classification proposes two superkingdoms and seven kingdoms. The superkingdoms are those of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. The Prokaryotes include two kingdoms of Bacteria and Archaea; the Eukaryotes include five kingdoms of Protozoa, Chromista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. The scheme retains fourteen taxonomic ranks. Eukaryotic unicellular organisms are referred to as "protists".


title: Protist

text: Nutrition can vary according to the type of protist. Most eukaryotic algae are autotrophic, but the pigments were lost in some groups. Other protists are heterotrophic, and may present phagotrophy, osmotrophy, saprotrophy or parasitism. Some are mixotrophic. Some protists that do not have / lost chloroplasts/mitochondria have entered into endosymbiontic relationship with other bacteria/algae to replace the missing functionality. For example, "Paramecium bursaria" and "Paulinella" have captured a green alga ("Zoochlorella") and a cyanobacterium respectively that act as replacements for chloroplast. Meanwhile, a protist, "Mixotricha paradoxa" that has lost its mitochondria uses endosymbiontic bacteria as mitochondria and ectosymbiontic hair-like bacteria ("Treponema spirochetes") for locomotion.


title: Protist

text: Many protists are flagellate, for example, and filter feeding can take place where flagellates find prey. Other protists can engulf bacteria and other food particles, by extending their cell membrane around them to form a food vacuole and digesting them internally in a process termed phagocytosis.


title: Protist

text: For most important cellular structures and functions of animal and plants, it can be found a heritage among protists.


title: Protist

text: Some species, for example "Plasmodium falciparum", have extremely complex life cycles that involve multiple forms of the organism, some of which reproduce sexually and others asexually. However, it is unclear how frequently sexual reproduction causes genetic exchange between different strains of "Plasmodium" in nature and most populations of parasitic protists may be clonal lines that rarely exchange genes with other members of their species.


title: Protist

text: Eukaryotes emerged in evolution more than 1.5 billion years ago. The earliest eukaryotes were likely protists. Although sexual reproduction is widespread among extant eukaryotes, it seemed unlikely until recently, that sex could be a primordial and fundamental characteristic of eukaryotes. A principal reason for this view was that sex appeared to be lacking in certain pathogenic protists whose ancestors branched off early from the eukaryotic family tree. However, several of these protists are now known to be capable of, or to recently have had the capability for, meiosis and hence sexual reproduction. For example, the common intestinal parasite "Giardia lamblia" was once considered to be a descendant of a protist lineage that predated the emergence of meiosis and sex. However, "G. lamblia" was recently found to have a core set of genes that function in meiosis and that are widely present among sexual eukaryotes. These results suggested that "G. lamblia" is capable of meiosis and thus sexual reproduction. Furthermore, direct evidence for meiotic recombination, indicative of sex, was also found in "G. lamblia".


title: Protist

text: The pathogenic parasitic protists of the genus "Leishmania" have been shown to be capable of a sexual cycle in the invertebrate vector, likened to the meiosis undertaken in the trypanosomes.


title: Protist

text: "Trichomonas vaginalis", a parasitic protist, is not known to undergo meiosis, but when Malik "et al". tested for 29 genes that function in meiosis, they found 27 to be present, including 8 of 9 genes specific to meiosis in model eukaryotes. These findings suggest that "T. vaginalis" may be capable of meiosis. Since 21 of the 29 meiotic genes were also present in "G. lamblia", it appears that most of these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of "T. vaginalis" and "G. lamblia". These two species are descendants of protist lineages that are highly divergent among eukaryotes, leading Malik et al. to suggest that these meiotic genes were likely present in a common ancestor of all eukaryotes.


title: Protist

text: Based on a phylogenetic analysis, Dacks and Roger proposed that facultative sex was present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.


title: Protist

text: This view was further supported by a study of amoebae by Lahr et al. Amoeba have generally been regarded as asexual protists. However, these authors describe evidence that most amoeboid lineages are anciently sexual, and that the majority of asexual groups likely arose recently and independently. Early researchers (e.g., Calkins) have interpreted phenomena related to chromidia (chromatin granules free in the cytoplasm) in amoeboid organisms as sexual reproduction.


title: Protist

text: Protists generally reproduce asexually under favorable environmental conditions, but tend to reproduce sexually under stressful conditions, such as starvation or heat shock. Oxidative stress, which is associated with the production of reactive oxygen species leading to DNA damage, also appears to be an important factor in the induction of sex in protists.


title: Protist

text: Some commonly found protist pathogens such as "Toxoplasma gondii" are capable of infecting and undergoing asexual reproduction in a wide variety of animals – which act as secondary or "intermediate" host – but can undergo sexual reproduction only in the primary or "definitive" host (for example: felids such as domestic cats in this case).


title: Protist

text: Free-living protists occupy almost any environment that contains liquid water. Many protists, such as algae, are photosynthetic and are vital primary producers in ecosystems, particularly in the ocean as part of the plankton. Protists make up a large portion of the biomass in both marine and terrestrial environments.


title: Protist

text: Other protists include pathogenic species, such as the kinetoplastid "Trypanosoma brucei", which causes sleeping sickness, and species of the apicomplexan "Plasmodium", which cause malaria.


