title: Latte

text: Calling people "latte drinkers" pejoratively has become a common political attack in some Western cultures. The popularity of espresso drinking in large cities, especially among more affluent urban populations, has caused some to consider it elitist behavior. In the United States, conservative political commentators have been known to call their opponents "latte-drinking liberal elites". In Canadian politics, latte drinking is used to portray people as out-of-touch intellectuals and the antithesis of the Tim Hortons coffee drinker who is considered representative of an ordinary Canadian.


title: Latte

text: According to a 2018 study, 16% of liberals in the United States prefer lattes, whereas 9% of conservatives and 11% of moderates do. The study states further that the overwhelming majority of people, whether they are liberal, conservative, or moderate, express a preference for regular brewed coffee.


title: Joel Fry (actor)

text: Fry has acted in a number of television and film roles. In television, he is best known for portraying the characters Hizdahr zo Loraq in the series "Game of Thrones" and Frenchie in "Our Flag Means Death". Further television credits include "White Van Man", "Trollied", "Plebs", "Twenty Twelve", and "W1A." In film, he appeared as Lu'kibu in "10,000 BC", Rocky in the 2019 romantic comedy film "Yesterday", and Jasper Badun in the 2021 crime comedy-drama "Cruella".


title: Joel Fry (actor)

text: Joel is a former member of the band Animal Circus, which released the EP "Snakes and Ladders" in 2012. He is featured in two songs on the 2022 "Our Flag Means Death" soundtrack, where he performs as his character, Frenchie.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Strictly speaking, manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre, but rather indicates a target demographic. While there are certain aesthetic, visual, and narrative conventions associated with manga, these conventions have changed and evolved over time, and none are strictly exclusive to manga. Nonetheless, several concepts and themes have come to be typically associated with manga, both visual (non-rigid panel layouts, highly detailed eyes) and narrative (a focus on human relations and emotions; characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality; depictions of supernatural and paranormal subjects).


title: Shōjo manga

text: The Japanese word "shōjo" (少女) translates literally to "girl", but in common Japanese usage girls are generally referred to as and rarely as "shōjo". Rather, the term "shōjo" is used to designate a social category that emerged during the Meiji era (1868–1912) of girls and young women at the age between childhood and marriage. Generally this referred to school-aged adolescents, with whom an image of "innocence, purity and cuteness" was associated; this contrasted the "moga" ("modern girl", young unmarried working women), with whom a more self-determined and sexualized image was associated. "Shōjo" continued to be associated with an image of youth and innocence after the end of the Meiji era, but took on a strong consumerist connotation beginning in the 1980s as it developed into a distinct marketing category for girls; the "gyaru" also replaced the "moga" as the archetypical independent woman during this period.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Strictly speaking, "shōjo" manga does not refer to a specific style or a genre, but rather indicates a target demographic. The Japanese manga market is segmented by target readership, with the major categories divided by gender ("shōjo" for girls, "shōnen" for boys) and by age ("josei" for women, "seinen" for men). Thus, "shōjo" manga is typically defined as manga marketed to an audience of adolescent girls and young adult women, though "shōjo" manga is also read by men and older women.


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Shōjo" manga is traditionally published in dedicated manga magazines that are directed at a readership of "shōjo", an audience that emerged in the early 20th century and which has grown and diversified over time. While the style and tone of the stories published in these magazines varies across publications and decades, an invariant characteristic of "shōjo" manga has been a focus on human relations and the emotions that accompany them. Some critics, such as Kyoto International Manga Museum curator Kayoko Kuramochi and academic , emphasize certain graphic elements when attempting to define "shōjo" manga: the imaginative use of flowers, ribbons, fluttering dresses, girls with large sparkling eyes, and words that string across the page, which Honda describes using the onomatopoeia "hirahira". This definition accounts for works that exist outside the boundaries of traditional "shōjo" magazine publishing but which nonetheless are perceived as "shōjo", such as works published on the Internet.


title: Shōjo manga

text: As the Japanese publishing industry boomed during the Meiji era, new magazines aimed at a teenage audience began to emerge, referred to as "shōnen". While these magazines were ostensibly unisex, in practice the editorial content of these magazines largely concerned topics that were of interest to boys. Faced with growing demand for magazines aimed at girls, the first "shōjo" magazines were published, and "shōnen" magazines came to target boys exclusively. The first exclusively "shōjo" magazine was ', first published in 1902. This was followed by "Shōjo Sekai" in 1906, "Shōjo no Tomo" in 1908, ' in 1912, and "Shōjo Club" in 1923. These magazines focused primarily on "shōjo shōsetsu" ( "girls' novel", a term for illustrated novels and poems aimed at an audience of girls) and only incidentally on manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Shōjo shōsetsu" nevertheless played an important role in establishing a "shōjo" culture, and laid the foundations for what would become the major recurrent themes of "shōjo" manga through their focus on stories of love and friendship. Among the most significant authors of this era was Nobuko Yoshiya, a major figure in the Class S genre whose novels such as "Hana Monogatari" centered on romantic friendships between girls and women. The visual conventions of "shōjo" manga were also heavily influenced by the illustrations published in these magazines, with works by illustrators Yumeji Takehisa, Jun'ichi Nakahara, and featuring female figures with slender bodies, fashionable clothing, and large eyes.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Early "shōjo" manga took the form short, humorous stories with ordinary settings (such as schools and neighborhoods) and which often featured tomboy protagonists. These works began to develop in the 1930s through the influence of artists such as Suihō Tagawa and Shosuke Kurakane; this period saw some female "shōjo" artists, such as Machiko Hasegawa and Toshiko Ueda, though they were significantly less common than male artists.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Among the most influential artists of this era was Katsuji Matsumoto, a lyrical painter influenced in "moga" culture and the artistic culture of the United States. Having grown tired of depicting typical innocent "shōjo" subjects in his illustrations, he pivoted to drawing manga in the 1920s, where he was able to depict "moga" and tomboys more freely. His style, likely influenced by American comic book artists like George McManus and Ethel Hays and American cinema of the era, introduced sophisticated and avant-garde innovations in "shōjo" manga, such as the art deco-inspired "Poku-chan" (1930), the cinematic "Nazo no Kurōbā" (1934), and his most famous work "Kurukuru Kurumi-chan" (1938).


title: Shōjo manga

text: With the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937, censorship and paper rationing hindered the development of magazines, which either folded or were forced to merge to survive. The magazines that continued to published were reduced to a few pages of black and white text, with few or no illustrations. 41 total magazines remained in publication in 1945, two of which were shōjo magazines: "Shōjo Club" and "Shōjo no Tomo".


title: Shōjo manga

text: With the end of the war, Japan entered into a period of large-scale artistic production in cinema, radio, and publishing. Fiction novels enjoyed a surge of popularity, while the number of published magazines grew from 41 in 1945 to 400 by 1952; the number of publishing companies grew from 300 to roughly 2000 during the same period. While not all of theses magazines and companies published children's literature, publications for children constituted a significant percentage of publishing output. Contemporaneously, "kashi-hon" (book rental stores) experienced a boom in popularity. These stores rented books for a modest fee of five to ten yen, roughly equivalent to half the cost of a subway ticket at the time. This had the effect of widening access to books among the general public and spurring additional manga publishing.


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Shōjo" manga artists who had been active prior to the war returned to the medium, including Shosuke Kurakane with "Anmitsu Hime" (1949–1955), Toshiko Ueda with "Fuichin-san" (1957–1962), and Katsuji Matsumoto resuming publication of "Kurukuru Kurumi-chan". During this period, Matsumoto developed his art into a style that began to resemble the "kawaii" aesthetic that would emerge several decades later. New manga artists, such as Osamu Tezuka and other artists associated with Tokiwa-sō, created works that introduced intense drama and serious themes to children's manga using a new format that had become popular in "shōnen" manga: the "story manga", which depicted multi-chapter narratives with continuity rather than a succession of essentially independent vignettes. "Princess Knight" (1953–1956) by Tezuka is credited with introducing this type of narrative, along with Tezuka's innovative and dynamic style, to "shōjo" magazines.


title: Shōjo manga

text: At the same time, "shōjo" on the "kashi-hon" market developed its own distinct style through the influence of "jojōga" (lyrical painting). "Jojōga" artists Yukiko Tani and Macoto Takahashi drew cover illustrations for "shōjo" manga anthologies such as "Niji" and "Hana" before transitioning into drawing manga themselves. Rather than following Matsumoto's trajectory of moving away from the visual conventions of lyrical painting, Tani and Takahashi imported them into their manga, with works defined by a strong sense of atmosphere and a focus on the emotions rather than the actions of their protagonists. Takahashi's manga series "Arashi o Koete" (1958) was a major success upon its release, and marked the beginnings of this "jojōga"-influenced style eclipsing Tezuka's dynamic style as the dominant visual style of "shōjo" manga. Not all "kashi-hon" "shōjo" conformed to this lyrical style: one of the most popular "shōjo" "kashi-hon" anthologies was , which launched in 1958 and ran for more than one hundred monthly issues. As its name implies, the anthology published supernatural stories focused on "yūrei" and "yōkai". Its success with female readers resulted in other generalist "shōjo" anthologies beginning to publish horror manga, laying the groundwork for what would become a significant subgenre of "shōjo" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: As manga became generally more popular over the course of the decade, the proportion of manga published by "shōjo" magazines began to increase. For example, while manga represented only 20 percent of the editorial content of "Shōjo Club" in the mid-1950s, by the end of the decade it composed more than half. Many "shōjo" magazines had in effect became manga magazines, and several companies launched magazines dedicated exclusively to "shōjo" manga: first Kodansha in 1954 with "Nakayoshi", followed by Shueisha in 1955 with "Ribon". From this combination of light-hearted stories inherited from the pre-war era, dramatic narratives introduced by the Tokiwa-sō, and cerebral works developed on the "kashi-hon" market, "shōjo" manga of this period was divided by publishers into three major categories: , , and .


