title: Sun Gym gang

text: By early January 1995, Lugo moved into Schiller's home that D&J International now owned, a Bahamian Company set up by Lugo in the year prior. He told residents of the neighborhood that his name was “Tom” and that he and the other gang members were members of the US Security Forces. According to them, Marc Schiller had run into legal trouble and had been deported along with his family. The house was now confiscated and became government property.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: In 1994 Daniel Lugo again planned to extort and kidnap Winston Lee, a Jamaican man who frequented Sun Gym. However, this plan never transpired.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Through Noel Doorbal, the gang were informed of another wealthy man, Hungarian Frank Griga who had made his fortune by running a phone-sex empire. Through a past girlfriend, Doorbal had been introduced to Attila Weiland, who knew Griga and introduced Doorbal and his "cousin" Daniel Lugo to Griga on May 20, 1995. Doorbal convinced Lugo to form a plan to kidnap and extort the couple. At this meeting, Lugo and Doorbal posed as serious business men, offering Griga investment opportunities.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Lugo involved his girlfriend, Sabina Petrescu, who believed that Lugo was a Central Intelligence Agency agent and that she was assisting him in his mission to capture a Hungarian businessman who was guilty of using women for sex and circumventing US tax laws.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: On May 25, 1995, after several meetings, Doorbal killed Griga during a fight at his apartment. The gang planned to bring Griga back to a warehouse where they could begin to extort him as they had Schiller; however, they were frustrated in their plan when they accidentally killed the victim early. Krisztina Furton, Griga's girlfriend, was also at the apartment talking to Lugo in a separate room to Doorbal and Griga. After witnessing her partner murdered, she was injected with Rompun - a horse tranquilliser - by Lugo. The gang began to attempt to extract information from Furton regarding the codes which would grant entry into Griga's home, whilst continuing to inject her with Rompun. After this, Furton stopped supplying them with information. The third dose of tranquilizer was administered, resulting in her death.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: The next day – May 26, 1995 – Griga's body was concealed in Marc Schiller's stolen couch and Furton's body in a U-Haul clothing box. Both were placed into the back of a van, and Delgado, Lugo, and Doorbal drove to Lugo's Hialeah warehouse. It was here that the gang dismembered and disposed of the bodies of Griga and Furton, with Doorbal doing most of the work.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: After his ordeal, Marc Schiller hired Miami private investigator Ed Du Bois to investigate his kidnapping and missing finances. At the same time, he remained in Colombia. When Du Bois initially brought Schiller's ordeal to the Miami police, they were skeptical and didn't believe Schiller's story. Therefore, they only made minor inquiries into the case.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: The morning after the disappearance of Griga and Furton, housekeeper Eszter Toth arrived at Griga's house. She was shocked to find their dog barking unattended, sparking her suspicions. She acquired the help of Judi Bartusz — a friend of Furton — and the two entered the empty house together. Shortly following, Bartusz contacted their mutual Hungarian friends in the Miami area to see if they knew the couple's whereabouts. After some time, the Golden Beach Police Department were called. At 7:30 am, on May 31, 1995, Lloyd Alvarez, a friend of Griga's, spotted Griga's yellow Lamborghini travelling in a convoy between two other cars. He followed the trio of cars, and recognised Daniel Lugo in the Mercedes. Beatriz Weiland and Attila Weiland were contacted by police, who began speaking to them.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Eight days after the disappearance of Griga and Furton, Capt. Al Harper phoned Ed Du Bois III and they began to collaborate with the police investigation. On Friday June 2, Marc Schiller returned to Miami, two months after he had first told investigators his story. The next morning, Metro–Dade police served warrants on the houses of Daniel Lugo, Jorge Delgado, Noel Doorbal and John Mese. Lugo had already fled to the Bahamas, but was arrested five days later in Nassau by a multi-agency task force, who brought him back on a commercial flight to Miami.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: On June 10, Lugo agreed to reveal the hiding place of the bodies in return for the police mentioning his helpfulness to a jury. He brought them to the submerged barrels in Southwest Miami. However, the drums did not contain the victims' heads, hands, and feet which were crucial to the identification. Following this event, Lugo ceased cooperation with the police.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: The body of Furton was later identified through her breast implants' serial number, which was matched to the records held by her plastic surgeon. A month later, information about the missing body parts was supplied by an anonymous caller.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Police also arrested Carl Weekes and Stevenson Pierre. John Mese was returned to police custody after the initial interrogation. Sabina Petrescu and Cindy Eldridge also faced charges.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: The trials of Daniel Lugo, Noel "Adrian" Doorbal and John Mese occurred simultaneously with two juries picked - one listening to the evidence against Lugo and a second to listen to the evidence against Doorbal and Mese. The trial, which began on February 24, 1998 was the longest and most expensive criminal trial in the history of Dade County. It featured more than 1200 pieces of physical evidence and 98 witnesses.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: On October 2, 1996, Daniel Lugo was indicted on 46 counts and pleaded guilty to all of the charges of indictment, these were: (VII-7- missing. 45 counts.Count I            Conspiracy to Commit Racketeering


title: Sun Gym gang

text: He remains on death row for the murders of Griga and Krisztina Furton and has made multiple unsuccessful appeals against his sentence.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: On October 2, 1996, Doorbal was indicted and sentenced to the following counts on July 17, 1998:Count I            Conspiracy to Commit Racketeering –  30 years


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Mese was indicted on October 2, 1996, for the kidnapping, extortion, and murders of Furton and Griga in addition to crimes against Schiller. On July 20, 1998, Mese was sentenced to 56 years imprisonment for the kidnapping and extortion of Schiller, after a judge set aside the convictions for the Griga and Furton crimes.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Mese appealed, and the State cross-appealed the sentence to the Florida District Court of Appeal, Third District. The District Court of Appeal Judge ruled that at trial, the judge had improperly set aside the two Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organisation convictions and ordered a new sentencing hearing to occur on those counts. On 15 January 2003, Mese was sentenced to 30 years imprisonment for one count of Conspiracy to Commit Racketeering. he died of a stroke in 2004.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: In return for testifying in favor of the state, Delgado was sentenced to two prison terms of 5 and 15 years. He served only seven years in jail and was released from the Everglades Correctional Institution in West Dade on September 27, 2002. In 2008, he was arrested for felony grand theft, receiving one year of probation.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Raimondo was indicted on one count each of Conspiracy to Commit Racketeering, First-degree Murder (Furton), Kidnapping (Furton) and attempted extortion. He was convicted to one count of kidnapping and was sentenced to 8 years He was released in 2002.


title: Sun Gym gang

text: Following the release of the "Pain & Gain" film, Raimondo spoke to the "Miami New Times" about the film.


title: Meat

text: Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted, farmed, and scavenged animals for meat since prehistoric times. The establishment of settlements in the Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, rabbits, pigs, and cattle. This eventually led to their use in meat production on an industrial scale in slaughterhouses.


title: Meat

text: Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. It is edible raw but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with, and decomposition by, bacteria and fungi.


title: Meat

text: Meat is important to the food industry, economies, and cultures around the world. There are nonetheless people who choose to not eat meat (vegetarians) or any animal products (vegans), for reasons such as taste preferences, ethics, environmental concerns, health concerns or religious dietary rules.


title: Meat

text: The word "meat" comes from the Old English word , which referred to food in general. The term is related to in Danish, in Swedish and Norwegian, and in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean 'food'. The word also exists in Old Frisian (and to a lesser extent, modern West Frisian) to denote important food, differentiating it from (sweets) and (animal feed).


title: Meat

text: Most often, "meat" refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. "Meat" is sometimes also used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to the exclusion of fish, other seafood, insects, poultry, or other animals.


title: Meat

text: In the context of food, "meat" can also refer to "the edible part of something as distinguished from its covering (such as a husk or shell)", for example, "coconut meat".


title: Meat

text: In English, there are also specialized terms for the meat of particular animals. These terms originated with the Norman conquest of England in 1066: while the animals retained their English names, their meat as brought to the tables of the invaders was referred to them with the Norman French words for the respective animal. In time, these appellations came to be used by the entire population.


title: Meat

text: Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer.