title: Protist

text: Some protists are significant parasites of animals (e.g.; five species of the parasitic genus "Plasmodium" cause malaria in humans and many others cause similar diseases in other vertebrates), plants (the oomycete "Phytophthora infestans" causes late blight in potatoes) or even of other protists. Protist pathogens share many metabolic pathways with their eukaryotic hosts. This makes therapeutic target development extremely difficult – a drug that harms a protist parasite is also likely to harm its animal/plant host. A more thorough understanding of protist biology may allow these diseases to be treated more efficiently. For example, the apicoplast (a nonphotosynthetic chloroplast but essential to carry out important functions other than photosynthesis) present in apicomplexans provides an attractive target for treating diseases caused by dangerous pathogens such as plasmodium.


title: Protist

text: Researchers from the Agricultural Research Service are taking advantage of protists as pathogens to control red imported fire ant ("Solenopsis invicta") populations in Argentina. Spore-producing protists such as "Kneallhazia solenopsae" (recognized as a sister clade or the closest relative to the fungus kingdom now) can reduce red fire ant populations by 53–100%. Researchers have also been able to infect phorid fly parasitoids of the ant with the protist without harming the flies. This turns the flies into a vector that can spread the pathogenic protist between red fire ant colonies.


title: Protist

text: Many protists have neither hard parts nor resistant spores, and their fossils are extremely rare or unknown. Examples of such groups include the apicomplexans, most ciliates, some green algae (the Klebsormidiales), choanoflagellates, oomycetes, brown algae, yellow-green algae, Excavata (e.g., euglenids). Some of these have been found preserved in amber (fossilized tree resin) or under unusual conditions (e.g., "Paleoleishmania", a kinetoplastid).


title: Protist

text: Others are relatively common in the fossil record, as the diatoms, golden algae, haptophytes (coccoliths), silicoflagellates, tintinnids (ciliates), dinoflagellates, green algae, red algae, heliozoans, radiolarians, foraminiferans, ebriids and testate amoebae (euglyphids, arcellaceans). Some are even used as paleoecological indicators to reconstruct ancient environments.


title: Protist

text: More probable eukaryote fossils begin to appear at about 1.8 billion years ago, the acritarchs, spherical fossils of likely algal protists. Another possible representative of early fossil eukaryotes are the Gabonionta.


title: Kyushu

text: In the 8th-century Taihō Code reforms, Dazaifu was established as a special administrative term for the region.


title: Kyushu

text: The island is mountainous, and Japan's most active volcano, Mount Aso at , is on Kyushu. There are many other signs of tectonic activity, including numerous areas of hot springs. The most famous of these are in Beppu, on the east shore, and around Mt. Aso in central Kyushu. The island is separated from Honshu by the Kanmon Straits. Being the nearest island to the Asian continent, historically it is the gateway to Japan.


title: Kyushu

text: The total area is which makes it the 37th largest island in the world. It's slightly larger than Taiwan island . The highest elevation is on Mount Kujū.


title: Kyushu

text: The name "Kyūshū" comes from the nine ancient provinces of Saikaidō situated on the island: Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Osumi, and Satsuma.


title: Kyushu

text: Today's is a politically defined region that consists of the seven prefectures on the island of Kyushu (which also includes the former Tsushima and Iki as part of Nagasaki), plus Okinawa Prefecture to the south:


title: Kyushu

text: Kyushu has 10.3percent of the population of Japan. Most of Kyushu's population is concentrated along the northwest, in the cities of Fukuoka and Kitakyushu, with population corridors stretching southwest into Sasebo and Nagasaki and south into Kumamoto and Kagoshima. Except for Oita and Miyazaki, the eastern seaboard shows a general decline in population.


title: Kyushu

text: Per Japanese census data, the Kyushu region's population with Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa and Kagoshima Prefectures) has experienced a large population decline since around 2000. However, the population decline is mild mainly due to relatively high birth rate of Ryukyuans both within the Ryukyuan lands (Okinawa and Kagoshima) and throughout the Kyushu region. In addition, the other prefectures in Kyushu also have exceptionally high TFRs compared to the rest of Japan. The Ryukyuans are an indigenous minority group in Japan.


title: Kyushu

text: Parts of Kyushu have a subtropical climate, particularly Miyazaki prefecture and Kagoshima prefecture. Major agricultural products are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; also, silk is widely produced.


title: Kyushu

text: Besides the volcanic area of the south, there are significant mud hot springs in the northern part of the island, around Beppu. The springs are the site of occurrence of certain extremophile microorganisms, which are capable of surviving in extremely hot environments.


title: Kyushu

text: Kyushu is noted for various types of porcelain, including Arita, Imari, Satsuma, and Karatsu. Heavy industry is concentrated in the north around Fukuoka, Kitakyushu, Nagasaki, and Oita and includes chemicals, automobiles, semiconductors, metal processing, shipbuilding, etc.


title: Kyushu

text: Kyushu is linked to the larger island of Honshu by the Kanmon Railway Tunnel, which carries the non-Shinkansen trains of the Kyushu Railway Company, and the newer Shin-Kanmon Tunnel carrying the San'yō Shinkansen. Railways on the island are operated by the Kyushu Railway Company and West Japan Railway Company, as well as a variety of smaller companies such as Amagi Railway and Nishitetsu Railway. Kyushu Shinkansen trains operate between major cities on the island, such as Fukuoka and Kagoshima, with an additional route between and Nagasaki which is in operation since September 2022. Kyushu is also known for its scenic train services, such as the Limited Express Yufuin no Mori and Limited Express Kawasemi Yamasemi.


