title: Anti-Defamation League

text: This was the first-ever verdict against the ADL. Only once before had the League been subject to a defamation trial, a case it won in 1984. Other cases were dismissed before reaching trial. The ADL appealed the case to a superior court, which upheld the verdict, and the Supreme Court ultimately declined to take the case. The ADL paid the original $10 million plus interest in 2004.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 1996, ADL settled a federal civil lawsuit filed by groups representing African Americans and Arab Americans that alleged that the ADL hired agents with police ties to gather information. ADL did not admit any wrongdoing but agreed to a restraining injunction barring ADL from obtaining information from state employees forbidden by law to divulge such information. ADL agreed to contribute $25,000 to a fund that funds inter-community relationship projects, and cover the plaintiffs' legal costs of $175,000.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2003, the ADL opposed an advertising campaign by People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) called "Holocaust on Your Plate" that compared animals killed in the meat industry to victims of the Holocaust. In 2005, PETA apologized for causing distress to the Jewish community through the campaign, though in 2008, the Chief Rabbinate announced that it was planning to gradually phase out the use of the "shackle and hoist" method of kosher slaughter in Israel and South America, in part in response to pressure from PETA.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: As of 2007, the ADL said it was archiving MySpace pages associated with white supremacists as part of its effort to track extremism.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL opposed 2008 California Proposition 8, a ballot successful initiative that banned same-sex marriage. It did so alongside Jewish organizations, including the National Council of Jewish Women and the Progressive Jewish Alliance. The ADL filed amicus briefs urging the Supreme Court of California, Ninth Circuit, and the Supreme Court to invalidate Prop 8. In 2015, the ADL opposed the State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts, state laws that used the United States Supreme Court decision in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby Stores, Inc. recognizing a for-profit corporation's claim of religious belief. The ADL opposed these laws out of concern they largely targeted LGBT people or denied access to contraceptives to employees of religiously owned businesses.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In November 2014, the organization announced that Jonathan Greenblatt, a former Silicon Valley tech executive and former Obama administration official who had not operated within the Jewish communal organization world prior to his hiring, would succeed Abraham Foxman as national director in July 2015. Foxman had served as national director since 1987. The ADL board of directors renewed Greenblatt's contract as CEO and national director in fall 2020 for a second five-year term. The national chair of the governing board of directors is Esta Gordon Epstein; elected in late 2018 for a three-year term, she is the second woman to hold the organization's top volunteer leadership post.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: ADL repeatedly accused Donald Trump, when he was a presidential candidate in 2016, of making use of antisemitic tropes or otherwise exploiting divisive and bigoted rhetoric during the 2016 presidential election campaign. The organization continued to call out President Trump for comments and actions that appeared to give voice or support to extremists such as white supremacists, for politicizing charges of antisemitism for partisan purposes and for continued use of antisemitic tropes.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In mid-2018, ADL raised concerns over President Donald Trump's nomination of then-DC Circuit Court of Appeals judge Brett Kavanaugh as an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Although ADL had for many years submitted questions to the Senate Judiciary Committee for Supreme Court and other key government nominations, the organization and CEO Jonathan Greenblatt were harshly criticized by many on the right for raising concerns in this instance, particularly with regard to abortion. Subsequently, in another move that enraged many on the right, ADL called for the resignation or firing of Trump administration official Stephen Miller, the architect of the administration's immigration policy, on the basis of his association with white supremacists.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL says it has participated in YouTube's Trusted Flagger program and has encouraged YouTube to remove videos that they flag as hate speech, citing the need to "fight against terrorist use of online resources and cyberhate." The ADL's Center on Technology and Society launched a survey in 2019 exploring online harassment in video games. It found that the majority of surveyed players experienced severe harassment of some kind, and the ADL recommended increased content moderation from game companies and governments. On the other hand, the survey found that over half of players experienced some form of positive community in video games. A separate, earlier survey of the general population found that around a third of people have experienced some form of online harassment.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2020, ADL joined with the NAACP, Color of Change, LULAC, Free Press, the National Hispanic Media Coalition and other organizations in the Stop Hate For Profit campaign. The campaign targeted online hate on Facebook, with over 1000 businesses pausing their ad buys on Facebook for a month. Subsequently, in September 2020, the campaign organized high-profile athletes, actors and musicians, including Sacha Baron Cohen, Kate Hudson, Kim Kardashian, Viola Davis, Octavia Spencer, James Corden, Jamie Foxx, Katy Perry, Naomi Campbell, Chris Paul, and many others to post Stop Hate for Profit messages targeting Facebook on their social media and to freeze all posts on Instagram for a day.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In July 2017, ADL announced that they would be developing profiles on 36 alt-right and alt-lite leaders. In 2019 and 2020 ADL executives and staff testified multiple times in front of Congressional committees concerning the dangers of right-wing domestic extremists, noting that the large majority of extremist murders in the United States over the past decade had been committed by white supremacists.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In early January 2021, the ADL called for the removal of Donald Trump as president in response to the storming of the United States Capitol and described the relationship of the storming of the Capitol to the far-right and antisemitic groups.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In April 2021, Jonathan Greenblatt released a letter calling on the right-wing American network Fox News to drop commentator Tucker Carlson from its lineup, saying that Carlson had espoused the white genocide conspiracy theory on his show. This call appeared shortly after research indicating that many who participated in the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol had been influenced by this conspiracy theory. The ADL again called for Carlson to be fired in September 2021 following Carlson expressing support for the great replacement theory. Carlson responded, saying "Fuck them" regarding the ADL, describing the ADL's call as politically motivated and defending his statements.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL says it supports Israel as a Jewish and democratic state. The organization says it supports a two-state solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, negotiated by the parties. The organization opposed the 1975 United Nations resolution (revoked in 1991) which stated in the resolution that "Zionism is a form of racism and racial discrimination", and attempts to revive that formulation at the 2001 U.N. World Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa. ADL expressed concern over Israeli legislative proposals requiring that NGOs publicize if they receive funding primarily from non-Israeli governments, a bill mostly opposed by centrist and left-wing and supported by right-wing Jewish American groups.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: ADL supports Comprehensive and DREAM Act legislation that would provide conditional permanent residency to certain undocumented immigrants of good moral character who graduate from US high schools, arrived in the United States as minors, and lived in the country continuously for at least five years prior to the bill's enactment.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In October 2010, the ADL condemned remarks by Ovadia Yosef that the sole purpose of non-Jews was to serve the Jews.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL supported some moves of the Trump administration and criticized others. The organization welcomed President Trump moving the US Embassy to Jerusalem. ADL CEO and National Director Jonathan Greenblatt traveled to Israel to join Trump administration officials at the official opening ceremony of the embassy in Jerusalem. The ADL repeatedly criticized Trump for what they viewed as antisemitic tropes and engagement in apologetics for white supremacists. Alongside at least eight other Jewish advocacy organizations, dozens of civil rights organizations, and more than one hundred members of congress, ADL called on the Trump administration to fire administration executive Stephen Miller, the architect of the Trump administration policies on immigration, condemning Miller as a white supremacist.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: While ADL was a lead supporter of Congressional legislation prohibiting US individuals and businesses from joining "unsanctioned boycotts" such as the 1970s Arab League Boycott against Israel, it has taken a different, case-by-case approach to state anti-BDS laws more recently enacted in response to the BDS movement. Several of these laws, which seek to prohibit state agencies and instrumentalities from investing in companies that boycott Israel and from entering into contracts with entities that boycott Israel, have been successfully challenged in the courts. The legal challenges have primarily been brought by the ACLU and CAIR on First Amendment constitutional grounds. ADL generally has not publicly supported laws it felt were constitutionally suspect under the First Amendment, both for legal reasons and because the organization believed that such laws, even if what ADL describes as "well-intentioned", were not an effective means of combating the BDS movement. However, as a general matter the organization also has not publicly opposed such state laws, preferring to work behind the scenes to try to make such laws less infirm under the Constitution or to propose non-binding resolutions opposing BDS. A possible division of internal views in ADL was disclosed when the liberal Jewish publication, "The Forward", published ostensibly leaked internal ADL staff memos dating from 2016 that opposed the anti-boycott laws. ADL did not comment directly on the leaked memos, but the statement it issued in response appeared to acknowledge both that there were sharply divided views within the organization and that the organization did not try to suppress internal robust discussion.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2010, ADL published a list of the "ten leading organizations responsible for maligning Israel in the US," which has included ANSWER, the International Solidarity Movement, and Jewish Voice for Peace for its call for BDS. The ADL published a similar list in 2013.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: Alongside similar statements from StandWithUs and American Jewish Committee representatives, the ADL's Greenblatt condemned the United Nations Human Rights Council's (UNHRC) list of companies doing business with Jewish settlements in Israeli-run territories (West Bank, East Jerusalem, Golan Heights), issued in February 2020, calling it a "blacklist."


