title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks served as an instructor and later clinical professor of neurology at Yeshiva University's Albert Einstein College of Medicine from 1966 to 2007, and also held an appointment at the New York University School of Medicine from 1992 to 2007. In July 2007 he joined the faculty of Columbia University Medical Center as a professor of neurology and psychiatry. At the same time he was appointed Columbia University's first "Columbia University Artist" at the university's Morningside Heights campus, recognising the role of his work in bridging the arts and sciences. He was also a visiting professor at the University of Warwick in the UK. He returned to New York University School of Medicine in 2012, serving as a professor of neurology and consulting neurologist in the school's epilepsy centre.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks's work at Beth Abraham Hospital helped provide the foundation on which the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function (IMNF) is built; Sacks was an honorary medical advisor. The Institute honoured Sacks in 2000 with its first "Music Has Power Award". The IMNF again bestowed a "Music Has Power Award" on him in 2006 to commemorate "his 40 years at Beth Abraham and honour his outstanding contributions in support of music therapy and the effect of music on the human brain and mind."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks maintained a busy hospital-based practice in New York City. He accepted a very limited number of private patients, in spite of being in great demand for such consultations. He served on the boards of The Neurosciences Institute and the New York Botanical Garden.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In 1967 Sacks first began to write of his experiences with some of his neurological patients. His first such book, "Ward 23", was burned by Sacks during an episode of self-doubt. His books have been translated into over 25 languages. In addition, Sacks was a regular contributor to "The New Yorker", "the New York Review of Books", "The New York Times", "London Review of Books" and numerous other medical, scientific and general publications. He was awarded the Lewis Thomas Prize for Writing about Science in 2001.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks's work is featured in a "broader range of media than those of any other contemporary medical author" and in 1990, "The New York Times" wrote he "has become a kind of poet laureate of contemporary medicine".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks considered his literary style to have grown out of the tradition of 19th century "clinical anecdotes", a literary style that included detailed narrative case histories, which he termed novelistic. He also counted among his inspirations the case histories of the Russian neuropsychologist A. R. Luria, who became a close friend through correspondence from 1973 to 1977, when Dr. Luria died. After the publication of his first book "Migraine" in 1970, a review by his close friend W. H. Auden encouraged Sacks to adapt his writing style to "be metaphorical, be mythical, be whatever you need."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks described his cases with a wealth of narrative detail, concentrating on the experiences of the patient (in the case of his "A Leg to Stand On", the patient was himself). The patients he described were often able to adapt to their situation in different ways despite the fact that their neurological conditions were usually considered incurable. His book "Awakenings", upon which the 1990 feature film of the same name is based, describes his experiences using the new drug levodopa on post-encephalitic patients at the former Beth Abraham Hospital, currently Beth Abraham Center for Rehabilitation and Nursing, Allerton Ave, in The Northeast Bronx, NY. "Awakenings" was also the subject of the first documentary made (in 1974) for the British television series "Discovery". Composer and friend of Sacks, Tobias Picker, composed a ballet inspired by "Awakenings" for the Rambert Dance Company, which was premiered by Rambert in Salford, UK in 2010; In 2022, Picker premiered an opera of Awakenings at Opera Theatre of Saint Louis.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In his book "A Leg to Stand On" he wrote about the consequences of a near-fatal accident he had at age 41 in 1974, a year after the publication of "Awakenings", when he fell off a cliff and severely injured his left leg while mountaineering alone above Hardangerfjord, Norway.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In some of his other books, he describes cases of Tourette syndrome and various effects of Parkinson's disease. The title article of "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat" describes a man with visual agnosia and was the subject of a 1986 opera by Michael Nyman. The title article of his book, "An Anthropologist on Mars", which won a Polk Award for magazine reporting, is about Temple Grandin, an autistic professor. He writes in the book's preface that neurological conditions such as autism "can play a paradoxical role, by bringing out latent powers, developments, evolutions, forms of life that might never be seen, or even be imaginable, in their absence". "Seeing Voices", Sacks's 1989 book, covers a variety of topics in deaf studies. The romantic drama film "At First Sight" (1999) was based on the essay "To See and Not See" in "An Anthropologist on Mars".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In his book "The Island of the Colorblind" Sacks wrote about an island where many people have achromatopsia (total colourblindness, very low visual acuity and high photophobia). The second section of this book, entitled "Cycad Island", describes the Chamorro people of Guam, who have a high incidence of a neurodegenerative disease locally known as lytico-bodig disease (a devastating combination of ALS, dementia and parkinsonism). Later, along with Paul Alan Cox, Sacks published papers suggesting a possible environmental cause for the disease, namely the toxin beta-methylamino L-alanine (BMAA) from the cycad nut accumulating by biomagnification in the flying fox bat.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In November 2012 Sacks's book "Hallucinations" was published. In it he examined why ordinary people can sometimes experience hallucinations and challenged the stigma associated with the word. He explained: "Hallucinations don't belong wholly to the insane. Much more commonly, they are linked to sensory deprivation, intoxication, illness or injury." He also considers the less well known Charles Bonnet syndrome, sometimes found in people who have lost their eyesight. The book was described by "Entertainment Weekly" as: "Elegant... An absorbing plunge into a mystery of the mind."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks sometimes faced criticism in the medical and disability studies communities. Arthur K. Shapiro, for instance, an expert on Tourette syndrome, said Sacks's work was "idiosyncratic" and relied too much on anecdotal evidence in his writings. Researcher Makoto Yamaguchi thought Sacks's mathematical explanations, in his study of the numerically gifted savant twins (in "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat"), were irrelevant, and questioned Sacks's methods. Although Sacks has been characterised as a "compassionate" writer and doctor, others have felt that he exploited his subjects. Sacks was called "the man who mistook his patients for a literary career" by British academic and disability rights activist Tom Shakespeare, and one critic called his work "a high-brow freak show". Sacks responded, "I would hope that a reading of what I write shows respect and appreciation, not any wish to expose or exhibit for the thrill... but it's a delicate business."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Before his death in 2015 Sacks founded the Oliver Sacks Foundation, a nonprofit organization established to increase understanding of the brain through using narrative nonfiction and case histories, with goals that include publishing some of Sacks's unpublished writings, and making his vast amount of unpublished writings available for scholarly study. His first posthumous book, "River of Consciousness", an anthology of his essays, was published in October 2017. Most of the essays had been previously published in various periodicals or in science-essay-anthology books, and are no longer readily obtainable. Sacks specified the order of his essays in "River of Consciousness" prior to his death. Some of the essays focus on repressed memories and other tricks the mind plays on itself. His next posthumous book will be a collection of some of his letters. Sacks was a prolific handwritten-letter correspondent and he never communicated by e-mail.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In 1996 Sacks became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters (Literature). He was named a Fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences in 1999. Also in 1999 he became an Honorary Fellow at the Queen's College, Oxford. In 2000 Sacks received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2002 he became Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Class IV—Humanities and Arts, Section 4—Literature) and he was awarded the 2001 Lewis Thomas Prize by Rockefeller University. Sacks was also a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians (FRCP).


