title: History of film

text: The use of insert shots, i.e. close-ups of objects other than faces, had already been established by the Brighton school, but were infrequently used before 1914. It is really only with Griffith's "The Avenging Conscience" that a new phase in the use of the Insert Shot starts.As well as the symbolic inserts already mentioned, the film also made extensive use of large numbers of Big Close Up shots of clutching hands and tapping feet as a means of emphasizing those parts of the body as indicators of psychological tension.


title: History of film

text: Atmospheric inserts were developed in Europe in the late 1910s. This kind of shot is one in a scene which neither contains any of the characters in the story, nor is a Point of View shot seen by one of them. An early example is when Maurice Tourneur directed "The Pride of the Clan" (1917), in which there is a series of shots of waves beating on a rocky shore to demonstrate the harsh lives of the fishing folk. Maurice Elvey's "Nelson; The Story of England's Immortal Naval Hero" (1919) has a symbolic sequence dissolving from a picture of Kaiser Wilhelm II to a peacock, and then to a battleship.


title: History of film

text: By 1914, continuity cinema was the established mode of commercial cinema. One of the advanced continuity techniques involved an accurate and smooth transition from one shot to another.Cutting to "different" angles within a scene also became well-established as a technique for dissecting a scene into shots in American films.If the direction of the shot changes by more than ninety degrees, it is called a reverse-angle cutting. The leading figure in the full development of reverse-angle cutting was Ralph Ince in his films, such as "The Right Girl" and "His Phantom Sweetheart".


title: History of film

text: The use of flash-back structures continued to develop in this period, with the usual way of entering and leaving a flash-back being through a dissolve. The Vitagraph company's "The Man That Might Have Been" (William J. Humphrey, 1914), is even more complex, with a series of reveries and flash-backs that contrast the protagonist's real passage through life with what might have been, if his son had not died.


title: History of film

text: After 1914, cross cutting between parallel actions came to be used more so in American films than in European ones. Cross-cutting was used to get new effects of contrast, such as the cross-cut sequence in Cecil B. DeMille's "The Whispering Chorus" (1918), in which a supposedly dead husband is having a liaison with a Chinese prostitute in an opium den, while simultaneously his unknowing wife is being remarried in church.


title: History of film

text: Silent film tinting, too, gained popularity during these periods. Amber tinting meant daytime, or vividly-lit nighttime, blue tints meant dawn or dimly-lit night, red tinting represented fire scenes, green tinting meant a mysterious atmosphere, and brown tints (aka sepia toning) were used usually for full-length films instead of individual scenes. D.W. Griffiths' groundbreaking epic, "The Birth of a Nation", the famous 1920 film "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde", and the Robert Wiene epic from the same year, "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari", are some notable examples of tinted silent films.


title: History of film

text: "The Photo-Drama of Creation", first shown to audiences in 1914, was the first major screenplay to incorporate synchronized sound, moving film, and color slides. Until 1927, most motion pictures were produced without sound. This period is commonly referred to as the silent era of film.


title: History of film

text: The general trend in the development of cinema, led from the United States, was towards using the newly developed specifically filmic devices for expression of the narrative content of film stories, and combining this with the standard dramatic structures already in use in commercial theatre. D. W. Griffith had the highest standing amongst American directors in the industry, because of the dramatic excitement he conveyed to the audience through his films. Cecil B. DeMille's "The Cheat" (1915), brought out the moral dilemmas facing their characters in a more subtle way than Griffith. DeMille was also in closer touch with the reality of contemporary American life. Maurice Tourneur was also highly ranked for the pictorial beauties of his films, together with the subtlety of his handling of fantasy, while at the same time he was capable of getting greater naturalism from his actors at appropriate moments, as in "A Girl's Folly" (1917).


title: History of film

text: Sidney Drew was the leader in developing "polite comedy", while slapstick was refined by Fatty Arbuckle and Charles Chaplin, who both started with Mack Sennett's Keystone company. They reduced the usual frenetic pace of Sennett's films to give the audience a chance to appreciate the subtlety and finesse of their movement, and the cleverness of their gags. By 1917 Chaplin was also introducing more dramatic plot into his films, and mixing the comedy with sentiment.


title: History of film

text: In Russia, Yevgeni Bauer put a slow intensity of acting combined with Symbolist overtones onto film in a unique way.


title: History of film

text: In Sweden, Victor Sjöström made a series of films that combined the realities of people's lives with their surroundings in a striking manner, while Mauritz Stiller developed sophisticated comedy to a new level.


title: History of film

text: In Germany, Ernst Lubitsch got his inspiration from the stage work of Max Reinhardt, both in bourgeois comedy and in spectacle, and applied this to his films, culminating in his "die Puppe" ("The Doll"), "die Austernprinzessin" ("The Oyster Princess") and "Madame DuBarry".


title: History of film

text: At the start of the First World War, French and Italian cinema had been the most globally popular. The war came as a devastating interruption to European film industries.


title: History of film

text: The German cinema, marked by those times, saw the era of the German Expressionist film movement. Berlin was its center with the Filmstudio Babelsberg, which is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. The first Expressionist films made up for a lack of lavish budgets by using set designs with wildly non-realistic, geometrically absurd angles, along with designs painted on walls and floors to represent lights, shadows, and objects. The plots and stories of the Expressionist films often dealt with madness, insanity, betrayal and other "intellectual" topics triggered by the experiences of World War I. Films like "The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari" (1920), "Nosferatu" (1922) and "M" (1931), similar to the movement they were part of, had a historic impact on film itself.


title: History of film

text: Movies like "Metropolis" (1927) and "Woman in the Moon" (1929) partly created the genre of science fiction films.


title: History of film

text: Many German and German-based directors, actors, writers and others emigrated to the US when the Nazis gained power, giving Hollywood and the American film industry the final edge in its competition with other movie producing countries.


title: History of film

text: The American industry, or "Hollywood", as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in California, gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: film factory for the world and exporting its product to most countries on earth.


title: History of film

text: By the 1920s, the United States reached what is still its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 "feature" films annually, or 82% of the global total (Eyman, 1997). The comedies of Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, the swashbuckling adventures of Douglas Fairbanks and the romances of Clara Bow, to cite just a few examples, made these performers' faces well known on every continent. The Western visual norm that would become classical continuity editing was developed and exported – although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong realist traditions in art and drama, such as Japan.


title: History of film

text: This development was contemporary with the growth of the studio system and its greatest publicity method, the star system, which characterized American film for decades to come and provided models for other film industries. The studios' efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication. At the same time, the system's commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief but still legendary directing career of the iconoclastic Erich von Stroheim in the late teens and the 1920s.


title: History of film

text: During late 1927, Warners released "The Jazz Singer", which was mostly silent but contained what is generally regarded as the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film;but this process was actually accomplished first by Charles Taze Russell in 1914 with the lengthy film "The Photo-Drama of Creation". This drama consisted of picture slides and moving pictures synchronized with phonograph records of talks and music. The early sound-on-disc processes such as Vitaphone were soon superseded by sound-on-film methods like Fox Movietone, DeForest Phonofilm, and RCA Photophone. The trend convinced the largely reluctant industrialists that "talking pictures", or "talkies", were the future. A lot of attempts were made before the success of "The Jazz Singer", that can be seen in the List of film sound systems. And in 1926, Warner Bros. Debuts the film "Don Juan" with synchronized sound effects and music.


title: History of film

text: The change was remarkably swift. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons. Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like China and Japan, where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like Wu Yonggang's "The Goddess" (China, 1934) and Yasujirō Ozu's "I Was Born, But..." (Japan, 1932). But even in Japan, a figure such as the benshi, the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his acting career was ending.


title: History of film

text: Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the Great Depression (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called "The Golden Age of Hollywood", which refers roughly to the period beginning with the introduction of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic film stars, such as Clark Gable, Katharine Hepburn, Humphrey Bogart, Greta Garbo, and the greatest box office draw of the 1930s, child performer Shirley Temple.


title: History of film

text: Creatively, however, the rapid transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days. The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to use the new medium. Many stage performers, directors and writers were introduced to cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling. Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even ended.


title: History of film

text: This awkward period was fairly short-lived. 1929 was a watershed year: William Wellman with "Chinatown Nights" and "The Man I Love", Rouben Mamoulian with "Applause", Alfred Hitchcock with "Blackmail" (Britain's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997). In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming).


title: History of film

text: Sound films emphasized black history, and benefited different genres to a greater extent than silents did. Most obviously, the musical film was born; the first classic-style Hollywood musical was "The Broadway Melody" (1929), and the form would find its first major creator in choreographer/director Busby Berkeley ("42nd Street", 1933, "Dames", 1934). In France, avant-garde director René Clair made surreal use of song and dance in comedies like "Under the Roofs of Paris" (1930) and "Le Million" (1931). Universal Pictures began releasing gothic horror films like "Dracula" and "Frankenstein" (both 1931). In 1933, RKO Pictures released Merian C. Cooper's classic "giant monster" film "King Kong". The trend thrived best in India, where the influence of the country's traditional song-and-dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound films (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world's most prolific. ("See also Bollywood.")


title: History of film

text: At this time, American gangster films like "Little Caesar" and Wellman's "The Public Enemy" (both 1931) became popular. Dialogue now took precedence over slapstick in Hollywood comedies: the fast-paced, witty banter of "The Front Page" (1931) or "It Happened One Night" (1934), the sexual double entrendres of Mae West ("She Done Him Wrong", 1933), or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the Marx Brothers ("Duck Soup", 1933). Walt Disney, who had previously been in the short cartoon business, stepped into feature films with the first English-speaking animated feature "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs", released by RKO Pictures in 1937. 1939, a major year for American cinema, brought such films as "The Wizard of Oz" and "Gone with The Wind".