title: Kyushu

text: The Kanmon Bridge and Kanmon Roadway Tunnel also connect the island with Honshu, allowing for vehicular transport between the two. The Kyushu Expressway spans the length of the island, linking the Higashikyushu Expressway and Ibusuki Skyline, connecting major cities such as Fukuoka and Kumamoto along the way. There are also many quiet country roads, including popular tourist routes such as the Nichinan coast road and the Aso Panorama Line in Kumamoto Prefecture. Bus services are available and cover 2,400 routes within Kyushu's cities, connecting many other destinations.


title: Kyushu

text: Several passenger and car ferry services connect both northern and southern Kyushu with main port cities on the main island of Honshu (Kobe, Osaka, Tokyo) and Shikoku.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Bruno Leopoldo Francesco Sammartino (October 6, 1935 – April 18, 2018) was an Italian-born American professional wrestler, best known for his work with the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF, now WWE). There, he held the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship (WWWF Heavyweight Championship during his second reign) for more than 11 years (4,040 days) across two reigns, the first of which is the longest single reign in the promotion's history at 2,803 days. He is overall a two-time world champion in professional wrestling.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Dubbed "The Italian Strongman" and "The Strongest Man in the World" early in his career, Sammartino later earned the title "The Living Legend". Known for his powerful bearhug finishing move, he is widely regarded as the greatest professional wrestler of all time. Sammartino became a vocal critic of the drug use and raunchier storylines that became prevalent in the professional wrestling industry after his retirement but he reconciled with WWE in 2013 and headlined their Hall of Fame ceremony that year. Terry Funk commented that Sammartino "was bigger than wrestling itself".


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Bruno Leopoldo Francesco Sammartino was born in Pizzoferrato, Abruzzo, Italy, to Alfonso and Emilia Sammartino on October 6, 1935. He was the youngest of seven children, four of whom died during his early childhood. When he was four, his father emigrated to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. During World War II, Pizzoferrato was invaded by troops of the Waffen SS, leading Emilia to hide Sammartino and his siblings in a remote hideout at the top of a nearby mountain called Valla Rocca. During this time, his mother would sneak into their German-occupied town for food and supplies. In 1950, she and the children joined her husband in Pittsburgh.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: When the Sammartinos arrived in the U.S., Bruno spoke no English and was sickly from the privations of the war years. This made him an easy target for bullies at Schenley High School. He turned to weightlifting and wrestling to build himself up. His devotion to weightlifting nearly resulted in a berth on the 1956 U.S. Olympic team, which went instead to eventual gold medalist Paul Anderson.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In 1959, Sammartino set a world record in the bench press with a lift of , done without elbow or wrist wraps. When he brought the bar down, he did not bounce it off his chest, but set it there for two seconds before attempting the press. He trained in wrestling with Rex Peery, the University of Pittsburgh team coach.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: He also became known for performing strongman stunts in the Pittsburgh area, and sportscaster Bob Prince put him on his television show. It was there that he was spotted by local professional wrestling promoter Rudy Miller, who recruited the young man into the ring.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino made his professional debut in Pittsburgh on December 17, 1959, pinning Dmitri Grabowski in 19 seconds. Sammartino's first match in Madison Square Garden in New York City was on January 2, 1960, defeating Bull Curry in five minutes.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Feeling like he was being held back in the New York territory in favor of National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) star Buddy Rogers, Sammartino gave his notice to Capitol Wrestling Corporation (CWC) owner Vince McMahon Sr. and planned to go to San Francisco to work for Roy Shire. While on his way to California, he missed two bookings in Baltimore and Chicago, and as a result was suspended in those territories. California honored the other state's suspension, leaving Sammartino out of work. In his autobiography, Sammartino states that he believed McMahon set him up, by double-booking him and not informing him of his match in Baltimore, as a way of punishment. Sammartino was forced to return to Pittsburgh and found work as a laborer.