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks was awarded honorary doctorates from Georgetown University (1990), College of Staten Island (1991), Tufts University (1991), New York Medical College (1991), Medical College of Pennsylvania (1992), Bard College (1992), Queen's University at Kingston (2001), Gallaudet University (2005), University of Oxford (2005), Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (2006) and Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (2008).


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks received the position "Columbia Artist" from Columbia University in 2007, a post that was created specifically for him and that gave him unconstrained access to the university, regardless of department or discipline.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In 2008 Sacks was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE), for services to medicine, in the Queen's Birthday Honours.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In February 2010 Sacks was named as one of the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers. He described himself as "an old Jewish atheist", a phrase borrowed from his friend Jonathan Miller.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks never married and lived alone for most of his life. He declined to share personal details until late in his life. He addressed his homosexuality for the first time in his 2015 autobiography "On the Move: A Life". Celibate for about 35 years since his forties, in 2008 he began a friendship with writer and "New York Times" contributor Bill Hayes. Their friendship slowly evolved into a committed long-term partnership that lasted until Sacks's death; Hayes wrote about it in the 2017 memoir "Insomniac City: New York, Oliver, and Me".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In Lawrence Weschler's biography, "And How Are You, Dr. Sacks?", Sacks is described by a colleague as "deeply eccentric". A friend from his days as a medical resident mentions Sacks' need to violate taboos, like drinking blood mixed with milk, and how he frequently took drugs like LSD and speed in the early 1960s. Sacks himself shared personal information about how he got his first orgasm spontaneously while floating in a swimming pool, and later when he was giving a man a massage. He also admits having "erotic fantasies of all sorts" in a natural history museum he visited often in his youth, many of them about animals, like hippos in the mud.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks noted in a 2001 interview that severe shyness, which he described as "a disease", had been a lifelong impediment to his personal interactions. He believed his shyness stemmed from his prosopagnosia, popularly known as "face blindness", a condition that he studied in some of his patients, including the titular man from his work "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat". This neurological disability of his, whose severity and whose impact on his life Sacks did not fully grasp until he reached middle age, even prevented him from recognising his own reflection in mirrors.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks swam almost daily for most of his life, beginning when his swimming-champion father started him swimming as an infant. He especially became publicly well-known for swimming when he lived in the City Island section of the Bronx, as he would routinely swim around the entire island, or swim vast distances away from the island and back.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks underwent radiation therapy in 2006 for a uveal melanoma in his right eye. He discussed his loss of stereoscopic vision caused by the treatment, which eventually resulted in right-eye blindness, in an article and later in his book "The Mind's Eye".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In January 2015 metastases from the ocular tumour were discovered in his liver. Sacks announced this development in a February 2015 "New York Times" op-ed piece and estimated his remaining time in "months". He expressed his intent to "live in the richest, deepest, most productive way I can". He added: "I want and hope in the time that remains to deepen my friendships, to say farewell to those I love, to write more, to travel if I have the strength, to achieve new levels of understanding and insight."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks died from the disease on 30 August 2015 at his home in Manhattan at the age of 82, surrounded by his closest friends.


title: Snap Inc.

text: Snap Inc. is an American camera and social media company, founded on September 16, 2011, by Evan Spiegel, Bobby Murphy, and Reggie Brown based in Santa Monica, California. The company developed and maintains technological products and services, namely Snapchat, Spectacles, and Bitmoji. The company was named Snapchat Inc. at its inception, but it was rebranded Snap Inc. on September 24, 2016, in order to include the Spectacles product under the company name.


title: Snap Inc.

text: The founders own a combined 95% of voting shares (Spiegel with 48% and Murphy with 47%), which are undiluted and transferable to the other when one retires or dies.


title: Snap Inc.

text: The company was founded on September 16, 2011, by Evan Spiegel and Bobby Murphy upon the relaunch of the photo sharing app Picaboo as Snapchat. On December 31, 2013, the application was hacked and 4.6 million usernames and phone numbers were leaked to the Internet. Also in December 2013, Emily White, who had been a high-profile executive with Facebook, Instagram, and Google, was hired as COO. Her tenure with the company ended in March 2015.


title: Snap Inc.

text: By January 2014, the company had refused offers of acquisition, including overtures from Mark Zuckerberg, with Spiegel commenting that "trading that for some short-term gain isn’t very interesting."


title: Snap Inc.

text: In May 2014, the company acquired the software company AddLive to provide needed technology to create a new video chat feature. In that same month, it settled U.S. Federal Trade Commission (FTC) charges over its having misled users regarding its collection of their address book data and transmission of their locations (without notice or consent), and regarding its claim that user messages disappeared after their expiration (rather than remaining accessible, as they had). In December, the company acquired Vergence Labs for $15 million in cash and stock, who were the developers of Epiphany Eyewear, and the mobile app Scan for $50 million, which was revealed during the Sony Pictures Entertainment hack.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In May 2015, the company moved from its original headquarters to a 47,000 ft (4,366 m) office complex near Venice Beach and signed a 10-year lease. They were one of the first prominent social media companies to establish themselves there, alongside others such as Whisper and Tinder, giving Venice the new title of "Silicon Beach." In February 2017, two weeks before the company's IPO, "The New York Times" published a feature about Snap's role in turning the area into a technology hub, noting that Snap, with a total of 1,900 employees, had "already changed the face of Venice."