title: Meat

text: The domestication of animals, of which we have evidence dating back to the end of the last glacial period (c. 10,000 BCE), allowed the systematic production of meat and the breeding of animals with a view to improving meat production. Animals that are now principal sources of meat were domesticated in conjunction with the development of early civilizations:


title: Meat

text: Other animals are or have been raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on factors such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, both between countries and within a given country.


title: Meat

text: Modern agriculture employs a number of techniques, such as progeny testing, to speed artificial selection by breeding animals to rapidly acquire the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in the wake of well-publicised health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering aimed at improving the meat production qualities of animals are now also becoming available.


title: Meat

text: Even though it is a very old industry, meat production continues to be shaped strongly by the evolving demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, which are better suited to producing such cuts. Even more animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, especially the more agile and mobile species, whose muscles tend to be developed better than those of cattle, sheep or pigs. Examples are the various antelope species, the zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as the crocodile, emu and ostrich. Another important trend in contemporary meat production is organic farming which, while providing no organoleptic benefit to meat so produced, meets an increasing demand for organic meat.


title: Meat

text: For most of human history, meat was a largely unquestioned part of the human diet. Only in the 20th century did it begin to become a topic of discourse and contention in society, politics and wider culture.


title: Meat

text: Meat consumption varies worldwide, depending on cultural or religious preferences, as well as economic conditions. Vegetarians and vegans choose not to eat meat because of taste preferences, ethical, economic, environmental, religious, or health concerns that are associated with meat production and consumption.


title: Meat

text: According to the analysis of the FAO, the overall consumption for white meat between 1990 and 2009 has dramatically increased. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from per capita in 1990 to per capita in 2009.


title: Meat

text: Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of the non-meat diets were also broken down. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted.


title: Meat

text: A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women.


title: Meat

text: In the nineteenth century meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 75 pounds a year, rising to 130 pounds in 1912. In 1904 laborers were found to consume 87 pounds a year while aristocrats ate 300 pounds. There were estimated to be 43,000 meat purveyor establishments in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in the meat industry than in any other British business" except the finance industry. The US was a meat importing country by 1926.


title: Meat

text: Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allowed more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs. According to a study, the average lifespan of livestock pigs is ~2 years (7% of "maximum expected lifespan"). For dairy cattle the lifespan is ~5 years (27%).<ref name="10.1007/s11357-020-00190-4"></ref>


title: Meat

text: Agricultural science has identified several factors bearing on the growth and development of meat in animals.


title: Meat

text: Several economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree (see the adjacent table) and can thus be selected for by animal breeding. In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism; another is the doppelender or "double muscling" condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases the animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality.


title: Meat

text: Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into the animal genome. To enable such manipulation, research is ongoing () to map the entire genome of sheep, cattle and pigs. Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibres have been genetically altered.


title: Meat

text: Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits is anticipated, although this is not yet practical on a commercial scale.


title: Meat

text: Heat regulation in livestock is of great economic significance, because mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to retard it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle) a broad one. Static magnetic fields, for reasons still unknown, also retard animal development.


title: Meat

text: The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's "plane of nutrition", i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcass composition.


title: Meat

text: The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is also an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants, which may digest cellulose, are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed is expensive (see also "Environmental impact" below), several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen, the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the partial conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action.


title: Meat

text: In plant feed, environmental factors influence the availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients, a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, for instance, where the soil contains limited phosphate, cattle are being fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was at length found to be a result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are also a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate, found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism. Certain man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard due to their tendency to bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers.


title: Meat

text: Livestock animals have shown relatively high intelligence which may raise animal ethics rationale for safeguarding their well-being. Pigs in particular are considered by some to be the smartest known domesticated animal in the world (e.g. more intelligent than pet dogs) which not only experience pain but also have notable depths, levels and/or variety/diversity of emotions (including boredom), cognition, intelligence, and/or sentience. Complications include that without or reduced meat production, many livestock animals may never live (see also: natalism), and that their life (relative timespan of existence) is typically short – in the case of pigs ~7% of their "maximum expected lifespan".


title: Meat

text: Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation-inducing hormones. In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem — possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of the best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females.


title: Meat

text: Growth hormones, particularly anabolic agents such as steroids, are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy, an international trade dispute. It may also decrease the tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects are also counteracted by the administration of hormones. Myostatin-based muscle hypertrophy has also been used.


title: Meat

text: Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals has been shown to improve growth rates also. This practice is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms.


title: Meat

text: Numerous aspects of the biochemical composition of meat vary in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of the same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat.


title: Meat

text: Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.


title: Meat

text: Muscle proteins are either soluble in water (sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions (myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them – the glycolytic enzymes – are involved in the glycolytic pathway, i.e., the conversion of stored energy into muscle power. The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin, are responsible for the muscle's overall structure. The remaining protein mass consists of connective tissue (collagen and elastin) as well as organelle tissue.


title: Meat

text: Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue, used by the animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" (esters of glycerol with fatty acids), or intramuscular fat, which contains considerable quantities of phospholipids and of unsaponifiable constituents such as cholesterol.


title: Meat

text: Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fibre. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen, reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fibre type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibres that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibres that tend to work in short fast bursts.


title: Meat

text: Generally, the meat of adult mammals such as cows, sheep, and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white.


title: Meat

text: All muscle tissue is very high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids, and in most cases is a good source of zinc, vitamin B, selenium, phosphorus, niacin, vitamin B, choline, riboflavin and iron. Several forms of meat are also high in vitamin K. Muscle tissue is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. While taste quality may vary between meats, the proteins, vitamins, and minerals available from meats are generally consistent.


title: Meat

text: The fat content of meat can vary widely depending on the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, including what it was fed, the anatomical part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are typically leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison. Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness is being reversed by consumer demand for meat with less fat. The fatty deposits that exist with the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked and improve the flavor through chemical changes initiated through heat that allow the protein and fat molecules to interact. The fat, when cooked with meat, also makes the meat seem juicier. The nutritional contribution of the fat is mainly calories as opposed to protein. As fat content rises, the meat's contribution to nutrition declines. In addition, there is cholesterol associated with fat surrounding the meat. The cholesterol is a lipid associated with the kind of saturated fat found in meat. The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with, though not definitively the cause of, significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet.


title: Meat

text: The table in this section compares the nutritional content of several types of meat. While each kind of meat has about the same content of protein and carbohydrates, there is a very wide range of fat content.


title: Meat

text: Meat is produced by killing an animal and cutting flesh out of it. These procedures are called slaughter and butchery, respectively. There is ongoing research into producing meat "in vitro"; that is, outside of animals.


title: Meat

text: Upon reaching a predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported "en masse" to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die "en route". Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen, and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Consequently, and also due to campaigning by animal welfare groups, laws and industry practices in several countries tend to become more restrictive with respect to the duration and other circumstances of livestock transports.


title: Meat

text: Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed.


title: Meat

text: Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs.


title: Meat

text: The act of slaughtering animals for meat, or of raising or transporting animals for slaughter, may engender both psychological stress and physical trauma in the people involved. Additionally, slaughterhouse workers are exposed to noise of between 76 and 100 dB from the screams of animals being killed. 80 dB is the threshold at which the wearing of ear protection is recommended.


title: Meat

text: After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along the mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is progressively being fully automated.


title: Meat

text: Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (–1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor.


title: Meat

text: During the first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. "Rigor mortis" sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, causing it to lose water ("weep"). In muscles that enter "rigor" in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking – hence again the need to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal.


title: Meat

text: Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and "rigor mortis" resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of "rigor", but tough when cooked during "rigor." As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of the decomposition of muscle fat and protein.


title: Meat

text: When meat is industrially processed in preparation of consumption, it may be enriched with additives to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation. Meat additives include the following:


title: Meat

text: With the rise of complex supply chains, including cold chains, in developed economies, the distance between the farmer or fisherman and customer has grown, increasing the possibility for intentional and unintentional misidentification of meat at various points in the supply chain.


title: Meat

text: In 2013, reports emerged across Europe that products labelled as containing beef actually contained horse meat. In February 2013 a study was published showing that about one-third of raw fish are misidentified across the United States.


title: Meat

text: Various forms of imitation meat have been created for people who wish not to eat meat but still want to taste its flavor and texture. Meat imitates are typically some form of processed soybean (tofu, tempeh), but they can also be based on wheat gluten, pea protein isolate, or even fungi (quorn).