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: ADL has opposed efforts in the US and in Europe to ban circumcision of minors on the grounds of parental and religious freedom, citing the importance of circumcision in Judaism and Islam. ADL has also criticized specific instances of anti-circumcision imagery, such as an anti-circumcision cartoon in the Norwegian newspaper "Dagbladet" and the comic book "Foreskin Man" - regarding the latter, Associate Regional Director Nancy Appel stated that while good people could disagree on the issue of circumcision, it was unacceptable to use antisemitic imagery within the debate. ADL also criticized an anti-circumcision resolution by the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, describing it as "leading Europe in a horrific direction toward the forced exclusion of Jewish citizens." In 2018, ADL's Jonathan Greenblatt sent Iceland's Parliament a letter regarding a proposed infant circumcision ban in that country, arguing that the ban should be rejected due to circumcision's religious significance and health benefits. Greenblatt also said that if the ban passed, ADL would report on any celebration by antisemites and other extremists, asserting that this would deter tourism and harm Iceland's economy. The "Reykjavík Grapevine" described this letter as a threat.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: ADL was among the lead organizations campaigning for thirteen years, ultimately successfully, for the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act. The hold-up in passing that law focused on the inclusion of the term "sexual orientation" as one of the bases that a crime could be deemed a hate crime. ADL also drafted the model hate crimes legislation in the 1980s; it serves as a model for the legislation that a majority of states have adopted.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2010, during a hearing for Florida House Bill 11 (Crimes Against Homeless Persons), which was to revise the list of offenses judged to be hate crimes in Florida by adding a person's homeless status, the League lobbied against the bill, which subsequently passed in the House by a vote of 80 to 28 and was sent to the Senate, taking the position that adding more categories to the list would dilute the effectiveness of the law, which already includes race, religion, sexual orientation, disability, and age.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL has strongly supported the Anti-Semitism Awareness Act, a controversial piece of legislation introduced to the US Congress in 2016.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2004, ADL became the lead partner in the Peace and Diversity Academy, a new New York City public high school with predominantly black and Hispanic students. The school was part of a Bloomberg-led effort to open many smaller schools. In 2014, the school was designated among New York's schools with the lowest graduation rates. In celebration of Black History Month, the ADL created and distributed lesson plans to middle and high school teachers about Shirley Chisholm (1924–2005), the first black woman elected to the US Congress, and an important civil rights leader.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 1984, "The Boston Globe" reported that then-ADL national director Nathan Perlmutter said that Rev. Jesse Jackson, Sr. was antisemitic after Jackson referred to New York City as "Hymietown". In 2018 the ADL criticized Rep. Danny Davis for not condemning Louis Farrakhan. Davis subsequently condemned Farrakhan's views, saying, "So let me be clear: I reject, condemn and oppose Minister Farrakhan's views and remarks regarding the Jewish people and the Jewish religion."


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: The ADL criticized film director Spike Lee regarding his portrayal of Jewish nightclub owners Moe and Josh Flatbush in his film "Mo' Better Blues" (1990). The ADL said the characterizations of the nightclub owners "dredge up an age-old and highly dangerous form of anti-Semitic stereotyping", and that it was "disappointed that Spike Lee – whose success is largely due to his efforts to break down racial stereotypes and prejudice – has employed the same kind of tactics that he supposedly deplores". Lee's portrayal also angered the B'nai B'rith and other such Jewish organizations, causing Lee to address the criticism in an opinion piece for "The New York Times", where he stated "...if critics are telling me that to avoid charges of anti-Semitism, all Jewish characters I write have to be model citizens, and not one can be a villain, cheat or a crook, and that no Jewish people have ever exploited black artists in the history of the entertainment industry, that's unrealistic and unfair".


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 1996 ADL's New England Regional Office established a faith-based initiative called "The Interfaith Youth Leadership Program", better known as "Camp If", or Camp Interfaith. Involving teenagers of the Christian, Jewish, and Islamic faiths, the camp brings the teens together for a week at camp where the teens bond and learn about each other's cultures. The camp has emerged as a new attempt to foster good relations between younger members of the Abrahamic faiths.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: ADL has been criticized both from the right and left of the US political spectrum, including from within the American Jewish community. ADL positions and actions that have generated criticism include alleged domestic spying, its former Armenian genocide denial, (since repudiated and apologized for), and what parts of the American left argue is the ADL's conflation of criticism of the Israeli government with antisemitism. ADL's support for the Trump administration's decision to move the US Embassy from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem in May 2018 drew criticism. Right-wing groups and pundits, including right-wing Jewish groups, have criticized ADL as being too left-wing, labeling it a "Democratic Party auxiliary".


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: Graduate student and activist Emmaia Gelman, writing in the "Boston Review", says the ADL has conducted a "vigorous, and successful campaign, alongside AIPAC, specifically to characterize Arab American political organizing as dual loyalty." Gelman further says the ADL has propagated "anti-black, anti-immigrant, and anti-queer hate" and has promoted islamophobia rather than deal with the issue.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In August 2020, a coalition of progressive organizations launched the #DropTheADL campaign, arguing that "the ADL is not an ally" in social justice work. The campaign consisted of an open letter and a website, which were shared on social media with the hashtag "#DropTheADL". Notable signatories included the Democratic Socialists of America, Movement for Black Lives, Jewish Voice for Peace, Center for Constitutional Rights, and Council on American–Islamic Relations. The open letter stated that the ADL "has a history and ongoing pattern of attacking social justice movements led by communities of color, queer people, immigrants, Muslims, Arabs, and other marginalized groups, while aligning itself with police, right-wing leaders, and perpetrators of state violence." Some liberal groups responded by defending the ADL, with HIAS CEO Mark Hetfield characterizing #DropTheADL as a "smear campaign". The ADL published a statement that the campaign involved "many of the same groups who have been pushing an anti-Israel agenda for years." Around sixty organizations supported the campaign on its initial launch, and an additional hundred groups had joined by February 2021.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 1974, ADL attorney Arnold Forster and national director Benjamin Epstein published the book "The New anti-Semitism". They expressed concern about what they described as new manifestations of antisemitism coming from radical left, radical right, and pro-Arab figures in the US. Forster and Epstein argued that radical left antisemitism took the form of indifference to the fears of the Jewish people, apathy in dealing with anti-Jewish bias, and an inability to understand the importance of Israel to Jewish survival. A subsequent book, "The Real Anti-Semitism in America", published in 1982, was written by ADL national leader Nathan Perlmutter and his wife, Ruth Ann Perlmutter.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: Reviewing Forster and Epstein's work in 1974 for the neoconservative magazine "Commentary", Earl Raab, founding director of the Nathan Perlmutter Institute for Jewish Advocacy at Brandeis University, agreed that a "new anti-Semitism" was indeed emerging in America in the form of opposition to the supposed collective rights of the Jewish people, but Raab criticized Forster and Epstein for conflating it with anti-Israel bias. Allan Brownfeld writes that Forster and Epstein's new definition of antisemitism trivialized the concept by turning it into "a form of political blackmail" and "a weapon with which to silence any criticism of either Israel or US policy in the Middle East," while Edward S. Shapiro, in "A Time for Healing: American Jewry Since World War II", has written that, "Forster and Epstein implied that the new antisemitism was the inability of Gentiles to love Jews and Israel enough."


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: Norman Finkelstein has written that organizations such as the Anti-Defamation League have brought forward charges of new antisemitism at various intervals since the 1970s, "not to fight antisemitism, but rather to exploit the historical suffering of Jews in order to immunize Israel against criticism." "The Washington Post" reported in 2006 that the ADL had over the years repeatedly accused Finkelstein of being a "Holocaust denier," and that "these charges have proved baseless."


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: In 2007, Abraham Foxman came under criticism for his stance on the Armenian genocide. ADL had previously described it as a "massacre" and an "atrocity", but not as a "genocide". Foxman had earlier opposed calls for the US Government to recognise it as a "genocide". In early August 2007, complaints about the ADL's refusal to acknowledge the Armenian genocide led to Watertown, Massachusetts's, unanimous town council decision to end its participation in ADL's "No Place for Hate" campaign. (Watertown has a significant Armenian population.) In the subsequent months, some human rights commissions in other Massachusetts communities decided to follow Watertown's lead and withdraw from the ADL's No Place for Hate anti-discrimination program. ADL had earlier received direct pressure from the Turkish Foreign ministry. Also in August 2007, an editorial in "The Boston Globe" criticized ADL by saying that, "as an organization concerned about human rights, it ought to acknowledge the genocide against the Armenian people during World War I, and criticize Turkish attempts to repress the memory of this historical reality."


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: On August 17, 2007, ADL fired its regional New England director, Andrew H. Tarsy, for breaking ranks with the main organization and for saying that ADL should recognize the genocide. In an August 21, 2007, news release, ADL changed its position and acknowledged the genocide, but maintained its opposition to congressional resolutions aimed at recognizing it. Foxman wrote, "the consequences of those actions," by the Ottoman Empire against Armenians, "were indeed tantamount to genocide." The Turkish government condemned the league's statement. Tarsy subsequently won his job back, but subsequently submitted his resignation, on December 4, 2007. The 2007 ADL "Statement on the Armenian Genocide" was criticized by activists as failing to be a full, unequivocal acknowledgment of the Armenian genocide because the use of the qualifier "tantamount" was seen as inappropriate, and the use of the word "consequences" was seen as an attempt to circumvent the international legal definition of genocide by avoiding any language that would imply intent, a crucial aspect of the 1948 UN Genocide Convention definition.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: On July 28, 2010, ADL issued a statement in which it expressed opposition to the Park51 Community Center, a proposed Islamic community center and mosque two blocks from the World Trade Center site in New York. ADL stated, "The controversy which has emerged regarding the building of a Community Center at this location is counterproductive to the healing process. Therefore, under these unique circumstances, we believe the City of New York would be better served if an alternative location could be found." ADL denounced what it saw as bigoted attacks on the project. Foxman opined that some of those who oppose the mosque are "bigots," and that the plan's proponents may have every right to build the mosque at that location. Nevertheless, he said that building the mosque at that site would unnecessarily cause more pain for the families of some victims of 9/11.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: This opposition to the Community Center led to criticism of the statement from various parties, including one ADL board member, the American Jewish Committee, the Jewish Community Relations Council of New York, Rabbi Irwin Kula, columnists Jeffrey Goldberg and Peter Beinart, the Interfaith Alliance, and the Shalom Center. In an interview with "The New York Times" Abraham Foxman published a statement in reaction to criticism. In protest of ADL's stance, CNN host Fareed Zakaria returned the Hubert H. Humphrey First Amendment Freedoms Prize ADL awarded him in 2005. ADL chair Robert G. Sugarman responded to a critical "New York Times" editorial writing, "we have publicly taken on those who criticized the mosque in ways that reflected anti-Muslim bigotry or used the controversy for that purpose" and stating that ADL has combated Islamophobia.


title: Anti-Defamation League

text: On September 5, 2021, the national director and CEO of ADL, Jonathan Greenblatt, apologized for ADL's opposition to the center, stating, "We were wrong, plain and simple".