title: Snap Inc.

text: In September 2015, Snapchat acquired Looksery to develop Lenses for its mobile app, a feature based on Looksery's facial recognition software.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In March, July, and August 2016, the company acquired Bitstrips for $100 million, Obvious Engineering, the developers of Seene, for an undisclosed amount and Vurb for $100 million. Vurb formerly developed the eponymous mobile search engine. The Vurb card-based engine removed the need to switch through multiple other applications on the device to perform a task.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In September 2016, the company officially named itself Snap Inc., and unveiled smartglasses known as Spectacles. In November 2016, the company filed documents for an initial public offering (IPO) with an estimated market value of $25–35 billion. In December 2016, the company opened research and development in Shenzhen and acquired advertising and technology company Flite and Israel-based augmented reality startup Cimagine Media for $30–40 million. A partnership issued in December 2016 with Turner Broadcasting System will allow integration of Turner properties on Snapchat, while cooperating with Snap Inc. to develop original content.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In January 2017, the company announced that it had established an international headquarters in Soho, London. In early February 2017, the company confirmed their plans for an IPO in 2017 and its expectation to raise $3 billion. In early March 2017, the company went public under the trading symbol SNAP, and raised almost $30 billion in market capitalization on the first day of trading.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In late May 2017, the company acquired the location sharing app Zenly in a cash and stock deal. The Zenly app will remain functional, but its concepts were incorporated into a Snapchat feature added in June 2017.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In August 2017, Business Insider reported that Google discussed an offer to buy the company for $30 billion in early 2016.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In October 2017, the company announced that it had formed a joint venture with NBCUniversal to produce content for Snap's platforms, and that it had signed Duplass Brothers Productions as its first partner.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In November 2017, Tencent acquired a 12% non-voting minority equity stake of the company in the open market.


title: Snap Inc.

text: On October 26, 2018, at TwitchCon, Snap launched a new desktop application for macOS and Windows known as Snap Camera. It allows users to utilize Snapchat filters via PC webcams in video chat and live streaming services such as Skype, Twitch, YouTube, and Zoom. Snap also announced additional integration with Twitch.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In August 2022, "The Verge" reported that Snap would be laying off 20% of its 6,400-person workforce. The layoffs primarily impacted the company's hardware division and the developer products including the separately run Zenly.


title: Snap Inc.

text: The company develops and maintains the image messaging and multimedia mobile app Snapchat, as well as develops and manufactures the wearable camera called Spectacles, a pair of smartglasses that connect to the user's Snapchat account and records videos in a circular video format adjustable in any orientation. On February 20, 2017, Snap Spectacles became available for purchase online. The company sold only 220,000 pairs of Snap Spectacles V1. The company developed and launched Spectacles V2 in April 2018 in the U.S., Canada, U.K. and France; and 13 more European countries in May 2018. On April 28, 2022, the company announced a mini drone called Pixy. Later that August, it was reported that future development of Pixy would be discontinued, while continuing to sell the current iteration of the drone.


title: Snap Inc.

text: Snapchat app raised $485,000 in its seed round and an undisclosed amount of bridge funding from Lightspeed Ventures. By February 2013, Snapchat confirmed a $13.5 million Series A funding round led by Benchmark Capital, which valued the company at between $60 million and $70 million. In June 2013, Snapchat raised $60 million in a Series B funding round led by venture-capital firm Institutional Venture Partners. The firm also appointed a new high-profile board member, Michael Lynton of Sony's American division. By mid-July 2013, a media report valued the company at $860 million. On November 14, 2013, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that Facebook offered to acquire Snapchat for $3 billion, but Spiegel declined the cash offer. Tech writer Om Malik then claimed on November 15, 2013, that Google had offered $4 billion, but Spiegel again declined. On December 11, 2013, Snapchat confirmed $50 million in Series C funding from Coatue Management. Beyond 2014, the company had achieved a $10–$20 billion valuation, depending on the source, raising $100 million in Series D funding led by KPCB and $485 million in a Series E round led by Alibaba Group. Investors included General Catalyst, Kingdom Holding Company, SV Angel, Tencent and Yahoo. According to reports in May 2016, the company's estimated worth was said to be approaching $22.7 billion in the event of a new Series F round of investment of $1.8 billion from Spark Capital, General Atlantic, Sequoia Capital, T. Rowe Price, Meritech Capital Partners, Dragoneer Investment Group and others, led by Fidelity Investments. Later, the company got an additional $200 million in the following Series FP round. Further reports in 2016 suggested that funding was almost at $3 billion and that Snapchat was targeting yearly revenues of a billion dollars.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In January 2017, "The Wall Street Journal" reported that "people familiar with the matter" stated that Snap Inc. would share 2.5% of the money raised in an upcoming initial public offering (IPO) with the banks managing the IPO. It also reported that after the predicted March 2017 IPO, the two Snap co-founders would hold over "70% of the voting power" in the company and own around 45% of the total stock. On January 29, 2017, it was reported that the Snap Inc. IPO would likely take place on the New York Stock Exchange. As both the NYSE and Nasdaq had been "aggressively courting the listing for more than a year," the "Wall Street Journal" called it "a big competitive victory for the Big Board." Snap's IPO was estimated to value the company at between $20 billion and $25 billion, the largest IPO on a US exchange since Alibaba debuted in 2014 at a value of $168 billion. Beyond the two founders, the two biggest shareholders for the planned early 2017 Snap IPO were Benchmark and Lightspeed Venture Partners, both prior investors and venture-capital firms from Silicon Valley. They held a combined stake of about 20%. On March 1, 2017, it was reported that Snap Inc. "values itself at nearly $24B with its IPO pricing." Snap Inc.'s stock started trading on March 2, 2017, under the symbol SNAP, on the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Snap Inc.