title: Shōjo manga

text: In the 1950s, "shōjo" manga was a genre that was created primarily by male authors, notably Leiji Matsumoto, Shōtarō Ishinomori, Kazuo Umezu, and Tetsuya Chiba. Though some creators (notably Tezuka, Ishinomori, and Umezu) created works focused on active heroines, most "shōjo" stories of this era were typically focused on tragic and passive heroines who bravely endured adversity. Beside Toshiko Ueda, several female manga artists started working during the 1950s, notably Hideko Mizuno, Miyako Maki, Masako Watanabe and Eiko Hanamura, most of them debuted within the "kashi-hon" anthology . While they constituted a minority of "shōjo" manga creators, the editorial departments of magazines noted that their works were more popular with female readers than works created by their male peers.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the 1960s, the ubiquity of television in Japanese households and the rise of serialized television programs emerged as a significant competitor to magazines. Many monthly magazines folded and were replaced by weekly magazines, such as "Shōjo Friend" and "Margaret". To satisfy the need for weekly editorial content, magazines introduced contests in which readers could submit their manga for publication; female artists dominated these contests, and many amateur artists who emerged from these contests went on to have professional manga careers. The first artist to emerge from this system was Machiko Satonaka, who at the age of 16 had debut manga "Pia no Shōzō" ("Portrait of Pia", 1964) published in "Shōjo Friend".


title: Shōjo manga

text: The emergence of female artists led to the development of "roma-kome" (romantic comedy) manga, historically an unpopular genre among male "shōjo" artists. Hideko Mizuno was the first to introduce romantic comedy elements to "shōjo" manga through her manga adaptions of American romantic comedy films: "Sabrina" in 1963 as "Sutekina Cora", and "The Quiet Man" in 1966 as "Akage no Scarlet". Other artists, such as Masako Watanabe, Chieko Hosokawa, and Michiko Hosono similarly created manga based on American romantic comedy films, or which were broadly inspired by western actresses and models and featured western settings. Contemporaneously, artists such as Yoshiko Nishitani became popular for "rabu-kome" (literally "love comedy") manga, focused on protagonists who were ordinary Japanese teenaged girls, with a narrative focus on themes of friendship, family, school, and love.


title: Shōjo manga

text: While early romance "shōjo" manga was almost invariably simple and conventional love stories, over time and through the works of manga artists such as Machiko Satonaka and Yukari Ichijō, the genre adopted greater narrative and thematic complexity. This gradual maturity came to be reflected in other subgenres: horror manga artist Kazuo Umezu broke "shōjo" artistic conventions by depicting female characters who were ugly, frightening, and grotesque in his 1965 series "Reptilia" published in "Shōjo Friend", which led to more "shōjo" artists depicting darker and taboo subject material in their work. "Shōjo" sports manga, such as Chikako Urano's "Attack No. 1" (1968–1970), began to depict physically active rather than passive female protagonists. In 1969, the first "shōjo" manga sex scene was published in Hideko Mizuno's "Fire!" (1969–1971).


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the end of the decade, most "shōjo" magazines now specialized in manga, and no longer published their previous prose literature and articles. As the "kashi-hon" declined, so too did their manga anthologies; most folded, with their artists and writers typically migrating to manga magazines. Most "shōjo" manga artists were women, and the category had developed a unique visual identity that distinguished it from "shōnen" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the early 1970s, most "shōjo" manga artists were women, though editorial positions at "shōjo" manga magazines remained male-dominated. Over the course of the decade, "shōjo" manga became more graphically and thematically complex, as it came to reflect the prevailing attitudes of the sexual revolution and women's liberation movement. This movement towards narratively complex stories is associated with the emergence of a new generation of "shōjo" artists collectively referred to as the Year 24 Group, which included Moto Hagio, Keiko Takemiya, Yumiko Ōshima, and numerous others. Works of the Year 24 Group focused on the internal psychology of their characters, and introduced new genres to "shōjo" manga such as adventure fiction, science fiction, fantasy, and historical drama. The art style of the Group, influenced by Machiko Satonaka and Yukari Ichijō, came to pioneer new visual standards for "shōjo" manga: finer and lighter lines, beautiful faces that bordered on exaggeration, and panels that overlapped or were entirely borderless.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Numerous artists contributed to innovation in "shōjo" manga during the 1970s. Takemiya and Hagio originated a new genre, "shōnen-ai" (male-male romance), with Takemiya's "Sanrūmu Nite" (1970) and Hagio's "The November Gymnasium" (1971). The historical drama "The Rose of Versailles" (1972–1973) by Riyoko Ikeda became the first major critical and commercial success in "shōjo" manga; the series was groundbreaking in its portrayal of gender and sexuality, and was influential in its depiction of "bishōnen" (literally "beautiful boys"), a term for androgynous male characters. Ako Mutsu and Mariko Iwadate led a new trend of "otomechikku" manga. While works of the Year 24 Group were defined by their narrative complexity, "otomechikku" manga focused on the ordinary lives of teenaged Japanese protagonists. The genre waned in popularity by the end of the decade, but its narrative and visual style made a lasting impact on "shōjo" manga, particularly the emergent aesthetic of "kawaii". Veteran "shōjo" artists such as Miyako Maki and Hideko Mizuno began developing new manga for their formerly child-aged readers who were now adults. Although their attempts were commercially unsuccessful, with short-lived magazines such as "Papillon" (パピヨン) at Futabasha in 1972, their works were the origins of ladies comics before the category's formal emergence in the early 1980s.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the end of the 1970s, the three largest publishing houses in Japan (Kodansha, Shogakukan, and Shueisha) as well as Hakusensha established themselves as the largest publishers of "shōjo" manga, and maintained this dominant position in the decades that followed. The innovation of "shōjo" manga throughout the decade attracted the attention of manga critics, who had previously ignored "shōjo" manga or regarded it as unserious, but who now declared that "shōjo" manga had entered its "golden age". This critical attention attracted a male audience to "shōjo" manga who, although a minority of overall "shōjo" readers, remained as an audience for the category.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Since the 1970s, "shōjo" manga has continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously branching out into different but overlapping subgenres. This development began with a shift in characters and settings: while foreign characters and settings were common in the immediate post-war period, stories began to be set in Japan more frequently as the country began to re-assert an independent national identity. Meiji University professor Yukari Fujimoto writes that beginning in the 1990s, "shōjo" manga became concerned with self-fulfillment. She intimates that the Gulf War influenced the development of female characters "who fight to protect the destiny of a community", such as "Red River" (1995–2002), "Basara" (1990–1998), "Magic Knight Rayearth" (1993–1996), and "Sailor Moon" (1991–1997). Fujimoto opines that the "shōjo" manga of the 1990s depicted emotional bonds between women as stronger than the bonds between a man and a woman.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In 1980, Kodansha published "Be Love" as the first manga magazine aimed at an audience of adult women. It was quickly followed by a wave of similar magazines, including "Feel Young" at Kodansha, "Judy" at Shogakukan, and "You", "Young You" and "Office You" at Shueisha. This category of manga, referred to as "ladies' comics" or "josei" manga, shares many common traits with "shōjo" manga, with the primary distinguishing exception of a focus on adult protagonists rather than teenaged or younger protagonists. Sexuality is also depicted more openly, though these depictions in turn came to influence "shōjo" manga, which itself began to depict sexuality more openly in the 1990s. Several manga magazines blur distinctions between "shōjo" and "josei", and publish works that aesthetically resemble "shōjo" manga but which deal with the adult themes of "josei" manga; examples include "Kiss" at Kodansha, "Chorus" and "Cookie" at Shueisha, and "Betsucomi" at Shogakukan.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Niche "shōjo" publications that eschewed typical "shōjo" manga conventions emerged in the 1980s, particularly in the horror and erotica genres. This occurred in the context of the decline of "kashi-hon" publishing, where publishers survived market shifts away from book rental by offering collected volumes of manga that had not been previously serialized in magazines. Hibari Shōbo and Rippū Shōbo were among the publishing companies that began to publish "shōjo" horror manga in this format, typically as volumes that contained a mix of "kashi-hon" reissues and original creations. Horror "shōjo" manga published by "kashi-hon" publishers was typically more gory and grotesque than the horror manga of mainstream "shōjo" magazines, in some case prompting accusations of obscenity and lawsuits by citizens' associations. These publishing houses folded by the end of the 1980s as they became replaced with mainstream "shōjo" manga magazines dedicated to the horror genre, beginning with "Monthly Halloween" in 1986.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In the 1990s, a genre of softcore pornographic "shōjo" manga emerged under the genre name teens' love. The genre shares many common traits with pornographic "josei" manga, with the distinguishing exception of the age of the protagonists, who are typically in their late teens and early twenties. Teens' love magazines proliferated at smaller publishers, such as Ohzora Publishing, which published a wide range of both "josei" and teens' love manga. The genre gradually migrated from small publishers to larger ones, such as "Dessert" and Shogakukan's mainstream "shōjo" magazines.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the 2000s, this niche "shōjo" manga, particularly the teens' love genre, had largely abandoned printed formats in favor of the Internet, in response to the rise of mobile phones in Japan.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In the 2000s, publishers who produced manga aimed at a female audience faced a changing market: "josei" manga had declined in popularity, girls increasingly preferred television dramas over printed of entertainment, and the manga market generally had slowed. Many major publishers restructured their "shōjo" manga magazine operations in response, folding certain magazines and launching new publications. The majority of the newly-launched magazines during this period were commercial failures.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In 2008, the publishing house Fusosha, which had previously not published manga, entered the manga market with the "shōjo" manga magazine "Malika". The magazine was unconventional compared to other "shōjo" manga magazines of the era: in addition to publishing manga by renowned female authors, it featured contributions from celebrities in media, illustration, and design; the magazine also operated a website that published music and additional stories. The magazine was a commercial failure and folded after six issues, but came to be emblematic of a new trend in "shōjo" manga: cross-media marketing, where works are published across multiple mediums simultaneously.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Early "shōjo" manga successes in this cross-media approach include "Nana" (2000–2009) by Ai Yazawa, "Lovely Complex" (2001–2006) by Aya Nakahara, and "Nodame Cantabile" (2001–2010) by Tomoko Ninomiya, all of which were alternately adapted into films, television dramas, anime series, video games, and series-branded music CDs. Older manga series, such as "Attack No. 1" and "Boys Over Flowers", found renewed success after being relaunched with cross-media adaptations.