title: Michelle Hurd

text: Michelle Hurd (born December 21, 1966) is an American actress best known for her work in television. She first received recognition for portraying Monique Jeffries in the police procedural series "" (1999–2001). She has since starred as Athena Barnes in the drama series "Leap Years" (2001), Colleen Manus in the crime drama series "The Glades" (2010–2013), Linda Bates Emery in the comedy-horror series "Ash vs Evil Dead" (2016), and Ellen "Shepherd" Briggs in the crime drama series "Blindspot" (2015–2018). She portrays Raffi Musiker in the science fiction series "" (2020–present).


title: Michelle Hurd

text: Michelle Hurd is the daughter of actor Hugh Hurd and Merlyn Hurd (), an actress and clinical psychologist. Her parents met when they appeared in the same Broadway show. Hurd has three sisters. She graduated from Saint Ann's School in 1984 and Boston University in 1988, and studied with the Alvin Ailey School. After her graduation from college, she studied at London's National Theatre.


title: Michelle Hurd

text: One of Hurd's early Off Broadway performances was in the play "The Constant Couple" in 1990. A review in "The Nation" predicted that this would be a stepping stone to Broadway roles. Hurd made her Broadway debut in the 1996 Stephen Sondheim–George Furth play "Getting Away with Murder". Her other theatre credits include "Othello", "A.M.L.", "Hamlet" and "The Hunchback of Notre Dame". Hurd acted in "Looking for the Pony" for Manhattan Theater Source with her sister Adrienne and in "900 Oneonta" for Circle Repertory Company with Garret Dillahunt who would become her husband. She won the Robbie Award and the California Theatre Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Drama for the premiere of Richard Greenberg's "The Violet Hour".


title: Michelle Hurd

text: Michelle Hurd appeared as the comic book superhero B.B. DaCosta / Fire in the failed television pilot "Justice League of America" in 1997. Her other early television appearances include "New York Undercover", "The Practice" and "The Cosby Mysteries". Her experiences filming the latter series led her to come forward as a witness to a woman being drugged by Bill Cosby. Hurd's association with the "Law & Order" franchise began with her appearance in a 1997 episode of the titular series. Her performance as a corrupt FBI informant caught the attention of "Law & Order" producer Dick Wolf, who two years later cast her in the spin-off "" as Detective Monique Jeffries. She co-starred with Christopher Meloni and Mariska Hargitay for the first season before leaving the main cast in 2000. She appeared in the first, seventh and sixteenth episodes of season two.


title: Michelle Hurd

text: After her time on "SVU", Hurd had television roles in "Charmed", "The O.C.", "According to Jim", "Shark", "Bones", and "Gossip Girl". She collaborated with her husband again in the 2001 Showtime original series "Leap Years". From 2006 to 2007, she had a recurring role on "ER" as television news producer Courtney Brown, who becomes close to Dr. Kerry Weaver. She also returned to the stage, playing the lead role Diana in the Washington Shakespeare Theatre Company's February 10 – March 29, 2009 production of Lope de Vega's "Dog in the Manger".


title: Michelle Hurd

text: In 2010, Hurd began a starring role on the A&E Network drama "The Glades", playing Colleen Manus. In March 2018, it was announced that Hurd would have a leading role in the CBS reboot of "Cagney & Lacey", playing the character Mary Beth Lacey (originated by Tyne Daly in the original series), starring alongside Sarah Drew.


title: Michelle Hurd

text: In 2014, she appeared as Constance “Connie” Irving in Season 1 of the very popular streaming series "Bosch". She was then replaced by Erika Alexander in Season 2.


title: Michelle Hurd

text: In 2016, Hurd had a recurring role in the second season of "Daredevil" as Samantha Reyes, a corrupt district attorney overseeing the prosecution of Frank Castle. Hurd had debuted the role in the season 1 finale of "Jessica Jones".


title: Michelle Hurd

text: On April 26, 2018, Michelle Hurd spoke in a panel for World Intellectual Property Day with a theme of celebrating the creative output of women.


title: Michelle Hurd

text: In 2019, Hurd took on the role of Raffi Musiker in the Paramount Plus series "". The series began streaming on the service in January 2020.


title: Marquess

text: A marquess (; ) is a nobleman of high hereditary rank in various European peerages and in those of some of their former colonies. The German language equivalent is Markgraf (margrave). A woman with the rank of a marquess or the wife (or widow) of a marquess is a marchioness or marquise. These titles are also used to translate equivalent Asian styles, as in Imperial China and Imperial Japan.


title: Marquess

text: The word "marquess" entered the English language from the Old French ("ruler of a border area") in the late 13th or early 14th century. The French word was derived from ("frontier"), itself descended from the Middle Latin ("frontier"), from which the modern English word "march" also descends. The distinction between governors of frontier territories and interior territories was made as early as the founding of the Roman Empire when some provinces were set aside for administration by the senate and more unpacified or vulnerable provinces were administered by the emperor. The titles "duke" and "count" were similarly distinguished as ranks in the Byzantine Empire, with (literally, "leader") being used for a provincial military governor and the rank of (literally "companion," that is, of the Emperor) given to the leader of an active army along the frontier.


title: Marquess

text: In Spain, the rank of Marquess/Marchioness (/) still exists. One hundred forty-two of them are Spanish grandees. Normally a is addressed as "The Most Illustrious Lord" (), or if he/she is a grandee as "The Most Excellent Lord" (). Examples include the Marquess of Carpio, Grandee of Spain.


title: Marquess

text: The honorific prefix "The Most Honourable" precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness of the United Kingdom.


title: Marquess

text: In Great Britain, and historically in Ireland, the correct spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess (although on the European mainland and in Canada, the French spelling of marquis is used in English). In Scotland, the French spelling is also sometimes used. In Great Britain and historically in Ireland, the title ranks below a duke and above an earl. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland or a marquise elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank, or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate.


title: Marquess

text: The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a count's land, called a county, often was not. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbors and was thus more important and ranked higher than a count. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was often largely restricted to the royal family.


title: Marquess

text: The rank of marquess was a relatively late introduction to the British peerage: no marcher lords had the rank of marquess, though some were earls. On the evening of the Coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, the Prime Minister Lord Melbourne explained to her why (from her journals):


title: Marquess

text: I spoke to [Lord Melbourne] about the numbers of Peers present at the Coronation, & he said it was quite unprecedented. I observed that there were very few Viscounts, to which he replied "There are very few Viscounts," that they were an old sort of title & not really English; that they came from Vice-Comites; that Dukes & Barons were the only real English titles; – that Marquises were likewise not English, & that people were mere made Marquises, when it was not wished that they should be made Dukes.


title: Marquess

text: Like other major Western noble titles, marquess (or marquis) is sometimes used to translate certain titles from non-Western languages with their own traditions, even though they are, as a rule, historically unrelated and thus hard to compare. However, they are considered "equivalent" in relative rank.


title: Marquess

text: Marquesses and marchionesses have occasionally appeared in works of fiction. For examples of fictional marquesses and marchionesses, see List of fictional nobility#Marquesses and marchionesses.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel Limited is an Indian multinational steel-making company, based in Jamshedpur, Jharkhand and headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra. It is a part of the Tata Group.


title: Tata Steel

text: Formerly known as Tata Iron and Steel Company Limited (TISCO), Tata Steel is among the top steel producing companies in the world with an annual crude steel capacity of 34 million tonnes. It is one of the world's most geographically diversified steel producers, with operations and commercial presence across the world. The group (excluding SEA operations) recorded a consolidated turnover of US$19.7 billion in the financial year ending 31 March 2020. It is the second largest steel company in India (measured by domestic production) with an annual capacity of 13 million tonnes after Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL). TATA Steel, along with SAIL and Jindal Steel and Power, are the only 3 Indian steel companies that have captive iron-ore mines, which gives the three companies price advantages.


title: Tata Steel

text: The Key Managerial Personnel (KMP) at Tata Steel Limited India are Koushik Chatterjee as CFO (KMP) and Parvatheesam Kanchinadham as Company Secretary. Koushik Chatterjee, Mallika Srinivasan, Chandrasekaran Natarajan and 7 other members are presently associated as directors.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel operates in 26 countries with key operations in India, Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and employs around 80,500 people. Its largest plant (10 MTPA capacity) is located in Jamshedpur, Jharkhand. In 2007, Tata Steel acquired the UK-based steel maker Corus. It was ranked 486th in the 2014 Fortune Global 500 ranking of the world's biggest corporations. It was the seventh most valuable Indian brand of 2013 according to Brand Finance.


title: Tata Steel

text: In July 2019 Tata Steel Kalinganagar (TSK) was included in the list of the World Economic Forum's (WEF's) Global Lighthouse Network.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel has been recognised amongst India's Best Workplaces in Manufacturing 2022 by Great Place to Work. This recognition has been received for the fifth time, highlights the company's sustained focus on fostering a culture of high-trust, integrity, growth, and care for the employees. Tata Steel has also been inclusive towards its LGBTQ employees and also provides health insurance benefits for partners of its LGBTQ employees under the new HR policy.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO) was founded by Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata and established by Sir Dorabji Tata on 26 August 1907. TISCO started pig iron production in 1911 and began producing steel in 1912 as a branch of Jamsetji's Tata Group. The first steel ingot was manufactured on 16 February 1912. During the First World War (1914–1918), the company made rapid progress.


title: Tata Steel

text: In 1920, The Tata Iron & Steel Company also incorporated The Tinplate Company of India Ltd (TCIL), as a joint venture with then Burmah Shell to manufacture Tinplate. TCIL is now Tata Tinplate and holds 70% market share in India.


title: Tata Steel

text: By 1939, it operated the largest steel plant in the British Empire. The company launched a major modernisation and expansion program in 1951. Later, in 1958, the program was upgraded to 2 million metric tonnes per annum (MTPA) project. By 1970, the company employed around 40,000 people at Jamshedpur, and a further 20,000 in the neighbouring coal mines.


title: Tata Steel

text: There were two attempts one in 1971 and another in 1979, nationalise the company. Both were unsuccessful attempts. In 1971 Indira Gandhi regime tried to nationalise the company, but failed. In 1979 Janata Party regime (1977–79), wanted to nationalise TISCO (now Tata Steel). Then Minister for Industries George Fernandes, at the instigation of Biju Patnaik, Minister for Steel threatened nationalisation, but due to the unions protests the move failed.