title: History of film

text: Previously, it was believed that color films were first projected in 1909 at the Palace Theatre in London (the main problem with the color being that the technique, created by George Smith, (Kinemacolor) only used two colors: green and red, which were mixed additively). But in fact, it was in 1901 when the first color film in history was created. This untitled film was directed by photographer Edward Raymond Turner and his patron Frederick Marshall Lee. The way they did it was to use black and white film rolls, but have green, red, and blue filters go over the camera individually as it shot. To complete the film, they joined the original footage and filters on a special projector. However, both the shooting of the film and its projection suffered from major unrelated issues that, eventually, sank the idea.


title: History of film

text: Subsequently, in 1916, the technicolor technique arrived (trichromatic procedure (green, red, blue). Its use required a triple photographic impression, incorporation of chromatic filters and cameras of enormous dimensions. The first audiovisual piece that was completely realized with this technique was the short of Walt Disney "Flowers and Trees", directed by Burt Gillett in 1932. Even so, the first film to be performed with this technique will be "The Vanities Fair" (1935) by Rouben Mamoulian. Later on, the technicolor was extended mainly in the musical field as "The Wizard of Oz" or "Singin' in the Rain", in films such as "The Adventures of Robin Hood" or the animation film, "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs".


title: History of film

text: In 1937, the first Technicolor film shot entirely on location "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine" was born.


title: History of film

text: The desire for wartime propaganda against the opposition created a renaissance in the film industry in Britain, with realistic war dramas like "49th Parallel" (1941), "Went the Day Well?" (1942), "The Way Ahead" (1944) and Noël Coward and David Lean's celebrated naval film "In Which We Serve" in 1942, which won a special Academy Award. These existed alongside more flamboyant films like Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's "The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp" (1943), "A Canterbury Tale" (1944) and "A Matter of Life and Death" (1946), as well as Laurence Olivier's 1944 film "Henry V", based on the Shakespearean history "Henry V". The success of "Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs" allowed Disney to make more animated features like "Pinocchio" (1940), "Fantasia" (1940), "Dumbo" (1941) and "Bambi" (1942).


title: History of film

text: The onset of US involvement in World War II also brought a proliferation of films as both patriotism and propaganda. American propaganda films included "Desperate Journey" (1942), "Mrs. Miniver" (1942), "Forever and a Day" (1943) and "Objective, Burma!" (1945). Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi "Watch on the Rhine" (1943), scripted by Dashiell Hammett; "Shadow of a Doubt" (1943), Hitchcock's direction of a script by Thornton Wilder; the George M. Cohan biopic, "Yankee Doodle Dandy" (1942), starring James Cagney, and the immensely popular "Casablanca", with Humphrey Bogart. Bogart would star in 36 films between 1934 and 1942 including John Huston's "The Maltese Falcon" (1941), one of the first films now considered a classic film noir. In 1941, RKO Pictures released "Citizen Kane" made by Orson Welles. It is often considered the greatest film of all time. It would set the stage for the modern motion picture, as it revolutionized film story telling.


title: History of film

text: The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects. These included Britain's Gainsborough melodramas (including "The Man in Grey" and "The Wicked Lady"), and films like "Here Comes Mr. Jordan", "Heaven Can Wait", "I Married a Witch" and "Blithe Spirit". Val Lewton also produced a series of atmospheric and influential small-budget horror films, some of the more famous examples being "Cat People", "Isle of the Dead" and "The Body Snatcher". The decade probably also saw the so-called "women's pictures", such as "Now, Voyager", "Random Harvest" and "Mildred Pierce" at the peak of their popularity.


title: History of film

text: 1946 saw RKO Radio releasing "It's a Wonderful Life" directed by Italian-born filmmaker Frank Capra. Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like "The Best Years of Our Lives", and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war. Samuel Fuller's experiences in World War II would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as "The Big Red One". The Actors Studio was founded in October 1947 by Elia Kazan, Robert Lewis, and Cheryl Crawford, and the same year Oskar Fischinger filmed "Motion Painting No. 1".


title: History of film

text: In 1943, "Ossessione" was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of Italian neorealism. Major films of this type during the 1940s included "Bicycle Thieves", "Rome, Open City", and "La Terra Trema". In 1952 "Umberto D" was released, usually considered the last film of this type.


title: History of film

text: In the late 1940s, in Britain, Ealing Studios embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including "Whisky Galore!", "Passport to Pimlico", "Kind Hearts and Coronets" and "The Man in the White Suit", and Carol Reed directed his influential thrillers "Odd Man Out", "The Fallen Idol" and "The Third Man". David Lean was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with "Brief Encounter" and his Dickens adaptations "Great Expectations" and "Oliver Twist", and Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger would experience the best of their creative partnership with films like "Black Narcissus" and "The Red Shoes".


title: History of film

text: The House Un-American Activities Committee investigated Hollywood in the early 1950s. Protested by the Hollywood Ten before the committee, the hearings resulted in the blacklisting of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, Charlie Chaplin, and Dalton Trumbo, and many of these fled to Europe, especially the United Kingdom.


title: History of film

text: The Cold War era zeitgeist translated into a type of near-paranoia manifested in themes such as invading armies of evil aliens ("Invasion of the Body Snatchers", "The War of the Worlds") and communist fifth columnists ("The Manchurian Candidate").


title: History of film

text: During the immediate post-war years the cinematic industry was also threatened by television, and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some film theatres would bankrupt and close. The demise of the "studio system" spurred the self-commentary of films like "Sunset Boulevard" (1950) and "The Bad and the Beautiful" (1952).


title: History of film

text: In 1950, the Lettrists avante-gardists caused riots at the Cannes Film Festival, when Isidore Isou's "Treatise on Slime and Eternity" was screened. After their criticism of Charlie Chaplin and split with the movement, the Ultra-Lettrists continued to cause disruptions when they showed their new hypergraphical techniques.


title: History of film

text: Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back. These included attempts to widen their appeal with new screen formats. Cinemascope, which would remain a 20th Century Fox distinction until 1967, was announced with 1953's "The Robe". VistaVision, Cinerama, and Todd-AO boasted a "bigger is better" approach to marketing films to a dwindling US audience. This resulted in the revival of epic films to take advantage of the new big screen formats. Some of the most successful examples of these Biblical and historical spectaculars include "The Ten Commandments" (1956), "The Vikings" (1958), "Ben-Hur" (1959), "Spartacus" (1960) and "El Cid" (1961). Also during this period a number of other significant films were produced in Todd-AO, developed by Mike Todd shortly before his death, including "Oklahoma!" (1955), "Around the World in 80 Days" (1956), "South Pacific" (1958) and "Cleopatra" (1963) plus many more.


title: History of film

text: Gimmicks also proliferated to lure in audiences. The fad for 3-D film would last for only two years, 1952–1954, and helped sell "House of Wax" and "Creature from the Black Lagoon". Producer William Castle would tout films featuring "Emergo" "Percepto", the first of a series of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s.


title: History of film

text: During this period, an outstanding success occurred to a negro female. In 1954, Dorothy Dandridge was nominated as the best actress at the Oscar for her role in the film Carman Jones. She became the first negro female to be nominated for this award.


title: History of film

text: In the U.S., a post-WW2 tendency toward questioning the establishment and societal norms and the early activism of the civil rights movement was reflected in Hollywood films such as "Blackboard Jungle" (1955), "On the Waterfront" (1954), Paddy Chayefsky's "Marty" and Reginald Rose's "12 Angry Men" (1957). Disney continued making animated films, notably; "Cinderella" (1950), "Peter Pan" (1953), "Lady and the Tramp" (1955), and "Sleeping Beauty" (1959). He began, however, getting more involved in live action films, producing classics like "20,000 Leagues Under the Sea" (1954), and "Old Yeller" (1957). Television began competing seriously with films projected in theatres, but surprisingly it promoted more filmgoing rather than curtailing it.


title: History of film

text: "Limelight" is probably a unique film in at least one interesting respect. Its two leads, Charlie Chaplin and Claire Bloom, were in the industry in no less than three different centuries. In the 19th century, Chaplin made his theatrical debut at the age of eight, in 1897, in a clog dancing troupe, The Eight Lancaster Lads. In the 21st century, Bloom is still enjoying a full and productive career, having appeared in dozens of films and television series produced up to and including 2019. She received particular acclaim for her role in "The King's Speech" (2010).


title: History of film

text: Following the end of World War II in the 1940s, the following decade, the 1950s, marked a 'golden age' for non-English world cinema, especially for Asian cinema. Many of the most critically acclaimed Asian films of all time were produced during this decade, including Yasujirō Ozu's "Tokyo Story" (1953), Satyajit Ray's "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–1959) and "Jalsaghar" (1958), Kenji Mizoguchi's "Ugetsu" (1954) and "Sansho the Bailiff" (1954), Raj Kapoor's "Awaara" (1951), Mikio Naruse's "Floating Clouds" (1955), Guru Dutt's "Pyaasa" (1957) and "Kaagaz Ke Phool" (1959), and the Akira Kurosawa films "Rashomon" (1950), "Ikiru" (1952), "Seven Samurai" (1954) and "Throne of Blood" (1957).