title: Shōjo manga

text: The "shōjo" magazines "Asuka" and "Princess", which distinguished themselves by publishing a diversity of narrative genres such as fantasy and science fiction, saw new competitors emerge in the 2000s: "Monthly Comic Zero Sum" in 2002, "Sylph" in 2006, "Comic Blade Avarus" in 2007, and "Aria" in 2010. These new magazines explicitly targeted an audience of anime and boys' love (male-male romance) fans by publishing manga that closely resembled the visual style of anime, featured "bishōnen" protagonists in fantastical environments, and which deliberately played with the visual and narrative conventions of "shōjo" manga. In sum, the magazines represented the integration of "moe" in "shōjo" manga: a term describing an expression of cuteness focused on feelings of affection and excitement that is distinct from "kawaii", the more child-like and innocent expression of cuteness typically associated with "shōjo" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Moe" was additionally expressed in "shōjo" manga through the emergence of so-called "boys "shōjo manga"", beginning with the magazines "Comic High!" in 2004 and "Comic Yell!" in 2007. Magazines in this category publish manga aimed at a male readership, but which use a visual style that draws significantly from the aesthetics of "moe" and "shōjo" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: English-language translations of "shōjo" manga were first published in North America in the late 1990s. As the American comic book market was largely oriented towards male readers at the time, "shōjo" manga found early success by targeting a then-unreached audience of female comic book readers; English translations of titles such as "Sailor Moon", "Boys Over Flowers", and "Fruits Basket" became best-selling books. The English manga market crashed in the late 2000s as a result of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, and when the medium regained popularity in the 2010s, "shōnen" manga emerged as the most popular category of manga among English-language readers. Nevertheless, every major English-language manga publisher maintains a robust line of "shōjo" manga; Viz Media in particular publishes "shōjo" manga under its Shojo Beat imprint, which it also published as a serialized manga magazine in the mid- to late-2000s.


title: Shōjo manga

text: The visual style of "shōjo" manga was largely similar to that of "shōnen" manga until the late 1950s, a function of the fact that both "shōjo" and "shōnen" manga were created by the same, mostly male, artists. During the pre-war period, these artists were especially influenced by the modernist style of George McManus, while in the post-war period the dynamic style of Osamu Tezuka became the primary reference point for manga. While "shōjo" manga inherited some of these influences, the unique style that emerged at the end of the 1950s which came to distinguish "shōjo" manga from "shōnen" manga was primarily derived from pre-war "shōjo shōsetsu".


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Shōjo shōsetsu" is characterized by a "flowery and emotional" prose style focused on the inner monologue of the protagonist. Narration is often punctuated with non-verbal elements that express the feelings of the protagonists; writer Nobuko Yoshiya in particular made extensive use of multiple ellipsis ("..."), exclamation points, and dashes in the middle of sentences, the lattermost of which were scattered across pages in a manner resembling verses of poetry. Prose is accompanied by illustrations by lyrical painters, which are characterized by a sentimental style influenced by Art Nouveau and "Nihonga". Particular attention is paid to representations of "shōjo", who are depicted as well-dressed and possessing large, very detailed eyes that have star-shaped highlights.


title: Shōjo manga

text: This narrative and visual style began to influence "shōjo" manga towards the end of the 1950s; Macoto Takahashi, a lyrical painter and manga artist, is regarded as the first artist to use this style in manga. The style was quickly adopted by his contemporaries and later by "shōjo" artists who emerged in the 1960s, while in the 1970s artists associated with the Year 24 Group developed the style significantly. According to manga artist, academic, and Year 24 Group member Keiko Takemiya, "shōjo" manga was able to develop this distinct style because the category was seen as marginal by editors, who consequently allowed artists to draw stories in whatever manner they wished so long as reader response remained positive. Stylistic elements that were developed by the Year 24 Group became established as visual hallmarks of "shōjo" manga; many of these elements later spread to "shōnen" manga, such as the use of non-rigid panel layouts and highly detailed eyes that express the emotions of characters.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Beginning in the 1970s, panel layouts in "shōjo" manga developed a new and distinct style. In his 1997 book "Why Is Manga So Interesting? Its Grammar and Expression", manga artist and critic Fusanosuke Natsume identifies and names the three major aspects of panel construction that came to distinguish "shōjo" manga from "shōnen" manga. The first, "naiho" ("panel encapsulations"), refers to the use of layouts that break from the traditional comic approach of a series of sequential boxes. In this style, elements extend beyond the borders of panels, or the panel border is removed entirely. Intervals between panels are also were modified, with sequential panels that depicted the same event from different angles or perspectives. Second is "kaiho" ("release"), referring to the use of decompression to create more languid and relaxed sequences. Oftentimes in compositions without panel borders, text is removed from speech balloons and spread across the page, especially in instances where the dialogue communicates the thoughts, feelings, and internal monologue of the speaker. Third is "mahaku" ("break"), referring to the symbolic use of white space.


title: Shōjo manga

text: A defining stylistic element of "shōjo" manga is its depiction of characters with very large, detailed eyes that have star-shaped highlights, sometimes referred to as . This technique did not originate in "shōjo" manga; large eyes have been drawn in manga since the early 20th century, notably by Osamu Tezuka, who drew inspiration from the theatrical makeup of actresses in the Takarazuka Revue when drawing eyes. A large central star that replaces the pupil dot began to appear at key moments in "shōjo" manga by Tezuka and Shotaro Ishinomori in the mid 1950s, though these details generally trended towards a realist style rather than the emotive style of later "shōjo" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Contemporaneously, the art of Jun'ichi Nakahara was significantly influencing "kashi-hon" manga artists, especially Macoto Takahashi. Takahashi incorporated Nakahara's style of drawing eyes into his own manga – large, doll-like eyes with highlights and long lashes – while gradually introducing his own stylistic elements, such as the use of dots, stars, and multiple colors to represent the iris. At the end of the 1950s, Takahashi's style was adopted by Miyako Maki – one of the most popular manga artists at the time – which led to its widespread adoption by mainstream "shōjo" manga magazines.


title: Shōjo manga

text: From this point on, experimental eye design flourished in "shōjo" manga, with features such as elongated eyelashes, the use of concentric circles of different shades, and the deformation of the iris to create a glittering effect. This focus on hyper-detailed eyes led manga artists to frame panels on close-ups of faces, to draw attention to the emotions being expressed by the eyes of the characters. Eyes also came to serve as a marker of gender, with female characters typically having larger eyes than male characters.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Among the most common concepts in "shōjo" manga is that of , which refers to interpersonal relationships between characters and the interaction of their emotions. Relationships between characters are central to most "shōjo" manga, particularly those of friendship, affection, and love. Narratives often focus on the interiority of their protagonists, wherein their emotions, feelings, memories, and inner monologue are expressed visually through techniques such as panel arrangement and the rendering of eye details. When conflict occurs, the most common medium of exchange is dialogue and conversation, as opposed to physical combat typical in "shōnen" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Manga scholar Yukari Fujimoto considers that the content of "shōjo" manga has evolved in tandem with the evolution of Japanese society, especially in terms of the place of women, the role of the family, and romantic relationships. She notes how family dramas with a focus on mother-daughter relationships were popular in the 1960s, while stories about romantic relationships became more popular in the 1970s, and stories about father figures became popular in the 1990s. As "shōjo" manga began to focus on adolescents over children beginning in the 1970s, romantic relationships generally become more important than family relationships; these romantic relationships are most often heterosexual, though they are occasionally homosexual.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Characters that defy traditional roles and stereotypes surrounding gender and sexuality have been a central motif of "shōjo" manga since its origins. Tomboy protagonists, referred to as , appear regularly in pre-war "shōjo" manga. This archetype has two primary variants: the "fighting girl" (as in Katsuji Matsumoto's "Nazo no Kurōbaa", where a girl takes up arms to defend the peasants of her village), and the "crossdressing girl" (as in Eisuke Ishida's "Kanaria Ōjisama", where a princess is raised as a prince). Osamu Tezuka's "Princess Knight" represents the synthesis of these two archetypes, wherein a princess who is raised as a prince comes to face her enemies in combat. These archetypes were generally popular in "shōjo" war fiction, which emerged in tandem with the militarization of Japan in the 1930s, while an emphasis on cross-dressing arose from the popularity of the cross-dressing actresses of the Takarazuka Revue. "Otenba" grew in popularity in the post-war period, which critic Yoshihiro Yonezawa attributes to advancements in gender equality marked by the enshrinement of the equality of the sexes in the Constitution of Japan in 1947.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the end of the 1960s, sexuality – both heterosexual and homosexual – began to be freely depicted in "shōjo" manga. This shift was brought about in part by literalist interpretations of manga censorship codes: for example, the first sex scenes in "shōjo" manga were including by covering characters having sex with bed sheets to circumvent codes that specifically only forbade depictions of genitals and pubic hair. The evolution of these representations of gender in sexuality occurred in tandem with the feminization of "shōjo" manga's authorship and readership, as the category shifted from being created primarily by men for an audience of young girls, to being created by women for an audience of teenaged and young adult women; since the 1970s, "shōjo" manga has been written almost exclusively by women.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Though they compose a minority of "shōjo" stories overall, male-male romance manga – referred to as "yaoi" or "boys' love" (BL) – is a significant subgenre of "shōjo" manga. Works in the genre typically focus on androgynous men referred to as "bishōnen" (literally "beautiful boys"), with a focus on romantic fantasy rather than a strictly realist depiction of gay relationships. "Yaoi" emerged as a formal subgenre of "shōjo" manga in the 1970s, but its portrayals of gay male relationships used and further developed bisexual themes already extant in "shōjo" manga. Japanese critics have viewed "yaoi" as a genre that permits its audience to avoid adult female sexuality by distancing sex from their own bodies, as well as creating fluidity in perceptions of gender and sexuality by rejecting socially mandated gender roles. Parallels have also been drawn between "yaoi" and the popularity of lesbianism in pornography, with the genre having been called a form of "female fetishism".