title: Tata Steel

text: In 1990, the company began to expand, and established its subsidiary, Tata Inc., in New York. The company changed its name from TISCO to Tata Steel Ltd. in 2005.


title: Tata Steel

text: NatSteel in 2004: Tata Steel agreed to acquire the steel making operations of the Singapore-based NatSteel for $486.4 million in cash. NatSteel had ended 2003 with turnover of $1.4 billion and a profit before tax of $47 million. The steel businesses of NatSteel would be run by the company through a wholly owned subsidiary called Natsteel Asia Pte Ltd. The acquisition was completed in February 2005. At the time of acquisition, NatSteel had a capacity of about 2 million tonnes per annum of finished steel.


title: Tata Steel

text: Millennium Steel in 2005: Tata Steel acquired a majority stake in the Thailand-based steelmaker Millennium Steel for a total cost of $130 million. It paid US$73 million to Siam Cement for a 40% stake and offered to pay 1.13 baht per share for another 25% of the shares of other shareholders. Millennium Steel has now been renamed to Tata Steel Thailand and is headquartered in Bangkok. On 31 March 2013, it held approx. 68% shares in the acquired company.


title: Tata Steel

text: Corus in 2006: Tata Steel signed a deal with Anglo-Dutch company, Corus to buy 100% stake at £4.3 billion ($8.1 billion) at 455 pence per share. On 19 November 2006, the Brazilian steel company Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional (CSN) launched a counter offer for Corus at 475 pence per share, valuing it at £4.5 billion. On 11 December 2006, Tata pre-emptively upped its offer to 500 pence per share, which was within hours trumped by CSN's offer of 515 pence per share, valuing the deal at £4.9 billion. The Corus board promptly recommended both the revised offers to its shareholders. On 31 January 2007, Tata Steel won their bid for Corus after offering 608 pence per share, valuing Corus at £6.7 billion ($12 billion). In 2005, Corus employed around 47,300 people worldwide, including 24,000 in the UK. At the time of acquisition, Corus was four times larger than Tata Steel, in terms of annual steel production. Corus was the world's 9th largest producer of Steel, whereas Tata Steel was at 56th position. The acquisition made Tata Steel world's 5th largest producer of Steel.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tayo Rolls in 2008, formerly Tata-Yodogawa Limited is a metal fabrication and processing company headquartered in Jamshedpur, India. It was founded in 1968 as a joint venture between Tata Steel and the Japan-based Yodogawa Steels. In 2008, the company made the rights issue which was subscribed for only about 50% of its total value – Rs 60-crore. Due to undersubscription, the promoters acquired them, as result Tayo Rolls became a Tata Steel Subsidiary. Tata Steel owns 55.24% of the Tayo Rolls.


title: Tata Steel

text: Steel Engineering and Vinausteel in 2007: Tata Steel through its wholly owned Singapore subsidiary, NatSteel Asia Pte Ltd, acquired controlling stake in both rolling mill companies located in Vietnam: Structure Steel Engineering Pte Ltd (100% stake) and Vinausteel Ltd (70% stake). The enterprise value for the acquisition was $41 million. With this acquisition, Tata Steel got hold of two rolling mills, a 250,000 tonnes per year bar/wire rod mill operated by SSE Steel Ltd. and a 180,000 tonnes per year reinforcing bar mill operated by Vinausteel Ltd.


title: Tata Steel

text: Bhushan Steel in 2018: Tata Steel acquired the entire company in 2017–18, when Insolvency proceedings were initiated against the former company on 26 July 2017 under IBC. Tata steel emerged as the highest bidder and took over the company through its wholly owned subsidiary Bamnipal Steel Ltd. The company was renamed as Tata Steel BSL. Later in 2021 Tata Steel amalgamated Bamnipal Steel Ltd. and Tata Steel BSL thereby the latter became a direct subsidiary of Tata Steel (72.65%).


title: Tata Steel

text: Nilachala Ispat Nigam Ltd in 2022: Tata Steel through its wholly owned subsidiary, Tata Steel Long Products (TSLP), acquired controlling stake in NINL. It beat Jindal Steel and JSW Steel to acquire Odisha-based Neelachal Ispat Nigam Ltd (NINL) for .


title: Tata Steel

text: In 2006, Tata Steel and BlueScope Steel launched Tata BlueScope Steel Ltd, a joint venture for the manufacturing pre-engineered steel products.


title: Tata Steel

text: In 2014, Tata Steel launched Jamshedpur Continuous Annealing and Processing Company Pvt Ltd (JCAPCPL), a joint venture with Nippon Steel to produce continuous annealed products intended for the automotive industry. The plant had a capacity of 600,000 tonnes and was setup with an investment of 2,750 Crores. Tata Steel held 51% of the joint venture.


title: Tata Steel

text: In 2022, Tata group moved for the amalgamation of seven metal companies of the group into Tata Steel. Seven metal companies of Tata group that will be merged with Tata Steel are Tata Steel Long Products Limited (TSLP), The Tinplate Company of India Limited (TCIL), Tata Metaliks Limited (TML), TRF Limited, The Indian Steel & Wire Products Limited (ISWPL), Tata Steel Mining Limited (TSML) and S & T Mining Company Limited.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel have traditionally played a key role in development of sports in India. They have been involved in the inception of Tata Football Academy, TSAF Climbing Academy, Tata Archery Academy, Naval Tata Hockey Academy - Jamshedpur and Odisha Naval Tata Hockey High Performance Centre.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel is headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India and has its marketing headquarters at the Tata Centre in Kolkata, West Bengal. It has a presence in around 50 countries with manufacturing operations in 26 countries including: India, Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, UAE, Ivory Coast, Mozambique, South Africa, Australia, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, France and Canada.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel primarily serves customers in the automotive, construction, consumer goods, engineering, packaging, lifting and excavating, energy and power, aerospace, shipbuilding, rail and defence and security sectors.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel has set a target of achieving an annual production capacity of 100 million tons by 2015; it is planning for capacity expansion to be balanced roughly 50:50 between greenfield developments and acquisitions. Overseas acquisitions have already added an additional 21.4 million tonnes of capacity, including Corus (18.2 million tonnes), NatSteel (2 million tonnes) and Millennium Steel (1.2 million tonnes). Tata plans to add another 29 million tonnes of capacity through acquisitions.Major greenfield steel plant expansion projects planned by Tata Steel include:


title: Tata Steel

text: Since Tata Steel's Corus acquisition in 2007, Tata Steel's Europe unit faced issues from oversupply in the market, labor unions, inexpensive imports from Chinese steel makers, and pressure from regulators for decarbonisation (green taxes) which forced Tata Steel to consolidate its businesses in Europe.


title: Tata Steel

text: In 2015, Tata Steel was looking to sell its facilities in Port Talbot, Hartlepool, Rotherham and Stocksbridge, which was put on hold due to Brexit. In April 2016, Tata Steel's Long Products Europe Division located in Scunthorpe, England was sold to Greybull Capital LLP. The unit was renamed as British Steel Limited.


title: Tata Steel

text: In September 2017, ThyssenKrupp of Germany and Tata Steel announced plans to combine their European steel-making businesses. The deal will structure the European assets as Thyssenkrupp Tata Steel, an equal joint venture. The announcement estimated that the company would be Europe's second-largest steelmaker, and listed future headquarters in Amsterdam. However, in 2019, antitrust regulators of EU refused to accept deals citing reduction in competition. In 2019 Tata Steel decided to sell some of its non-core business units in UK.


title: Tata Steel

text: In June 2020, the company requested £500 million in UK government support. Later in July media houses reported that the company has proposed to give away 50% of its stake in Port Talbot Steelworks to UK Government in return for capital injections amounting to £900 million.


title: Tata Steel

text: In November 2020, SSAB of Sweden announced its intention to buy Tata Steel's unit in IJmuiden, Netherlands. However, in 2021, SSAB backed out of citing technical and cost issues involved with the deal.


title: Tata Steel

text: In October 2021, Tata Steel Europe officially split its businesses into two independent entities Tata Steel Netherlands and Tata Steel UK.


title: Tata Steel

text: In April 2022, Tata Steel announced that they had to find alternative sources of coal for their steel production plants in the UK and Netherlands after European nations stopped doing business with Russia because of its invasion of Ukraine.


title: Tata Steel

text: In January 2019, citing debt issues and consistent losses Tata Steel, decided to sell 70 per cent stake its S.E. Asia business (NatSteel and Tata Steel Thailand) to China's state-owned HBIS Group for $327 million. But the deal fell through citing regulatory issues.


title: Tata Steel

text: Later in 2019, Tata Group signed a memorandum of understanding with the Private Equity firm, Synergy Metals and Mining Fund for divestment of 70% shareholding in Tata Steel (Thailand) Public Company Ltd. (excluding NatSteel)


title: Tata Steel

text: In 2021, Tata Steel decided against divesting the South East Asian businesses citing improvement in financials, including reduction in total debt and increase in the cash flow. This was confirmed through its regulatory filing where Tata Steel reclassified its S.E. Asians assets from 'held for sale' to 'continuing operations'.


title: Tata Steel

text: In Oct 2021, Tata Steel announced the sale of its subsidiary Natsteel Holdings Pte. Ltd to TopTip Holding Pte, a Singapore-based steel and iron ore trading company. The deal was valued at $172 million (₹1,275 crore). The deal included two Singapore facilities and one Malaysian facility excluding the wire business in Thailand.


title: Tata Steel

text: As on 31 March 2018, Tata Group held 31.64% shares in Tata Steel. Over 1 million individual shareholders hold approx. 21% of its shares. Life Insurance Corporation of India is the largest non-promoter shareholder in the company with 14.88% shareholding.


title: Tata Steel

text: The equity shares of Tata Steel are listed on the Bombay Stock Exchange, where it is a constituent of the BSE SENSEX index, and the National Stock Exchange of India, where it is a constituent of the S&P CNX Nifty, the Global Depository Receipts (GDRs) are listed on the London Stock Exchange and the Luxembourg Stock Exchange.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel's subsidiary Tata Steel (Thailand) Public Company Limited (), (formerly Millennium Steel Public Company Limited) is listed on the Stock Exchange of Thailand. Tata Steel Limited directly holds 67.90% through its investment arm T S Global Holdings Pte. Ltd.