title: Meat

text: Various environmental effects are associated with meat production. Among these are greenhouse gas emissions, fossil energy use, water use, water quality changes, and effects on grazed ecosystems.


title: Meat

text: The livestock sector may be the largest source of water pollution (due to animal wastes, fertilizers, pesticides), and it contributes to emergence of antibiotic resistance. It accounts for over 8% of global human water use. It is a significant driver of biodiversity loss and ecosystems, as it causes deforestation and requires large amounts of land for pasture and feed crops, ocean dead zones, land degradation, pollution, overfishing and climate change.<ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00358-x"></ref>


title: Meat

text: The occurrence, nature and significance of environmental effects varies among livestock production systems. Grazing of livestock can be beneficial for some wildlife species, but not for others. Targeted grazing of livestock is used as a food-producing alternative to herbicide use in some vegetation management.


title: Meat

text: Meat production is by far the biggest cause of land use, as it accounts for nearly 40% of the global land surface. Just in the contiguous United States, 34% of its land area () are used as pasture and rangeland, mostly feeding livestock, not counting of cropland (20%), some of which is used for producing feed for livestock. Roughly 75% of deforested land around the globe is used for livestock pasture. Deforestation from practices like slash-and-burn releases and removes the carbon sink of grown tropical forest ecosystems which substantially mitigate climate change. The land use is a major pressure on pressure on fertile soils which is important for global food security.


title: Meat

text: The rising global consumption of carbon-intensive meat products has "exploded the global carbon footprint of agriculture," according to some top scientists. Meat production is responsible for 14.5% and possibly up to 51% of the world's anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Some nations show very different impacts to counterparts within the same group, with Brazil and Australia having emissions over 200% higher than the average of their respective income groups and driven by meat consumption.


title: Meat

text: According to the "Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production" report produced by United Nations Environment Programme's (UNEP) international panel for sustainable resource management, a worldwide transition in the direction of a meat and dairy free diet is indispensable if adverse global climate change were to be prevented. A 2019 report in "The Lancet" recommended that global meat (and sugar) consumption be reduced by 50 percent to mitigate climate change. Meat consumption in Western societies needs to be reduced by up to 90% according to a 2018 study published in "Nature". The 2019 special report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change called for significantly reducing meat consumption, particularly in wealthy countries, in order to mitigate and adapt to climate change.<ref name="10.1038/d41586-019-02409-7"></ref>


title: Meat

text: Meat consumption is considered one of the primary contributors of the sixth mass extinction. A 2017 study by the World Wildlife Fund found that 60% of global biodiversity loss is attributable to meat-based diets, in particular from the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals for human consumption puts an enormous strain on natural resources resulting in a wide-scale loss of lands and species. Currently, livestock make up 60% of the biomass of all mammals on earth, followed by humans (36%) and wild mammals (4%). In November 2017, 15,364 world scientists signed a Warning to Humanity calling for, among other things, drastically diminishing our per capita consumption of meat and "dietary shifts towards mostly plant-based foods". The 2019 "Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services", released by IPBES, also recommended reductions in meat consumption in order to mitigate biodiversity loss. A 2021 Chatham House report asserted that a significant shift towards plant-based diets would free up the land to allow for the restoration of ecosystems and thriving biodiversity.


title: Meat

text: A July 2018 study in "Science" says that meat consumption is set to rise as the human population increases along with affluence, which will increase greenhouse gas emissions and further reduce biodiversity.


title: Meat

text: The environmental impact of meat production can be reduced by conversion of human-inedible residues of food crops. Manure from meat-producing livestock is used as fertilizer; it may be composted before application to food crops. Substitution of animal manures for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 MJ of fossil fuel energy are used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.


title: Meat

text: The IPCC and many others, including scientific reviews of the literature and data on the topic, have concluded that meat production has to be reduced substantially for any sufficient mitigation of climate change and, at least initially, largely through shifts towards plant-based diets in cases (e.g. countries) where meat consumption is high.<ref name="10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5"></ref> A review names broad potential measures such as "restrictions or fiscal mechanisms".<ref name="10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340"></ref> Personal Carbon Allowances that allow a certain amount of free meat consumption per person would be a form of restriction, meat taxes would be a type of fiscal mechanism. Meat can be replaced by, for example, high-protein iron-rich low-emission legumes and common fungi, but there are also dietary supplements (e.g. of vitamin B and zinc) and/or fortified foods, cultured meat (still under development), microbial foods, mycoprotein, meat substitutes, and other alternatives.<ref name="10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058"></ref> Farms can be transitioned to meet new demands, workers can enter relevant job retraining programs, and land previously used for meat production can be rewilded.


title: Meat

text: The biologists Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich emphasize that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.


title: Meat

text: The spoilage of meat occurs, if untreated, in a matter of hours or days and results in the meat becoming unappetizing, poisonous or infectious. Spoilage is caused by the practically unavoidable infection and subsequent decomposition of meat by bacteria and fungi, which are borne by the animal itself, by the people handling the meat, and by their implements. Meat can be kept edible for a much longer time – though not indefinitely – if proper hygiene is observed during production and processing, and if appropriate food safety, food preservation and food storage procedures are applied. Without the application of preservatives and stabilizers, the fats in meat may also begin to rapidly decompose after cooking or processing, leading to an objectionable taste known as warmed over flavor.


title: Meat

text: Fresh meat can be cooked for immediate consumption, or be processed, that is, treated for longer-term preservation and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused by structural coloration and diffraction of the light. A common additive to processed meats for both preservation and the prevention of discoloration is sodium nitrite. This substance is a source of health concerns because it may form carcinogenic nitrosamines when heated.


title: Meat

text: Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, or used in loose form (as in "sloppy joe" or Bolognese sauce).


title: Meat

text: Some meat is cured by smoking, which is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to the smoke from burning or smoldering plant materials, most often wood. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is more often used now, and beech to a lesser extent. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods are commonly used for smoking. Meat can also be cured by pickling, preserving in salt or brine (see salted meat and other curing methods). Other kinds of meat are marinated and barbecued, or simply boiled, roasted, or fried.


title: Meat

text: Meat is generally eaten cooked, but many recipes call for raw beef, veal or fish (tartare). Steak tartare is a meat dish made from finely chopped or minced raw beef or horse meat. Meat is often spiced or seasoned, particularly with meat products such as sausages. Meat dishes are usually described by their source (animal and part of body) and method of preparation (e.g., a beef rib).


title: Meat

text: Meat is a typical base for making sandwiches. Popular varieties of sandwich meat include ham, pork, salami and other sausages, and beef, such as steak, roast beef, corned beef, pepperoni, and pastrami. Meat can also be molded or pressed (common for products that include offal, such as haggis and scrapple) and canned.


title: Meat

text: There is concern and debate regarding the potential association of meat, in particular red and processed meat, with a variety of health risks. A study of 400,000 subjects conducted by the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition and published in 2013 showed "a moderate positive association between processed meat consumption and mortality, in particular due to cardiovascular diseases, but also to cancer."


title: Meat

text: In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization (WHO) classified processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." In the same year, the Agency classified red meat as "probably" (Group 2A) carcinogenic to humans.


title: Meat

text: The "2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans" asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume.


title: Meat

text: Health authorities around the world recommend limiting consumption of unprocessed red meat (such as a beef steak) and also discourage consumption of processed meat (such as bacon). In 2021, a study of data on half a million U.K. citizens shows associations between high levels of meat intake with risks of some of 25 common conditions including ischaemic heart disease and diabetes as well as a lower risk of iron deficiency anaemia.<ref name="10.1186/s12916-021-01922-9"> Available under CC BY 4.0.</ref> A cohort study with over 130,000 participants published a few days later, also found that a higher intake of processed meat was associated with "a higher risk of mortality and major CVD". However, while some of the results did control for body mass index various other factors that were not controlled for may confound the associations and research of underlying mechanisms may be required for fully robust conclusions. Studies have however concluded that plant-based diets "rich in legumes, whole grains, and nuts with reduced red and processed meats" and low in overall meat consumption (except for fish) are associated with longer life expectancy, whereby a switch from a "typical Western diet" in adults can increase life expectancy by a decade.