title: Shōjo manga

text: Female-female romance manga, also known as "yuri", has been historically and thematically linked to "shōjo" manga since its emergence in the 1970s, though "yuri" is not strictly exclusive to "shōjo" and has been published across manga demographic groups. A relationship between "shōjo" culture and female-female romance dates to the pre-war period with stories in the Class S genre, which focused on intense romantic friendships between girls. By the post-war period, these works had largely declined in popularity in favor of works focused on male-female romances. Yukari Fujimoto posits that as the readership of "shōjo" manga is primarily female and heterosexual, female homosexuality is rarely addressed. Fujimoto sees the largely tragic bent of most "yuri" stories, with a focus on doomed relationships that end in separation or death, as representing a fear of female sexuality on the part of female readers, which she sees as also explaining the interest of "shōjo" readers on "yaoi" manga.


title: Shōjo manga

text: "Shōjo" manga often features supernatural and horror elements, such as stories focused on "yūrei" (ghosts), "oni" (demons), and "yōkai" (spirits), or which are otherwise structured around Japanese urban legends or Japanese folklore. These works are female-focused, where both the human characters and supernatural beings are typically women or "bishōnen". Paranormal "shōjo" manga gained and maintained popularity by depicting scenarios that allow female readers to freely explore feelings of jealousy, anger, and frustration, which are typically not depicted in mainstream "shōjo" manga focused on cute characters and melodramatic scenarios.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Mother-daughter conflict, as well as the fear or rejection of motherhood, appear as major motif in paranormal "shōjo" manga; for example, stories where mothers take on the appearance of demons or ghosts, daughters of demons who are themselves transformed into demons, impious pregnancies resulting from incestuous rape, and mothers who commit filicide out of jealousy or insanity. The social pressure and oppression borne from a patriarchal Japanese society also recurs as a motif, such as a curse or vengeful ghost that originates from a murdered woman or a victim of harassment. In these stories, the curse is typically resolved by showing compassion for the ghost, rather than trying to destroy it. Stories about Japanese urban legends were particularly popular in the 1970s, and typically focus on stories that were popular among Japanese teenaged girls, such as Kuchisake-onna, Hanako-san, and Teke Teke.


title: Shōjo manga

text: The relationship between "shōjo" culture and fashion dates to pre-war "shōjo" magazines, where artists such as Jun'ichi Nakahara illustrated fashion catalogs that included written instructions on how readers could make the depicted garments themselves. As manga grew in popularity in the post-war period, "shōjo" magazines continued their focus on fashion by publishing works featuring characters in elaborate outfits, or through promotional campaigns that offered clothes worn by manga characters as prizes. Notable manga artists associated with this trend include Macoto Takahashi, Masako Watanabe, and Miyako Maki, the lattermost of whom had their designs serve as the foundation for the popular Licca-chan doll in 1967.


title: Shōjo manga

text: By the 1970s, consumer trends shifted from making clothes to shopping for them; "shōjo manga" followed this trend with the appearance of stories centered on the careers of clothing designers. Manga in the "otomechikku" subgenre of "shōjo" manga emphasized "kawaii" fashion inspired by Ivy League style; the "otomechikku" aesthetic was later adopted by women's fashion magazines such as "An An" and "Olive". Some women's fashion magazines began to publish their own "shōjo" manga in the 1980s, such as "CUTiE" (which published "Tokyo Girls Bravo" by Kyōko Okazaki and "Jelly Beans" by Moyoco Anno) and "Zipper" (which published "Paradise Kiss" by Ai Yazawa and "Teke Teke Rendezvous" by George Asakura). Cosplay began to influence "shōjo" manga in the 1990s, leading to the development of titles like "Sailor Moon" that directly appealed to an "otaku" readership. This led to a split in "shōjo" representations of fashion between works that depicted realistic everyday fashions, and those that depicted fantastical outfits that could be cosplayed. The fashion world itself began to take an interest in "shōjo" manga in the 2000s, with fashion shows showcasing pieces influenced by "shōjo" manga or which were drawn from costumes in popular "shōjo" franchises such as "Sailor Moon".


title: Shōjo manga

text: Generally, the clothing worn by characters in "shōjo" manga reflect the fashion trends of the era in which the series was produced. Nevertheless, some common traits recur across eras: clothing adorned with ribbons or frills, and outfits that are especially feminine and child-like. Cute and ostentatious outfits are generally more common than outfits which are sexualized or modest. Major inspirations include Victorian fashion for girls – as embodied by Alice from "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland", who is often invoked by Japanese manga, magazines and brands – and ballet costumes, especially tutus.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Manga in Japan is serialized in manga magazines before being published as books and collected volumes. To encourage repeat readership, magazines seek to foster a sense of community with their readership; this is especially true of magazines aimed at an audience of younger reader aged ten or younger, sometimes referred to as . Magazines seek to appeal to this young readership by publishing content related to anime, video games, and toys in addition to manga. Supplemental materials, typically low-cost novelty items such as stickers, posters, and pens decorated with manga characters, are also used to attract readers, with the items placed in plastic bags that are attached to the magazines themselves. Larger novelty items are occasionally offered by mail order in exchange for coupons that readers can clip out of the magazine.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In the case of both "imōto" and magazines aimed at older readers, referred to as , readers are invited to submit their opinions on current manga serials through letters and polls. Often, a random survey respondent will receive a prize. Publishers use insights collected from these polls to change plotlines, highlight a secondary character, or end a series that is unpopular. These polls are also used when determining which manga to adapt into derivative works, such as anime and video games.


title: Shōjo manga

text: In addition to survey responses, letters from readers are used as a means to gauge audience opinion and develop a sense of community. These letters are sent to publishers, but addressed directly at the authors themselves. The content of these letters ranges from questions for the author, anecdotes from their daily lives, and drawings; some letters are published in the magazines themselves. Meetings between readers and authors also occur regularly. These may be organized by the publisher, who select a group of readers to bring to their offices on a prize trip, or as a field trip organized by schools. In both cases, these visits strengthen the bond between reader and publisher, while also providing the publisher with insights into their readership.


title: Shōjo manga

text: Manga publishers often discover new authors through their readership, who are actively encouraged to submit stories and receive feedback from the magazine's editors. This system of talent discovery and development is not unique to "shōjo" manga, though the practice originates in pre-war girls' magazines, where female readers were invited to submit novels and short stories. "Imōto" magazines develop this system from a young age with the aim of having adult artists one day publish manga in the magazines they read when they were children, while "onēsan" magazines typically have readers and artists who are of a similar age. By developing a system the authors of manga in a magazine were formerly readers, the distance between the two is reduced and a sense of community is fostered.


title: Ray Davies

text: Sir Raymond Douglas Davies ( ; born 21 June 1944) is an English musician. He was the lead vocalist, rhythm guitarist, and main songwriter for the rock band the Kinks, which he led with his younger brother Dave on lead guitar and backing vocals. He has also acted in, directed, and produced shows for theatre and television. Known for focusing his lyrics on English culture, nostalgia, and social satire, he is often referred to as the "Godfather of Britpop", though he disputes this title. He was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the Kinks in 1990. After the dissolution of the Kinks in 1996, he embarked on a solo career.


title: Ray Davies

text: Raymond Douglas Davies was born at 6 Denmark Terrace in the Fortis Green area of London on 21 June 1944. He is the seventh of eight children born to working-class parents, including six elder sisters and younger brother Dave Davies. His father, Frederick George Davies (1902–1975), was a slaughterhouse worker. Frederick liked to hang out in pubs and was considered a ladies' man. He was born in Islington and his registered birth name was Frederick George Kelly.


title: Ray Davies

text: Frederick's father, Henry Kelly, was a greengrocer who married Amy Elizabeth Smith at St. Lukes Church in Kentish Town in 1887. However, the marriage failed and Amy moved in with Harry Davies, bringing her two small children, Charles Henry and Frederick George, and her mother. Harry Davies was born in Minsterley in 1878. He was an ostler who had moved with his family from Shropshire to Islington. By the time Frederick George had married Annie Florence Willmore (1905–1987) in Islington in 1924, his surname had been changed to Davies. Annie came from a "sprawling family", and she in turn gave birth to one. She had a sharp tongue and could be crude and forceful.


title: Ray Davies

text: When Davies was still a small child, one of his older sisters became a star of the dance halls, and soon had a child out of wedlock by an African man, an illegal immigrant who subsequently disappeared from her life. The child, a daughter, was ultimately raised by Ray's mother. He attended William Grimshaw Secondary Modern School in Muswell Hill along with Rod Stewart (now called Fortismere School). His first Spanish guitar was a birthday gift from his eldest sister Rene, who died at the age of 31 from a heart attack on the day before his 13th birthday, while she was out dancing at the Lyceum Ballroom in the Strand, London in June 1957.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies was an art student at Hornsey College of Art in London in 1962–63. In late 1962 he became increasingly interested in music; at a Hornsey College Christmas dance he sought advice from Alexis Korner who was playing at the dance with Blues Incorporated and Korner introduced him to Giorgio Gomelsky, a promoter and future manager of the Yardbirds. Gomelsky arranged for Davies to play at his Piccadilly Club with the Dave Hunt Rhythm & Blues Band, and on New Year's Eve the Ray Davies Quartet opened for Cyril Stapleton at the Lyceum Ballroom. A few days later he became the permanent guitarist for the Dave Hunt Band, an engagement that would only last about six weeks. The band were the house band at Gomelsky's new venture, the Crawdaddy Club in Richmond-upon-Thames; when the Dave Hunt band were snowed in during the coldest winter since 1740, Gomelsky offered a gig to a new band called the Rolling Stones, who had previously supported Hunt at the Piccadilly and would take over the residency. Davies then joined the Hamilton King Band until June 1963; the Kinks (then known as the Ramrods) spent the summer supporting Rick Wayne on a tour of US airbases.