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On the advice of wrestler Yukon Eric, Sammartino contacted Toronto promoter Frank Tunney hoping to take advantage of Toronto's large Italian population. Sammartino made his Toronto debut in March 1962 and very quickly, with the help of self-promotion in local newspapers and radio programs, became an attraction. His ability to speak Italian also ingratiated him with that immigrant population. With Whipper Billy Watson, Sammartino won his first professional wrestling championship in September 1962, the local version of the International Tag Team Championship. Soon, he was in demand by other promoters in different Canadian territories.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino also challenged NWA World Heavyweight Champion Lou Thesz twice for the championship in Canada. One match ended in a draw and the other with Thesz scoring a fluke pin after a collision, despite Sammartino controlling the 20 minute match from the beginning. This match was booked by NWA promoter Sam Muchnick as a preliminary to the forming of the WWWF, to ensure the dominance of the senior organization and its championship.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: After the first WWWF World Champion, Nature Boy Buddy Rogers, was hospitalized three times in April 1963 for chest pains, Vince McMahon, Sr. and Toots Mondt made a command decision to make an emergency title switch. Between Antonino Rocca and Bruno Sammartino they went with the younger Sammartino who was 28 years old at the time. The match was scheduled to be concluded quickly so as not to risk Buddy's health any further. Promoters Mondt and McMahon Sr. cleared up Sammartino's suspension by paying his $500 fine, allowing him to return to wrestling in the United States. Sammartino won the title on May 17, 1963, defeating Rogers in 48 seconds. Sammartino and Rogers faced each other two months later at Madison Square Garden in a tag team match, with Rogers and Johnny Barend defeating Sammartino and Bobo Brazil by 2 falls to 1. Rogers pinned Sammartino for the third and deciding fall. Rogers retired prior to their scheduled title rematch on October 4, 1963, in Jersey City, New Jersey's Roosevelt Stadium. Sammartino instead that night had his first match against new number one contender, Gorilla Monsoon. Because Monsoon won the match by disqualification, thus Sammartino retained his belt.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On December 8, 1969, he teamed with Tony Marino to win the WWWF International Tag Team Championship by defeating The Rising Suns (Tanaka and Mitsu Arakawa). Company policy meant that Sammartino could not hold two championships simultaneously, so he was replaced by Victor Rivera. Sammartino held the WWWF World Heavyweight Championship for seven years, eight months, and one day (2,803 days). On January 18, 1971, Sammartino lost the championship at Madison Square Garden to Ivan Koloff. Sammartino recalled the shocked silence that greeted the result, remarking he thought he had damaged his ears. Later that year, he won the International Tag Team Championship for the second time by teaming with Dominic DeNucci. Sammartino took a hiatus from the company in 1971 and 1972 working in Japan, and various territories.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Later in 1972, Sammartino was asked back by McMahon Sr. to regain the title. After refusing McMahon Sr.'s initial offer, Sammartino was offered a percentage of all the gates when he wrestled and a decreased work schedule that only included major arenas. Soon after, Sammartino and then champion Pedro Morales teamed up for a series of tag team matches. In a televised match, Professor Toru Tanaka blinded both men with salt and they were maneuvered into fighting each other. When their eyes cleared, they kept fighting each other. Two weeks later, all syndicated wrestling shows in the WWWF showed a clip of Sammartino and Morales signing a contract for a title match at Shea Stadium. When McMahon Sr. gestured for them to shake hands, both wordlessly turned and walked away. On September 30, 1972, Sammartino and Morales wrestled to a 65-minute draw at Shea Stadium in New York.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Eventually, on December 10, 1973, Sammartino regained the WWWF Heavyweight Championship by defeating Stan Stasiak. During his second reign, on April 26, 1976, Sammartino suffered a legitimate neck fracture in a match against Stan Hansen at Madison Square Garden, when Hansen improperly executed a move and dropped Sammartino on his head. After two months, Sammartino returned and faced Hansen in a rematch on June 25, 1976 at Shea Stadium, which was on the closed circuit TV undercard of the Ali vs. Antonio Inoki match for WWWF cities. The match was rated 1976 "Match of the Year" by "Pro Wrestling Illustrated".