text: When Snap reported earnings for the first time in May 2017, they reported a $2.2 billion quarterly loss, and the stock fell more than 20%, erasing most of the gains since the IPO. Its market capitalization reached $100 billion for the first time on 22 February 2021.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In February 2013, Reggie Brown sued Evan Spiegel and Bobby Murphy. Early investors also were eventually named in the lawsuit. Brown said that he had once been the chief marketing officer for the initial selfie app used to launch Snapchat, offering evidence of contacts with publications such as "Cosmopolitan". He also claimed that he had come up with the original concept, which he had ultimately called Picaboo, and that he had created the mascot logo for the product while working with Spiegel to promote and market the idea. Originally titled "Toyopa Group, LLC," Brown said that he had named the newly formed company as well. Brown's lawyers offered documentation of a collaboration with Spiegel and Murphy, which included the filing of an original patent by the three Stanford classmates, but Snapchat described the lawsuit as meritless and called Brown's tactics a shakedown. During April's depositions, Brown testified that he had believed he was an equal partner, and that he had agreed to share costs and profits. Spiegel instead described Brown as an unpaid intern who had been providing valuable experience, and although Murphy claimed that he had not fully understood what Brown's role was supposed to have been, he too characterized Brown's involvement as having been that of an internship. Months later, Spiegel dismissed the lawsuit as an example of opportunists who seek out rapidly successful companies in an attempt "to also profit from the hard work of others."


title: Snap Inc.

text: On 9 September 2014, the company announced that they had settled the lawsuit for an initially undisclosed amount. The settlement amount was revealed on February 2, 2017, in Snap's SEC public filing to be $157.5 million. As part of the settlement, they credited Brown with the conceptual idea for Snapchat.


title: Snap Inc.

text: The press release published by Snapchat's communication department quoted Spiegel:"We are pleased that we have been able to resolve this matter in a manner that is satisfactory to Mr. Brown and the Company. We acknowledge Reggie's contribution to the creation of Snapchat and appreciate his work in getting the application off the ground."


title: Snap Inc.

text: The Federal Trade Commission alleged that the company had exaggerated to the public the degree to which mobile app images and photos could actually be made to disappear. Following a settlement in 2014, Snapchat was not fined, but the app service agreed to have its claims and policies monitored by an independent party for a period of 20 years.


title: Snap Inc.

text: The redesign of the Snapchat app in early 2018 made changes for which many users were not happy. Around 1.2 million people petitioned Snap, Inc. to roll back the redesign. Snap, Inc's reply makes no concessions, other than noting, "We completely understand the new Snapchat has felt uncomfortable for many."


title: Snap Inc.

text: Due to the redesign and other market factors in 2018, such as the growth of Instagram Stories and WhatsApp Status, Daily Active Users (DAU) of the app only rose 2% from Q4 2017. Snap, Inc. stock fell more than 15% in after-hours trading following the earnings report release. Growth of daily active users slowed in Q1 2018, and the growth rate for Q2 2018 was "planned to decelerate rapidly from Q1 levels." Snap, Inc. has commented on the redesign, saying, "We have also started to realise some of the positive benefits [of the redesign], including increased new user retention for older users." Some publishers feel the turn towards the older demographic spells the end for the app.


title: Snap Inc.