title: History of film

text: During Japanese cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, successful films included "Rashomon" (1950), "Seven Samurai" (1954) and "The Hidden Fortress" (1958) by Akira Kurosawa, as well as Yasujirō Ozu's "Tokyo Story" (1953) and Ishirō Honda's "Godzilla" (1954). These films have had a profound influence on world cinema. In particular, Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" has been remade several times as Western films, such as "The Magnificent Seven" (1960) and "Battle Beyond the Stars" (1980), and has also inspired several Bollywood films, such as "Sholay" (1975) and "China Gate" (1998). "Rashomon" was also remade as "The Outrage" (1964), and inspired films with "Rashomon effect" storytelling methods, such as "Andha Naal" (1954), "The Usual Suspects" (1995) and "Hero" (2002). "The Hidden Fortress" was also an inspiration behind George Lucas' "Star Wars" (1977). Other famous Japanese filmmakers from this period include Kenji Mizoguchi, Mikio Naruse, Hiroshi Inagaki and Nagisa Oshima. Japanese cinema later became one of the main inspirations behind the New Hollywood movement of the 1960s to 1980s.


title: History of film

text: During Indian cinema's 'Golden Age' of the 1950s, it was producing 200 films annually, while Indian independent films gained greater recognition through international film festivals. One of the most famous was "The Apu Trilogy" (1955–1959) from critically acclaimed Bengali film director Satyajit Ray, whose films had a profound influence on world cinema, with directors such as Akira Kurosawa, Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, Elia Kazan, François Truffaut, Steven Spielberg, Carlos Saura, Jean-Luc Godard, Isao Takahata, Gregory Nava, Ira Sachs, Wes Anderson and Danny Boyle being influenced by his cinematic style. According to Michael Sragow of "The Atlantic Monthly", the "youthful coming-of-age dramas that have flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy". Subrata Mitra's cinematographic technique of bounce lighting also originates from "The Apu Trilogy". Other famous Indian filmmakers from this period include Guru Dutt, Ritwik Ghatak, Mrinal Sen, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy, K. Asif and Mehboob Khan.


title: History of film

text: The cinema of South Korea also experienced a 'Golden Age' in the 1950s, beginning with director Lee Kyu-hwan's tremendously successful remake of "Chunhyang-jon" (1955). That year also saw the release of "Yangsan Province" by the renowned director, Kim Ki-young, marking the beginning of his productive career. Both the quality and quantity of filmmaking had increased rapidly by the end of the 1950s. South Korean films, such as Lee Byeong-il's 1956 comedy "Sijibganeun nal (The Wedding Day)", had begun winning international awards. In contrast to the beginning of the 1950s, when only 5 films were made per year, 111 films were produced in South Korea in 1959.


title: History of film

text: The 1950s was also a 'Golden Age' for Philippine cinema, with the emergence of more artistic and mature films, and significant improvement in cinematic techniques among filmmakers. The studio system produced frenetic activity in the local film industry as many films were made annually and several local talents started to earn recognition abroad. The premiere Philippine directors of the era included Gerardo de Leon, Gregorio Fernández, Eddie Romero, Lamberto Avellana, and Cirio Santiago.


title: History of film

text: During the 1960s, the studio system in Hollywood declined, because many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as Pinewood in the UK and Cinecittà in Rome. "Hollywood" films were still largely aimed at family audiences, and it was often the more old-fashioned films that produced the studios' biggest successes. Productions like "Mary Poppins" (1964), "My Fair Lady" (1964) and "The Sound of Music" (1965) were among the biggest money-makers of the decade. The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline of traditional Hollywood studio production.


title: History of film

text: There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema in America during this period. During the late 1950s and 1960s, the French New Wave directors such as François Truffaut and Jean-Luc Godard produced films such as "Les quatre cents coups", "Breathless" and "Jules et Jim" which broke the rules of Hollywood cinema's narrative structure. As well, audiences were becoming aware of Italian films like Federico Fellini's "La Dolce Vita" (1960), "8½" (1963) and the stark dramas of Sweden's Ingmar Bergman.


title: History of film

text: In Britain, the "Free Cinema" of Lindsay Anderson, Tony Richardson and others lead to a group of realistic and innovative dramas including "Saturday Night and Sunday Morning", "A Kind of Loving" and "This Sporting Life". Other British films such as "Repulsion", "Darling", "Alfie", "Blowup" and "Georgy Girl" (all in 1965–1966) helped to reduce prohibitions of sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the James Bond films, beginning with "Dr. No" in 1962 would render the series popular worldwide.


title: History of film

text: During the 1960s, Ousmane Sembène produced several French- and Wolof-language films and became the "father" of African Cinema. In Latin America, the dominance of the "Hollywood" model was challenged by many film makers. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Getino called for a politically engaged Third Cinema in contrast to Hollywood and the European auteur cinema.


title: History of film

text: In Egypt, the golden age of Egyptian cinema continued in the 1960s at the hands of many directors, and Egyptian cinema greatly appreciated women at that time, such as Soad Hosny. The Zulfikar brothers; Ezz El-Dine Zulfikar, Salah Zulfikar and Mahmoud Zulfikar were on a date with many productions, including Ezz El Dine Zulfikar's "The River of Love" (1960), Mahmoud Zulfikar's "Soft Hands" (1964), and "Dearer Than My Life" (1965) starring Salah Zulfikar and Salah Zulfikar's production; "My Wife, the Director General" (1966) as well as Youssef Chahine's "Saladin" (1963).


title: History of film

text: Further, the nuclear paranoia of the age, and the threat of an apocalyptic nuclear exchange (like the 1962 close-call with the USSR during the Cuban Missile Crisis) prompted a reaction within the film community as well. Films like Stanley Kubrick's "Dr. Strangelove" and "Fail Safe" with Henry Fonda were produced in a Hollywood that was once known for its overt patriotism and wartime propaganda.


title: History of film

text: In documentary film the sixties saw the blossoming of Direct Cinema, an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like "In the Year of the Pig" about the Vietnam War by Emile de Antonio. By the late 1960s however, Hollywood filmmakers were beginning to create more innovative and groundbreaking films that reflected the social revolution taken over much of the western world such as "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967), "The Graduate" (1967), "" (1968), "Rosemary's Baby" (1968), "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), "Easy Rider" (1969) and "The Wild Bunch" (1969). "Bonnie and Clyde" is often considered the beginning of the so-called New Hollywood.


title: History of film

text: In Japanese cinema, Academy Award-winning director Akira Kurosawa produced "Yojimbo" (1961), which like his previous films also had a profound influence around the world. The influence of this film is most apparent in Sergio Leone's "A Fistful of Dollars" (1964) and Walter Hill's "Last Man Standing" (1996). "Yojimbo" was also the origin of the "Man with No Name" trend.


title: History of film

text: The New Hollywood was the period following the decline of the studio system during the 1950s and 1960s and the end of the production code, (which was replaced in 1968 by the MPAA film rating system). During the 1970s, filmmakers increasingly depicted explicit sexual content and showed gunfight and battle scenes that included graphic images of bloody deaths a notable example of this is Wes Craven's "The Last House on the Left" (1972).


title: History of film

text: Post-classical cinema is the changing methods of storytelling of the New Hollywood producers. The new methods of drama and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired during the classical/Golden Age period: story chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature unsettling "twist endings", main characters may behave in a morally ambiguous fashion, and the lines between the antagonist and protagonist may be blurred. The beginnings of post-classical storytelling may be seen in 1940s and 1950s film noir films, in films such as "Rebel Without a Cause" (1955), and in Hitchcock's "Psycho". 1971 marked the release of controversial films like "Straw Dogs", "A Clockwork Orange", "The French Connection" and "Dirty Harry". This sparked heated controversy over the perceived escalation of violence in cinema.


title: History of film

text: During the 1970s, a new group of American filmmakers emerged, such as Martin Scorsese, Francis Ford Coppola, George Lucas, Woody Allen, Terrence Malick, and Robert Altman. This coincided with the increasing popularity of the auteur theory in film literature and the media, which posited that a film director's films express their personal vision and creative insights. The development of the auteur style of filmmaking helped to give these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This led to some great critical and commercial successes, like Scorsese's "Taxi Driver", Coppola's "The Godfather" films, William Friedkin's "The Exorcist", Altman's "Nashville", Allen's "Annie Hall" and "Manhattan", Malick's "Badlands" and "Days of Heaven", and Polish immigrant Roman Polanski's "Chinatown". It also, however, resulted in some failures, including Peter Bogdanovich's "At Long Last Love" and Michael Cimino's hugely expensive Western epic "Heaven's Gate", which helped to bring about the demise of its backer, United Artists.


title: History of film

text: The financial disaster of "Heaven's Gate" marked the end of the visionary "auteur" directors of the "New Hollywood", who had unrestrained creative and financial freedom to develop films. The phenomenal success in the 1970s of Spielberg's "Jaws" originated the concept of the modern "blockbuster". However, the enormous success of George Lucas' 1977 film "Star Wars" led to much more than just the popularization of blockbuster filmmaking. The film's revolutionary use of special effects, sound editing and music had led it to become widely regarded as one of the single most important films in the medium's history, as well as the most influential film of the 1970s. Hollywood studios increasingly focused on producing a smaller number of very large budget films with massive marketing and promotional campaigns. This trend had already been foreshadowed by the commercial success of disaster films such as "The Poseidon Adventure" and "The Towering Inferno".


title: History of film

text: During the mid-1970s, more pornographic theatres, euphemistically called "adult cinemas", were established, and the legal production of hardcore pornographic films began. Porn films such as "Deep Throat" and its star Linda Lovelace became something of a popular culture phenomenon and resulted in a spate of similar sex films. The porn cinemas finally died out during the 1980s, when the popularization of the home VCR and pornography videotapes allowed audiences to watch sex films at home. In the early 1970s, English-language audiences became more aware of the new West German cinema, with Werner Herzog, Rainer Werner Fassbinder and Wim Wenders among its leading exponents.