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In early 1977, Sammartino informed McMahon Sr. that he felt he could no longer continue as champion due to his injuries. On April 30, 1977, he was defeated by Superstar Billy Graham for the title. His second title run lasted three years, four months, and twenty days (1,237 days). Despite a very long series of rematches against Graham, Sammartino was unable to regain the title. His final attempt was in Philadelphia, just a few days before Graham was scheduled to lose the title to Bob Backlund.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: After his second reign ended, Sammartino leisurely toured the U.S. and the world. He wrestled then NWA World Heavyweight Champion Harley Race to a one-hour draw in St. Louis. He also wrestled and defeated Blackjack Mulligan, Lord Alfred Hayes, Dick Murdoch, Kenji Shibuya, and "Crippler" Ray Stevens. Also during this time, Sammartino began serving as color commentator for the WWF's syndicated programs, "WWF Championship Wrestling" and "WWF All-Star Wrestling".


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On January 22, 1980, his former student Larry Zbyszko turned on him at the World Wrestling Federation's "Championship Wrestling" show. Sammartino, shocked and hurt by Zbyszko's betrayal, vowed to make Zbyszko pay dearly. Their feud culminated on August 9, 1980, in front of 36,295 fans at Shea Stadium. As the main event of 1980's Showdown at Shea, Sammartino defeated Zbyszko inside a steel cage. In his autobiography, Hulk Hogan claimed that his match with André the Giant was the real reason for the huge draw at Shea Stadium; however, the feud between Sammartino and Zbyszko sold out everywhere in the build-up to the show. In contrast, Hogan and André headlined exactly one card in White Plains, New York before they wrestled at Shea, and they drew 1,200 in a building that held 3,500.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino retired from North American wrestling full-time in 1981, in a match that opened the Meadowlands Arena in East Rutherford, New Jersey. Sammartino pinned George "The Animal" Steele in his match. Sammartino then finished up his full-time career by touring Japan.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: It was during this time Sammartino found out through Angelo Savoldi, a recently fired office employee of Capitol Wrestling Corporation, that he had been cheated by Vince McMahon Sr. on the promised gate percentages for his entire second title run. Sammartino filed suit against McMahon Sr. and his Capitol Wrestling Corporation. The suit was eventually settled out of court by McMahon Sr's son, Vince McMahon after his father had died, and included an agreement for Sammartino to return to the company as a commentator.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: At the inaugural WrestleMania on March 31, 1985, Sammartino was in his son David's corner for his match against Brutus Beefcake. The match ended in a double-disqualification after the Sammartinos began brawling with Beefcake and his manager Johnny Valiant. He returned to in-ring action soon after with his son, as they wrestled against Beefcake and Valiant at Madison Square Garden. The Sammartinos also teamed against "Mr. Wonderful" Paul Orndorff and Bobby "The Brain" Heenan in various arenas.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino's highest-profile feud during this run was with "Macho Man" Randy Savage. An irate Sammartino attacked Savage during a TV interview, after Savage bragged about injuring Ricky Steamboat, by driving the timekeeper's bell into Steamboat's throat during a televised match. Sammartino defeated Savage in a lumberjack match for the WWF Intercontinental Heavyweight Championship via disqualification at the Boston Garden. This allowed Savage to keep the championship, as titles cannot change hands via countout or disqualification. He was often teamed with Tito Santana and his old enemy George "The Animal" Steele (who was a fan favorite at this point in his career) to wrestle Savage and "Adorable" Adrian Adonis. The climax of their feud came was a victory for Sammartino and Santana in a steel cage match in Madison Square Garden. Sammartino also engaged in a feud with "Rowdy" Roddy Piper after Piper insulted his heritage on a segment of "Piper's Pit" at Madison Square Garden. Sammartino faced Piper in both singles and tag team matches. Sammartino teamed with Paul Orndorff in his matches against Piper, while Piper would tag with his "bodyguard", Ace "Cowboy" Bob Orton. Sammartino would eventually get the upper hand in the feud, by defeating Piper in a steel cage match at the Boston Garden. In 1986, Sammartino competed in a 20-man battle royal at WrestleMania 2 at the Rosemont Horizon in Chicago.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino's final match was at a WWF house show in Baltimore on August 29, 1987, where he teamed up with Hulk Hogan to defeat King Kong Bundy and One Man Gang in the main event. Sammartino continued doing commentary on "Superstars of Wrestling" until March 1988.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: After leaving the WWF, Sammartino became an outspoken critic of the path on which Vincent K. McMahon had taken professional wrestling. He particularly criticized the use of steroids and "vulgar" storylines. He appeared in the media in opposition to the WWE on such shows as "The Phil Donahue Show", "Geraldo" and CNN.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino worked as a commentator for the Universal Wrestling Federation. On October 28, 1989, Sammartino made a special appearance at the NWA pay-per-view event Halloween Havoc, where he was the special guest referee in a "Thunderdome" cage match which featured Ric Flair and Sting taking on Terry Funk and The Great Muta. Sammartino worked several WCW events in a minor analysis role in the early 1990s, as well as a brief run doing color commentary with Jim Ross on "Saturday Night" in 1992. He also acted as special guest referee in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) for a series of matches between Flair and Randy Savage in June 1996.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In 2006, he signed an independent deal with Jakks Pacific to produce an action figure, which is part of the WWE Classic Superstars line, Series 10.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On March 25, 2010, Sammartino was honored at the 74th annual Dapper Dan Dinner, a popular awards and charity fundraising event in Pittsburgh, with a lifetime achievement award, for which fellow former "Studio Wrestling" personalities Bill Cardille, "Jumping" Johnny DeFazio, Dominic DeNucci, Frank Durso, and referee Andy "Kid" DePaul were all present.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In 2013, Sammartino accepted an invitation for induction into the WWE Hall of Fame, after having declined several times in prior years. He finally accepted the offer to join because he was satisfied with the way the company had addressed his concerns about rampant drug use as well as vulgarity. The ceremony took place at Madison Square Garden on April 6, 2013, and Sammartino was inducted by Arnold Schwarzenegger. Sammartino appeared on the October 7, 2013, episode of "Raw" and received a birthday greeting in his hometown of Pittsburgh. On March 28, 2015, Sammartino inducted Larry Zbyszko into the WWE Hall of Fame.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino is included in two DVDs summarizing his career and life: "Bruno Returns to Italy With Bruno Sammartino" (2006) and "Bruno Sammartino: Behind the Championship Belt" (2006). Both were only released in Pittsburgh. Sammartino is honored on the Madison Square Garden Walk of Fame.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino was married to his wife Carol from 1959 until his death in 2018. They had three sons together, David and fraternal twins Danny and Darryl. They were grandparents of four grandchildren. The Sammartinos lived in Ross Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania near Pittsburgh from 1965 on. In 1998, he said he had been estranged from David since retiring from wrestling against David's wishes for a tag team.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On April 6, 2013, Sammartino received the Key to the City in Jersey City, New Jersey. May 17, 2013 was declared "Bruno Sammartino Day" in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. In 2013, Sammartino appeared as one of the Board of Governors in the nationally televised 69th Annual Columbus Day Parade.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In the late 1960s, Sammartino was involved in a fight with former Pennsylvania Athletic Commissioner Joe Cimino. Cimino was new to his post and intervened in a match finish involving Sammartino, who took a shot at Cimino in the ring and the argument continued backstage. Sammartino ended up in a screaming match with Cimino on Pittsburgh's local "Studio Wrestling" program, and Cimino suspended him for a month. Irvin Muchnick mentioned the incident in his book, "Wrestling Babylon".