title: Ray Davies

text: After the Kinks obtained a recording contract in early 1964, Davies emerged as the chief songwriter and "de facto" leader of the band, especially after the band's breakthrough success with his early composition "You Really Got Me", which was released as the band's third single in August of that year. Davies led the Kinks through a period of musical experimentation between 1966 and 1975, with notable artistic achievements and commercial success.


title: Ray Davies

text: The Kinks' early recordings of 1964 ranged from covers of R&B standards like "Long Tall Sally" and "Got Love If You Want It" to the chiming, melodic beat music of Ray Davies's earliest original compositions for the band, "You Still Want Me" and "Something Better Beginning", to the more influential proto-metal, protopunk, power chord-based hard rock of the band's first two hit singles, "You Really Got Me" and "All Day and All of the Night".


title: Ray Davies

text: However, by 1965, this raucous, hard-driving early style had gradually given way to the softer and more introspective sound of "Tired of Waiting for You", "Nothin' in the World Can Stop Me Worryin' 'Bout That Girl", "Set Me Free", "I Go to Sleep" and "Ring the Bells". With the eerie, droning "See My Friends"—inspired by the untimely death of the Davies brothers' older sister Rene in June 1957—the band began to show signs of expanding their musical palette even further. A rare foray into early psychedelic rock, "See My Friends" is credited by Jonathan Bellman as the first Western pop song to integrate Indian raga sounds—released six months before the Beatles' "Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)".


title: Ray Davies

text: Beginning with "A Well Respected Man" and "Where Have All the Good Times Gone" (both recorded in the summer of 1965), Davies's lyrics assumed a new sociological character. He began to explore the aspirations and frustrations of common working-class people, with particular emphasis on the psychological effects of the British class system. "Face to Face" (1966), the first Kinks album composed solely of original material, was a creative breakthrough. As the band began to experiment with theatrical sound effects and baroque musical arrangements (Nicky Hopkins played harpsichord on several tracks), Davies's songwriting fully acquired its distinctive elements of narrative, observation and wry social commentary. His topical songs took aim at the complacency and indolence of wealthy playboys and the upper class ("A House in the Country", "Sunny Afternoon"), the heedless ostentation of a self-indulgent spendthrift "nouveau riche" ("Most Exclusive Residence For Sale"), and even the mercenary nature of the music business itself ("Session Man").


title: Ray Davies

text: By late 1966, Davies was addressing the bleakness of life at the lower end of the social spectrum: released together as the complementary A-B sides of a single, "Dead End Street" and "Big Black Smoke" were powerful neo-Dickensian sketches of urban poverty. Other songs like "Situation Vacant" (1967) and "Shangri-La" (1969) hinted at the helpless sense of insecurity and emptiness underlying the materialistic values adopted by the English working class. In a similar vein, "Dedicated Follower of Fashion" (1966) wittily satirized the consumerism and celebrity worship of Carnaby Street and 'Swinging London', while "David Watts" (1967) humorously expressed the wounded feelings of a plain schoolboy who envies the grace and privileges enjoyed by a charismatic upper class student.


title: Ray Davies

text: The Kinks have been called "the most adamantly British of the Brit Invasion bands" on account of Ray Davies's abiding fascination with England's imperial past and his tender, bittersweet evocations of "a vanishing, romanticized world of village greens, pubs and public schools". During the band's mid-period, he wrote many cheerfully eccentric—and often ironic—celebrations of traditional English culture and living: "Village Green" (1966), "Afternoon Tea" and "Autumn Almanac" (both 1967), "The Last of the Steam-Powered Trains" (1968), "Victoria" (1969), "Have a Cuppa Tea" (1971) and "Cricket" (1973). In other songs, Davies revived the style of British music hall, vaudeville and trad jazz: "Dedicated Follower of Fashion", "Sunny Afternoon", "Dandy" and "Little Miss Queen of Darkness" (all 1966); "Mister Pleasant" and "End of the Season" (both 1967); "Sitting By the Riverside" and "All of My Friends Were There" (both 1968); "She's Bought a Hat Like Princess Marina" (1969); "Acute Schizophrenia Paranoia Blues" and "Alcohol" (both 1971); "Look a Little on the Sunny Side" (1972); and "Holiday Romance" (1975). Occasionally, he varied the group's sound with more disparate musical influences, such as raga ("Fancy", 1966), bossa nova ("No Return", 1967) and calypso ("I'm on an Island", 1965; "Monica", 1968; "Apeman", 1970; "Supersonic Rocket Ship", 1972).


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies is often at his most affecting when he sings of giving up worldly ambition for the simple rewards of love and domesticity ("This is Where I Belong", 1966; "Two Sisters", 1967; "The Way Love Used to Be", 1971; "Sweet Lady Genevieve", 1973; "You Make It All Worthwhile", 1974), or when he extols the consolations of friendship and memory ("Days", 1968; "Do You Remember Walter?", 1968; "Picture Book", 1968; "Young and Innocent Days", 1969; "Moments", 1971; "Schooldays", 1975). Yet another perennial Ray Davies theme is the championing of individualistic personalities and lifestyles ("I'm Not Like Everybody Else", 1966; "Johnny Thunder", 1968; "Monica", 1968; "Lola", 1970; "Celluloid Heroes", 1972; "Where Are They Now?", 1973; "Sitting in the Midday Sun", 1973). On his 1967 song "Waterloo Sunset", the singer finds a fleeting sense of contentment in the midst of urban drabness and solitude.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies's mid-period work for the Kinks also showed signs of an emerging social conscience. For example, "Holiday in Waikiki" (1966) deplored the commercialization of a once unspoiled indigenous culture. Similarly, "God's Children" and "Apeman" (both 1970), and the songs "20th Century Man", "Complicated Life" and "Here Come the People in Grey" from "Muswell Hillbillies" (1971), passionately decried industrialization and bureaucracy in favour of simple pastoral living. Perhaps most significantly, the band's acclaimed 1968 concept album "The Kinks are the Village Green Preservation Society" gave an affectionate embrace to "Merry England" nostalgia and advocated for the preservation of traditional English country village and hamlet life.


title: Ray Davies

text: A definitive testament to Davies's reputation as a songwriter of insight, empathy and wit can be heard on the Kinks' landmark 1969 album "Arthur (or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire)". Originally conceived as the soundtrack to a television play that was never produced, the band's first rock opera affectionately chronicled the trials and tribulations of a working-class everyman and his family from the very end of the Victorian era through the First World War and Second World War, the postwar austerity years, and up to the 1960s. The overall theme of the record was partly inspired by the life of Ray and Dave Davies's brother-in-law, Arthur Anning, who had married their elder sister Rose—herself the subject of an earlier Kinks song, "Rosie Won't You Please Come Home" (1966)—and had emigrated to Australia after the war. Over the course of a dozen evocative songs, "Arthur" fulfils its ambitious subtitle as Davies embellishes an intimate family chronicle with satirical observations about the shifting mores of the English working class in response to the declining fortunes of the British Empire.


title: Ray Davies

text: This period on the RCA label (1971–75) produced "Muswell Hillbillies", "Everybody's in Show-Biz", "Preservation Act 1" and "Act 2", "Soap Opera" and "Schoolboys in Disgrace".


title: Ray Davies

text: When the Kinks changed record labels from RCA to Arista in 1976, Davies abandoned his recent propensity for ambitious, theatrical concept albums and rock operas (see above) and returned to writing more basic, straightforward songs. During this decade the group founded their own London recording studio "Konk" which employed newer production techniques to achieve a more refined sound on the albums "Sleepwalker" (1977) and "Misfits" (1978). Davies's focus shifted to wistful ballads of restless alienation ("Life on the Road", "Misfits"), meditations on the inner lives of obsessed pop fans ("Juke Box Music", "A Rock 'n' Roll Fantasy"), and exhortations of "carpe diem" ("Life Goes On", "Live Life", "Get Up"). A notable single from late 1977 reflected the contemporary influence of punk rock, "Father Christmas" (A-side) and "Prince of the Punks" (B-side—inspired by Davies's troubled collaboration with Tom Robinson).


title: Ray Davies

text: By the early 80s, the Kinks revived their commercial fortunes considerably by adopting a much more mainstream arena rock style; and the band's four remaining studio albums for Arista—"Low Budget" (1979), "Give the People What They Want" (1981), "State of Confusion" (1983) and "Word of Mouth" (1984)—showcased a decidedly canny and opportunistic approach. On "(Wish I Could Fly Like) Superman", Davies vented his existential angst about the 1979 energy crisis over a thumping disco beat; on "A Gallon of Gas", he addressed the same concern over a traditional acoustic twelve-bar blues shuffle. In contrast, "Better Things" (1981), "Come Dancing" (1982), "Don't Forget to Dance" (1983) and "Good Day" (1984) were sentimental songs of hope and nostalgia for the aging Air Raid Generation. However, with "Catch Me Now I'm Falling" (1979), "Destroyer" (1981), "Clichés of the World (B Movie)" (1983) and "Do It Again" (1984), the Davies brothers cranked out strident, heavy-riffing hard rock that conveyed an attitude of bitter cynicism and world weary disillusionment.


title: Ray Davies

text: Aside from the lengthy Kinks discography, Davies has released seven solo albums: the 1985 release "Return to Waterloo" (which accompanied a television film he wrote and directed), the 1998 release "The Storyteller", "Other People's Lives" in early 2006, "Working Man's Café" in October 2007, "The Kinks Choral Collection" in June 2009, "Americana" in April 2017, and its sequel, "" in June 2018.