text: In a December 2020 announcement, Google Cloud confirmed the development of the memorandum of understanding (MoU) it signed with Aramco, Saudi Arabia. The update stated the possibility of exploring options to establish cloud services in Saudi, where it confirmed storing Snapchat data. The decision was contested by Access Now, a non-profit organization, and CIPPIC, a Canadian public interest technology law clinic. The firms objected to Google's decision of choosing Saudi Arabia as its new Google Cloud region overlooking an alarming record of human rights abuse and longstanding surveillance accusations. The firms claimed that placing the personal information of millions of Snapchat users there would put it under the jurisdiction of the government of Saudi Arabia, jeopardizing the security of the data.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Reginald Noble (born April 17, 1970), better known by his stage name Redman, is an American rapper, DJ, record producer, and actor. He rose to fame in the early 1990s as an artist on the Def Jam label.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: He is well known for his collaborations with his close friend Method Man, as one-half of the rap duo Method Man & Redman, including their starring roles in films and sitcoms. He was also a member of the Def Squad in the late 1990s.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Raised in Newark, New Jersey, Redman attended Speedway Avenue School and 13th Avenue School before attending West Side High School, an experience he described as "off the hook".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 1987, Redman was expelled from Montclair State University his freshman year due to poor academic performance at age 16. Having no other options, Redman then went back home to live with his mother, Darlene Noble, who eventually kicked him out of her house for selling cocaine. Two years later, at age 18, Redman was a young DJ-MC who went by the name "DJ Kut-Killa". He freestyled over funk and hip hop instrumental tracks on vinyl records in various parks and house parties around New York and New Jersey.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Redman was eventually discovered by Erick Sermon of EPMD while he was a DJ for Lords of the Underground. Sermon said when he met Redman for the first time, "I knew there was something spectacular about him. Right off the bat. The next day, we talked. And within the next two or three months, he moved to Long Island, to my crib. He moved right into my apartment." After moving in with Sermon, Redman went out on tour with EPMD. While on tour with the group he did everything from carrying their bags to coming out on stage and doing rap freestyles. In 1990, at an EPMD show in New York, Redman was invited onstage by Erick Sermon where he delivered a rap freestyle that changed his life. He freestyled a song describing himself as a rapper using every letter in the alphabet, from A to Z. After this, Redman was an official rap artist and began production with Erick Sermon on his first major label album, "Whut? Thee Album".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 1990, Redman made his official debut on EPMD's album "Business as Usual", appearing on the tracks "Hardcore" and "Brothers on My Jock".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 1992, Redman released his debut album, "Whut? Thee Album", which AllMusic noted for blending "reggae and funk influences" with a "terse, though fluid rap style". The album peaked at number forty-nine on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified gold. He was named "Rap Artist of the Year" by "The Source". Redman followed this up with his 1994 album, "Dare Iz a Darkside". The first single, "Rockafella", samples Leon Haywood's "I Want'a Do Something Freaky to You" and George Clinton's "Flash Light", two of the most sampled songs in hip hop. Redman's second album was notable for having most of the tracks produced by the artist himself (later on Redman would let other producers make most of his beats). During this time he used former mentor Erick Sermon to produce his records, including "Pick It Up" and "Whateva Man" from "Muddy Waters".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Redman released his second studio album, "Dare Iz a Darkside" on November 22, 1994, by Def Jam Recordings. The album debuted at 13 on the US "Billboard" 200. The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. Redman has said that he was on drugs during the recording of the album, and said in 2010 that he had not played the album in recent years because it was made during one of the dark times in his life.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: On December 10, 1996, Redman released his third album "Muddy Waters", which was highly praised by critics. The album featured two of his "Billboard"s hit singles: "Whateva Man" and "It's Like That (My Big Brother)". The song "Do What You Feel" appeared on the soundtrack to the video game "". The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 12, 1997. During this time, with newfound friendships with Method Man and Tupac, they both appeared on Tupac's double album "All Eyez on Me" on the song "Got my Mind Made Up".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 1999 Redman took part in the Hard Knock Life Tour, including a stop in Toronto at the Air Canada Centre.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 1998 Redman released his first collaboration album "El Nino" with group Def Squad. His fourth studio album "Doc's Da Name 2000" was a top seller, shipping platinum in sales and exceeding his previous record of gold. It peaked at number 11 on the "Billboard" 200 and had three songs ("I'll Bee Dat", "Da Goodness", "Let Da Monkey Out") that charted.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: With his labelmate Method Man, Redman made a featured appearance on the Doc's Da Name 2000 record on the song "Well All Rite Cha". In 1999, Method Man and Redman released a collaborative album called "Blackout!".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 2001 Redman released his fifth studio album "Malpractice". It reached number 4 on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified gold by the RIAA on July 21, 2001. It boasted two singles "Let's Get Dirty (I Can't Get in da Club)" and "Smash Sumthin'".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Since the release of Malpractice, he has kept his fans happy by independently releasing the "Ill At Will" mixtapes, which feature various members of his new record label "Gilla House" members under Redman's Gilla House imprint include Saukrates, Icarus, Ready Roc, E3, Young Heat, and Melanie.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Redman had his best-known international hit with Christina Aguilera, when he was featured on her 2002 single "Dirrty". Around this time he was also featured on a popular remix of Pink's track "Get This Party Started". He is cited in the song 'Till I Collapse as rapper Eminem's favorite rapper.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Under his birthname, Reggie Noble, Redman has done production for himself, many of his crew members, and even Shaquille O'Neal on his '' album.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In March 2007, Redman released "Red Gone Wild". He stated on MySpace that the reason for the long wait to drop the album was the fast-changing pace of hip hop.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: On March 27, 2007, Redman confirmed on BET's "Rap City: Tha Bassment" that the sequel to "How High", "How High 2", was currently being written. In an April 10, 2007, "Onion A.V. Club" interview, Redman hinted that there would be a second collaborative album with Method Man.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: "Blackout! 2" was announced in 2007 by Redman and was originally scheduled for release in 2008, but its release was pushed back a number of times due to numerous reasons. In early 2008, a remake of the da Hustler and Trigger tha Gambler classic "Broken Language" was released on the internet by the duo entitled "Broken Language 2008", fueling rumors of a "Blackout!" sequel coming soon. This rumor was further fueled by the duo while performing in Gainesville, Florida, at the University of Florida. A "Blackout!" LP was scheduled for a December 9, 2008, release but was recently pushed back to the first quarter of 2009. It was finally released on May 19, 2009. It debuted at number 7 on the "Billboard" 200, at number 2 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, at number 2 on the Top Rap Albums and digital in charted number 7 on the Digital Albums charts selling 63,000 copies in its first week. The album also charted number 10 on the Canadian Albums Chart. The album has sold 160,375 copies in the United States by December 12, 2009, according to SoundScan.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In May 2009, Redman confirmed his next solo album would come out December 2009. The title for the project is "Reggie Noble "0" 9½". The title of the album was then changed to just "Redman Presents... Reggie", and three singles ("Coc Back", "Oh My", and "Money on My Mind") were released. The first single "Coc Back" (which features Ready Roc) had music video filmed and released for it. But as it turns out, none of the tracks made the final cut of the album, only being promo singles. During an interview, Redman stated that Reggie Noble (Redman's own birth name), does the album, not Redman. Redman also said that there is going to be more, "poppish", type songs, rather his normal "rugged" and "hardcore" songs. After a few push backs, "Redman Presents... Reggie" was finally released on December 7, 2010. The first official single is "Def Jammable" and a video was released for the single. It has been confirmed that Redman will appear on a remix along with French rapper Soprano of "Tranne Te" by Italian rapper Fabri Fibra.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In June 2013, Redman announced that his next studio album "Muddy Waters 2" would be released in late 2013 via Entertainment One and he would release a mixtape to go along with it, which evolved into an EP titled "Muddy Waters 2: The Preload". Redman has also confirmed work on "Blackout! 3" with Method Man with recording starting summer 2012, however, recording was pushed back to late 2014. "Mudface" was released on November 13, 2015, with "Blackout! 3" coming out after, and Method Man's long-awaited mixtape and fifth solo album directly following these projects. Method Man and Redman are also slated to be working on a long-rumored sequel to their original stoner comedy, "How High". In a HipHopDX interview in February 2017, Matt "M-80" Markoff confirmed the project, revealed that the sequel will be titled "Too High" and that he is currently looking to acquire finances for the film. An EP called '3 Joints' was released on his Gilla House label in 2020, as further work on other albums continues.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 2001, Redman co-starred with Method Man in the stoner comedy film "How High", which featured the pair playing two marijuana-addled students attempting to survive at Harvard.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Method Man and Redman also appear in "Def Jam Vendetta", "" and "" video games, often as tag team partners, and briefly had their own television sitcom, "Method & Red", on Fox during the 2003–2004 season.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In the music video for the Offspring's single "Original Prankster", Redman plays the part of the "conscience", telling the "Original Prankster" what pranks to pull.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 2004, Redman again co-starred with Method Man in the Nickelodeon cartoon, "The Fairly OddParents", in "School's Out! The Musical", rapping the "Pixes Rap".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In April 2015, Redman released a collaboration with New York-based streetwear brand Mighty Healthy. The 420-themed collection includes jerseys, T-shirts, hats, and other items with cannabis-related graphics.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In August 2017, it was announced that Redman would host the first season of VH1's "Scared Famous", which premiered on October 23, 2017.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Redman was born in Newark, New Jersey, to Darlene and Eddie Noble. His sister Rosalyn Noble is rapper known as Roz. She has appeared on several Redman songs over the years. He is a cousin of rapper Tame One.