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: In his autobiography, "The Cowboy and the Cross: The Bill Watts Story: Rebellion, Wrestling and Redemption", Bill Watts told of witnessing a backstage incident between Sammartino and Gorilla Monsoon. Watts wrote that Monsoon "soon found himself in deep water" when messing with Sammartino, and he did not go into further detail on the incident out of respect for Monsoon.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: On July 26, 2004, Sammartino and Ric Flair were involved in the "Who snubbed who?" non-confrontation at the Mellon Arena in Pittsburgh. Flair had denigrated Sammartino's wrestling ability in his book "To Be the Man". Flair said Sammartino refused to shake his hand at the event, while Sammartino said Flair saw him coming down the hall, turned, and rushed away.


title: Bruno Sammartino

text: Sammartino underwent heart surgery in 2011. He died on April 18, 2018, at the age of 82 from multiple organ failure due to heart problems following a two-month hospitalization. WWE honored his life with a ten-bell salute before a house show in Cape Town later that day, and again on the April 23 episode of "Raw" in St. Louis. Mayor Bill Peduto remembered him as "one of the greatest ambassadors the city of Pittsburgh ever had."


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Arsenio Hall (born February 12, 1956) is an American comedian, actor and talk show host. He hosted the late-night talk show, "The Arsenio Hall Show", from 1989 until 1994, and again from 2013 to 2014.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: He has appeared in "Martial Law", "Coming to America" (1988), "Coming 2 America" (2021), and "Harlem Nights" (1989). He was also the host of "Star Search" and appeared as Alan Thicke's sidekick on the talk show "Thicke of the Night".


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall was born in Cleveland, Ohio, the son of Fred and Annie Hall. His father is a Baptist minister. Hall performed as a magician when he was a child. He graduated from Warrensville Heights High School in Warrensville Heights, Ohio, in 1973, after briefly attending John F. Kennedy High School. He later attended Ohio University and Kent State University.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall later moved to Chicago, and then Los Angeles, to pursue a career in comedy, making a couple of appearances on "Soul Train". In 1984, he was the announcer/sidekick for Alan Thicke during the short-lived talk show "Thicke of the Night" (a role for which he has on occasion noted his confusion with Monty Hall).


title: Arsenio Hall

text: He appeared on five weeks of episodes of the short-lived NBC game show "Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour" from 1983 to 1984. He was also the original voice of Winston Zeddemore in the animated series "The Real Ghostbusters" from 1986 to 1987. In 1988, he co-starred in the comedy film "Coming to America" with Eddie Murphy. During his career, he set up Arsenio Hall Communications in 1987, and then he had signed a two-year, multi-picture agreement with Paramount Pictures to develop films for an exclusive agreement.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: In 1986, the Fox network introduced "The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers", created to directly challenge "The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson". After a moderate start, ratings for the show sagged. Relations between Rivers and network executives at Fox quickly eroded, and she left in 1987. The series was subsequently renamed "The Late Show", and featured several interim hosts, including Ross Shafer, Suzanne Somers, Shawn Thompson, Richard Belzer and Robert Townsend, before it was canceled in 1988. Hall was also chosen to host the show in the fall of 1987, and his stint proved immensely popular, leading to his being offered his own show in syndication.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: From January 2, 1989 to May 27, 1994, he had a Paramount contract to host a nationwide syndicated late night talk show, "The Arsenio Hall Show". It was a breakout success, rating especially high among the coveted younger demographic, and known for its audience's distinctive alternative to applause in chanting, "Woof, woof, woof!" (which originated in the Cleveland Browns' Dawg Pound in the east end zone) while pumping their fists. The practice soon became such a ritual that by 1991 it had become a "pop culture stamp of approval"—one that Hall said had become "so popular it's getting on people's nerves". The gesture was so well known that it appeared in films such as "Pretty Woman", "Passenger 57", "Aladdin", and "The Hard Way".


title: Arsenio Hall

text: He also had a rivalry with Jay Leno after the latter was named host of "The Tonight Show", during which Hall said that he would "kick Jay's ass" in ratings.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall used his fame during this period to help fight worldwide prejudice against HIV/AIDS after Magic Johnson contracted the virus. Hall and Johnson filmed a public service announcement about the disease that aired in the early 1990s.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Between 1988 and 1991, Hall hosted the MTV Video Music Awards. Over the years, he has appeared as a guest on numerous talk shows, in special features, as a voice actor, on game shows and other award shows. Since "The Arsenio Hall Show" ended, Hall had leading roles on television shows such as the short-lived sitcom "Arsenio" (1997) and "Martial Law" with Sammo Hung (1998–2000), and hosted the revival of "Star Search" (2003–2004). While hosting "Star Search", he popularized the catchphrase "Hit me with the digits!"