title: History of film

text: In world cinema, the 1970s saw a dramatic increase in the popularity of martial arts films, largely due to its reinvention by Bruce Lee, who departed from the artistic style of traditional Chinese martial arts films and added a much greater sense of realism to them with his Jeet Kune Do style. This began with "The Big Boss" (1971), which was a major success across Asia. However, he didn't gain fame in the Western world until shortly after his death in 1973, when "Enter the Dragon" was released. The film went on to become the most successful martial arts film in cinematic history, popularized the martial arts film genre across the world, and cemented Bruce Lee's status as a cultural icon. Hong Kong action cinema, however, was in decline due to a wave of "Bruceploitation" films. This trend eventually came to an end in 1978 with the martial arts comedy films, "Snake in the Eagle's Shadow" and "Drunken Master", directed by Yuen Woo-ping and starring Jackie Chan, laying the foundations for the rise of Hong Kong action cinema in the 1980s.


title: History of film

text: While the musical film genre had declined in Hollywood by this time, musical films were quickly gaining popularity in the cinema of India, where the term "Bollywood" was coined for the growing Hindi film industry in Bombay (now Mumbai) that ended up dominating South Asian cinema, overtaking the more critically acclaimed Bengali film industry in popularity. Hindi filmmakers combined the Hollywood musical formula with the conventions of ancient Indian theatre to create a new film genre called "Masala", which dominated Indian cinema throughout the late 20th century. These "Masala" films portrayed action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama all at once, with "filmi" song and dance routines thrown in. This trend began with films directed by Manmohan Desai and starring Amitabh Bachchan, who remains one of the most popular film stars in South Asia. The most popular Indian film of all time was "Sholay" (1975), a "Masala" film inspired by a real-life dacoit as well as Kurosawa's "Seven Samurai" and the Spaghetti Westerns.


title: History of film

text: The end of the decade saw the first major international marketing of Australian cinema, as Peter Weir's films "Picnic at Hanging Rock" and "The Last Wave" and Fred Schepisi's "The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith" gained critical acclaim. In 1979, Australian filmmaker George Miller also garnered international attention for his violent, low-budget action film "Mad Max".


title: History of film

text: During the 1980s, audiences began increasingly watching films on their home VCRs. In the early part of that decade, the film studios tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of copyright, which proved unsuccessful. Eventually, the sale and rental of films on home video became a significant "second venue" for exhibition of films, and an additional source of revenue for the film industries. Direct-to-video (niche) markets usually offered lower quality, cheap productions that were not deemed very suitable for the general audiences of television and theatrical releases.


title: History of film

text: The Lucas–Spielberg combine would dominate "Hollywood" cinema for much of the 1980s, and lead to much imitation. Two follow-ups to "Star Wars", three to "Jaws", and three "Indiana Jones" films helped to make sequels of successful films more of an expectation than ever before. Lucas also launched THX Ltd, a division of Lucasfilm in 1982, while Spielberg enjoyed one of the decade's greatest successes in "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial" the same year. 1982 also saw the release of Disney's "Tron" which was one of the first films from a major studio to use computer graphics extensively. American independent cinema struggled more during the decade, although Martin Scorsese's "Raging Bull" (1980), "After Hours" (1985), and "The King of Comedy" (1983) helped to establish him as one of the most critically acclaimed American film makers of the era. Also during 1983 "Scarface" was released, which was very profitable and resulted in even greater fame for its leading actor Al Pacino. Probably the most successful film commercially was Tim Burton's 1989 version of Bob Kane's creation, "Batman", which broke box-office records. Jack Nicholson's portrayal of the demented Joker earned him a total of $60,000,000 after figuring in his percentage of the gross.


title: History of film

text: British cinema was given a boost during the early 1980s by the arrival of David Puttnam's company Goldcrest Films. The films "Chariots of Fire", "Gandhi", "The Killing Fields" and "A Room with a View" appealed to a "middlebrow" audience which was increasingly being ignored by the major Hollywood studios. While the films of the 1970s had helped to define modern blockbuster motion pictures, the way "Hollywood" released its films would now change. Films, for the most part, would premiere in a wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some films still premiere using the route of the limited/roadshow release system. Against some expectations, the rise of the multiplex cinema did not allow less mainstream films to be shown, but simply allowed the major blockbusters to be given an even greater number of screenings. However, films that had been overlooked in cinemas were increasingly being given a second chance on home video.


title: History of film

text: During the 1980s, Japanese cinema experienced a revival, largely due to the success of anime films. At the beginning of the 1980s, "Space Battleship Yamato" (1973) and "Mobile Suit Gundam" (1979), both of which were unsuccessful as television series, were remade as films and became hugely successful in Japan. In particular, "Mobile Suit Gundam" sparked the Gundam franchise of Real Robot mecha anime. The success of "" also sparked a Macross franchise of mecha anime. This was also the decade when Studio Ghibli was founded. The studio produced Hayao Miyazaki's first fantasy films, "Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind" (1984) and "Castle in the Sky" (1986), as well as Isao Takahata's "Grave of the Fireflies" (1988), all of which were very successful in Japan and received worldwide critical acclaim. Original video animation (OVA) films also began during this decade; the most influential of these early OVA films was Noboru Ishiguro's cyberpunk film "Megazone 23" (1985). The most famous anime film of this decade was Katsuhiro Otomo's cyberpunk film "Akira" (1988), which although initially unsuccessful at Japanese theaters, went on to become an international success.


title: History of film

text: Hong Kong action cinema, which was in a state of decline due to endless Bruceploitation films after the death of Bruce Lee, also experienced a revival in the 1980s, largely due to the reinvention of the action film genre by Jackie Chan. He had previously combined the comedy film and martial arts film genres successfully in the 1978 films "Snake in the Eagle's Shadow" and "Drunken Master". The next step he took was in combining this comedy martial arts genre with a new emphasis on elaborate and highly dangerous stunts, reminiscent of the silent film era. The first film in this new style of action cinema was "Project A" (1983), which saw the formation of the Jackie Chan Stunt Team as well as the "Three Brothers" (Chan, Sammo Hung and Yuen Biao). The film added elaborate, dangerous stunts to the fights and slapstick humor, and became a huge success throughout the Far East. As a result, Chan continued this trend with martial arts action films containing even more elaborate and dangerous stunts, including "Wheels on Meals" (1984), "Police Story" (1985), "Armour of God" (1986), "Project A Part II" (1987), "Police Story 2" (1988), and "Dragons Forever" (1988). Other new trends which began in the 1980s were the "girls with guns" subgenre, for which Michelle Yeoh gained fame; and especially the "heroic bloodshed" genre, revolving around Triads, largely pioneered by John Woo and for which Chow Yun-fat became famous. These Hong Kong action trends were later adopted by many Hollywood action films in the 1990s and 2000s.


title: History of film

text: In Indian cinema, another star actor, considered by many to be the most natural actor in Indian cinema, Mohanlal acted in his first movie. During the 80's he rose to become a super star in Indian cinema. Indian cinema as a whole was changing in a new wave of movies and directors.


title: History of film

text: The early 1990s saw the development of a commercially successful independent cinema in the United States. Although cinema was increasingly dominated by special-effects films such as "" (1991), "Jurassic Park" (1993) and "Titanic" (1997), the latter of which became the highest-grossing film of all time at the time up until "Avatar" (2009), also directed by James Cameron, independent films like Steven Soderbergh's "Sex, Lies, and Videotape" (1989) and Quentin Tarantino's "Reservoir Dogs" (1992) had significant commercial success both at the cinema and on home video.


title: History of film

text: Filmmakers associated with the Danish film movement Dogme 95 introduced a manifesto aimed to purify filmmaking. Its first few films gained worldwide critical acclaim, after which the movement slowly faded out.


title: History of film

text: Scorsese's Goodfellas was released in 1990. It is considered by many as one of the greatest movies to be made, particularly in the gangster genre. It is said to be the highest point of Scorsese's career.


title: History of film

text: Major American studios began to create their own "independent" production companies to finance and produce non-mainstream fare. One of the most successful independents of the 1990s, Miramax Films, was bought by Disney the year before the release of Tarantino's runaway hit "Pulp Fiction" in 1994. The same year marked the beginning of film and video distribution online. Animated films aimed at family audiences also regained their popularity, with Disney's "Beauty and the Beast" (1991), "Aladdin" (1992), and "The Lion King" (1994). During 1995, the first feature-length computer-animated feature, "Toy Story", was produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Disney. After the success of Toy Story, computer animation would grow to become the dominant technique for feature-length animation, which would allow competing film companies such as DreamWorks, 20th Century Fox and Warner Bros. to effectively compete with Disney with successful films of their own. During the late 1990s, another cinematic transition began, from physical film stock to digital cinema technology. Meanwhile, DVDs became the new standard for consumer video, replacing VHS tapes.


title: History of film

text: Since the late 2000s streaming media platforms like YouTube provided means for anyone with access to internet and cameras (a standard feature of smartphones) to publish videos to the world. Also competing with the increasing popularity of video games and other forms of home entertainment, the industry once again started to make theatrical releases more attractive, with new 3D technologies and epic (fantasy and superhero) films becoming a mainstay in cinemas.


title: History of film

text: The documentary film also rose as a commercial genre for perhaps the first time, with the success of films such as "March of the Penguins" and Michael Moore's "Bowling for Columbine" and "Fahrenheit 9/11". A new genre was created with Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' "Voices of Iraq", when 150 inexpensive DV cameras were distributed across Iraq, transforming ordinary people into collaborative filmmakers. The success of "Gladiator" led to a revival of interest in epic cinema, and "Moulin Rouge!" renewed interest in musical cinema. Home theatre systems became increasingly sophisticated, as did some of the special edition DVDs designed to be shown on them. "The Lord of the Rings trilogy" was released on DVD in both the theatrical version and in a special extended version intended only for home cinema audiences.