title: Meat

text: Various toxic compounds can contaminate meat, including heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs). Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.


title: Meat

text: Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Often, these compounds can be metabolized in the body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. Any chemical's toxicity is also dependent on the dose and timing of exposure.


title: Meat

text: There are concerns about a relationship between the consumption of meat, in particular processed and red meat, and increased cancer risk. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, ""carcinogenic to humans" (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence" in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC also classified red meat as ""probably carcinogenic to humans" (Group 2A), based on "limited evidence" that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and "strong" mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."


title: Meat

text: The correlation of consumption to increased risk of heart disease is controversial. Some studies fail to find a link between red meat consumption and heart disease (although the same study found statistically significant correlation between the consumption of processed meat and coronary heart disease). A large cohort study of Seventh-Day Adventists in California found that the risk of heart disease is three times greater for 45-64-year-old men who eat meat daily, versus those who did not eat meat. This study compared adventists to the general population and not other Seventh Day Adventists who ate meat and did not specifically distinguish red and processed meat in its assessment.


title: Meat

text: A Harvard University study in 2010 involving over one million people who ate meat found that only processed meat had an adverse risk in relation to coronary heart disease. The study suggests that eating 50 g (less than 2 ounces) of processed meat per day increases risk of coronary heart disease by 42%, and diabetes by 19%. Equivalent levels of fat, including saturated fats, in unprocessed meat (even when eating twice as much per day) did not show any deleterious effects, leading the researchers to suggest that "differences in salt and preservatives, rather than fats, might explain the higher risk of heart disease and diabetes seen with processed meats, but not with unprocessed red meats."


title: Meat

text: A scientific review concluded that, except for poultry, at 50 g/day unprocessed red and processed meat appear to be risk factors for ischemic heart disease, increasing the risk by about 9 and 18% respectively.<ref name="10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575"></ref>


title: Meat

text: Prospective analysis suggests that meat consumption is positively associated with weight gain in men and women. The National Cattlemen's Beef Association countered by stating that meat consumption may not be associated with fat gain. In response, the authors of the original study controlled for just abdominal fat across a sample of 91,214 people and found that even when controlling for calories and lifestyle factors, meat consumption is linked with obesity. Additional studies and reviews have confirmed the finding that greater meat consumption is positively linked with greater weight gain even when controlling for calories, and lifestyle factors.


title: Meat

text: Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by the Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with "S. aureus", with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and "The Guardian" found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation also highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus".


title: Meat

text: Meat production and trade substantially increases risks for infectious diseases, including of pandemics – "directly through increased contact with wild and farmed animals [(zoonosis)] or indirectly through its impact on the environment (e.g., biodiversity loss, water use, climate change)".<ref name="10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109341"></ref> For example, avian influenza from poultry meat production can be a threat to human health. Furthermore, the use of antibiotics in meat production contributes to antimicrobial resistance – which contributes to millions of deaths – and makes it harder to control infectious diseases.


title: Meat

text: In response to changing prices as well as health concerns about saturated fat and cholesterol (see lipid hypothesis), consumers have altered their consumption of various meats. A USDA report points out that consumption of beef in the United States between 1970–1974 and 1990–1994 dropped by 21%, while consumption of chicken increased by 90%. During the same period of time, the price of chicken dropped by 14% relative to the price of beef. From 1995 to 1996, beef consumption increased due to higher supplies and lower prices.


title: Meat

text: Meat can transmit certain diseases, but complete cooking and avoiding recontamination reduces this possibility.


title: Meat

text: Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%.


title: Meat

text: Nitrosamines, present in processed and cooked foods, have been noted as being carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Also, toxic compounds called PAHs, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are known to be carcinogenic.


title: Meat

text: Meat is part of the human diet in most cultures, where it often has symbolic meaning and important social functions. Some people choose not to eat meat (vegetarianism) or any food made from animals (veganism). The reasons for not eating all or some meat may include ethical objections to killing animals for food, health concerns, environmental concerns or religious dietary laws.


title: Meat

text: Ethical issues regarding the consumption of meat include objecting to the act of killing animals or to the agricultural practices used in meat production. Reasons for objecting to killing animals for consumption may include animal rights, environmental ethics, or an aversion to inflicting pain or harm on other sentient creatures. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals (such as cows, pigs, cats, dogs, horses, or rabbits) due to cultural or religious traditions.


title: Meat

text: Some people eat only the flesh of animals that they believe have not been mistreated, and abstain from the flesh of animals raised in factory farms or else abstain from particular products, such as foie gras and veal.


title: Meat

text: Some techniques of intensive agriculture may be cruel to animals: foie gras is a food product made from the liver of ducks or geese that have been force fed corn to fatten the organ; veal is criticised because the veal calves may be highly restricted in movement, have unsuitable flooring, spend their entire lives indoors, experience prolonged deprivation (sensory, social, and exploratory), and be more susceptible to high amounts of stress and disease.


title: Meat

text: The religion of Jainism has always opposed eating meat, and there are also schools of Buddhism and Hinduism that condemn the eating of meat.


title: Meat

text: Jewish dietary rules ("Kashrut") allow certain ("kosher") meat and forbid other ("treif"). The rules include prohibitions on the consumption of unclean animals (such as pork, shellfish including mollusca and crustacea, and most insects), and mixtures of meat and milk.


title: Meat

text: Similar rules apply in Islamic dietary laws: The Quran explicitly forbids meat from animals that die naturally, blood, the meat of swine (porcine animals, pigs), and animals dedicated to other than Allah (either undedicated or dedicated to idols) which are haram as opposed to halal.


title: Meat

text: Sikhism forbids meat of slowly slaughtered animals ("kutha") and prescribes killing animals with a single strike ("jhatka"), but some Sikh groups oppose eating any meat.


title: Meat

text: Research in applied psychology has investigated practices of meat eating in relation to morality, emotions, cognition, and personality characteristics. Psychological research suggests meat eating is correlated with masculinity, support for social hierarchy, and reduced openness to experience. Research into the consumer psychology of meat is relevant both to meat industry marketing and to advocates of reduced meat consumption.


title: Meat

text: Unlike most other food, meat is not perceived as gender-neutral, and is particularly associated with men and masculinity. Sociological research, ranging from African tribal societies to contemporary barbecues, indicates that men are much more likely to participate in preparing meat than other food. This has been attributed to the influence of traditional male gender roles, in view of a "male familiarity with killing" (Goody) or roasting being more violent as opposed to boiling (Lévi-Strauss). By and large, at least in modern societies, men also tend to consume more meat than women, and men often prefer red meat whereas women tend to prefer chicken and fish.


title: Meat

text: The founders of Western philosophy disagreed about the ethics of eating meat. Plato's "Republic" has Socrates describe the ideal state as vegetarian. Pythagoras believed that humans and animals were equal and therefore disapproved of meat consumption, as did Plutarch, whereas Zeno and Epicurus were vegetarian but allowed meat-eating in their philosophy. Conversely, Aristotle's "Politics" assert that animals, as inferior beings, exist to serve humans, including as food. Augustine drew on Aristotle to argue that the universe's natural hierarchy allows humans to eat animals, and animals to eat plants. Enlightenment philosophers were likewise divided. Descartes wrote that animals are merely animated machines, and Kant considered them inferior beings for lack of discernment; means rather than ends. But Voltaire and Rousseau disagreed. The latter argued that meat-eating is a social rather than a natural act, because children are not interested in meat.


title: Meat

text: Later philosophers examined the changing practices of eating meat in the modern age as part of a process of detachment from animals as living beings. Norbert Elias, for instance, noted that in medieval times cooked animals were brought to the table whole, but that since the Renaissance only the edible parts are served, which are no longer recognizably part of an animal. Modern eaters, according to , demand an "ellipsis" between meat and dead animals; for instance, calves' eyes are no longer considered a delicacy as in the Middle Ages, but provoke disgust. Even in the English language, distinctions emerged between animals and their meat, such as between cattle and beef, pigs and pork. Fernand Braudel wrote that since the European diet of the 15th and 16th century was particularly heavy in meat, European colonialism helped export meat-eating across the globe, as colonized peoples took up the culinary habits of their colonizers, which they associated with wealth and power.