title: Ray Davies

text: In 1986, he contributed the track "Quiet Life" to the soundtrack of the Julien Temple film "Absolute Beginners" that is a musical film adapted from Colin MacInnes' book of the same name about life in late 1950s London. The song was released as a single. Davies appeared in the film, in which he also sang "Quiet Life".


title: Ray Davies

text: In 1990, Davies was inducted, with the Kinks, into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and, in 2005, into the UK Music Hall of Fame.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies published his "unauthorised autobiography", "X-Ray", in 1994. In 1997, he published a book of short stories entitled "Waterloo Sunset". He has made three films, "Return to Waterloo" in 1985, "Weird Nightmare" (a documentary about Charles Mingus) in 1991, and "Americana".


title: Ray Davies

text: On 4 January 2004, Davies was shot in the leg while chasing thieves who had snatched the purse of his companion as they walked in the French Quarter of New Orleans, Louisiana. The shooting came less than a week after Davies was named a Commander of the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II.


title: Ray Davies

text: In 2005, Davies released "The Tourist", a four-song EP, in the UK; and "Thanksgiving Day", a five-song EP, in the US.


title: Ray Davies

text: A choral album, "The Kinks Choral Collection", on which Davies had been collaborating with the Crouch End Festival Chorus since 2007, was released in the UK in June 2009 and in the US in November 2009. The album was re-released as a special extended edition including Davies's charity Christmas single "Postcard From London" featuring Davies's former girlfriend and leader of the Pretenders, Chrissie Hynde. The video for the single was directed by Julien Temple and features London landmarks including Waterloo Bridge, Carnaby Street, the statue of Eros steps and the Charlie Chaplin statue in Leicester Square. The duet was originally recorded with Kate Nash. His first choice had been Dame Vera Lynn.


title: Ray Davies

text: In October 2009, Davies performed "All Day and All of the Night" with Metallica at the 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies was a judge for the 3rd (in 2004) and 7th (in 2008) annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies played at the Glastonbury Festival 2010 where he dedicated several songs to the late Kinks' bassist, Pete Quaife.


title: Ray Davies

text: A collaborations album, "See My Friends", was released in November 2010 with a US release to follow in early 2011.


title: Ray Davies

text: 2011 also marked Davies's return to New Orleans, Louisiana, to play the Voodoo Experience Music festival. His setlist included material by the Kinks and solo material. That autumn, he toured with the 88 as his backing band. In August 2012, Davies performed "Waterloo Sunset" as part of the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Summer Olympics, watched by over 24 million viewers in the UK; the song was subsequently cut by NBC from the US broadcast, in favour of a preview of its upcoming show "Animal Practice".


title: Ray Davies

text: On 18 December 2015, Ray joined his brother Dave for an encore at London's Islington Assembly Hall. The two performed "You Really Got Me", marking the first time in nearly 20 years that the brothers had appeared and performed together.


title: Ray Davies

text: In April 2017, Davies released the album "Americana". Based on his experiences in the US it follows on from the short DVD "Americana — a work in progress" (found on the deluxe CD "Working Man's Cafe" from 2007), and his biographical book "Americana" from 2013. A second volume "Our Country - Americana Act II" was released in June 2018. For his backing band on "Americana" Davies chose The Jayhawks, an alt-country/country-rock band from Minnesota.


title: Ray Davies

text: In 1981, Davies collaborated with Barrie Keeffe in writing his first stage musical, "Chorus Girls", which opened at the Theatre Royal Stratford East, London, starring Marc Sinden, and had a supporting cast of Michael Elphick, Anita Dobson, Lesley Manville, Kate Williams and Charlotte Cornwell. It was directed by Adrian Shergold, the choreography was by Charles Augins, and Jim Rodford played bass as part of the theatre's "house band".


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies wrote songs for a musical version of Jules Verne's "Around the World in 80 Days"; the show, "80 Days", had a book by playwright Snoo Wilson. It was directed by Des McAnuff and ran at the La Jolla Playhouse's Mandell Weiss Theatre in San Diego from 23 August to 9 October 1988. The musical received mixed responses from the critics. Davies's multi-faceted music, McAnuff's directing, and the acting, however, were well received, with the show winning the "Best Musical" award from the San Diego Theatre Critics Circle.


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies's musical "Come Dancing", based partly on his 1983 hit single with 20 new songs, ran at the Theatre Royal Stratford East, London in September–November 2008.


title: Ray Davies

text: "Sunny Afternoon", a musical based on Ray Davies's early life and featuring Kinks songs opened to critical acclaim at Hampstead Theatre. The musical moved to the Harold Pinter Theatre in London's West End in October 2014. The musical won four awards at the 2015 Olivier Awards, including one for Ray Davies: the Autograph Sound Award for Outstanding Achievement in Music .


title: Ray Davies

text: Davies has been married three times and has four daughters. Two of them, Louisa and Victoria, are from his first marriage in 1964 to Rasa Dicpetris. He changed his legal name by deed poll to "Raymond Douglas" for five years, which allowed him anonymity for his second marriage in 1974 to Yvonne Gunner. The couple had no children. Davies had a relationship with Chrissie Hynde of The Pretenders during the 1980s, during which time their daughter Natalie Rae Hynde was born. His third marriage was to Irish ballet dancer Patricia Crosbie, with whom he had a daughter named Eva.


title: Ray Davies

text: In January 2004, Davies was shot in the leg while chasing thieves who had snatched his companion's purse as they walked through the French Quarter of New Orleans. A man was arrested, but the charges were dropped because Davies had already returned to London and did not come back to New Orleans for the trial.


title: Ray Davies

text: In June 2011, Davies' doctor ordered him to stay at home and rest for six months after blood clots were discovered in his lungs.


title: Ray Davies

text: The following is a list of Davies compositions that were chart hits for artists other than The Kinks i.e. covers. Some were originally hits for The Kinks themselves. (See "The Kinks discography" for hits by The Kinks.)


title: Canadian Indian residential school system

text: In Canada, the Indian residential school system was a network of boarding schools for Indigenous peoples. The network was funded by the Canadian government's Department of Indian Affairs and administered by Christian churches. The school system was created to isolate Indigenous children from the influence of their own native culture and religion in order to assimilate them into the dominant Canadian culture. Over the course of the system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. By the 1930s, about 30 percent of Indigenous children were attending residential schools. The number of school-related deaths remains unknown due to incomplete records. Estimates range from 3,200 to over 30,000, mostly from disease.


text: The system had its origins in laws enacted before Confederation, but it was primarily active from the passage of the "Indian Act" in 1876, under Prime Minister Alexander MacKenzie. Under Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, the government adopted the residential industrial school system of the United States, a partnership between the government and various church organizations. An amendment to the "Indian Act" in 1894, under Prime Minister Mackenzie Bowell, made attendance at day schools, industrial schools, or residential schools compulsory for First Nations children. Due to the remote nature of many communities, school locations meant that for some families, residential schools were the only way to comply. The schools were intentionally located at substantial distances from Indigenous communities to minimize contact between families and their children. Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued for schools at greater distances to reduce family visits, which he thought counteracted efforts to assimilate Indigenous children. Parental visits were further restricted by the use of a pass system designed to confine Indigenous peoples to reserves. The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet, closed in 1997. Schools operated in every province and territory with the exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island.


text: The residential school system harmed Indigenous children significantly by removing them from their families, depriving them of their ancestral languages, and exposing many of them to physical and sexual abuse. Conditions in the schools led to student malnutrition, starvation, and disease. Students were also subjected to forced enfranchisement as "assimilated" citizens that removed their legal identity as Indians. Disconnected from their families and culture and forced to speak English or French, students often graduated being unable to fit into their communities but remaining subject to racist attitudes in mainstream Canadian society. The system ultimately proved successful in disrupting the transmission of Indigenous practices and beliefs across generations. The legacy of the system has been linked to an increased prevalence of post-traumatic stress, alcoholism, substance abuse, suicide, and intergenerational trauma which persist within Indigenous communities today.


text: Starting in the late 2000s, the Canadian government and religious communities have begun to recognize, and issue apologies for, their respective roles in the residential school system. Prime Minister Stephen Harper offered a public apology on his behalf and that of the other federal political party leaders. On June 1, 2008, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established to uncover the truth about the schools. The commission gathered about 7,000 statements from residential school survivors through various local, regional and national events across Canada. In 2015, the TRC concluded with the establishment of the National Centre for Truth and Reconciliation and released a report that concluded that the school system amounted to cultural genocide. Ongoing efforts since 2021 have identified thousands of probable unmarked graves on the grounds of former residential schools, though no human remains have yet to be exhumed. During a penitential pilgrimage to Canada in July 2022, Pope Francis reiterated the apologies of the Catholic Church for its role, also acknowledging the system as genocide. In October 2022, the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion calling on the federal Canadian government to recognize the residential school system as genocide.


text: Attempts to assimilate Indigenous peoples were rooted in imperial colonialism centred around European worldviews and cultural practices, and a concept of land ownership based on the discovery doctrine. As explained in the executive summary of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada's (TRC) final report: "Underlying these arguments was the belief that the colonizers were bringing civilization to savage people who could never civilize themselves ... a belief of racial and cultural superiority."


text: Assimilation efforts began as early as the 17th century with the arrival of French missionaries in New France. They were resisted by Indigenous communities who were unwilling to leave their children for extended periods. The establishment of day and boarding schools by groups including the Récollets, Jesuits and Ursulines was largely abandoned by the 1690s. The political instability and realities of colonial life also played a role in the decision to halt the education programs. An increase in orphaned and foundling colonial children limited church resources, and colonists benefited from favourable relations with Indigenous peoples in both the fur trade and military pursuits.