title: History of film

text: In 2001, the "Harry Potter" film series began, and by its end in 2011, it had become the highest-grossing film franchise of all time until the Marvel Cinematic Universe passed it in 2015.


title: History of film

text: More films were also being released simultaneously to IMAX cinema, the first was in 2002's Disney animation "Treasure Planet"; and the first live action was in 2003's "The Matrix Revolutions" and a re-release of "The Matrix Reloaded". Later in the decade, "The Dark Knight" was the first major feature film to have been at least partially shot in IMAX technology.


title: History of film

text: There has been an increasing globalization of cinema during this decade, with foreign-language films gaining popularity in English-speaking markets. Examples of such films include "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon" (Mandarin), "Amélie" (French), "Lagaan" (Hindi), "Spirited Away" (Japanese), "City of God" (Brazilian Portuguese), "The Passion of the Christ" (Aramaic), "Apocalypto" (Mayan) and "Inglourious Basterds" (multiple European languages). Italy is the most awarded country at the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, with 14 awards won, 3 Special Awards and 31 nominations.


title: History of film

text: In 2003, there was a revival in 3D film popularity the first being James Cameron's "Ghosts of the Abyss" which was released as the first full-length 3-D IMAX feature filmed with the Reality Camera System. This camera system used the latest HD video cameras, not film, and was built for Cameron by Emmy nominated Director of Photography Vince Pace, to his specifications. The same camera system was used to film "" (2003), "Aliens of the Deep" IMAX (2005), and "The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3-D" (2005).


title: History of film

text: After James Cameron's 3D film "Avatar" became the highest-grossing film of all time, 3D films gained brief popularity with many other films being released in 3D, with the best critical and financial successes being in the field of feature film animation such as Universal Pictures/Illumination Entertainment's "Despicable Me" and DreamWorks Animation's "How To Train Your Dragon", "Shrek Forever After" and "Megamind". "Avatar" is also note-worthy for pioneering highly sophisticated use of motion capture technology and influencing several other films such as "Rise of the Planet of the Apes".


title: History of film

text: , the largest film industries by number of feature films produced were those of India, the United States, China, Nigeria and Japan.


title: History of film

text: In 2010, the first woman who won the Best Director Award in Oscar history appeared. Katherine Bigelow's The Hurt Locker won six awards.


title: History of film

text: In Hollywood, superhero films have greatly increased in popularity and financial success, with films based on Marvel and DC comics regularly being released every year up to the present. , the superhero genre has been the most dominant genre as far as American box office receipts are concerned. The 2019 superhero film "", was the most successful movie of all-time at the box office.


title: History of film

text: The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in closures of film theatres around the world in response to regional and national lockdowns. Many films slated to release in the early 2020s faced delays in development, production, and distribution, with others being released on streaming services with little or no theatrical window.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds are an Australian rock band formed in 1983 by vocalist Nick Cave, multi-instrumentalist Mick Harvey and guitarist-vocalist Blixa Bargeld. The band has featured international personnel throughout its career and presently consists of Cave, violinist and multi-instrumentalist Warren Ellis, bassist Martyn P. Casey (all from Australia), guitarist George Vjestica (United Kingdom), keyboardist/percussionist Toby Dammit (United States) and drummers Thomas Wydler (Switzerland) and Jim Sclavunos (United States). Described as "one of the most original and celebrated bands of the post-punk and alternative rock eras in the '80s and onward", they have released seventeen studio albums and completed numerous international tours.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The band was founded following the demise of Cave and Harvey's former group the Birthday Party, the members of which met at a boarding school in Melbourne. Throughout the 1980s, beginning with their debut LP "From Her to Eternity" (1984), the band drew largely on post-punk, blues and gothic rock, and brought in musicians such as Blixa Bargeld, Barry Adamson and Kid Congo Powers. The band later softened their sound and incorporated other influences on albums such as "The Good Son" (1990) and "The Boatman's Call" (1997). Following Harvey's departure in 2009, the band broadened their sound further to include electronic and ambient styles, which feature prominently on the trilogy of albums "Push the Sky Away" (2013), "Skeleton Tree" (2016) and "Ghosteen" (2019).


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The project that later evolved into Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds began following the demise of The Birthday Party in August 1983. Both Cave and Harvey were members of the Birthday Party, along with guitarist Rowland S. Howard and bassist Tracy Pew. During the recording sessions of the Birthday Party's scheduled EPs "Mutiny/The Bad Seed", internal disputes developed in the band. The difference in Cave and Howard's approach to songwriting was a major factor, as Cave explained in an interview with "On The Street": "the main reason why The Birthday Party broke up was that the sort of songs that I was writing and the sort of songs that Rowland was writing were just totally at odds with each other." Following the departure of Harvey, they officially disbanded. Cave also said that "it probably would have gone on longer, but Mick has the ability to judge things much more clearly than the rest of us."


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: An embryonic version of what became Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds was formed in the Birthday Party's then-home of London in September 1983, with Cave, Harvey (acting primarily as drummer), Einstürzende Neubauten guitarist Blixa Bargeld, Magazine bassist Barry Adamson, and Jim G. Thirlwell. The band was initially formed as a backing band for Cave's intended solo project "Man or Myth?", which had been approved by the record label Mute Records. During September and October 1983, they recorded material with producer Flood, although the sessions were cut short due to Cave's touring with the Immaculate Consumptive, another project formed with Thirlwell, Lydia Lunch and Marc Almond. In December 1983 Cave returned to Melbourne, Australia, where he formed a temporary line-up of his backing band, due to Bargeld's absence, that included Pew and guitarist Hugo Race. The band performed their first live show at Seaview in St. Kilda on 31 December 1983.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Following a short Australian tour, and during a period when they were without management, Cave and his band returned to London. Cave, Harvey, Bargeld, Race and Adamson formed the project's first consistent line-up, while Cave's longtime girlfriend Anita Lane was credited as a lyricist on occasional songs (e.g., the title track of 1984's "From Her to Eternity"). The group, which up to this time had been nameless, adopted the moniker Nick Cave and the Cavemen, which they used for the first six months of their career. However, they were later renamed Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds in May 1984, in reference to the final Birthday Party EP "The Bad Seed". They began recording sessions for their debut album in March 1984 at London's Trident Studios and these sessions, together with the abandoned "Man or Myth?" sessions from September–October 1983 that were recorded at The Garden studios, formed the album "From Her to Eternity", released on Mute Records in 1984. Thirlwell left during the recording sessions for "Eternity", citing creative disagreements and desires to work on his own solo material. Race, and touring guitarist Edward Clayton-Jones, left to form the Wreckery in Melbourne.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: After the departure of Race and Lane, the remaining members moved to West Berlin, Germany in 1985 and released a second album "The Firstborn Is Dead". The album was heavily influenced by the gothic Americana of the American South and blues music, exemplified in songs such as "Tupelo" and "Blind Lemon Jefferson", which reference the birth of Elvis Presley and Blind Lemon Jefferson respectively. Released the following year, the album "Kicking Against the Pricks" explored such influences with renditions of material by Johnny Cash, John Lee Hooker and Lead Belly. The 1986 album also marked the arrival of Swiss drummer Thomas Wydler, a member of Die Haut, and featured guest appearances from Race, Pew, and Birthday Party guitarist Howard, who had briefly toured with the Bad Seeds as a substitute member in 1985. Pew's death from an epileptic seizure also occurred in 1986.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The band garnered an increased following due to a second 1986 album release, "Your Funeral, My Trial", which coincided with Adamson's departure. "Tender Prey", the dark, brooding 1988 follow-up, saw the arrival of American guitarist and The Gun Club stalwart Kid Congo Powers—Harvey made the transition to bass—and short-tenured German keyboardist Roland Wolf. The single "The Mercy Seat" chronicled an unrepentant prisoner on death row and further increased the group's critical acclaim and commercial attention. The track was later covered by Johnny Cash on his 2000 album "". Despite the increasing level of success, the drug-related issues of band members became problematic. The documentary film "The Road to God Knows Where", directed by Uli M Schueppel, depicts a five-week period of the United States leg of their 1989 tour.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Cave and his bandmates also pursued other creative ambitions around this time. In 1987, the Bad Seeds appeared in the Wim Wenders film "Wings of Desire", and Cave was featured in the 1988 film "Ghosts... of the Civil Dead", which he and Race co-wrote. Cave's first novel "And the Ass Saw the Angel" was published in 1989.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: After a period of time in New York City, Cave relocated to São Paulo, Brazil, shortly after the final tour for "Tender Prey" and, after successfully finishing drug rehabilitation, began experimenting with piano-driven ballads. The result of this post-rehabilitation period was 1990's "The Good Son". Featuring a sorrowful and longing tone, the album was well-received both critically and commercially, and yielded the singles "The Weeping Song" (featuring vocals from Bargeld) and "The Ship Song".