title: Tomodachi Game

text: Yūichi Katagiri was taught the value of friendship when he was young, and it is thanks to his group of four friends that he is able to enjoy high school life today. When their class's school trip funds are stolen, the five are dragged into the mysterious Tomodachi Game as a result of someone's debt. The friendship of the five will be put to the ultimate test against the promise of wealth there.


title: Tomodachi Game

text: "Tomodachi Game", conceptualized by Mikoto Yamaguchi and written and illustrated by Yuki Sato, started in Kodansha's "Bessatsu Shōnen Magazine" on December 9, 2013. Kodansha has collected its chapters into individual "tankōbon" volumes. The first volume was released on April 9, 2014. As of October 7, 2022, twenty-one volumes have been released.


title: Tomodachi Game

text: A four-episode television drama adaptation was broadcast on Chiba TV from April 3–24, 2017. It also aired on Teletama, Hokkaido TV, tvk, Kyushu Asahi Broadcasting, Sun TV, KBS Kyoto, and Mētele and was streamed on GYAO!. It was directed by Jiro Nagae, with screenplays by Nagae and Sagami Yoshitsugu, and Kuniyuki Morohashi composing the music.


title: Tomodachi Game

text: In June 2022, another television drama adaptation produced by TV Asahi, titled "Tomodachi Game R4", was announced. It was directed by Takurо̄ Oikawa, Hajime Takezono, and Toshiaki Kamada, with screenplays by Takuji Higuchi and Shinya Hokimoto, and Yoshinori Nakamura composing the music. The series features members of the Johnny's Jr. boybands, HiHi Jets and Bishonen as cast members. It was broadcast for eight episodes on TV Asahi from July 23 to September 10, 2022.


title: Tomodachi Game

text: In November 2021, it was announced that the series would receive an anime television series adaptation by Okuruto Noboru. It is directed by Hirofumi Ogura and written by Kenta Ihara, with Satomi Miyazaki designing the characters, Michiru composing the music, and Hiroto Morishita directing the sound at Studio Mausu. The series aired from April 6 to June 22, 2022, on NTV, BS NTV, and AT-X. The opening theme song is "Double Shuffle" by Nana Mizuki, while the ending theme song is "Tomoshibi" by saji. Crunchyroll licensed the series outside of Asia. Medialink licensed the series in Southeast Asia and began streaming it exclusively on Disney+/Disney+ Hotstar in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand from May 13, 2022; Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore on June 8, 2022.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA , ; or "Pandaigdigang Paliparan ng Ninoy Aquino"; ), originally known and still commonly referred to as Manila International Airport (MIA), is the main international airport serving Manila and the metropolitan area of the same name. Located between the cities of Pasay and Parañaque, about south of Manila proper and southwest of Makati, NAIA is the main gateway for travelers to the Philippines and serves as a hub for Cebgo, Cebu Pacific, PAL Express, and Philippine Airlines. It also serves as a secondary hub (focus city) for AirSWIFT and the main operating base for Philippines AirAsia. It is managed by the Manila International Airport Authority (MIAA), an agency of the Department of Transportation (DOTr).


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The airport is named after Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. (1932–1983), who was assassinated at the airport on August 21, 1983.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Officially, NAIA is the only airport serving the Metro Manila area. However, in practice, both NAIA and Clark International Airport, located in the Clark Freeport Zone in Pampanga, serve the metropolis, with Clark catering mostly to low-cost carriers because of its lower landing fees compared to those charged at NAIA. In the recent past, there have been calls for Clark to replace NAIA eventually as the primary airport of the Philippines.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: As an effort to reduce congestion in the airport, two new airports are being constructed: the New Manila International Airport, located in Bulacan to serve both Metro Manila and Central Luzon, and Sangley Point Airport, located on reclaimed land in Cavite City. The completion of either two airports would relieve pressure on NAIA's existing infrastructure.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The original airport that served Manila, Grace Park Airfield (also known as Manila North), was opened in 1935 in Grace Park, Caloocan. It was the city's first commercial airport and was used by Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (later Philippine Airlines) for its first domestic routes. In July 1937, Nielson Airport, located in the land in Makati was inaugurated and served as the gateway to Manila; its runways now form Ayala Avenue and Paseo de Roxas. Following the end of World War II and Philippine independence from the United States, Grace Park Airfield closed and would later become 10th Avenue, Caloocan, whereas Nielson Airport continued to operate until 1948, when it was decommissioned and all airport operations were moved to the current site, Nichols Field, due to the easier terrain gradient, expanse of greenfield land, and the USAF base runway (Runway 13/31) which could be used for the airport. The original structure, designed by Frederico Illustre, was built on what is now the site of Terminal 2.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In 1954, the airport's longer international runway (Runway 06/24) and associated taxiways were built, and in 1956, construction was started on a control tower and a terminal building for international passengers. The new terminal was inaugurated on September 22, 1961. On January 22, 1972, a fire caused substantial damage to the original terminal building, which also resulted in six casualties, and a slightly smaller terminal was rebuilt in its place the following year. This second terminal would serve as the country's international terminal until 1981 when it was converted to a domestic terminal, upon the completion and opening of a new, higher-capacity terminal, known today as Terminal 1. The old international terminal was later damaged by another fire in May 1985.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: One year after its opening, the present-day Terminal 1 became the scene of a controversial event in Philippine history on August 21, 1983. Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino Jr. was assassinated at the terminal's Gate 8 (now Gate 11) after returning to the Philippines from his self-imposed exile in the United States. Aviation Security Command (AVSECOM) personnel escorted Aquino out of the plane to the tarmac where a van owned by the agency awaited him. A single gunshot was heard, which was then identified as the shot that killed Aquino. Several shots burst out, killing the alleged assassin, Rolando Galman. Seconds later, a barrage of gunfire erupted, causing chaos in the plane, the tarmac, and the terminal. The bodies of Aquino and Galman lay on the tarmac; Aquino's body was loaded onto the van, which then sped away. Ironically, his flight number, China Airlines 811, was the same flight number that was involved in an accident three years ago at the same airport, although the aircraft involved in the 1983 assassination was a Boeing 767-200. Four years after the incident, during the presidency of Ninoy's wife Corazon Aquino in 1987, "Republic Act No. 6639" was enacted without executive approval, renaming the airport in Ninoy's honor. Presently, a body mark of Aquino's assassination is on display at the departures area while the spot at Gate 8 where he was killed has a memorial plaque. Due to this event, Terminal 1 has also been nicknamed as "Ninoy Aquino Terminal".