title: Redman (rapper)

text: In 2001, Redman appeared on an episode of "MTV Cribs" and showcased his Staten Island home which, in contrast to the luxurious homes usually featured in the series, was described by "XXL" magazine as "small and grimey". The episode, which featured the crew having to pinch two wires together because the house lacked a doorbell, and a cameo by Redman's cousin Mr. Cream sleeping on the floor in a comforter, has become "the most infamous, most cited" episode of the show according to MTV VP of programming Nina L. Diaz. According to a 2017 interview, Redman still lived in the property and was quoted as saying "It's real small. Two bedrooms. [...] I wouldn't know what to do with a big house".


title: Redman (rapper)

text: Redman began boarding his four-month-old pit bull terrier Daddy with dog trainer Cesar Millan, with Daddy ultimately becoming Millan's "right-hand-man" on his TV show "The Dog Whisperer".


title: Lille

text: Lille ( , ; ; ; ) is a city in the northern part of France, in French Flanders. On the river Deûle, near France's border with Belgium, it is the capital of the Hauts-de-France region, the prefecture of the Nord department, and the main city of the European Metropolis of Lille.


title: Lille

text: The city of Lille proper had a population of 234,475 in 2019 within its small municipal territory of , but together with its French suburbs and exurbs the Lille metropolitan area (French part only), which extends over , had a population of 1,510,079 that same year (Jan. 2019 census), the fourth most populated in France after Paris, Lyon, and Marseille. The city of Lille and 94 suburban French municipalities have formed since 2015 the European Metropolis of Lille, an indirectly elected metropolitan authority now in charge of wider metropolitan issues, with a population of 1,179,050 at the Jan. 2019 census.


title: Lille

text: More broadly, Lille belongs to a vast conurbation formed with the Belgian cities of Mouscron, Kortrijk, Tournai and Menin, which gave birth in January 2008 to the Eurometropolis Lille–Kortrijk–Tournai, the first European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC), which has more than 2.1 million inhabitants.


title: Lille

text: Nicknamed in France the "Capital of Flanders", Lille and its surroundings belong to the historical region of Romance Flanders, a former territory of the county of Flanders that is not part of the linguistic area of West Flanders. A garrison town (as evidenced by its Citadel), Lille has had an eventful history from the Middle Ages to the French Revolution. Very often besieged during its history, it belonged successively to the Kingdom of France, the Burgundian State, the Holy Roman Empire of Germany and the Spanish Netherlands before being definitively attached to the France of Louis XIV following the War of Spanish Succession along with the entire territory making up the historic province of French Flanders. Lille was again under siege in 1792 during the Franco-Austrian War, and in 1914 and 1940. It was severely tested by the two world wars of the 20th century during which it was occupied and suffered destruction.


title: Lille

text: A merchant city since its origins and a manufacturing city since the 16th century, the Industrial Revolution made it a great industrial capital, mainly around the textile and mechanical industries. Their decline, from the 1960s onwards, led to a long period of crisis and it was not until the 1990s that the conversion to the tertiary sector and the rehabilitation of the disaster-stricken districts gave the city a different face. Today, the historic center, Old Lille, is characterized by its 17th-century red brick town houses, its paved pedestrian streets and its central Grand'Place. The belfry of the Hôtel de ville de Lille (Lille City Hall) is one of the 23 belfries in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais and Somme regions that were classified as UNESCO World Heritage Sites in July 2005, in recognition of their architecture and importance to the rise of municipal power in Europe.


title: Lille

text: The construction of the brand-new Euralille business district in 1988 (now the third largest in France) and the arrival of the TGV and then the Eurostar in 1994 put Lille at the heart of the major European capitals. The development of its international airport, annual events such as the Braderie de Lille in early September (attracting three million visitors), the development of a student and university center (with more than 110,000 students, the third largest in France behind Paris and Lyon), its ranking as a European Capital of Culture in 2004 and the events of Lille 2004 (European Capital of Culture) and Lille 3000 are the main symbols of this revival. The European metropolis of Lille was awarded the "World Design Capital 2020".


title: Lille

text: Archeological digs seem to show the area as inhabited by as early as 2000 BC, most notably in the modern "quartiers" of Fives, Wazemmes and Vieux Lille. The original inhabitants of the region were the Gauls, such as the Menapians, the Morins, the Atrebates and the Nervians, who were followed by Germanic peoples: the Saxons, the Frisians and the Franks.


title: Lille

text: The legend of "Lydéric and Phinaert" puts the foundation of the city of Lille at 640. In the 8th century, the language of Old Low Franconian was spoken, as attested by toponymic research. Lille's Dutch name is "Rijsel", which comes from "ter ijsel" (at the island) from Middle Dutch "ijssel" ("small island, islet"), calque of Old French l'Isle ("the Island"), itself from Latin "Īnsula", from "īnsula" ("island").


title: Lille

text: From 830 to around 910, the Vikings invaded Flanders. After the destruction caused by Normans' and the Magyars' invasion, the eastern part of the region was ruled by various local princes.


title: Lille

text: The first mention of the town dates from 1066: "apud Insulam" (Latin for "at the island"). It was then controlled by the County of Flanders, as were the regional cities (the Roman cities Boulogne, Arras, Cambrai as well as the Carolingian cities Valenciennes, Saint-Omer, Ghent and Bruges). The County of Flanders thus extended to the left bank of the Scheldt, one of the richest and most prosperous regions of Europe.


title: Lille

text: The Carolingian duke Évrard lived in the city in the 9th century and participated in many of the day's political and military affairs. There was an important Battle of Lille in 1054. Raimbert of Lille (fl. c. 1100) was an early nominalist who taught at Lille.


title: Lille

text: From the 12th century, the fame of the Lille cloth fair began to grow. In 1144 Saint-Sauveur parish was formed, which would give its name to the modern-day "quartier Saint-Sauveur".