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Two established Australian musicians, Casey of the Triffids and solo artist and keyboardist Savage, replaced the departing Powers and Wolf. The addition of Casey on bass allowed Harvey to return to guitar. Their next record, 1992's "Henry's Dream", marked a change towards a harder rock sound. Producer David Briggs, known for his work with Neil Young, was enlisted for the recording process. The tour for the album is documented on 1993's live album "Live Seeds" and showcases the new group's aggressive sound.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: In mid-1993, the group returned once more to London and recorded "Let Love In", the follow-up album. "Let Love In" expanded upon the fuller ensemble sound that was established in "Henry's Dream" and featured contributions from Howard, Ellis, Tex Perkins (Beasts of Bourbon) and David McComb (The Triffids). Several popular songs, such as "Red Right Hand" (which featured in the "Scream" film series and was used as the theme song for Peaky Blinders) and "Loverman" (later covered by Metallica), were drawn from the album. During the promotional tour for the album, American percussionist and drummer Jim Sclavunos joined the group.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: In 1996 the band released "Murder Ballads", their best-selling album to date. Centered on the subject of murder, the album includes a cover of the folk song "Henry Lee"—a duet with British rock singer PJ Harvey, with whom Cave had a brief relationship— and "Where the Wild Roses Grow", a duet with Australian pop idol Kylie Minogue. The Minogue collaboration was a mainstream hit in the UK and Australia, and won three Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) Awards, including Song of the Year. It was at this time that Ellis of the Dirty Three began regularly working with the band and eventually became Cave's primary collaborator.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The sound of "The Boatman's Call", released in 1997, was a radical departure from the archetypal and violent narratives of the band's past, featuring songs about relationships, loss, and longing, often with sparse arrangements. Cave revealed his mindset during the creation of the album in a 2008 interview: "When I was making half that record I was furious because certain things had happened in my love life that seriously pissed me off. And some of those songs came straight out of that. I don't regret making it ... the songs are of a moment when you felt a certain way. When ... you just think, 'Fuck - please!'" The album's corresponding tour was later documented on the 2008 live album "Live at the Royal Albert Hall". After the release of the album, Cave embarked on a brief hiatus, during which time he remarried.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Following Cave's hiatus the band oversaw the release of "Original Seeds", a compilation of material from other artists that influenced the group, as well as their own "best of" album "The Best of Nick Cave and The Bad Seeds". The proper follow-up to "The Boatman's Call" was 2001's "No More Shall We Part". The record featured guest appearances by Kate & Anna McGarrigle and was generally well received in reviews: one critic hailed the album as an "entire album of deeply tragic and beautiful love songs without irony, sarcasm, or violent resolution", while also stating that the work is at risk of devolving "into schmaltz".


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The band then released "Nocturama" in 2003. The album marked a return to band-oriented and collaborative arrangements, as previous releases involved a decreased level of input from Cave's bandmates. "Nocturama" garnered mixed reviews, with critic Eric Carr stating that "in truth, it may still be the group's best work since "Let Love In", but it had the potential to be so much more". Shortly after the album's release, Bargeld left the band after 20 years to devote more time to Einstürzende Neubauten.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: In 2004 the band released the acclaimed two-disc set "Abattoir Blues / The Lyre of Orpheus", with Bargeld replaced by the English actor, guitarist and organist James Johnston, a member of Gallon Drunk and former guest member of the Bad Seeds from a Lollapalooza tour ten years prior (Johnston only played organs on the recordings, as Harvey contributed the guitar pieces). Conceived as two separate albums packaged together, the record featured a diversity of arrangement styles, including aggressive rock and choir-driven ballads. In 2005 the band released "B-Sides & Rarities", a three-volume, 56-song collection of B-sides, rarities and compilation tracks that was released on Mute Records in Europe, the US and the UK. "The Abattoir Blues Tour", a two-CD, two-DVD box set with performances from the album's promotional tour, was then released in 2007 in Europe and the US. The tour included guest backing vocalists Ase Bergstrom, Geo Onaymake, Eleanor Palmer and Wendi Rose.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Also in 2005, Cave completed work on his script for "The Proposition", set in 19th-century Australia directed by John Hillcoat. Cave and Ellis collaborated on the film's score, a partnership that later also scored the films "The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford" (2007) and "The Road" (2009).


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: After operating for several years as a touring backing band for Cave's solo work, Bad Seeds members Ellis, Sclavunos and Casey formed a new side-project Grinderman with Cave in 2006. The band, featuring Cave playing guitar for the first time, played garage rock-influenced music that still retained much of The Bad Seeds' aura and released a self-titled debut album in 2007. In October 2007 Cave was inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame and, in his acceptance speech, also inducted the members of The Bad Seeds and The Birthday Party, after explaining, "I cannot really accept this until we get a few things straight. What I can't figure out is why I am up here and The Bad Seeds aren't?"


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds released their 14th studio album "Dig, Lazarus, Dig!!!" in 2008 and received a high level of critical acclaim. Inspired by the biblical story of Lazarus of Bethany, the album continued the punk and garage rock-inspired arrangements that were explored on the debut Grinderman album, resulting in what "NME" termed a "gothic psycho-sexual apocalypse". The group then embarked on a North American and European tour is support of the album, with a seven-piece lineup that did not include Johnston, who had left the group after the album's completion.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Cave and the band curated Australia's first edition of the All Tomorrow's Parties music festival that was held in various Australian locations during January 2009. On 22 January, after the festival's completion, Harvey announced his departure from the band after 25 years, citing "a variety of personal and professional reasons". Harvey concluded his public statement by stating, "I shall continue working on the Bad Seeds back catalogue re-issues project over the coming year and look forward to the new opportunities I shall be able to accommodate as a result of my changed circumstances." Harvey's departure was the end of a 36-year-long musical collaboration between Cave and Harvey, and Cave was left as the group's only original member. The band enlisted guitarist Ed Kuepper, formerly of the Australian bands the Saints and the Laughing Clowns, as a touring member to complete the 2009 summer festival dates that were scheduled. Also in 2009, Cave published his second novel "The Death of Bunny Munro", and Mute Records commenced work on a series of remastered versions of the Bad Seeds' back catalogue (some of the remastered albums included documentary footage from Iain Forsyth and Jane Pollard).


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Following this string of activity, the Bad Seeds became dormant while Grinderman reactivated and released "Grinderman 2" in 2010. The group also attracted further attention when their song "O Children" appeared in the 2010 film "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1". In December 2011, Grinderman disbanded immediately following an Australian tour. Their final performance was at the Meredith Music Festival in rural Victoria.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' 15th studio album "Push the Sky Away" was released in mid-February 2013. During the album's recording, former member Barry Adamson rejoined the band as a bassist, then assumed a multi-instrumentalist (percussion, keyboards, vocals) role on subsequent tours. Kuepper briefly returned as the band's touring guitarist, but was replaced by George Vjestica for the European leg of the tour; Vjestica's 12-string guitar-playing was featured on several "Push the Sky Away" tracks.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: During the Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds summer USA tour in 2013 a smaller incarnation of the band recorded Live from KCRW (Cave, Ellis, Casey, Sclavunos and Adamson). In 2014 Nick Cave and The Bad Seeds toured North America with Ellis, Adamson, Sclavunos, Casey plus Conway Savage and George Vjestica. Cave embarked on solo tours in Australia and New Zealand in late 2014 and Europe in 2015 with Adamson on keyboards and percussion, joined by the rhythm section of Wydler and Casey, and with Ellis as the featured multi-instrumentalist.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: In May 2015, Toby Dammit replaced Adamson as a guest touring member; Adamson has not returned since, and Dammit did not participate in sessions for the subsequent Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds album.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: On 2 June 2016, the official Nick Cave website announced a documentary film titled "One More Time with Feeling" (directed by Andrew Dominik) which was screened on 8 September 2016. It accompanies the band's 16th album titled "Skeleton Tree" (released 9 September 2016). In 2017, Cave begun writing songs for the next Bad Seeds record, which is set to complete a musical trilogy the band began with "Push the Sky Away". Ellis and Cave played two orchestral shows at Hamer Hall in Melbourne, Australia on 9 and 10 August, featuring a selection of their various film scores.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: On 23 September 2019, Cave formally announced the album "Ghosteen", to be released at the beginning of October 2019. It premiered on Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds' YouTube channel on 3 October.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: On 22 October 2021, the band released "B-Sides & Rarities Part II"; the sequel to their 2005 compilation "B-Sides & Rarities". In June 2022, the band embarked upon their first tour since the onset of COVID-19, with their 2020 "Ghosteen" tour having previously been cancelled due to the pandemic. For the tour, the band were joined by four additional members – keyboardist Carly Paradis and backing vocalists Janet Ramus, T Jae Cole, and Subrina McCalla – alongside returning touring keyboardist Larry Mullins.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association (APRA), "honouring composers and songwriters". They commenced in 1982.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The ARIA Music Awards is an annual awards ceremony that recognises excellence, innovation, and achievement across all genres of Australian music. They commenced in 1987.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The Australian Music Prize (the AMP) is an annual award of $30,000 given to an Australian band or solo artist in recognition of the merit of an album released during the year of award. The commenced in 2005.