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall appeared as himself in "Chappelle's Show" in March 2004 (convinced by Swedish comedy director Saman Khadiri) when Chappelle was imagining "what Arsenio is doing right now" in a dinner scene. Hall has guest co-hosted Wednesday evenings on "The Tim Conway Jr. Show" on KLSX 97.1 FM radio. He hosted MyNetworkTV's comedic web video show "The World's Funniest Moments" and TV One's "100 Greatest Black Power Moves". He also appeared on "Real Time with Bill Maher" in May 2012, in a discussion commemorating the 1992 Los Angeles riots.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall was considered the host of the syndicated version of "Deal or No Deal" and filmed a pilot (there were six taped). However, by the time the syndicated series began on September 8, 2008, Howie Mandel was chosen as host.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall also appeared regularly on "The Jay Leno Show", and was a guest on "Lopez Tonight". George Lopez credits Arsenio as the reason he had a late night show; Lopez appeared on "The Arsenio Hall Show" more times than any other comedian. Lopez requested Hall be a co-host on "Lopez Tonight" (November 25, 2009) since he regarded Hall as his inspiration and the first "late night party show host". Hall has filled in as guest host for NBC's "Access Hollywood Live" (2011) and CNN's evening talk/interview program "Piers Morgan Tonight" in 2012.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: In 2012, Hall was a contestant on the fifth edition of "The Celebrity Apprentice", which began airing February 19, 2012. Hall represented his charity, the Magic Johnson Foundation, which is dedicated to advancing economic and social equality by engaging minorities in every aspect of their communities; increasing academic and innovative achievement; and raising HIV/AIDS awareness, treatment and prevention. While Hall clashed with Aubrey O'Day, he befriended a majority of the cast. On May 20, 2012, in the live season finale, he was chosen as the "Celebrity Apprentice" winner, being "hired" by billionaire real estate investor Donald Trump over the other celebrity finalist, singer Clay Aiken. For winning "The Celebrity Apprentice", Hall won the $250,000 grand prize for his charity, in addition to money for the tasks he and his team performed when he was a team leader.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: A revival of Hall's syndicated late-night talk show, "The Arsenio Hall Show", premiered September 9, 2013, on Tribune owned stations and other networks via CBS Television Distribution. It was canceled after one season due to low ratings. The last taping aired May 30, 2014.


title: Arsenio Hall

text: In 1997, after being out of the public eye for three years, Hall gave an interview to dispel rumors regarding what had driven him off stage. "I went on the Internet," he said, "and read I was in detox at Betty Ford. I got online under a fake name and typed in, 'I know Arsenio better than anyone else and he's not in detox, you idiots!'"


title: Arsenio Hall

text: Hall has one son, born in 1998. Hall says he took time off to raise his son before resuming "The Arsenio Hall Show" in 2013. Hall had an interest in returning to the business eventually, but his decision was not confirmed until he appeared on "Lopez Tonight" in 2009 (although he initially considered a weekend show because he did not want to compete in ratings against his friend George Lopez).