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Plans for a new terminal were conceived in 1989, when the Department of Transportation and Communications commissioned Aéroports de Paris to conduct a feasibility study to expand capacity. The recommendation was to build two new terminals. The government aims to return services from many of the airlines which cancelled services to Manila as a result of Terminal 1's problems.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Construction of Terminal 2 began in 1995 and was opened in 1999. Terminal 2 was nicknamed the "Centennial Terminal" as its completion in 1998 coincided with the 100th anniversary of the Philippine Declaration of Independence from Spain.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The original proposal for the construction of a third terminal was proposed by Asia's Emerging Dragon Corporation (AEDP). AEDP eventually lost the bid to PairCargo and its partner Fraport AG of Germany, who went on to begin construction of the terminal under the administration of Joseph Estrada. In August 1997, President Fidel V. Ramos led the groundbreaking ceremony of Terminal 3. The structure was mostly completed several years before, and was originally scheduled to open in, 2002. However, a legal dispute between the government of the Philippines and the project's main contractor, Philippine International Air Terminals Co. Inc. (Piatco), over the build-operate-transfer contract, delayed the final completion and opening of the terminal. After several delays, Terminal 3 partially opened on July 22, 2008. Full operations were initially slated to begin by 2010, then pushed back to 2011, and again to 2014. Terminal 3 became fully operational on July 31, 2014.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: While the original agreement was one in which PairCargo and Fraport AG would operate the airport for several years after its construction, followed by a handing over of the terminal to the Philippine government, the government offered to buy out Fraport AG for $400 million, to which Fraport agreed. However, before the terminal could be fully completed, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo called the contract "onerous" and therefore formed a committee to evaluate the agreement to buy out Fraport AG. In May 2003, the Supreme Court declared the concession contract and the three supplemental construction and operations contracts as null and void due to various anomalies.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Certain amendments to the original contract caused the contract to be nullified. In December 2004, the Philippine government took over the terminal which led to expropriation proceedings. The government was then in the process of negotiating a contract with the builder of the terminal, Takenaka Corporation, because another factor that delayed the terminal's opening was the ongoing investigation into the collapse of an area of the terminal's ceiling days before its supposed opening in March 2006.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Piatco sued the government before the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC), while its German partner Fraport separately sued the Philippine government at the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). In 2007, the ICSID case was decided in favor of the Philippine government because of a violation of the Anti-Dummy Law by Fraport. However, this decision was annulled in 2010 due to a violation of Fraport's right to be heard. A new claim by Fraport was filed at the ICSID in March 2011. Piatco formally withdrew its second application to set aside the earlier ICC ruling that dismissed its claims against the Philippine government in December 2011.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In October 2015, reports of an extortion scam concerning bullets planted by airport security officials in airline passengers' luggage (dubbed in the local media as the "tanim-bala scam") spread, creating a scare among travelers. Former Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte, then a presumptive presidential candidate in the 2016 Philippine presidential election, further alleged that a syndicate was behind the series of incidents. Duterte said the operation had been going on for more than two years. Malacañang Palace and the Philippine Senate have since conducted an investigation of the incidents. Jose Angel Aquino Honrado, the chairman of MIAA, which manages the airport, is President Benigno Aquino III's first cousin. In April 2016, a similar incident occurred.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: On February 12, 2018, a consortium of seven conglomerates consisting of Aboitiz InfraCapital Incorporated, AC Infrastructure Holdings Corporation, Alliance Global Group Incorporated, Asia's Emerging Dragon Corporation, Filinvest Development Corporation, JG Summit Holdings, and Metro Pacific Investments Corporation, submitted a ₱350 billion, or US$6.75 billion, 35-year unsolicited proposal to rehabilitate, expand, operate, and maintain the Ninoy Aquino International Airport. The consortium's airport rehabilitation and expansion proposal will be divided into two phases: the improvement and expansion of terminals in the current NAIA land area, and the development of an additional runway, taxiways, passenger terminals, and associated support infrastructure. Changi Airport Consultants Pte. Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of Changi Airports International Pte. Ltd., will provide technical support for their unsolicited proposal. Singapore's Changi Airport Group is also eyeing a 30-percent stake in this venture.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: On March 1, 2018, Megawide Construction Corporation and its India-based consortium partner GMR Infrastructure, the consortium which revamped the Mactan–Cebu International Airport, submitted a ₱150 billion, or US$3 billion, proposal to decongest and redevelop the airport as well. GMR-Megawide, unlike the aforementioned consortium, is not pushing for the construction of a new runway. According to GMR Megawide Mactan–Cebu International Airport Corp. chief executive adviser Andrew Harrison, such a structure would not significantly boost capacity.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The NAIA consortium pulled out of the rehabilitation project in July 2020 due to undisclosed issues, and thus Megawide-GMR took over the project. On December 15, 2020, however, the Manila International Airport Authority revoked the original proponent status (OPS) of Megawide-GMR, who then filed a motion for reconsideration on December 21. MIAA denied the motion for reconsideration filed by Megawide-GMR on January 25, 2021. In August 2022, the Department of Transportation announced a rebidding of the project within the year.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In February 2018, a plan to "rationalize" the airport terminals was announced in an effort to decongest the airport, while transferring some flights to Clark International Airport. Under the rationalization program, Terminals 1 and 3 would be fully allocated to international flights, while Terminals 2 and 4 would be fully allocated to domestic flights. Airlines were initially given 45 days to transfer some of their flights to Clark International Airport, later extended to six months.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: However, Senator Grace Poe said that the rationalization plan would not ease congestion in the airport, while saying that expanding the airport would be the main solution to decongest the airport.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: On July 30, 2018, airport authorities announced the deferral of the rationalization program that was supposed to take place in August of that year. This was deferred due to operational constraints in the airport. The rationalization started in October 2018 when four airlines transferred their operations to Terminal 3 from Terminal 1 starting from that month until January 2019.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 1 has an area of and a design capacity of six million passengers per year. It is also known as the "Ninoy Aquino Terminal" since its tarmac was also the place where opposition senator Ninoy Aquino was assassinated in 1983. Being the second oldest terminal at the airport (after the Old Domestic Terminal, now called Terminal 4), Terminal 1 was completed in 1981 and opened in 1982. The terminal currently serves foreign carriers operating in Manila, except for those in Terminal 3 (All Nippon Airways, Cathay Pacific, Delta Air Lines, Emirates, Etihad Airways, KLM, Qantas, Qatar Airways, Singapore Airlines, Turkish Airlines, United Airlines and Saudia Airlines). It also serves Philippine Airlines flights to and from Bali, Indonesia, Canada (Toronto and Vancouver), the Middle East, and the United States.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The development of the Manila International Airport was finally approved through the promulgation of Executive Order No. 381, which authorized the airport's development. In 1973, a feasibility study/airport master plan was done by the Airways Engineering Corporation through a US$29.6 million loan from the Asian Development Bank. The detailed engineering design for the project was done by Renardet-Sauti/Transplan/F.F. Cruz Consultant while the terminal's detailed architectural design was prepared by Leandro Locsin's L.V. Locsin and Associates. In 1974, the detailed designs were adopted by the Philippine Government. The designs were subsequently approved by the ADB on September 18, 1975. The government chose an area close to the original site of the former Manila Airport, deciding on an area of land governed by Parañaque, which was at the time a municipality of Metro Manila. Actual work on the terminal began during the second quarter of 1978.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The terminal reached capacity in 1991, when it registered a total passenger volume of 4.53 million. Since 1991, the terminal has been over capacity and has been recording an annual average growth rate of 11%, but improvements to the airport have increased its capacity from 4.5 million to six million passengers yearly. Compared to international terminals in other Asian countries, Terminal 1 has consistently ranked at the bottom due to limited and outdated facilities, poor passenger comfort, and crowding. From 2011 to 2013, Terminal 1 was on the list of worst airports in Asia and the world by the travel website "The Guide to Sleeping In Airports", ranking on number one.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Transport authorities planned to rehabilitate Terminal 1; the plans were approved by President Benigno Aquino III. The upgrade includes the expansion of the arrival area, addition of parking spaces, and improvement of other terminal facilities. Renovations began on January 23, 2014. The project included the installation of buckling restrained braces to strengthen the structural integrity of the building, and a much-needed improvement in the interior design of the terminal. Ten international airlines operating from Terminal 1 transferred to Terminal 3 from 2014 to 2020, in an effort to decongest the terminal.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 2, also known as the "Centennial Terminal", has an area of , and is located at the Old MIA Road. Constructed as part of a master plan that recommended the construction of two new terminals, actual construction work on the terminal begun in December 1995 and was inaugurated on May 1, 1999 and began operations in the same year. It has been named the Centennial Terminal in commemoration of the centennial year of the declaration of Philippine independence. The terminal was originally designed by Aéroports de Paris to be a domestic terminal, but the design was later modified to accommodate international flights. It has a capacity of 2.5 million passengers per year in its international wing and five million in its domestic wing. It is able to be modified to accommodate nine million passengers per year if needed.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 2 is exclusively used by Philippine Airlines and PAL Express for both its domestic and international flights. It is divided into two wings: the North Wing, for international flights, and the South Wing, which handles domestic operations. It currently has 12 jet bridges. There are several cafes and restaurants in the Terminal post-security. There is also a small duty-free section in the north wing. The need for two more terminals was proposed by a Master Plan Review of the Airport that was undertaken in 1989 by Aéroports de Paris (ADP). The study was facilitated by means of a grant from the French Government. The review cost 2.9 million French francs and was submitted to the Philippine Government for evaluation in 1990.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In 1991, the French government granted a 30-million-franc soft loan to the Philippine government, which was to be used to cover the detailed architectural and engineering design of NAIA Terminal 2. ADP completed the design in 1992 and in 1994, the Japanese Government granted an 18.12-billion-yen soft loan to the Philippine Government to finance 75% of the terminal's construction costs and 100% of the supervision costs. Construction of the Centennial Terminal began on December 11, 1995, and was formally turned over to the government of the Philippines on December 28, 1998. The terminal became fully operational by 1999.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In August 2014, a plan to expand Terminal 2 was announced. The plan also incorporated building a structure interconnecting Terminals 1 and 2. It included the demolition of the unused Philippine Village Hotel complex beside the terminal, and the relocation of a fuel depot located between the terminals to make way for the expansion.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The terminal underwent rehabilitation starting in September 2018. On February 16, 2021, the expanded Terminal 2 was inaugurated. The expansion added an additional in the terminal area.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 3 is the newest and largest among the four terminals in NAIA. The construction of the terminal was also part of the 1989 expansion plan. Construction started in 1997 and was originally planned to open in 2002. Since construction, the terminal has been at the center of legal battles, red tape, and arbitration cases in both the United States and Singapore, as well as technical and safety concerns which delayed its opening several times. The terminal opened on July 22, 2008, increasing the airport's annual handling capacity by 13 million passengers. It is built on a lot that sits on Villamor Air Base.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 3 is used as the main terminal for Cebu Pacific for its domestic and international operations; the airline has operated its flights in the terminal since its opening in 2008. PAL Express (formerly Air Philippines and Airphil Express) used to operate flights at the terminal until it moved to Terminal 2 in 2018. The terminal is also used by the AirAsia Group (and flights operated by Philippines AirAsia) for its international flights. It is also used by foreign airlines that previously operated at Terminal 1.