title: Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds

text: The EG Awards (known as "Music Victoria Awards" since 2013) are an annual awards night celebrating Victorian music. They commenced in 2006.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The total fertility rate (TFR) of a population is the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime if:


title: Total fertility rate

text: It is obtained by summing the single-year age-specific rates at a given time. As of 2021, the total fertility rate varied from 0.81 in South Korea to 6.91 in Niger.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Fertility tends to be correlated with the level of economic development. Historically, developed countries usually have a significantly lower fertility rate, generally correlated with greater wealth, education, urbanization, and other factors. Conversely, in undeveloped countries, fertility rates tend to be higher. Families desire children for their labor and as caregivers for their parents in old age. Fertility rates are also higher due to the lack of access to contraceptives, stricter adherence to traditional religious beliefs, generally lower levels of female education, and lower rates of female employment.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The total fertility rate for the world today (2019) is 2.4. Global TFR has been declining rapidly since the 1960s, and some forecasters like Sanjeev Sanyal argue that the effective global fertility rate will fall below replacement rate, estimated to be 2.3, in the 2020s. This would stabilize world population sometime during the period 2050–2070. This differs from projections by the United Nations which estimates that some growth in world population will continue even up to 2100. Taken together, these projections imply that the population of this planet will reach zero growth sometime in the second half of this century.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TFR is not based on the fertility of any real group of women since this would involve waiting until they had completed childbearing. Nor is it based on counting up the total number of children actually born over their lifetime. Instead, the TFR is based on the age-specific fertility rates of women in their "child-bearing years", which in conventional international statistical usage is ages 15–44.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TFR is, therefore, a measure of the fertility of an "imaginary" woman who passes through her reproductive life subject to "all" the age-specific fertility rates for ages 15–49 that were recorded for a given population in a given year. The TFR represents the average number of children a woman "would" potentially have, were she to fast-forward through all her childbearing years in a single year, under all the age-specific fertility rates for that year. In other words, this rate is the number of children a woman would have if she was subject to prevailing fertility rates at all ages from a single given year and survives throughout all her childbearing years.


title: Total fertility rate

text: An alternative fertility measure is the net reproduction rate (NRR), which measures the number of "daughters" a woman would have in her lifetime if she were subject to prevailing age-specific fertility "and mortality" rates in the given year. When the NRR is exactly 1, then each generation of women is exactly reproducing itself.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The NRR is less widely used than the TFR, and the United Nations stopped reporting NRR data for member nations after 1998. But the NRR is particularly relevant where the number of male babies born is very high due to gender imbalance and sex selection. This is a significant factor in world population, due to the high level of gender imbalance in the very populous nations of China and India. The gross reproduction rate (GRR), is the same as the NRR, except that—like the TFR—it ignores life expectancy.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TFR (or TPFR—total period fertility rate) is a better index of fertility than the crude birth rate (annual number of births per thousand population) because it is independent of the age structure of the population, but it is a poorer estimate of actual completed family size than the total cohort fertility rate, which is obtained by summing the age-specific fertility rates that actually applied to each cohort as they aged through time. In particular, the TFR does not necessarily predict how many children young women now will eventually have, as their fertility rates in years to come may change from those of older women now. However, the TFR is a reasonable summary of current fertility levels.


title: Total fertility rate

text: TFR and long term population growth rate, g, are closely related. For a population structure in a steady state, growth rate equals log(TFR/2)/Xm, where Xm is the mean age for childbearing women.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TPFR (total "period" fertility rate) is affected by a tempo effect—if age of childbearing increases (and life cycle fertility is unchanged) then while the age of childbearing is increasing, TPFR will be lower (because the births are occurring later), and then the age of childbearing stops increasing, the TPFR will increase (due to the deferred births occurring in the later period) even though the life cycle fertility has been unchanged. In other words, the TPFR is a misleading measure of life cycle fertility when childbearing age is changing, due to this statistical artifact. This is a significant factor in some countries, such as the Czech Republic and Spain in the 1990s. Some measures seek to adjust for this timing effect to gain a better measure of life-cycle fertility.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Replacement fertility is the total fertility rate at which women give birth to enough babies to sustain population levels, assuming that mortality rates remain constant and net migration is zero. If replacement level fertility is sustained over a sufficiently long period, each generation will exactly replace itself. The replacement fertility rate is 2.1 births per woman for most developed countries (2.1 in the UK, for example), but can be as high as 3.5 in undeveloped countries because of higher mortality rates, especially child mortality. The global average for the replacement total fertility rate (eventually leading to a stable global population) for the contemporary period (2010-2015) is 2.3 children per woman.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The term "lowest-low fertility" is defined as TFR at or below 1.3. This is characteristic of some Eastern European, Southern European, and East Asian countries. For example, in 2001, more than half of the population of Europe lived in countries with the lowest-low TFR, although TFRs there have increased slightly since then.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The lowest TFR recorded anywhere in the world in recorded history is for Xiangyang district of Jiamusi city (Heilongjiang, China) which had a TFR of 0.41. Outside China, the lowest TFR ever recorded was 0.80 for Eastern Germany in 1994. The low Eastern German value was influenced by a change to higher age at birth, with the consequence that neither older cohorts (e.g. women born until the late 1960s), who often already had children, nor younger cohorts, who were postponing childbirth, had many children during that time. The total cohort fertility rate of each age cohort of women in East German did not drop as significantly.


title: Total fertility rate

text: A population that maintained a TFR of 3.8 over an extended period without a correspondingly high death or emigration rate would increase rapidly (doubling period ~ 32 years), whereas a population that maintained a TFR of 2.0 over a long time would decrease, unless it had a large enough immigration. However, it may take several generations for a change in the total fertility rate to be reflected in birth rate, because the age distribution must reach equilibrium. For example, a population that has recently dropped below replacement-level fertility will continue to grow, because the recent high fertility produced large numbers of young couples who would now be in their childbearing years.


title: Total fertility rate

text: This phenomenon carries forward for several generations and is called population momentum, "population inertia," or "population-lag effect". This time-lag effect is of great importance to the growth rates of human populations.


title: Total fertility rate

text: TFR (net) and long-term population growth rate, g, are closely related. For a population structure in a steady state and with zero migration, g equals log(TFR/2)/Xm, where Xm is mean age for childbearing women and thus P(t) = P(0)exp(gt). At the left side is shown the empirical relation between the two variables in a cross-section of countries with the most recent y-y growth rate. The parameter 1/b should be an estimate of the Xm; here equal to 1/0.02 = 50 years, way off the mark because of population momentum. E.g. for log(TFR/2) = 0, g should be exactly zero, which is seen not to be the case.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Fertility factors are determinants of the number of children that an individual is likely to have. Fertility factors are mostly positive or negative correlations without certain causations.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Factors generally associated with increased fertility include the intention to have children, very high level of gender equality, religiosity, inter-generational transmission of values, marriage and cohabitation, maternal and social support, rural residence, pro family government programs, low IQ and increased food production.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Factors generally associated with decreased fertility include rising income, value and attitude changes, education, female labor participation, population control, age, contraception, partner reluctance to having children, a low level of gender equality, and infertility.The effect of all these factors can be summarized with a plot of Total Fertility Rate against Human Development Index (HDI) for a sample of countries. The chart shows that the two factors are inversely correlated, that is, in general, the lower a country’s HDI the higher its fertility.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Another common way of summarizing the relationship between economic development and fertility is a plot of TFR against , a proxy for standard of living. This chart shows that Per Capita GDP is also inversely correlated with fertility.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The impact of human development on TFR can best be summarized by a quote from Karan Singh, a former minister of population in India.  At a 1974 United Nations population conference in Bucharest, he said "Development is the best contraceptive."


title: Total fertility rate

text: Wealthy countries, those with high per capita GDP, usually have a lower fertility rate than poor countries, those with low per capita GDP. This may seem counter-intuitive. The inverse relationship between income and fertility has been termed a "demographic-economic paradox" because evolutionary biology suggests that greater means should enable the production of more offspring, not fewer.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Many of these factors, however, are not universal, and differ by region and social class. For instance, at a global level, religion is correlated with increased fertility, but in the West less so: Scandinavian countries and France are among the least religious in the EU, but have the highest TFR, while the opposite is true about Portugal, Greece, Cyprus, Poland and Spain.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Governments have often set population targets, to either increase or decrease the total fertility rate; or to have certain ethnic or socioeconomic groups have a lower or higher fertility rate. Often such policies have been interventionist, and abusive. The most notorious natalist policies of the 20th century include those in communist Romania and communist Albania, under Nicolae Ceaușescu and Enver Hoxha respectively. The policy of Romania (1967–1990) was very aggressive, including outlawing abortion and contraception, routine pregnancy tests for women, taxes on childlessness, and legal discrimination against childless people; and resulted in large numbers of children put into Romanian orphanages by parents who couldn't cope with raising them, street children in the 1990s (when many orphanages were closed and the children ended up on the streets), overcrowding in homes and schools, and over 9,000 women who died due to illegal abortions. Conversely, in China the government sought to lower the fertility rate, and, as such, enacted the one-child policy (1978–2015), which included abuses such as forced abortions.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Some governments have sought to regulate which groups of society could reproduce through eugenic policies of forced sterilizations of 'undesirable' population groups. Such policies were carried out against ethnic minorities in Europe and North America in the first half of the 20th century, and more recently in Latin America against the Indigenous population in the 1990s; in Peru, President Alberto Fujimori (in office from 1990 to 2000) has been accused of genocide and crimes against humanity as a result of a sterilization program put in place by his administration targeting indigenous people (mainly the Quechuas and the Aymaras). Within these historical contexts, the notion of reproductive rights has developed. Such rights are based on the concept that each person freely decides if, when, and how many children to have - not the state or church. According to the OHCHR reproductive rights "rest on the recognition of the basic rights of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. It also includes the right to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence, as expressed in human rights documents".


title: Total fertility rate

text: From around 10,000 BC to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution fertility rates around the world were high by today's standards, but the onset of the Industrial Revolution, around 1800, brought about what has come to be called the Demographic Transition, and TFR began a long-term decline in almost every region of the world, a decline that continues to this day.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Because all nations before the Industrial Revolution were caught in what is now labeled the "Malthusian Trap", improvements in standards of living could only be achieved by reductions in population growth through either increases in mortality rates (via wars, plagues, famines, etc) or reductions in birth rates. However, at the same time, other realities such as child mortality, that could reach 50%, and the need to produce workers, male heirs, and old-age care givers required fertility rates to be high by today’s standards.