title: Tata Steel

text: Tata Steel Group reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for 31 March 2021 at 25,790 Kt (-1,820 /-6.6% y-o-y). There is little evidence of a consistent declining trend as yet.


title: Copts

text: Copts ( ; ) are a Christian ethnoreligious group indigenous to North Africa who have primarily inhabited the area of modern Egypt and Sudan since antiquity. Most ethnic Copts are Coptic Oriental Orthodox Christians. They are the largest Christian denomination in Egypt and the Middle East, as well as in Sudan and Libya. Copts have historically spoken the Coptic language, a direct descendant of the Demotic Egyptian that was spoken in late antiquity.


title: Copts

text: Originally referring to all Egyptians at first, the term "Copt" became synonymous with native Christians in light of Egypt's Islamization and Arabization after the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. Copts in Egypt account for roughly 5–20 percent of the Egyptian population, although the exact percentage is unknown; Copts in Sudan account for 1 percent of the Sudanese population while Copts in Libya similarly account for 1 percent of the Libyan population.


title: Copts

text: Following the Arab conquest of Egypt in 639–646 AD, the treatment of the Copts ranged from relative tolerance to open persecution. Historically, the Copts suffered from "waves of persecution giving way to relative tolerance in cycles that varied according to the local ruler and other political and economic circumstances". Persecution is pivotal to the Copts' ethnic identity. Most Copts adhere to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, an Oriental Orthodox Church. The smaller Coptic Catholic Church is an Eastern Catholic Church, in communion with the Holy See of Rome; others belong to the Evangelical Church of Egypt. The Copts played a central role in the Arab Renaissance as well as the modernization of Egypt and the Arab world as a whole; they also contributed to the "social and political life and key debates such as Pan-Arabism, good governance, educational reform, and democracy", and they have historically flourished in business affairs.


title: Copts

text: Copts maintain a distinct ethnic identity and generally reject an Arab identity. In Egypt, Copts have a relatively higher educational attainment, a relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white-collar job types, but limited representation in military and security agencies. The majority of demographic, socio-economic, and health indicators are similar among Christians and Muslims.


title: Copts

text: The English language adopted the word "Copt" in the 17th century from New Latin "Coptus, Cophtus", which derives from the Arabic collective "the Copts" with nisba adjective , plural ; Also "quftī, qiftī" (where the Arabic reflects the historical Coptic ) an Arabisation of the Coptic word ⲁⲓⲅⲩⲡⲧⲓⲟⲛ "aiguption" (Bohairic) or ⲕⲩⲡⲧⲁⲓⲟⲛ "kuptaion" (Sahidic). The Coptic word in turn represents an adaptation of the Greek term for the indigenous people of Egypt, ().


title: Copts

text: The Greek term for Egypt, "Aígyptos" (), itself derives from the Egyptian language, but dates to a much earlier period, being attested already in Mycenaean Greek as "a-ku-pi-ti-jo" (lit. "Egyptian"; used here as a man's name). This Mycenaean form is likely from Middle Egyptian (reconstructed pronunciation /ħawitˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħajiʔˌkuʀpiˈtaħ/ → /ħəjˌkuʔpəˈtaħ/, Egyptological pronunciation "Hut-ka-Ptah"), literally "estate/palace of the kꜣ ("double" spirit) of Ptah" (compare Akkadian ), the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis (and a synecdoche for the city of Memphis and the region around it).


title: Copts

text: The term "Aigýptios" in Greek came to designate the native Egyptian population in Roman Egypt (as distinct from Greeks, Romans, Jews, etc.). After the Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-646) it became restricted to those Egyptians adhering to the Christian religion.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic name for Egyptians, "remənkhēmi" (), is realized in the Fayyumic Coptic as ⲗⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ "lemenkēmi" and as ⲣⲉⲙⲛ̀ⲕⲏⲙⲉ "remənkēme" in the Sahidic dialect; cf. Egyptian , Demotic .


title: Copts

text: The Arabic word "Copt" has also been connected to the Greek name of the town of Kóptos (, now Qifṭ; Coptic "Kebt" and "Keft") in Upper Egypt. This association may have contributed to making "Copt" the settled form of the name.


title: Copts

text: In the 20th century some Egyptian nationalists and intellectuals in the context of Pharaonism began using the term in the historical sense.


title: Copts

text: The Copts are one of the oldest Christian communities in the Middle East. Although integrated in the larger Egyptian nation state, the Copts have survived as a distinct religious community forming around 5 to 20 percent of the population, though estimates vary. They pride themselves on the apostolicity of the Egyptian Church whose founder was the first in an unbroken chain of patriarchs. The main body for 16 centuries has been out of communion with both the Roman Catholic Church (in Rome) and the various Eastern orthodox churches.


title: Copts

text: According to ancient tradition, Christianity was introduced within present day Egypt by Saint Mark in Alexandria, shortly after the ascension of Christ and during the reign of the Roman emperor Claudius around 42 AD. The legacy that Saint Mark left in Egypt was a considerable Christian community in Alexandria. From Alexandria, Christianity spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Saint Mark's arrival in Alexandria, as is clear from a fragment of the Gospel of John, written in Coptic, which was found in Upper Egypt and can be dated to the first half of the 2nd century, and the New Testament writings found in Oxyrhynchus, in Middle Egypt, which date around the year 200 AD. In the 2nd century, Christianity began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, today known as the Coptic language, but known as the "Egyptian language" at the time. By the beginning of the 3rd century AD, Christians constituted the majority of Egypt's population, and the Church of Alexandria was recognized as one of Christendom's four Apostolic Sees, second in honor only to the Church of Rome. The Church of Alexandria is therefore the oldest Christian church in Africa.


title: Copts

text: The Copts in Egypt contributed immensely to Christian tradition. The Catechetical School of Alexandria was the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 AD by the scholar Pantanaeus, the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as Athenagoras, Clement, Didymus, and Origen, the father of theology who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. However, the scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question-and-answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before Braille, wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.


title: Copts

text: Another major contribution made by the Copts in Egypt to Christianity was the creation and organization of monasticism. Worldwide Christian monasticism stems, either directly or indirectly, from the Egyptian example. The most prominent figures of the monastic movement were Anthony the Great, Paul of Thebes, Macarius the Great, Shenouda the Archimandrite and Pachomius the Cenobite. By the end of the 5th century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian desert. Since then pilgrims have visited the Egyptian Desert Fathers to emulate their spiritual, disciplined lives. Saint Basil the Great Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca, and the founder and organiser of the monastic movement in Asia Minor, visited Egypt around 357 AD and his monastic rules are followed by the Eastern Orthodox Churches. Saint Jerome, who translated the Bible into Latin, came to Egypt while en route to Jerusalem around 400 AD and left details of his experiences in his letters. Saint Benedict founded the Benedictine Order in the 6th century on the model of Saint Pachomius, although in a stricter form. Coptic Christians practice male circumcision as a rite of passage.


title: Copts

text: The major contributions that the See of Alexandria has contributed to the establishment of early Christian theology and dogma are attested to by fact that the first three ecumenical councils in the history of Christianity were headed by Egyptian patriarchs. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) was presided over by St. Alexander, Patriarch of Alexandria, along with Saint Hosius of Córdoba. In addition, the most prominent figure of the council was the future Patriarch of Alexandria Athanasius, who played the major role in the formulation of the Nicene Creed, recited today in most Christian churches of different denominations. One of the council's decisions was to entrust the Patriarch of Alexandria with calculating and annually announcing the exact date of Easter to the rest of the Christian churches. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD) was presided over by Patriarch Timothy of Alexandria, while the Council of Ephesus (431 AD) was presided over by Cyril of Alexandria.


title: Copts

text: In 451 AD, following the Council of Chalcedon, the Church of Alexandria was divided into two branches. Those who accepted the terms of the Council became known as Chalcedonians or Melkites. Those who did not abide by the council's terms were labeled non-Chalcedonians or Monophysites and later Jacobite's after Jacob Baradaeus. The non-Chalcedonians, however, rejected the term Monophysites as erroneous and referred to themselves as Miaphysites. The majority of the Egyptians belonged to the Miaphysite branch, which led to their persecution by the Byzantines in Egypt.


title: Copts

text: In 641 AD, Egypt was conquered by the Arabs who faced off with the Byzantine army. Local resistance by the Egyptians however began to materialize shortly thereafter and would last until at least the 9th century. Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained mainly Christian, but Coptic Christians lost their majority status after the 14th century, as a result of the intermittent persecution and the destruction of the Christian churches there. From the Muslim conquest of Egypt onwards, the Coptic Christians were persecuted by different Muslim regimes, such as the Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate, Mamluk Sultanate, and Ottoman Empire; the persecution of Coptic Christians included closing and demolishing churches, forced conversion to Islam, and heavy taxes for those who refused to convert.


title: Copts

text: Under Muslim rule, Christians paid special taxes and had lower access to political power, but were exempt from military service. Their position improved dramatically under the rule of Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century. He abolished the Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and allowed Egyptians (Copts) to enroll in the army. Pope Cyril IV, 1854–61, reformed the church and encouraged broader Coptic participation in Egyptian affairs. Khedive Isma'il Pasha, in power 1863–79, further promoted the Copts. He appointed them judges to Egyptian courts and awarded them political rights and representation in government. They flourished in business affairs.


title: Copts

text: Some Copts participated in the Egyptian national movement for independence and occupied many influential positions. Two significant cultural achievements include the founding of the Coptic Museum in 1910 and the Higher Institute of Coptic Studies in 1954. Some prominent Coptic thinkers from this period are Salama Moussa, Louis Awad and Secretary General of the Wafd Party Makram Ebeid.