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The US$640 million terminal, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), has a total floor area of and a total length of , It has 24 boarding gates consisting of 20 contact gates accessible via jet bridges and four bus gates which transports passengers from the terminal to the plane via apron buses. Its apron area has a size of with the ability to service 28 planes at a time, later increased to 32 after the remote parking gates were increased from 8 to 12. The terminal has 70 flight information displays, 314 display monitors, and of fiber optic I.T. cabling. It also has 29 restroom blocks. The departure area has five entrances all equipped with X-ray machines with the final security check having 18 X-ray machines. Its baggage claim has seven large baggage carousels, each with its own flight display monitor. A four-level shopping mall connects the terminal and parking buildings. The parking building has a capacity of 2,000 cars and the outdoor parking area has a capacity of 1,200 cars. The terminal is capable of servicing 33,000 passengers daily at peak or 6,000 passengers per hour. A footbridge that opened in April 2017, known as Runway Manila, connects the terminal with Newport City. The bridge contains moving walkways and can accommodate about 2,000 persons at any given time.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: All international operations, except for those from PAL, were intended to operate from Terminal 3 in the future, originally proposed to move in the fourth quarter of 2010; however, Cebu Pacific and PAL Express remained the only tenants for the first two years of its operation. Prior to the start of full operations of Terminal 3, the vast majority of international flights operated from Terminal 1. All Nippon Airways became the first foreign-based carrier to operate out of Terminal 3 starting February 27, 2011.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The terminal underwent a rehabilitation under the contractor Takenaka Corporation to improve its facilities and utilize the whole terminal. Previously, it only operated at half of its capacity awaiting the completion of the remaining system works. The terminal became fully operational on July 31, 2014, leading to the transfer of five international airlines to Terminal 3 to ease congestion at Terminal 1, starting with Delta Air Lines on August 1, followed by KLM on August 4, Emirates on August 15, Singapore Airlines on September 1, and Cathay Pacific on October 1. Both United Airlines and Qantas relocated to Terminal 3 from Terminal 1 on October 28, 2018. Middle Eastern carriers Qatar Airways and Turkish Airlines transferred to Terminal 3 on December 1, 2018, and January 1, 2019, respectively. Etihad Airways was also transferred to Terminal 3 on October 25, 2020.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Terminal 4, named as "Manila Domestic Passenger Terminal", and still known as the "Old Domestic Terminal", is the oldest of the four existing terminals, having been built in 1948. With an annual capacity of three million passengers, it serves all domestic flights within the Philippines that are operated by Cebgo, Philippines AirAsia (except Caticlan and Cebu), and AirSWIFT, among others. There are no jet bridges and passengers walk to and from the aircraft or are occasionally bussed. Twenty-six check-in counters are located in the terminal. The departure hall has the seating capacity for 969 people at a time. Several food stores and a book and magazine stall are also available. Five baggage carousels are located in the terminal while domestic airline offices, banks, restaurants and a grocery store are also located right beside the domestic passenger terminal. The Domestic Terminal is on the old Airport Road near the north end of Runway 13/31. An old hangar has since been annexed to the terminal.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and in an effort to reduce operating costs due to low passenger demand, Terminal 4 remained closed while the other three terminals reopened in June 2020 after the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon was lifted. This caused domestic flights that used to operate at Terminal 4 to transfer to Terminal 3. During its closure, the terminal was used as a vaccination site for employees of the airport. After a two-year hiatus, Terminal 4 reopened on March 28, 2022 in an effort to decongest Terminal 3 due to the influx of domestic passengers. Cebgo, Philippines AirAsia, and AirSWIFT returned its domestic operations to the terminal on the same day.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: NAIA has a primary runway that is long and wide, running at 061°/241° (designated as Runway 06/24), and a secondary runway that is long and wide, running at 136°/316° (designated as Runway 13/31). The primary runway was oriented at 06/24 in order to harness the southeast and southwest winds. Runway 13/31 is the original runway of the complex during the airport's time as the USAF base Nichols Field. Out of the 550 planes that fly on NAIA daily, 100 of them take the secondary runway. It mostly caters to small private planes, propeller aircraft such as the ATR 72-500, Airbus A320, and Airbus A321 aircraft, and acts as the main runway of the NAIA Terminal 4.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Runway 13/31 was closed in 2020 to give way for its rehabilitation works. The runway was inaugurated and reopened on February 16, 2021, along with a newly constructed taxiway that opened on the same day.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Former Transportation Secretary Joseph Abaya has proposed a new runway adjacent to the existing Runway 06/24. The proposed runway has a length of that could allow the landing of an Airbus A320 and increase the number of aircraft that the airport can handle from 40 planes per hour to about 60–70. However, according to the consultant hired by the government, building the runway may affect the current operations in the main runway and considering building another terminal to be less disruptive.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Previously, the Japan International Cooperation Agency proposed Sangley Point in Cavite as the site of the new international airport serving the Greater Manila Area, meaning Sangley could serve as NAIA's third runway until the long-term expansion is planned.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: NAIA is one of two airports in the Philippines that meet the infrastructure requirements for the Airbus A380, the other being Clark International Airport. The airport provides MRO services conducted by Lufthansa Technik Philippines. On October 11, 2007, NAIA hosted the debut of the Airbus A380 in the Philippines, after test aircraft MSN009 (registered as F-WWEA) landed on Runway 24. The test flight demonstrated that the A380 could land on existing runways in Asia and that the primary international airport of the Philippines can support aircraft as large as the A380.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: However, according to Jose Angel Honrado, who served as MIAA General Manager from 2010 to 2016, NAIA is currently not capable of handling regular commercial flights on the A380, as it would "cause a lot of inconvenience and delay for other scheduled flights" due to the airport's runway and taxiway centerlines not reaching the "wing-tip-to-wing-tip clearance" safety requirement for the aircraft to operate at the airport on a regular basis. Therefore, no airlines have regular commercial flights using this aircraft, although some airlines fly out their A380s to NAIA for maintenance at Lufthansa Technik Philippines. On October 7, 2014, Emirates flew their A380 to NAIA in a one-off commercial flight from and to Dubai to commemorate the transfer of the airline's operations to Terminal 3. In command of the flight was Capt. Franklyn Desiderio, the first Filipino pilot certified to fly the Airbus A380.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Lufthansa Technik Philippines (LTP) (formerly PAL Technical Center) was founded in 2000 as a joint venture of German firm Lufthansa Technik (51%) and Philippine aviation service provider MacroAsia Corporation (49%). Lufthansa Technik Philippines offers aircraft maintenance, repair and overhaul (MRO) services to customers.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The company focuses on maintenance checks for the Airbus A320 family and A330/A340 aircraft. Seven hangar bays and workshops have been upgraded to the latest industry standards to support aircraft maintenance, major modifications, cabin reconfigurations, engine maintenance and painting for the Airbus A320 family, A330/A340, as well as the Boeing 747-400 and 777 aircraft. A new widebody hangar was recently added to meet the increasing demand for A330/A340 base maintenance checks.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The company also opened an Airbus A380 maintenance hangar to allow the aircraft to be repaired at the airport facility. Lufthansa Technik Philippines opens A380 maintenance hangar. In July 2012, A Qantas Airbus A380 completed its passenger cabin reconfiguration. It is one of the 12 Airbus A380 that was cabin reconfigured in the LTP Manila's facility. It also provides total technical and engineering support for the entire Philippine Airlines, PAL Express fleet and other international airline fleets as well.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Aviation Partnership (Philippines) Corporation is SIA Engineering's third line maintenance joint venture outside Singapore. The joint venture of SIA Engineering Company (51%) and Cebu Pacific Air (49%) provides line maintenance, light aircraft checks and technical ramp handling as well as other services to Cebu Pacific Air and third-party airline customers.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The airport also serves as a gateway facility of the logistics company DHL. On March 12, 2006, the company opened its first quality control center at NAIA Terminal 3 to show support in its local market.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Philippine Airlines operates several aviation facilities in the Philippines. These include various training facilities for pilots and cabin crew, catering services, as well as a data center and an A320 flight simulator.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Philippine Airlines also maintains training facilities both for its pilots and other crew, composed of the PAL Aviation School, the PAL Technical Center, and the PAL Learning Center. The PAL Aviation School, located within the premises of Clark Civil Aviation Complex, provides flight training for its own operations and as well as for other airlines, the Philippine government and individual students. It currently operates ten Cessna 172Rs, five of which is fitted with a Glass Cockpit Garmin G1000 for student pilots' training with complete training facilities including simulators for the Airbus A320 and for turboprop aircraft (FRASCA 142). More than 5,000 students graduated from the PAL Aviation School, eventually joining the ranks of pilots at PAL and other airlines.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: PAL Learning Center, located in Manila, serves as the integrated center for Philippine Airlines flight deck crew, cabin crew, catering, technical, ticketing and ground personnel. Located at the PAL Maintenance Base Complex in Pasay, the PAL flight simulator, designed to simulate an Airbus A320, can duplicate all flight conditions complete with sound and visual system capability for day, dusk and night operations.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The Manila International Airport Authority runs a shuttle bus system which connects all four terminals for passengers who have onward connections on flights departing from another terminal. Shuttle buses run every fifteen minutes during daytime hours, but passengers are required to clear immigration and customs to use the system.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Philippine Airlines operates an airside shuttle service between Terminals 1, 2 and 3 for passengers connecting to onward PAL Express flights and vice versa.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Nine city bus routes serve the airport from various points in Metro Manila, eight which go via Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA), and one via Circumferential Road 5 (C-5). Route 18 or the PITX-NAIA Loop route of the Metro Manila Rationalized Bus Transit also stops at all four airport terminals and connects the airport to the Parañaque Integrated Terminal Exchange.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Ultimate Bus Experience (UBE Express) operates a Premium Airport Bus Service that serves on all NAIA Terminals and hotels and commercial areas located in the cities of Manila, Makati, Muntinlupa, Quezon City, Pasay, and Parañaque, all in Metro Manila, and the city of Santa Rosa in Laguna. It also has stops at JAM Liner, Philtranco and Victory Liner terminals in Pasay for passengers going to/coming from the provinces of Northern and Southern Luzon. These buses pick-up exclusively at Terminal 3 and drop-off at any of the four Terminals.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: HM Transport provides an Airport loop shuttle bus and Premium Point-to-point bus service from Taft Avenue MRT Station and Alabang in Muntinlupa to NAIA Terminal 3. Genesis Transport also provides Premium Point-to-point bus service to Clark International Airport from NAIA Terminal 3. Saulog Transit also provides Premium Point-to-point bus service to Sangley Point Airport in Cavite City from NAIA.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The airport is connected, albeit indirectly, by rail: Baclaran station of the Manila LRT Line 1 and Nichols station of the Philippine National Railways both serve the airport complex.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In the future, with the extension of the existing LRT Line 1, a new station, Manila International Airport station, is set to connect the airport, albeit still indirectly, to the LRT-1. A four-station spur extension of the LRT Line 1, directly connecting Terminal 3 to Baclaran, is also proposed.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: Under the new LRT Line 6 proposal, a station will be built near Terminal 1. Once approved, it will directly connect Cavite province with NAIA.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: The NAIA Expressway or NAIA Skyway is the first airport expressway and second elevated tollway in the Philippines. It starts from Sales Interchange of Skyway at the boundary of Pasay and Taguig and ends in Entertainment City, Parañaque. The access ramps of the expressway connects with Terminals 1, 2 and 3 of the airport and also connects with Macapagal Boulevard for motorists and commuters going to/coming from Manila and Manila-Cavite Expressway or CAVITEx for motorists and commuters travelling to/from the province of Cavite.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: There have been several efforts to rename the airport. In May 2018, Larry Gadon led an online petition at change.org aiming to restore the original name of the airport, "Manila International Airport" (MIA). Gadon said the renaming of MIA to NAIA in 1987 was "well in advance of the 10-year prescription period for naming public sites after dead personalities".