title: Total fertility rate

text: For example, fertility rates in Europe in the years before 1800 ranged from 4.5 (Scandinavia) to 6.2 (Belgium). The Total Fertility Rate in America in 1800 was 7.0. Fertility rates in Asia during this period were similar to those in Europe. In spite of these high fertility rates, global population growth was still very slow, about 0.04% per year, mostly due to high mortality rates and the equally slow growth in the production of food.


title: Total fertility rate

text: After 1800 the Industrial Revolution got underway in some countries, particularly Great Britain, other countries in Europe, and the United States, and they underwent the beginnings of what is now called the Demographic Transition. Stage two of this process fueled a steady reduction in mortality rates due to, for example, improvements in public sanitation, personal hygiene and the food supply (that, for example, reduced the number of famines).


title: Total fertility rate

text: These reductions in mortality rates, particularly reductions in child mortality that increased the fraction of children surviving, plus other major societal changes such as urbanization, then led to stage three of the Demographic Transition and a reduction in fertility rates because there was simply no longer a need to birth so many children.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The example from the US of the correlation between child mortality and the fertility rate is illustrative. In 1800 child mortality in the US was 33%. That is, one third of all children born would die before their fifth birthday. The Total Fertility Rate in 1800 was 7.0, meaning that the average woman would bear seven children during her lifetime. One hundred years later, in 1900, child mortality in the US had declined to 23%, a reduction of almost one third, and TFR had declined to 3.9, a reduction of 44%. By 1950, just fifty years later, child mortality had declined dramatically to 4%, a reduction of 84%, and TFR had declined to 3.2. By 2018 child mortality had declined further to 0.6% and TFR had declined further to 1.9, below replacement level.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The table shows that after 1965 the Demographic Transition had spread around the world and global TFR began a long decline that continues to this day.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Global TFR today (2019) is 2.4. Because global fertility replacement rate for the contemporary period (2010–2015) has been estimated to be 2.3, humanity is therefore approaching a major milestone.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The chart shows that the decline in TFR since the 1960s has occurred in every region of the world and that the global TFR is projected to continue to decline for the remainder of this century.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The United Nations Population Division divides the world into six geographic regions. The table below shows the estimated TFR for each.


title: Total fertility rate

text: This region has a TFR of 4.4, the highest in the world. Niger, Angola, Congo, Mali, and Chad are the highest. The most populous country in Africa, Nigeria, had an estimated TFR of 4.7 in 2021. The second most populous country, Ethiopia, had an estimated TFR of 4.1 in 2021.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The poverty of the region, and the high maternal mortality and infant mortality had led to calls from WHO of family planning and encouragement of smaller families.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The Indian fertility rate has declined significantly over the early 21st century. The Indian TFR declined from 5.2 in 1971 to 2.2 in 2018. According to recent surveys, TFR in India has further declined to 2.0 in 2019-2020, marking the first time it has gone below replacement level.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The fertility rate fell from 6.9 during the years 1970–1975 to 2.0 in 2020, an interval of about 47 years, or a little more than one generation.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Singapore, Macau, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and South Korea have lowest-low fertility, defined as TFR at or below 1.3, and are among the lowest in the world. Macau had a TFR below 1.0 in 2004. North Korea has the highest TFR in East Asia at 1.95.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TFR of China was 1.15 in 2021. China implemented the one-child policy in 1979 as a drastic population planning measure to control the ever-growing population at the time. In 2015, the policy was replaced with two-child policy as China's population is aging faster than almost any other country in modern history.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Japan had a TFR of 1.4 in 2021. Japan's population is rapidly aging due to both a long life expectancy and a low birth rate. The total population is shrinking, losing 430,000 in 2018 to a total of 126.4 million. Hong Kong and Singapore mitigate this through immigrant workers, but in Japan, a serious demographic imbalance has developed, partly due to limited immigration to Japan.


title: Total fertility rate

text: In South Korea, a low birthrate is one of its most urgent socio-economic challenges. Rising housing expenses, shrinking job opportunities for younger generations, insufficient support to families with newborns either from the government or employers are among the major explanations for its crawling TFR, which fell to 0.92 in 2019. Koreans are yet to find viable solutions to make the birthrate rebound, even after trying out dozens of programs over a decade, including subsidizing rearing expenses, giving priorities for public rental housing to couples with multiple children, funding day care centers, reserving seats in public transportation for pregnant women, and so on.


title: Total fertility rate

text: In the past 20 years, South Korea has recorded some of the lowest fertility and marriage levels in the world. As of 2021, South Korea is the country with the world’s lowest total fertility rate at 0.81. The TFR of the capital Seoul was 0.63 in 2021.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The average total fertility rate in the European Union (EU-27) is calculated at 1.55 children per woman in 2018. France had the highest TFR in 2018 among EU countries at 1.88, followed by Romania and Sweden (1.76), Ireland (1.75) and Denmark (1.73). Malta had the lowest TFR in 2018 among EU countries at 1.23. Other southern European countries also had very low TFR (Portugal 1.38, Cyprus, 1.32, Greece 1.35, Spain 1.26, and Italy 1.29). According to 2021 estimates for the non-EU European post-Soviet states group, Russia had a TFR of 1.61, Moldova 1.57, Ukraine 1.55, and Belarus 1.49. Bosnia and Herzegovina had the lowest estimated TFR in Europe in 2018, at 1.31.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Emigration of young adults from Eastern Europe to the West aggravates the demographic problems of those countries. People from countries such as Ukraine, Moldova, Romania, and Bulgaria are particularly moving abroad.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The TFR of Brazil, the most populous country in the region, was estimated at 1.73 in 2021. The second most populous country, Mexico, had an estimated TFR of 2.17. The next most populous four countries in the region had estimated TFRs of between 1.9 and 2.3 in 2018, including Colombia (2.14), Argentina (2.2), Peru (2.0), and Venezuela (2.2). Guatemala had the highest estimated TFR in the region at 2.7 in 2018; and Puerto Rico the lowest at 1.21.


title: Total fertility rate

text: The total fertility rate in the United States after World War II peaked at about 3.8 children per woman in the late 1950s, dropped to below replacement in the early 70s, and by 1999 was at 2 children. Currently, the fertility is below replacement among those native born, and above replacement among immigrant families, most of whom come to the United States from countries with higher fertility. However, the fertility rate of immigrants to the United States has been found to decrease sharply in the second generation, correlating with improved education and income. In 2021, U.S. TFR was 1.84, ranging between over 2 in some states and under 1.6 in others.


title: Total fertility rate

text: Despite that the completed fertility rate, the average number of kids a woman will have in a lifetime of Americans still remains above 2.


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: Abhimanyu Dassani (born 21 February 1990) is an Indian actor who works in Hindi films. The son of actress Bhagyashree and Himalay, he made his acting debut in 2018 with the action film "Mard Ko Dard Nahi Hota", for which he won Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut.


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: He has since starred in the 2021 Netflix romantic comedy film "Meenakshi Sundareshwar" and the 2022 action film "Nikamma".


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: Hailing from Mumbai, Dassani started his career by being an assistant to director Rohan Sippy on "Dum Maaro Dum" and "Nautanki Saala!". He studied at the New York Film Academy and Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute. He also practices martial arts and is trained in taekwondo and karate.


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: Dassani made his feature film debut with Vasan Bala's action-comedy "Mard Ko Dard Nahi Hota". It premiered in the Midnight Madness section of the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival, where it won the . The film was also screened at the 2018 MAMI Film Festival. He performed all the stunts himself and watched several classic action films for days to familiarise himself with the genre. He broke a finger and dislocated his shoulder while filming. Pradeep Menon of "Firstpost" said "he occupies the screen well" and noted that "his look suits the character of a guy who has not had enough meaningful interactions with the real world".


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: In 2021, Dassani played the male lead in the romantic-comedy "Meenakshi Sundareshwar" opposite Sanya Malhotra, which released on Netflix. The film received criticism for its stereotypical representation of Tamil people.


title: Abhimanyu Dassani

text: Dassani starred in "Nikamma" with Shilpa Shetty and Shirley Setia which released on 17 June 2022. He will also star in the comedy-drama "Aankh Micholi" with an ensemble cast alongside Mrunal Thakur and several others.


title: Kim Coates

text: Kim F. Coates (born February 21, 1958) is a Canadian–American actor who has worked in both Canadian and American films and television series. He has worked on Broadway portraying Stanley Kowalski in "A Streetcar Named Desire" and in the lead role of "Macbeth" performed at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival. He is best known for his role as Alexander "Tig" Trager in the FX series "Sons of Anarchy" and as Declan Gardiner in the Citytv series "Bad Blood", as well as his recurring roles in "Prison Break", "Cold Case", "CSI" and "". He has also had film roles in "The Last Boy Scout" (1991), "Bad Boys" (1995), "King of Sorrow" (2006), "Goon" (2011).


title: Kim Coates

text: Coates was born in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada, to Frederick "Fred" and Joyce Coates. He first saw a play while attending the University of Saskatchewan, where he enrolled in a drama course as an elective. This experience inspired him to pursue an acting career. Coates portrayed Stanley Kowalski in "A Streetcar Named Desire" and was the youngest ever to play the title role of "Macbeth" at the Stratford Festival in his native Canada. Coates made his screen debut in the film "The Boy in Blue" (1986). This role opened up opportunities for him, and he has appeared in over 100 titles to date.


title: Kim Coates

text: In 2018 he had his first stage role in almost thirty years, playing Johnny "Rooster" Byron in the Outside the March production of Jez Butterworth's play "Jerusalem". He won the Dora Mavor Moore Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male in a Principal Role – Play (Large Theatre) at the 2018 Dora Awards.