title: Copts

text: In 1952, Gamal Abdel Nasser led some army officers in a coup d'état against King Farouk, which overthrew the Kingdom of Egypt and established a republic. Nasser's mainstream policy was pan-Arab nationalism and socialism. The Copts were severely affected by Nasser's nationalization policies, though they represented about 10 to 20 percent of the population. In addition, Nasser's pan-Arab policies undermined the Copts' strong attachment to and sense of identity about their Egyptian pre-Arab, and certainly non-Arab identity which resulted in permits to construct churches to be delayed along with Christian religious courts to be closed.


title: Copts

text: In Egypt, Copts have relatively higher educational attainment, relatively higher wealth index, and a stronger representation in white collar job types, but limited representation in security agencies. The majority of demographic, socioeconomic and health indicators are similar among Copts and Muslims. Historically; many Copts were accountants, and in 1961 Coptic Christians owned 51% of the Egyptian banks. A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that around 26% of Egyptian Christians obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education.


title: Copts

text: According to the scholar Andrea Rugh Copts tend to belong to the educated middle and upper-middle class, and according to scholar Lois Farag "The Copts still played the major role in managing Egypt's state finances. They held 20% of total state capital, 45% of government employment, and 45% of government salarie". According to scholar J. D. Pennington 45% of the medical doctors, 60% of the pharmacists of Egypt were Christians.


title: Copts

text: A number of Coptic business and land-owning families became very wealthy and influential such as the Egyptian Coptic Christian Sawiris family that owns the Orascom conglomerate, spanning telecommunications, construction, tourism, industries and technology. In 2008, "Forbes" estimated the family's net worth at $36 billion. According to scholars Maristella Botticini and Zvi Eckstein argue that Copts have relatively higher educational attainment and relatively higher wealth index, due to Coptic Christianity emphasis on literacy and that Coptic Christianity encouraged the accumulation of human capital.


title: Copts

text: Many Coptic intellectuals hold to Pharaonism, which states that Coptic culture is largely derived from pre-Christian, Pharaonic culture, and is not indebted to Greece. It gives the Copts a claim to a deep heritage in Egyptian history and culture. Pharaonism was widely held by Coptic and Muslim scholars in the early 20th century, and it helped bridge the divide between those groups. Some scholars see Pharaonism as shaped by Orientalism.


title: Copts

text: Today, members of the non-Chalcedonian Coptic Orthodox Church constitute the majority of the Egyptian Christian population. Mainly through emigration and partly through European, American, and other missionary work and conversions, the Egyptian Christian community now also includes other Christian denominations such as Protestants (known in Arabic as Evangelicals), Roman Catholics and Eastern Rite Catholics, and other Orthodox congregations. The term "Coptic" remains exclusive however to the Egyptian natives, as opposed to the Christians of non-Egyptian origins. Some Protestant churches for instance are called "Coptic Evangelical Church", thus helping differentiate their native Egyptian congregations from churches attended by non-Egyptian immigrant communities such as Europeans or Americans.


title: Copts

text: The previous head of the Coptic Orthodox Church, Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, died 17 March 2012. On 4 November 2012, Bishop Tawadros was chosen as the new pope of Egypt's Coptic Christians. His name was selected from a glass bowl containing the three shortlisted candidates by a blindfolded boy at a ceremony in Cairo's St Mark's Cathedral.


title: Copts

text: Sudan has a native Coptic minority, although many Copts in Sudan are descended from more recent Egyptian immigrants.


title: Copts

text: Copts in Sudan live mostly in northern cities, including Al Obeid, Atbara, Dongola, Khartoum, Omdurman, Port Sudan, and Wad Medani. They number up to 500,000, or slightly over 1 percent of the Sudanese population. Due to their advanced education, their role in the life of the country has been more significant than their numbers suggest. They have occasionally faced forced conversion to Islam, resulting in their emigration and decrease in number.


title: Copts

text: Modern immigration of Copts to Sudan peaked in the early 19th century, and they generally received a tolerant welcome there. However, this was interrupted by a decade of persecution under Mahdist rule at the end of the 19th century. As a result of this persecution, many were forced to relinquish their faith, adopt Islam, and intermarry with the native Sudanese. The Anglo-Egyptian invasion in 1898 allowed Copts greater religious and economic freedom, and they extended their original roles as artisans and merchants into trading, banking, engineering, medicine, and the civil service. Proficiency in business and administration made them a privileged minority. However, the return of militant Islam in the mid-1960s and subsequent demands by radicals for an Islamic constitution prompted Copts to join in public opposition to religious rule.


title: Copts

text: Gaafar Nimeiry's introduction of Islamic Sharia law in 1983 began a new phase of oppressive treatment of Copts, among other non-Muslims. After the overthrow of Nimeiry, Coptic leaders supported a secular candidate in the 1986 elections. However, when the National Islamic Front overthrew the elected government of Sadiq al-Mahdi with the help of the military, discrimination against Copts returned in earnest. Hundreds of Copts were dismissed from the civil service and judiciary.


title: Copts

text: In February 1991, a Coptic pilot working for Sudan Airways was executed for illegal possession of foreign currency. Before his execution, he had been offered amnesty and money if he converted to Islam, but he refused. Thousands attended his funeral, and the execution was taken as a warning by many Copts, who began to flee the country.


title: Copts

text: Restrictions on the Copts' rights to Sudanese nationality followed, and it became difficult for them to obtain Sudanese nationality by birth or by naturalization, resulting in problems when attempting to travel abroad. The confiscation of Christian schools and the imposition of an Arab-Islamic emphasis in language and history teaching were accompanied by harassment of Christian children and the introduction of hijab dress laws. A Coptic child was flogged for failing to recite a Koranic verse. In contrast with the extensive media broadcasting of the Muslim Friday prayers, the radio ceased coverage of the Christian Sunday service. As the civil war raged throughout the 1990s, the government focused its religious fervor on the south. Although experiencing discrimination, the Copts and other long-established Christian groups in the north had fewer restrictions than other types of Christians in the south.


title: Copts

text: Today, the Coptic Church in Sudan is officially registered with the government, and is exempt from property tax. In 2005, the Sudanese government of National Unity (GNU) named a Coptic Orthodox priest to a government position, though the ruling Islamist party's continued dominance under the GNU provides ample reason to doubt its commitment to broader religious or ethnic representation.


title: Copts

text: The largest Christian group in Libya is the Coptic Orthodox Church, with a population of 60,000. The Coptic Church is known to have historical roots in Libya long before the Arabs advanced westward from Egypt into Libya.


title: Copts

text: Living in countries with Muslim majorities (Egypt, Sudan, Libya), the size of the population of Copts is a continuously disputed matter, frequently for reasons of religious jealousy and animosity.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic population in Egypt is difficult to estimate because researchers are forbidden by Egyptian authorities to ask a survey participant's religion, although official estimates state that Coptic Christians represent 10 to 15 percent<ref name="U.S.Dept of State/Egypt"></ref><ref name="FCO/Egypt/"></ref><ref name="The world factbook/Egypt/"></ref><ref name="msn encarta/Egypt"></ref> while other independent and Christian sources estimate much higher numbers, up to 25 percent of the population.


title: Copts

text: Outside of the Coptic primary area of residence within parts of present-day Egypt (Copts in Egypt), Sudan (Copts in Sudan), and Libya (Copts in Libya), the largest Coptic diaspora population is located within the United States, Canada, and Australia. The numbers of the Censuses in the United States, Canada, and Australia are not fully correct since many Copts listed themselves in the 2011 Census mistakenly as either Egyptians, Sudanese, Libyans, Americans, Canadians or Australians and by this way reducing the Coptic population in the 2011 Census in the United States, Canada, and Australia respectively.


title: Copts

text: Nevertheless, the Coptic American (US) population is estimated to number about 200,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as a million). According to published accounts and several Coptic/US sources (including the "US-Coptic Association"), the Coptic Orthodox Church has between 700,000 and one million members in the United States (c. 2005–2007). The Coptic Canadian population is estimated to number about 50,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 200,000). The Coptic Australian population is estimated to number about 100,000 (estimates of Coptic organizations ranging as high as 100,000).


title: Copts

text: Minor communities below 10,000 people are reported from Jordan (8,000 Copts), Lebanon (3,000 – 4,000 Copts), Germany (3,000 Copts), Austria (2,000 Copts), Switzerland (1,000 Copts), and elsewhere.


title: Copts

text: It is noted that Copts also live in Denmark, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.


title: Copts

text: Religious freedom in Egypt is hampered to varying degrees by discriminatory and restrictive government policies. Coptic Christians, being the largest religious minority in Egypt, are also negatively affected. Copts have faced increasing marginalization after the 1952 coup d'état led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. Until recently, Christians were required to obtain presidential approval for even minor repairs in churches. Although the law was eased in 2005 by handing down the authority of approval to the governors, Copts continue to face many obstacles and restrictions in building new churches. These restrictions do not apply for building mosques.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic community has been targeted by hate crimes by Islamic extremists. The most significant was the 2000–01 El Kosheh attacks, in which Muslims and Christians were involved in bloody inter-religious clashes following a dispute between a Muslim and a Christian. "Twenty Christians and one Muslim were killed after violence broke out in the town of el-Kosheh, south of Cairo". In February 2001 a new Coptic church and 35 houses belonging to Christians were burned.


title: Copts

text: In 2006, one person attacked three churches in Alexandria, killing one person and injuring 5–16. The attacker was not linked to any organisation and described as "psychologically disturbed" by the Ministry of Interior. In May 2010, The Wall Street Journal reported increasing waves of mob attacks by Muslims against Copts. Despite frantic calls for help, the police typically arrived after the violence was over. The police also coerced the Copts to accept "reconciliation" with their attackers to avoid prosecuting them, with no Muslims convicted for any of the attacks. In Marsa Matrouh, a Bedouin mob of Muslims tried to attack Copts, with 400 Copts having to barricade themselves in their church while the mob destroyed 18 homes, 23 shops and 16 cars.


title: Copts

text: Members of U.S. Congress have expressed concern about "human trafficking" of Coptic women and girls who are victims of abductions, forced conversion to Islam, sexual exploitation and forced marriage to Muslim men.