title: Lille

text: The counts of Flanders, Boulogne, and Hainaut came together with England and East Frankia and tried to regain territory taken by Philip II of France following Henry II of England's death, a war that ended with the French victory at Bouvines in 1214. Infante Ferdinand, Count of Flanders was imprisoned and the county fell into dispute: it would be his wife, Jeanne, Countess of Flanders and Constantinople, who ruled the city. She was said to be well loved by the residents of Lille, who by that time numbered 10,000.


title: Lille

text: In 1225, the street performer and juggler Bertrand Cordel, doubtlessly encouraged by local lords, tried to pass himself off as Baldwin I of Constantinople (the father of Jeanne of Flanders), who had disappeared at the battle of Adrianople. He pushed the counties of Flanders and Hainaut towards sedition against Jeanne in order to recover his land. She called her cousin, Louis VIII ("The Lion"). He unmasked the imposter, whom Countess Jeanne quickly had hanged. In 1226 the king agreed to free Infante Ferdinand, Count of Flanders. Count Ferrand died in 1233, and his daughter Marie soon after. In 1235, Jeanne granted a city charter by which city governors would be chosen each All Saint's Day by four commissioners chosen by the ruler. On 6 February 1236, she founded the Countess's Hospital (Hospice Comtesse). It was in her honour that the hospital of the Regional Medical University of Lille was named "Jeanne of Flanders Hospital" in the 20th century.


title: Lille

text: The Countess died in 1244 in the Abbey of Marquette, leaving no heirs. The rule of Flanders and Hainaut thus fell to her sister, Margaret II, Countess of Flanders, then to Margaret's son, Guy of Dampierre. Lille fell under the rule of France from 1304 to 1369, after the Franco-Flemish War (1297–1305).


title: Lille

text: The county of Flanders fell to the Duchy of Burgundy next, after the 1369 marriage of Margaret III, Countess of Flanders, and Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. Lille thus became one of the three capitals of said Duchy, along with Brussels and Dijon. By 1445, Lille counted some 25,000 residents. Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, was even more powerful than the King of France, and made Lille an administrative and financial capital.


title: Lille

text: On 17 February 1454, one year after the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, Philip the Good organised a Pantagruelian banquet at his Lille palace, the still-celebrated "Feast of the Pheasant". There the Duke and his court undertook an oath to Christianity.


title: Lille

text: In 1477, at the death of the last duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, Mary of Burgundy married Maximilian of Austria, who thus became Count of Flanders.


title: Lille

text: The 16th and the 17th centuries were marked by a boom in the regional textile industry, the Protestant revolts and outbreaks of the plague.


title: Lille

text: Lille came under the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519. The Low Countries fell to his eldest son, Philip II of Spain, in 1555. The city remained under Spanish Habsburg rule until 1668.


title: Lille

text: Calvinism first appeared in the area in 1542, and by 1555, the authorities were taking steps to suppress that form of Protestantism. In 1566, the countryside around Lille was affected by the Iconoclastic Fury. In 1578, the Hurlus, a group of Protestant rebels, stormed the castle of the Counts of Mouscron. They were removed four months later by a Catholic Wallon regiment, and they tried several times between 1581 and 1582 to take the city of Lille, all in vain. The Hurlus were notably held back by the legendary Jeanne Maillotte. At the same time (1581), at the call of Elizabeth I of England, the north of the Seventeen Provinces, having gained a Protestant majority, successfully revolted and formed the Dutch Republic. The war brought or exacerbated periods of famine and plague (the last in 1667–1679).


title: Lille

text: The first printer to set up shop in Lille was Antoine Tack in 1594. The 17th century saw the building of new institutions: an Irish College in 1610, a Jesuit college in 1611, an Augustinian college in 1622, almshouses or hospitals such as the Maison des Vieux hommes in 1624 and the Bonne et Forte Maison des Pauvres in 1661, and of a Mont-de-piété in 1626.


title: Lille

text: Unsuccessful French attacks on the city were launched in 1641 and 1645. In 1667, Louis XIV of France (the Sun King) successfully laid siege to Lille, resulting in it becoming French in 1668 under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, provoking discontent among the citizens of the prosperous city. A number of important public works undertaken between 1667 and 1670, such as the Citadel (erected by Vauban), or the creation of the quartiers of Saint-André and la Madeleine, enabled the French king to gradually gain the confidence of his new subjects in Lille, some of whom continued to feel Flemish, but they had always spoken the Romance Picard language.


title: Lille

text: For five years, from 1708 to 1713, the city was occupied by the Dutch during the War of the Spanish Succession. Throughout the 18th century, Lille remained profoundly Catholic. It took little part in the French Revolution, but there were riots and the destruction of churches. In 1790, the city held its first municipal elections.


title: Lille

text: In 1792, in the aftermath of the French Revolution, the Austrians, then in the United Provinces, laid siege to Lille. The "Column of the Goddess", erected in 1842 in the "Grand-Place" (officially named ), is a tribute to the city's resistance, led by Mayor . Although Austrian artillery destroyed many houses and the main church of the city, the city did not surrender, and the Austrian Army left after eight days.


title: Lille

text: The city continued to grow and, by 1800, had some 53,000 residents, leading to Lille becoming the seat of the Nord "départment" in 1804. In 1846, a railway connecting Paris and Lille was built. In the early the 19th century, Napoleon I's continental blockade against the United Kingdom led to Lille's textile industry developing even more fully. The city was known for its cotton while the nearby towns of Roubaix and Tourcoing worked wool. Leisure activities were thoroughly organised in 1858 for the 80,000 inhabitants. Cabarets or taverns for the working class numbered 1,300, or one for every three houses. At that time the city counted 63 drinking and singing clubs, 37 clubs for card players, 23 for bowling, 13 for skittles, and 18 for archery. The churches likewise have their social organizations. Each club had a long roster of officers, and a busy schedule of banquets festivals and competitions. In 1853, Alexandre Desrousseaux composed his lullaby "P'tit quinquin".