text: Educational programs were not widely attempted again by religious officials until the 1820s, prior to the introduction of state-sanctioned operations. Included among them was a school established by John West, an Anglican missionary, at the Red River Colony in what is today Manitoba. Protestant missionaries also opened residential schools in what is now the province of Ontario, spreading Christianity and working to encourage Indigenous peoples to adopt subsistence agriculture as a way to ensure they would not return to their original, nomadic ways of life upon graduation.


text: Although many of these early schools were open for only a short time, efforts persisted. The Mohawk Institute Residential School, the oldest continuously operated residential school in Canada, opened in 1834 on Six Nations of the Grand River near Brantford, Ontario. Administered by the Anglican Church, the facility opened as the Mechanics' Institute, a day school for boys, in 1828 and became a boarding school four years later when it accepted its first boarders and began admitting female students. It remained in operation until June 30, 1970.


text: The renewed interest in residential schools in the early 1800s can be linked to the decline in military hostility faced by the settlers, particularly after the War of 1812. With the threat of invasion by American forces minimized, Indigenous communities were no longer viewed as allies but as barriers to permanent settlement. This change was also associated with the transfer of responsibility for interactions with Indigenous communities from military officials, familiar with and sympathetic to their customs and way of life, to civilian representatives concerned only with permanent colonial settlement.


text: Beginning in the late 1800s, the Canadian government's Department of Indian Affairs (DIA) officially encouraged the growth of the residential school system as a valuable component in a wider policy of integrating Indigenous people into European-Canadian society. The TRC found that the schools, and the removal of children from their families, amounted to cultural genocide, a conclusion that echoed the words of historian John S. Milloy, who argued that the system's aim was to "kill the Indian in the child." Over the course of the system's more than hundred-year existence, around 150,000 children were placed in residential schools nationally. As the system was designed as an immersion program, Indigenous children were in many schools prohibited from, and sometimes punished for, speaking their own languages or practising their own faiths. The primary stated goal was to convert Indigenous children to Christianity and acculturate them.


text: Many of the government-funded residential schools were run by churches of various denominations. Between 1867 and 1939, the number of schools operating at one time peaked at 80 in 1931. Of those schools, 44 were operated by 16 Catholic dioceses and about three dozen Catholic communities; 21 were operated by the Church of England / Anglican Church of Canada; 13 were operated by the United Church of Canada, and 2 were operated by Presbyterians. The approach of using established school facilities set up by missionaries was employed by the federal government for economic expedience: the government provided facilities and maintenance, while the churches provided teachers and their own lesson-planning. As a result, the number of schools per denomination was less a reflection of their presence in the general population, but rather their legacy of missionary work.


text: Although education in Canada was made the jurisdiction of the provincial governments by the "British North America Act", Indigenous peoples and their treaties were under the jurisdiction of the federal government. As a condition of several treaties, the federal government agreed to provide for Indigenous education. Residential schools were funded under the "Indian Act" by what was then the federal Department of the Interior. Adopted in 1876 as "An Act to amend and consolidate the laws respecting Indians", it consolidated all previous laws placing Indigenous communities, land and finances under federal control. As explained by the TRC, the act "made Indians wards of the state, unable to vote in provincial or federal elections or enter the professions if they did not surrender their status, and severely limited their freedom to participate in spiritual and cultural practices."


text: The report commissioned by Governor General Charles Bagot, titled "Report on the affairs of the Indians in Canada" and referred to as the Bagot Report, is seen as the foundational document for the federal residential school system. It was supported by James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin, who had been impressed by industrial schools in the West Indies, and Egerton Ryerson, who was then the Chief Superintendent of Education in Upper Canada.


text: On May 26, 1847, Ryerson wrote a letter for George Vardon, Assistant Superintendent of Indian Affairs, asserting that "the North American Indian cannot be civilized or preserved in a state of civilization (including habits of industry and sobriety) except in connection with, if not by the influence of, not only religious instruction and sentiment but of religious feelings". He expressly recommended that Indigenous students be educated in a separate, denominational, English-only system with a focus on industrial training. This letter was published in 1898 as an appendix to a larger report entitled "Statistics Respecting Indian Schools".


text: The "Gradual Civilization Act" of 1857 and the "Gradual Enfranchisement Act" of 1869 formed the foundations for this system prior to Confederation. These acts assumed the inherent superiority of French and British ways, and the need for Indigenous peoples to become French or English speakers, Christians, and farmers. At the time, many Indigenous leaders argued to have these acts overturned. The "Gradual Civilization Act" awarded of land to any Indigenous male deemed "sufficiently advanced in the elementary branches of education" and would automatically enfranchise him, removing any tribal affiliation or treaty rights. With this legislation, and through the creation of residential schools, the government believed Indigenous peoples could eventually become assimilated into the general population. Individual allotments of farmland would require changes in the communal reserve system, something fiercely opposed by First Nations governments.


text: In January 1879, John A. Macdonald, Prime Minister of what was then post-Confederation Canada, commissioned politician Nicholas Flood Davin to write a report regarding the industrial boarding-school system in the United States. Now known as the Davin Report, the "Report on Industrial Schools for Indians and Half-Breeds" was submitted to Ottawa on March 14, 1879, and made the case for a cooperative approach between the Canadian government and the church to implement the assimilation pursued by President of the United States, Ulysses S. Grant. Davin's report relied heavily on findings he acquired through consultations with government officials and representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes in Washington, DC, and church officials in Winnipeg, Manitoba. He visited only one industrial day school, in Minnesota, before submitting his findings. In his report Davin concluded that the best way to assimilate Indigenous peoples was to start with children in a residential setting, away from their families.


text: Davin's findings were supported by Vital-Justin Grandin, who felt that while the likelihood of civilizing adults was low, there was hope when it came to Indigenous children. He explained in a letter to Public Works Minister Hector-Louis Langevin that the best course of action would be to make children "lead a life different from their parents and cause them to forget the customs, habits & language of their ancestors." In 1883 Parliament approved $43,000 for three industrial schools and the first, Battleford Industrial School, opened on December 1 of that year. By 1900, there were 61 schools in operation.


text: The government began purchasing church-run boarding schools in the 1920s. During this period capital costs associated with the schools were assumed by the government, leaving administrative and instructional duties to church officials. The hope was that minimizing facility expenditures would allow church administrators to provide higher quality instruction and support to the students in their care. Although the government was willing to, and did, purchase schools from the churches, many were acquired for free given that the rampant disrepair present in the buildings resulted in their having no economic value. Schools continued to be maintained by churches in instances where they failed to reach an agreement with government officials with the understanding that the government would provide support for capital costs. The understanding ultimately proved complicated due to the lack of written agreements outlining the extent and nature of that support or the approvals required to undertake expensive renovations and repairs.


text: By the 1930s government officials recognized that the residential school system was financially unsustainable and failing to meet the intended goal of training and assimilating Indigenous children into European-Canadian society. Robert Hoey, Superintendent of Welfare and Training in the Indian Affairs Branch of the federal Department of Mines and Resources, opposed the expansion of new schools, noting in 1936 that "to build educational institutions, particularly residential schools, while the money at our disposal is insufficient to keep the schools already erected in a proper state of repair, is, to me, very unsound and a practice difficult to justify." He proposed the expansion of day schools, an approach to educating Indigenous children that he would continue to pursue after being promoted to director of the welfare and training branch in 1945. The proposal was resisted by the United Church, the Anglican Church, and the Missionary Oblates of Mary Immaculate, who believed that the solution to the system's failure was not restructuring but intensification.


text: Between 1945 and 1955, the number of First Nations students in day schools run by Indian Affairs expanded from 9,532 to 17,947. This growth in student population was accompanied by an amendment to the "Indian Act" in 1951 that allowed federal officials to establish agreements with provincial and territorial governments and school boards regarding the education of Indigenous students in the public school system. These changes marked the government's shift in policy from assimilation-driven education at residential schools to the integration of Indigenous students into public schools. It was believed that Indigenous children would receive a better education as a result of their transition into the public school system.


text: Despite the shift in policy from educational assimilation to integration, the removal of Indigenous children from their families by state officials continued through much of the 1960s and 70s. The removals were the result of the 1951 addition of section 88 of the "Indian Act", which allowed for the application of provincial laws to Indigenous peoples living on reserves in instances where federal laws were not in place. The change included the monitoring of child welfare. With no requirement for specialized training regarding the traditions or lifestyles of the communities they entered, provincial officials assessed the welfare of Indigenous children based on Euro-Canadian values that, for example, deemed traditional diets of game, fish and berries insufficient and grounds for taking children into custody. This period resulted in the widespread removal of Indigenous children from their traditional communities, first termed the Sixties Scoop by Patrick Johnston, the author of the 1983 report "Native Children and the Child Welfare System". Often taken without the consent of their parents or community elders, some children were placed in state-run child welfare facilities, increasingly operated in former residential schools, while others were fostered or placed up for adoption by predominantly non-Indigenous families throughout Canada and the United States. While the Indian and Northern Affairs estimates that 11,132 children were adopted between 1960 and 1990, the actual number may be as high as 20,000.


text: In 1969, after years of sharing power with churches, the DIA took sole control of the residential school system. The last federally-funded residential school, Kivalliq Hall in Rankin Inlet, closed in 1997. Residential schools operated in every Canadian province and territory with the exception of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. It is estimated that the number of residential schools reached its peak in the early 1930s with 80 schools and more than 17,000 enrolled students. About 150,000 children are believed to have attended a residential school over the course of the system's existence.


text: Some parents and families of Indigenous children resisted the residential school system throughout its existence. Children were kept from schools and, in some cases, hidden from government officials tasked with rounding up children on reserves. Parents regularly advocated for increased funding for schools, including the increase of centrally located day schools to improve access to their children, and made repeated requests for improvements to the quality of education, food, and clothing being provided at the schools. Demands for answers in regards to claims of abuse were often dismissed as a ploy by parents seeking to keep their children at home, with government and school officials positioned as those who knew best.