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In June 2020, Deputy Speaker Paolo Duterte, citing the need of the airport to represent the Filipino people, filed a bill seeking to rename the airport to "Paliparang Pandaigdig ng Pilipinas". The bill was also authored by Marinduque Representative Lord Allan Velasco and ACT-CIS Representative Eric Go Yap.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In August 2020, Gadon filed a petition before the Supreme Court questioning the validity of "Republic Act 6639", the law which renamed the Manila International Airport to Ninoy Aquino International Airport (NAIA). Gadon asserted that Senator Benigno Aquino Jr. is not among the "pantheon" of the country's declared official heroes. A month later, the Supreme Court unanimously denied for lack of merit the petition to declare the law null and void.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In April 2022, Duterte Youth Representative Ducielle Cardema filed a bill renaming the airport to its original name, "Manila International Airport", and stressed the name should not have been "politicized in the first place". Cardema refiled a similar bill in July 2022.


title: Ninoy Aquino International Airport

text: In June 2022, Negros Oriental Representative Arnolfo Teves Jr. filed a bill renaming the airport to "Ferdinand E. Marcos International Airport". Teves stressed it is "more appropriate to rename it to the person who has contributed to the idea and execution of the said noble project".


title: Auteur

text: An auteur (; , 'author') is an artist with a distinctive approach, usually a film director whose filmmaking control is so unbounded but personal that the director is likened to the "author" of the film, which thus manifests the director's unique style or thematic focus. As an unnamed value, auteurism originated in French film criticism of the late 1940s, and derives from the critical approach of André Bazin and Alexandre Astruc, whereas American critic Andrew Sarris in 1962 called it auteur theory. Yet the concept first appeared in French in 1955 when director François Truffaut termed it "policy of the authors", and interpreted the films of some directors, like Alfred Hitchcock, as a body revealing recurring themes and preoccupations.


title: Auteur

text: American actor Jerry Lewis directed his own 1960 film "The Bellboy" via sweeping control, and was praised for "personal genius." By 1970, the New Hollywood era emerged with studios granting directors broad leeway. Pauline Kael argued, however, that "auteurs" rely on creativity of others, like cinematographers. Georges Sadoul deemed a film's putative "author" potentially even an actor, but a film indeed collaborative. Aljean Harmetz cited major control even by film executives. David Kipen's view of screenwriter as indeed main author is termed "Schreiber theory". In the 1980s, large failures prompted studios to reassert most control. The auteur concept has also been applied to non-film directors, such as record producers and video game designers.


title: Auteur

text: Even before auteur theory, the director was considered the most important influence on a film. In Germany, an early film theorist, Walter Julius Bloem, explained that since filmmaking is an art geared toward popular culture, a film's immediate influence, the director, is viewed as the artist, whereas an earlier contributor, like the screenwriter, is viewed as an apprentice. James Agee, a leading film critic of the 1940s, said that "the best films are personal ones, made by forceful directors". Meanwhile, the French film critics André Bazin and Roger Leenhardt described that directors, vitalizing films, depict the directors' own worldviews and impressions of the subject matter, as by varying lighting, camerawork, staging, editing, and so on.