title: Arsenio Hall

text: On May 5, 2016, Hall filed a $5 million defamation lawsuit against Sinéad O'Connor after she claimed he had fueled Prince's drug habit and had also spiked her drink at a party at Eddie Murphy's house. Hall dropped the lawsuit after O'Connor apologized and retracted her allegations.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Estimates of casualties of the Vietnam War vary widely. Estimates include both civilian and military deaths in North and South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: The war persisted from 1955 to 1975 and most of the fighting took place in South Vietnam; accordingly it suffered the most casualties. The war also spilled over into the neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos which also endured casualties from aerial and ground fighting.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Civilian deaths caused by both sides amounted to a significant percentage of total deaths. Civilian deaths were partly caused by assassinations, massacres, and terror tactics. Civilian deaths were also caused by mortar and artillery, extensive aerial bombing and the use of firepower in military operations conducted in heavily populated areas. A number of incidents occurred during the war in which civilians were deliberately targeted or killed. The most prominent of these events were the Huế Massacre and the Mỹ Lai Massacre.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Estimates of the total number of deaths in the Vietnam War vary widely. The wide disparity among the estimates cited below is partially explained by the different time periods of the Vietnam War covered by the studies and whether casualties in Cambodia and Laos were included in the estimates.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: A 1975 US Senate subcommittee estimated around 1.4 million civilian casualties in South Vietnam because of the war, including 415,000 deaths. An estimate by the Department of Defense after the war gave a figure of 1.2 million civilian casualties, including 195,000 deaths.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: According to statistics from the South Vietnamese Ministry of Health, 44.5% of civilians admitted to hospitals between 1967 and 1970 were wounded by mines or mortars, 21.2% by guns or grenades, and 34.3% by artillery or  bombing.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Guenter Lewy in 1978 estimated 1,353,000 total deaths in North and South Vietnam during the period 1965–1974 in which the U.S. was most engaged in the war. Lewy reduced the number of Viet Cong (VC) and People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) battle deaths claimed by the U.S. by 30 percent (in accordance with the opinion of United States Department of Defense officials), and assumed that one third of the reported battle deaths of the PAVN/VC may have actually been civilians. He estimates that between 30 and 46% of the total war deaths were civilians. His estimate of total deaths is reflected in the table.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: A 1995 demographic study in "Population and Development Review" calculated 791,000–1,141,000 war-related Vietnamese deaths, both soldiers and civilians, for all of Vietnam from 1965–75. The study came up with a most likely Vietnamese death toll of 882,000, which included 655,000 adult males (above 15 years of age), 143,000 adult females, and 84,000 children. Those totals include only Vietnamese deaths, and do not include American and other allied military deaths which amounted to about 64,000. The study's authors stated that methodological limitations of the study include imbalance between rural and urban areas and the potential exclusion of high mortality areas.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: In 1995, the Vietnamese government released its estimate of war deaths for the more lengthy period of 1955–75. PAVN and VC losses were reported as 1.1 million dead and civilian deaths of Vietnamese on both sides totaled 2.0 million. These estimates probably include deaths of Vietnamese soldiers in Laos and Cambodia, but do not include deaths of South Vietnamese and allied soldiers which would add nearly 300,000 for a grand total of 3.4 million military and civilian dead.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: A 2008 study by the BMJ (formerly "British Medical Journal") came up with a higher toll of 3,812,000 dead in Vietnam between 1955–2002. For the period of the Vietnam War the totals are 1,310,000 between 1955 and 1964, 1,700,000 between 1965–74 and 810,000 between 1975 and 1984. (The estimates for 1955–64 are much higher than other estimates). The sum of those totals is 3,091,000 war deaths between 1955–75.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Uppsala University in Sweden maintains the Armed Conflict Database. Their estimates for conflict deaths in Vietnam are 164,923 from 1955–64 and 1,458,050 from 1965–75 for a total of 1,622,973. The database also estimates combat deaths in Cambodia for the years 1967–75 to total 259,000. Data for deaths in Laos is incomplete.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: R. J. Rummel's mid-range estimate in 1997 was that the total deaths due to the Vietnam War totaled 2,450,000 from 1954–75. Rummel calculated PAVN/VC deaths at 1,062,000 and ARVN and allied war deaths of 741,000, with both totals including civilians inadvertently killed. He estimated that victims of democide (deliberate killing of civilians) included 214,000 by North Vietnam/VC and 98,000 by South Vietnam and its allies. Deaths in Cambodia and Laos were estimated at 273,000 and 62,000 respectively.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Lewy estimates that 40,000 South Vietnamese civilians were assassinated by the PAVN/VC; 300,000 were killed as a result of combat in South Vietnam, and 65,000 were killed in North Vietnam for a total of 405,000 killed. He further suggests that 222,000 civilians may have been counted as enemy military deaths by the U.S. in compiling its "body count" raising the total to 627,000 killed. It was difficult to distinguish between civilians and military personnel in many instances as many individuals were part-time guerrillas or impressed laborers who did not wear uniforms. Walter Mead estimates that approximately 365,000 Vietnamese civilians to have died as a result of the war during the period of American involvement.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: R. J. Rummel estimated that PAVN/VC forces killed around 164,000 civilians in democide between 1954 and 1975 in South Vietnam, from a range of between 106,000 and 227,000, plus another 50,000 killed in North Vietnam. Rummel's mid-level estimate includes 17,000 South Vietnamese civil servants killed by PAVN/VC. In addition, at least 36,000 Southern civilians were executed for various reasons in the period 1967–1972. About 130 American and 16,000 South Vietnamese POWs died in captivity. During the peak war years, another scholar Guenter Lewy attributed almost a third of civilian deaths to the VC.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Thomas Thayer in 1985 estimated that during the 1965–72 period the VC killed 33,052 South Vietnamese village officials and civil servants.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: These numbers do not include civilian and ARVN military deaths result from the communist mass-internment, the refugee crisis and subsequent exodus of Vietnamese people after the Fall of Saigon.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: According to RJ Rummel, from 1964 to 1975, an estimated 1,500 people died during the forced relocations of 1,200,000 civilians, another 5,000 prisoners died from ill-treatment and about 30,000 suspected communists and fighters were executed. In Quảng Nam Province 4,700 civilians were killed in 1969. This totals, from a range of between 16,000 and 167,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam during the (Diệm-era), and 42,000 and 118,000 deaths caused by South Vietnam in the post Diệm-era), excluding PAVN forces killed by the ARVN in combat. Benjamin Valentino estimates 110,000–310,000 deaths as a "possible case" of "counter-guerrilla mass killings" by U.S. and South Vietnamese forces during the war.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: Operating under the direction of the CIA and other US and South Vietnamese Intel organizations and carried out by ARVN units alongside US advisers was the Phoenix Program, intended to neutralise the VC political infrastructure, whom were the civilian administration of the Viet Cong/Provisional Revolutionary Government via infiltration, capture, counter-terrorism, interrogation, and assassination. The program resulted in an estimated 26,000 to 41,000 killed, with an unknown number possibly being innocent civilians.


title: Vietnam War casualties

text: RJ Rummel estimated that American forces killed around 5,500 people in democide between 1960 and 1972, from a range of between 4,000 and 10,000. Estimates for the number of North Vietnamese civilian deaths resulting from US bombing range from 30,000–65,000. Higher estimates place the number of civilian deaths caused by American bombing of North Vietnam in Operation Rolling Thunder at 182,000. American bombing in Cambodia is estimated to have killed between 30,000 and 150,000 civilians and combatants.