text: In 1894, amendments to the "Indian Act" made school attendance compulsory for Indigenous children between 7 and 16 years of age. The changes included a series of exemptions regarding school location, the health of the children and their prior completion of school examinations. It was changed to children between 6 and 15 years of age in 1908. The introduction of mandatory attendance was the result of pressure from missionary representatives. Reliant on student enrolment quotas to secure funding, they were struggling to attract new students due to increasingly poor school conditions.


text: The introduction of the "Family Allowance Act" in 1945 stipulated that school-aged children had to be enroled in school for families to qualify for the "baby bonus", further coercing Indigenous parents into having their children attend.


text: Students in the residential school system were faced with a multitude of abuses by teachers and administrators, including sexual and physical assault. They suffered from malnourishment and harsh discipline that would not have been tolerated in any other Canadian school system. Corporal punishment was often justified by a belief that it was the only way to save souls or punish and deter runaways – whose injuries or death sustained in their efforts to return home would become the legal responsibility of the school. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, inadequate heating, and a lack of medical care led to high rates of influenza and tuberculosis; in one school, the death rate reached 69 percent. Federal policies that tied funding to enrollment numbers led to sick children being enrolled to boost numbers, thus introducing and spreading disease. The problem of unhealthy children was further exacerbated by the conditions of the schools themselves – overcrowding and poor ventilation, water quality and sewage systems.


text: Until the late 1950s, when the federal government shifted to a day school integration model, residential schools were severely underfunded and often relied on the forced labour of their students to maintain their facilities, although it was presented as training for artisanal skills. The work was arduous, and severely compromised the academic and social development of the students. School books and textbooks were drawn mainly from the curricula of the provincially funded public schools for non-Indigenous students, and teachers at the residential schools were often poorly trained or prepared. During this period, Canadian government scientists performed nutritional tests on students and kept some students undernourished as the control sample.


text: Details of the mistreatment of students were published numerous times throughout the 20th century by government officials reporting on school conditions, and in the proceedings of civil cases brought forward by survivors seeking compensation for the abuse they endured. The conditions and impact of residential schools were also brought to light in popular culture as early as 1967, with the publication of "The Lonely Death of Chanie Wenjack" by Ian Adams in "Maclean's" and the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67. In the 1990s, investigations and memoirs by former students revealed that many students at residential schools were subjected to severe physical, psychological, and sexual abuse by school staff members and by older students. Among the former students to come forward was Phil Fontaine, then Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs, who in October 1990 publicly discussed the abuse he and others suffered while attending Fort Alexander Indian Residential School.


text: After the government closed most of the schools in the 1960s, the work of Indigenous activists and historians led to greater awareness by the public of the damage the schools had caused, as well as to official government and church apologies, and a legal settlement. These gains were achieved through the persistent organizing and advocacy by Indigenous communities to draw attention to the residential school system's legacy of abuse, including their participation in hearings of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.


text: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission list three reasons behind the federal government's decision to establish residential schools.


text: In addition to these three the Commission stated a national security element and quoted Andsell Macrae, a commissioner with Indian Affairs: "it is unlikely that any Tribe or Tribes would give trouble of a serious nature to the Government whose members had children completely under Government control."


text: The federal government sought to cut costs by adopting the residential industrial school system of the United States. Indian Commissioner Edgar Dewdney aspired to have the residential schools, through forced labour, be financially independent a few years after opening. The government believed through the industrial system and cheap labour costs of missionary staff it could "operate a residential school system on a nearly cost-free basis." Students "were expected to raise or grow and prepare most of the food they ate, to make and repair much of their clothing, and to maintain the schools." Most schools did this through a system where students studied for half the day and did "vocational training" for the other half. This system failed and the schools never became self-supporting.


text: By 1891, the government cut already low salaries, stopped covering operating costs, and implemented a fixed amount of funding per student. This policy drove competition and encouraged the admission of students that were deemed "too young or too sick." The chronic underfunding developed a health crisis within the schools and a financial crisis within the missionary groups. In 1911, in an attempt to alleviate the health crisis the federal government increased per capita grant funding. However, the funding did not adjust for inflation. In the 1930s, throughout the Great Depression, and World War II that grant was repeatedly reduced. In 1937, the per capita grant averaged $180 per student per year. For perspective, per-capita costs for comparable institutions included: Manitoba School for the Deaf $642, Manitoba School for Boys $550, U.S. Chilocco Indian Agricultural School $350. The Child Welfare League of America stated per capita costs for "well-run institutions" ranged between $313 and $541, Canada was paying 57.5% of the minimum figure. Changes in per capita costs did not occur until the 1950s and were seen as insignificant. In 1966, Saskatchewan residential schools per capita costs ranged from $694 and $1,193, which is 7%–36% of what other Canadian child-welfare institutions were paying ($3,300 and $9,855) and 5%–25% of what U.S. residential care was paying ($4,500 and $14,059.)


text: Government officials believed that since many staff members belonged to religious orders with vows of poverty or missionary organizations, pay was relatively unimportant. Thus almost all staff were poorly paid and schools had trouble recruiting and retaining staff. In 1948, C.H. Birdsall, chair of the United Church committee responsible for the Edmonton school, in regard to the lack of funding for salaries, accommodations, and equipment, stated that it was "doubtful the present work with Indian Children could properly be called education." In 1948, Sechelt school staff were paying full-time staff a salary of $1800. In the 1960s, Christie school staff were paid $50 a month.


text: The per capita grant system severely decreased the education quality. British Columbia Indian Superintendent Arthur Wellesley Vowell in response to one of his agents recommending they only approve qualified teaching staff stated that that would require more funding and that Indian Affairs did not "entertain requests for increased grants to Indian boarding and industrial schools." The pay was so low relative to provincial schools that many of the teachers lacked any teaching qualifications.


text: Federal cuts to funding during the Great Depression resulted in students paying the price. By 1937, at the Kamloops Indian Residential School, milk production among the schools dairy herds was reduced by 50%. The federal government refused to fund construction for an additional barn to increase milk production and isolate the sick animals. Even among other schools dairy herds, funding was so low that milk was separated with "skimmed milk served to the children" and the fat turned to dairy products sold to fund the schools. In 1939, the Presbyterian school in Kenora began charging students 10 cents a loaf until their Indian agent ordered the school to stop.


text: Parents and family members regularly travelled to the schools, often camping outside to be closer to their children. So many parents made the trip that Indian Commissioner Hayter Reed argued that the schools should be moved farther from the reserves to make visiting more difficult. He also objected to allowing children to return home during school breaks and holidays because he believed the trips interrupted their assimilation.


text: Visitation, for those who could make the journey, was strictly controlled by school officials in a manner similar to the procedures enforced in the prison system. In some cases schools denied parents access to their children altogether. Others required families to meet with them in the presence of school officials and speak only in English; parents who could not speak in English were unable to talk to their children. The obstacles families faced to visit their children were further exacerbated by the pass system. Introduced by Reed, without legislative authority to do so, the pass system restricted and closely monitored the movement of Indigenous peoples off reserves. Launched in 1885 as a response to the North-West Rebellion, and later replaced by permits, the system was designed to prevent Indigenous people from leaving reserves without a pass issued by a local Indian agent.


text: Instruction provided to students was rooted in an institutional and European approach to education. It differed dramatically from child rearing in traditional knowledge systems based on 'look, listen, and learn' models. Corporal punishment and loss of privileges characterized the residential school system, while traditional Indigenous approaches to education favour positive guidance toward desired behaviour through game-based play, story-telling, and formal ritualized ceremonies. While at school, many children had no contact with their families for up to 10 months at a time, and in some cases had no contact for years. The impact of the disconnect from their families was furthered by students being discouraged or prohibited from speaking Indigenous languages, even among themselves and outside the classroom, so that English or French would be learned and their own languages forgotten. In some schools, they were subject to physical violence for speaking their own languages or for practicing non-Christian faiths.


text: Most schools operated with the stated goal of providing students with the vocational training and social skills required to obtain employment and integrate into Canadian society after graduation. In actuality, these goals were poorly and inconsistently achieved. Many graduates were unable to land a job due to poor educational training. Returning home was equally challenging due to an unfamiliarity with their culture and, in some cases, an inability to communicate with family members using their traditional language. Instead of intellectual achievement and advancement, it was often physical appearance and dress, like that of middle class, urban teenagers, or the promotion of a Christian ethic, that was used as a sign of successful assimilation. There was no indication that school attendees achieved greater financial success than those who did not go to school. As the father of a pupil who attended Battleford Industrial School, in Saskatchewan, for five years explained: "he cannot read, speak or write English, nearly all his time having been devoted to herding and caring for cattle instead of learning a trade or being otherwise educated. Such employment he can get at home."


text: Both academic research and the final report of the Truth and Reconciliation Committee relay evidence that students were included in several scientific research experiments without their knowledge, their consent or the consent of their parents. These experiments include nutrition experiments which involved intentional malnourishment of children, vaccine trials for the BCG vaccine, as well as studies on extrasensory perception, vitamin D diet supplements, amebicides, isoniazid, hemoglobin, bedwetting, and dermatoglyphics.


text: Residential school deaths were common and have been linked to poorly constructed and maintained facilities. The actual number of deaths remains unknown due to inconsistent reporting by school officials and the destruction of medical and administrative records in compliance with retention and disposition policies for government records. Research by the TRC revealed that at least 3,201 students had died, mostly from disease. TRC chair Justice Murray Sinclair has suggested that the number of deaths may exceed 6,000. The vast majority of deaths occurred before the 1950s.


text: The 1906 Annual Report of the Department of Indian Affairs, submitted by chief medical officer Peter Bryce, highlighted that the "Indian population of Canada has a mortality rate of more than double that of the whole population, and in some provinces more than three times". Among the list of causes he noted the infectious disease of tuberculosis and the role residential schools played in spreading the disease by way of poor ventilation and medical screening.