title: Copts

text: Boutros Boutros-Ghali was a Copt who served as Egypt's foreign minister under President Anwar Sadat. Previously, only two Copts were in Egypt's governmental cabinet: Finance Minister Youssef Boutros Ghali and Environment Minister Magued George during former president Mubarak's rule. There also used to be one Coptic governor out of 25, that of the upper Egyptian governorate of Qena, and is the first Coptic governor in decades due to the higher concentration of Copts in Upper Egypt. In addition, Naguib Sawiris, Nassef Sawiris and Samih Sawiris, who are extremely successful businessmen and one of the world's 100 wealthiest people, are Copts. In 2002, under the Mubarak government, Coptic Christmas (January 7) was recognized as an official holiday. However, many Copts continue to complain of being minimally represented in higher positions in law enforcement, state security and public office, and of being discriminated against in the workforce on the basis of their religion. Most Copts do not support independence or separation movement from other Egyptians.


title: Copts

text: While freedom of religion is guaranteed by the Egyptian constitution, according to Human Rights Watch, "Egyptians are able to convert to Islam generally without difficulty, but Muslims who convert to Christianity face difficulties in getting new identity papers and some have been arrested for allegedly forging such documents." The Coptic community, however, takes pains to prevent conversions from Christianity to Islam due to the ease with which Christians can often become Muslim. Public officials, being conservative themselves, intensify the complexity of the legal procedures required to recognize the religion change as required by law. Security agencies will sometimes claim that such conversions from Islam to Christianity (or occasionally vice versa) may stir social unrest, and thereby justify themselves in wrongfully detaining the subjects, insisting that they are simply taking steps to prevent likely social troubles from happening. In 2007, a Cairo administrative court denied 45 citizens the right to obtain identity papers documenting their reversion to Christianity after converting to Islam. However, in February 2008 the Supreme Administrative Court overturned the decision, allowing 12 citizens who had reverted to Christianity to re-list their religion on identity cards, but they will specify that they had adopted Islam for a brief period of time.


title: Copts

text: In August 2013, following the 3 July 2013 Coup and clashes between the military and Morsi supporters, there were widespread attacks on Coptic churches and institutions in Egypt by Sunni Muslims.


title: Copts

text: "USA Today" reported that "forty churches have been looted and torched, while 23 others have been attacked and heavily damaged". More than 45 churches across Egypt were attacked. The Facebook page of the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party was "rife with false accusations meant to foment hatred against Copts". The Party's page claimed that the Coptic Church had declared "war against Islam and Muslims" and that "The Pope of the Church is involved in the removal of the first elected Islamist president. The Pope of the Church alleges Islamic Sharia is backwards, stubborn, and reactionary." On August 15, nine Egyptian human rights groups under the umbrella group "Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights", released a statement saying, "In December … Brotherhood leaders began fomenting anti-Christian sectarian incitement. The anti-Coptic incitement and threats continued unabated up to the demonstrations of June 30 and, with the removal of President Morsi … morphed into sectarian violence, which was sanctioned by … the continued anti-Coptic rhetoric heard from the group's leaders on the stage … throughout the sit-in."


title: Copts

text: Coptic women and girls are abducted, forced to convert to Islam and marry Muslim men. In 2009 the Washington, D.C. based group Christian Solidarity International published a study of the abductions and forced marriages and the anguish felt by the young women because returning to Christianity is against the law. Further allegations of organised abduction of Copts, trafficking and police collusion continue in 2017.


title: Copts

text: In April 2010, a bipartisan group of 17 members of the U.S. Congress expressed concern to the State Department's Trafficking in Persons Office about Coptic women who faced "physical and sexual violence, captivity ... exploitation in forced domestic servitude or commercial sexual exploitation, and financial benefit to the individuals who secure the forced conversion of the victim."


title: Copts

text: According to the "Egyptian NGO Association of Victims of Abduction and Forced Disappearance", between 2011 and March 2014, around 550 Coptic girls have been kidnapped, and forced to converted to Islam. According the same survey around 40% of the girls were raped prior to their conversion to Islam and married their captors.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic language is the most recent stage of the Egyptian language. Coptic should more correctly be used to refer to the script rather than the language itself. Even though this script was introduced as far back as the 1st century BC, it has been applied to the writing of the Egyptian language from the 1st century AD to the present day. Coptic remained the spoken language of most Egyptians until it was slowly replaced by colloquial Egyptian Arabic in Lower Egypt and Sa'idi Arabic in Upper Egypt by the end of the 17th century, although it may have survived in isolated pockets for a little longer.


title: Copts

text: Today Coptic is extinct but it is still the liturgical language of the native Egyptian Churches (the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church). It is taught worldwide in many prestigious institutions, but its teaching within Egypt remains limited.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic calendar, also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the Coptic Orthodox Church and also by Ethiopia as its official calendar (with different names). This calendar is based on the ancient Egyptian calendar. To avoid the calendar creep of the latter, a reform of the ancient Egyptian calendar was introduced at the time of Ptolemy III (Decree of Canopus, in 238 BC) which consisted of the intercalation of a sixth epagomenal day every fourth year. However, this reform was opposed by the Egyptian priests, and the idea was not adopted until 25 BC, when the Roman Emperor Augustus formally reformed the calendar of Egypt, keeping it forever synchronized with the newly introduced Julian calendar. To distinguish it from the Ancient Egyptian calendar, which remained in use by some astronomers until medieval times, this reformed calendar is known as the Coptic calendar. Its years and months coincide with those of the Ethiopian calendar but have different numbers and names.


title: Copts

text: The Coptic year is the extension of the ancient Egyptian civil year, retaining its subdivision into the three seasons, four months each. The three seasons are commemorated by special prayers in the Coptic liturgy. This calendar is still in use all over Egypt by farmers to keep track of the various agricultural seasons. The Coptic calendar has 13 months, 12 of 30 days each and an intercalary month at the end of the year of 5 or 6 days, depending whether the year is a leap year or not. The year starts on 29 August in the Julian Calendar or on the 30th in the year before (Julian) Leap Years. The Coptic Leap Year follows the same rules as the Julian Calendar so that the extra month always has six days in the year before a Julian Leap Year.


title: Copts

text: The Feast of Neyrouz marks the first day of the Coptic year. Ignorant of the Egyptian language for the most part, the Arabs confused the Egyptian new year's celebrations, which the Egyptians called the feast of "Ni-Yarouou" (the feast of the rivers), with the Persian feast of Nowruz. The misnomer remains today, and the celebrations of the Egyptian new year on the first day of the month of Thout are known as the Neyrouz. Its celebration falls on the first day of the month of Thout, the first month of the Egyptian year, which for AD 1901 to 2098 usually coincides with 11 September, except before a Gregorian leap year when it's September 12. Coptic years are counted from 284 AD, the year Diocletian became Roman Emperor, whose reign was marked by tortures and mass executions of Christians, especially in Egypt. Hence, the Coptic year is identified by the abbreviation A.M. (for "Anno Martyrum" or "Year of the Martyrs"). The A.M. abbreviation is also used for the unrelated Jewish year ("Anno Mundi").


title: Copts

text: Every fourth Coptic year is a leap year "without exception", as in the Julian calendar, so the above-mentioned new year dates apply only between AD 1900 and 2099 inclusive in the Gregorian Calendar. In the Julian Calendar, the new year is "always" 29 August, except before a Julian leap year when it's August 30. Easter is reckoned by the Julian Calendar in the Old Calendarist way.


title: Copts

text: To obtain the Coptic year number, subtract from the Julian year number either 283 (before the Julian new year) or 284 (after it).


title: Copts

text: According to Y-DNA analysis by Hassan et al. (2008), around 45% of Copts in Sudan carry the Haplogroup J. The remainder mainly belong to the E1b1b clade (21%). Both paternal lineages are common among other local Afroasiatic-speaking populations (Beja, Ethiopians, Sudanese Arabs), as well as the Nubians. E1b1b/E3b reaches its highest frequencies among North Africans, Levantine Middle Easterners, and Ethiopid East Africans. The next most common haplogroups borne by Copts are the European-linked R1b clade (15%), as well as the archaic African B lineage (15%).


title: Copts

text: Maternally, Hassan (2009) found that Copts in Sudan exclusively carry various descendants of the macrohaplogroup N. This mtDNA clade is likewise closely associated with local Afroasiatic-speaking populations, including Berbers and Ethiopid peoples. Of the N derivatives borne by Copts, U6 is most frequent (28%), followed by the haplogroup T (17%).


title: Copts

text: A 2015 study by Dobon et al. identified an ancestral autosomal component of Western Eurasian origin that is common to many modern Afroasiatic-speaking populations in Northeast Africa. Known as the "Coptic" component, it peaks among Egyptian Copts who settled in Sudan over the past two centuries. In their analysis, Sudan's Copts formed a separated group in the PCA, a close outlier to other Egyptians, Afro-Asiatic-speaking Northeast Africans and Middle East populations. The scientists suggest that this points to a common origin for the general population of Egypt, or Middle Eastern and North African populations. Copts in general shared the same main ancestral component with North African/Middle Eastern populations. They also associate the Coptic component with Ancient Egyptian ancestry, without the later Arabian influence that is present among other Egyptians.


title: Copts

text: Hollfelder et al. (2017) analysed various populations in Sudan and observed that Egyptians and Copts showed low levels of genetic differentiation and lower levels of genetic diversity compared to the northeast African groups. Copts and Egyptians displayed similar levels of European or Middle Eastern ancestry (Copts were estimated to be of 69.54% ± 2.57 European ancestry, and the Egyptians of 70.65% ± 2.47 European ancestry). The authors concluded that the Copts and the Egyptians have a common history linked to smaller population sizes, and that Sudanese Copts have remained relatively isolated since their arrival to Sudan with only low levels of admixture with local northeastern Sudanese groups.


title: Copts

text: An allele frequency comparative study conducted in 2020 between the two main Egyptian ethnic groups, Muslims and Christians, supported the conclusion that Egyptian Muslims and Egyptian Christians genetically originate from the same ancestors.


title: Family tree of Muhammad

text: This family tree is about the relatives of the Islamic prophet Muhammad known as a family member of the family of Hashim and the Qurayshs tribe which is ‘Adnani. Muhammad claimed descent from Ishmael through the Hashim tribe. Muhammad also has Jewish ancestry through his great-grandmother, Salma bint Amr the mother of Abd al-Muttalib.


title: Family tree of Muhammad

text: According to Islamic prophetic tradition, Muhammad was descended from Adnan. Tradition records the genealogy from Adnan to Muhammad comprises 21 generations. The following is the list of chiefs who are said to have ruled the Hejaz and to have been the patrilineal ancestors of Muhammad.


title: Family tree of Muhammad

text: Various genealogies of Adnan up to Isma'il have been narrated. Adnan was the ancestor of the Adnani Arabs of northern, central and western Arabia and a direct descendant of Isma'il. It is not confirmed how many generations are between them; however, Adnan was fairly close to Isma'il. Isma'il had twelve sons who are said to have become twelve tribal chiefs throughout the regions from Havilah to Shur (from Assyria to the border of Egypt).


title: Family tree of Muhammad

text: Genealogists differ from which son of Isma'il the main line of descent came, either through his eldest son Nabut, or his second son Qedar who was the father of the North Arabian Qedarite tribe that controlled the region between the Persian Gulf and the Sinai Peninsula. Genealogists also differ in the names on the line of descent.


title: Family tree of Muhammad

text: It is unclear how many generations are between Ibrahim and Nuh. Nuh's son Sam was the ancestor of the Semitic race.


title: Mike Krieger

text: Michel Krieger (born March 4, 1986) is a Brazilian-American entrepreneur and software engineer who co-founded Instagram along with Kevin Systrom, and served as its CTO. Instagram expanded from a few million users to 1 billion monthly active users while Krieger served as CTO.


title: Mike Krieger

text: Krieger was born in São Paulo, Brazil, and moved to California in 2004 to attend Stanford University. At Stanford, where he studied symbolic systems, he met Kevin Systrom, and the two co-founded Instagram in 2010. Krieger and Systrom had the idea of building a check-in app, before they made it exclusive for pictures. During the early days, most of the engineering and user experience were developed solely by Krieger. One of the stories related to Instagram’s early days that Krieger recalled is:One time I woke up and there was an email saying that the site went down, and I was like, who fixed it? Shane, did you fix it? Kev, did you fix it? No. And eventually on the terminal, you press up and you get to see what was the last thing you typed. So, apparently, at 3:30 in the morning I somehow managed to, in a completely drunken state, revive Instagram. That’s how much we were struggling in those days.After Instagram was acquired by Facebook, Krieger was committed to building and growing Instagram independently.


title: Mike Krieger

text: On April 18, 2020, Krieger teamed up with Systrom again to launch Rt.live, their first product together since leaving Facebook. Rt.live is an up-to-date tracker of how fast COVID-19 is spreading in each US state.


title: Mike Krieger

text: In April 2015, Krieger announced a partnership with charity evaluator GiveWell, committing US$750,000 over the next two years. The funds are to support operations, with 90% allocated to grants identified and recommended through the Open Philanthropy Project process.


title: Mike Krieger

text: In 2021, the Krieger's helped fund the opening of the Institute of Contemporary Art San Francisco (ICA SF) in Dogpatch, alongside funds from Pamela and David Hornik; and Deborah and Andy Rappaport.


title: Tapas

text: A tapa () is an appetizer or snack in Spanish cuisine. Tapas can be combined to make a full meal, and can be cold (such as mixed olives and cheese) or hot (such as "chopitos", which are battered, fried baby squid, or patatas bravas). In some bars and restaurants in Spain and across the globe, tapas have evolved into a very sophisticated cuisine. In some Central American countries, such snacks are known as "bocas". In parts of Mexico, similar dishes are called "botanas".


title: Tapas

text: The word "tapas" is derived from the Spanish verb "tapar", "to cover", a cognate of the English "top".


title: Tapas

text: In pre-19th-century Spain tapas were served by "posadas", "albergues" or "bodegas", offering meals and rooms for travellers. Since few innkeepers could write and few travellers read, inns offered their guests a sample of the dishes available, on a "tapa" (the word for pot cover in Spanish).


title: Tapas

text: According to "Joy of Cooking", the original tapas were thin slices of bread or meat which sherry drinkers in Andalusian taverns used to cover their glasses between sips. This was a practical measure meant to prevent fruit flies from hovering over the sweet sherry (see below for more explanations). The meat used to cover the sherry was normally ham or chorizo, which are both very salty and activate thirst. Because of this, bartenders and restaurant owners created a variety of snacks to serve with sherry, thus increasing their alcohol sales. The tapas eventually became as important as the sherry.


title: Tapas

text: Tapas have evolved through Spanish history by incorporating new ingredients and influences. Most of the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Romans, who introduced more extensive cultivation of the olive following their invasion of Spain in 212 B.C. and irrigation methods. The discovery of the New World brought the introduction of tomatoes, sweet and chili peppers, maize (corn), and potatoes, which were readily accepted and easily grown in Spain's microclimates.


title: Tapas

text: There are many tapas competitions throughout Spain, but there is only one National Tapas competition, which is celebrated every year in November. Since 2008, the City of Valladolid and the International School of Culinary Arts have celebrated the International Tapas Competition for Culinary Schools. Various schools from around the world come to Spain annually to compete for the best tapa concept.


title: Tapas

text: Though the primary meaning of "tapa" is "cover" or "lid", in Spain it has also become a term for this style of food. The origin of this new meaning is uncertain but there are several theories:


title: Television show

text: A television show – or simply TV show – is any content produced for viewing on a television set which can be broadcast via over-the-air, satellite, or cable, excluding breaking news, advertisements, or trailers that are typically placed between shows. Television shows are most often scheduled for broadcast well ahead of time and appear on electronic guides or other TV listings, but streaming services often make them available for viewing anytime. The content in a television show can be produced with different methodologies such as taped variety shows emanating from a television studio stage, animation or a variety of film productions ranging from movies to series. Shows not produced on a television studio stage are usually contracted or licensed to be made by appropriate production companies.


title: Television show

text: Television shows can be viewed live (real time), be recorded on home video, a digital video recorder for later viewing, be viewed on demand via a set-top box, or streamed over the internet.


title: Television show

text: A television show is also called a television program (), especially if it lacks a narrative structure.


title: Television show

text: In the US and Canada, a television series is usually released in episodes that follow a narrative and are usually divided into "seasons". In the UK, a television series is a yearly or semiannual set of new episodes. (In effect, a "series" in the UK is the same as a "season" in the US and Canada.)


title: Television show

text: A small or one-off collection of episodes may also be called a limited series, TV special or miniseries.


title: Television show

text: The first television shows were experimental, sporadic broadcasts viewable only within a very short range from the broadcast tower starting in the 1930s. Televised events such as the 1936 Summer Olympics in Germany, the 1937 coronation of King George VI in the UK, and David Sarnoff's famous introduction at the 1939 New York World's Fair in the US spurred a growth in the medium, but World War II put a halt to development until after the war. The 1947 World Series inspired many Americans to buy their first television set and then in 1948, the popular radio show "Texaco Star Theater" made the move and became the first weekly televised variety show, earning host Milton Berle the name "Mr Television," demonstrating that the medium was a stable, modern form of entertainment which could attract advertisers. The first national live television broadcast in the US took place on September 4, 1951, when President Harry Truman's speech at the Japanese Peace Treaty Conference in San Francisco was transmitted over AT&T's transcontinental cable and microwave radio relay system to broadcast stations in local markets.


title: Television show

text: The first national color broadcast (the 1954 Tournament of Roses Parade) in the US occurred on January 1, 1954. During the following ten years most network broadcasts, and nearly all local programming, continued to be in black-and-white. A color transition was announced for the fall of 1965, during which over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network shows converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.


title: Television show

text: Television shows are more varied than most other forms of media due to the wide variety of formats and genres that can be presented. A show may be fictional (as in comedies and dramas), or non-fictional (as in documentary, news, and reality television). It may be topical (as in the case of a local newscast and some made-for-television films), or historical (as in the case of many documentaries and fictional series). They could be primarily instructional or educational, or entertaining as is the case in situation comedy and game shows.


title: Television show

text: A drama program usually features a set of actors playing characters in a historical or contemporary setting. The program follows their lives and adventures. Before the 1980s, shows (except for soap opera-type serials) typically remained static without story arcs, and the main characters and premise changed little. If some change happened to the characters' lives during the episode, it was usually undone by the end. Due to this, the episodes could be broadcast in any order. Since the 1980s, many series feature progressive change in the plot, the characters, or both. For instance, "Hill Street Blues" and "St. Elsewhere" were two of the first US prime time drama television series to have this kind of dramatic structure, while the later series "Babylon 5" further exemplifies such structure in that it had a predetermined story running over its intended five-season run.


title: Television show

text: In 2012, it was reported that television was growing into a larger component of major media companies' revenues than film. Some also noted the increase in quality of some television programs. In 2012, Academy Award-winning film director Steven Soderbergh, commenting on ambiguity and complexity of character and narrative, stated: "I think those qualities are now being seen on television and that people who want to see stories that have those kinds of qualities are watching television."


title: Television show

text: When a person or company decides to create new content for television broadcast, they develop the show's elements, consisting of the concept, the characters, the crew, and cast. Then they often "pitch" it to the various networks in an attempt to find one interested enough to order a prototype first episode of the series, known as a "pilot." Eric Coleman, an animation executive at Disney, told an interviewer, "One misconception is that it's very difficult to get in and pitch your show, when the truth is that development executives at networks want very much to hear ideas. They want very much to get the word out on what types of shows they're looking for."


title: Television show

text: To create the pilot, the structure and team of the whole series must be put together. If audiences respond well to the pilot, the network will pick up the show to air it the next season (usually Fall). Sometimes they save it for mid-season, or request rewrites and additional review (known in the industry as "development hell"). Other times, they "pass" entirely, forcing the show's creator to "shop it around" to other networks. Many shows never make it past the pilot stage.