title: Lille

text: In 1858, Lille annexed the adjacent towns of Esquermes, Fives, Moulins-Lille and Wazemmes. Lille's population was 158,000 in 1872, growing to over 200,000 by 1891. In 1896 Lille became the first city in France to be led by a socialist, Gustave Delory.


title: Lille

text: By 1912, Lille's population stood at 217,000. The city profited from the Industrial Revolution, particularly via coal and the steam engine. The entire region grew wealthy thanks to its mines and textile industry.


title: Lille

text: Lille's occupation by the Germans began on 13 October 1914 after a ten-day siege and heavy shelling, which destroyed 882 apartment and office blocks and 1,500 houses, mostly around the railway station and in the centre. By the end of October, the city was being run by German authorities.


title: Lille

text: Because Lille was only 20 km from the battlefield, German troops passed through the city regularly on their way to and from the front. As a result, occupied Lille became a place for the hospitalisation and the treatment of wounded soldiers as well as a place for soldiers' relaxation and entertainment. Many buildings, homes and businesses were requisitioned to those ends.


title: Lille

text: Lille was liberated by the Allies on 17 October 1918, when General Sir William Birdwood and his troops were welcomed by joyous crowds. The general was made an honorary citizen of the city of Lille on 28 October.


title: Lille

text: The only audio recording known to have been made during World War I was recorded near Lille in October 1918. The two-minute recording captured the Royal Garrison Artillery conducting a gas shell bombardment.


title: Lille

text: Lille was also the hunting ground of the German World War I flying ace Max Immelmann, who was nicknamed "the Eagle of Lille".


title: Lille

text: In July 1921, at the Pasteur Institute in Lille, Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin discovered the first anti-tuberculosis vaccine, known as BCG ("Bacille de Calmette et Guérin"). The Opéra de Lille, designed by Lille architect Louis M. Cordonnier, was dedicated in 1923.


title: Lille

text: From 1931, Lille felt the repercussions of the Great Depression, and by 1935, a third of the city's population lived in poverty. In 1936, the city's mayor, Roger Salengro, became Minister of the Interior of the Popular Front but eventually killed himself after right-wing groups led a slanderous campaign against him.


title: Lille

text: During the Battle of France, Lille was besieged by German forces for several days. When Belgium was invaded, the citizens of Lille, still haunted by the events of World War I, began to flee the city in large numbers. Lille was part of the zone under control of the German commander in Brussels, and was never controlled by the Vichy government in France. Lille was instead controlled under the military administration in Northern France. The "départments" of Nord and Pas-de-Calais (with the exception of the coast, notably Dunkirk) were for the most part liberated from 1 to 5 September 1944, by British, Canadian and Polish troops. On 3 September, German troops began to leave Lille out of fear of the British, who were on their way from Brussels. The city was liberated by a British force consisting largely of tanks.


title: Lille

text: In 1967, the Chambers of Commerce of Lille, Roubaix and Tourcoing were joined, and in 1969 the "Communauté urbaine de Lille" (Lille urban community) was created, linking 87 "communes" with Lille.


title: Lille

text: Throughout the 1960s and the 1970s, the region was faced with some problems after the decline of the coal, mining and textile industries. From the early 1980s, the city began to turn itself more towards the service sector.


title: Lille

text: Pierre Mauroy served as Mayor of Lille for 28 years from 1973 to 2001. Mauroy was Prime Minister for part of the term of Francois Mitterrand.


title: Lille

text: In 1983, the VAL, the world's first automated rapid transit underground network, opened. In 1993, a high-speed TGV train line was opened connecting Paris with Lille in one hour. This, with the opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 and the arrival of the Eurostar train put Lille at the centre of a triangle connecting Paris, London and Brussels.


title: Lille

text: Work on Euralille, an urban remodelling project, began in 1991. The Euralille Centre was opened in 1994, and the remodeled district is now full of parks and modern buildings containing offices, shops and apartments. In 1994 the "Grand Palais" was also opened for the general public, which is free for the public to enter on the first Sunday of every month.


title: Lille

text: Lille can be described as having a temperate oceanic climate; summers normally do not reach high average temperatures, but winters can fall below freezing temperatures, but with averages quite a bit above the freezing mark. Precipitation is plentiful year round.


title: Lille

text: The table below gives average temperatures and precipitation levels for the 1991–2020 reference period.


title: Lille

text: Lille is noted for its air pollution, with a 2018 study attributing 1,700 deaths per year in the agglomeration of Lille to pollution. In 2018, Lille held France's record pollution peaks.


title: Lille

text: The population data in the table and graph below refer to the commune of Lille proper in its borders since 2000, i.e. a municipal territory of . This includes the former communes annexed by the commune of Lille: Esquermes, Fives, Moulins-Lille, and Wazemmes in 1858, Hellemmes-Lille in 1977, and Lomme in 2000.


title: Lille

text: The Lille metropolitan area, which is much larger than the small commune of Lille proper, covers a territory of (French part of the metropolitan area only) and had a population of 1,510,079 in 2019 (Jan. census).


title: Lille

text: A former major mechanical, food industry and textile manufacturing centre as well as a retail and finance center, Lille is the largest city of a conurbation, built like a network of cities: Lille, Roubaix, Tourcoing and Villeneuve-d'Ascq. The conurbation forms the Métropole Européenne de Lille which is France's fourth-largest urban conglomeration with a 2016 population of over 1.15 million.


title: Lille

text: For centuries, Lille, a city of merchants, has displayed a wide range of incomes: great wealth and poverty have lived side by side, especially until the end of the 1800s. This contrast was noted by Victor Hugo in 1851 in his poem Les Châtiments: « "Caves de Lille ! on meurt sous vos plafonds de pierre !" » ("Cellars of Lille! We die under your stone ceilings!")


title: Lille

text: Employment in Lille has switched over half a century from a predominant industry to tertiary activities and services.


title: Lille

text: Lille features an array of architectural styles with various amounts of Flemish influence, including the use of brown and red brick. In addition, many residential neighborhoods, especially in Greater Lille, consist of attached two- to three-story houses aligned in a row, with narrow gardens in the back. These architectural attributes, many uncommon in France, help make Lille a transition in France to neighboring Belgium, as well as nearby Netherlands and England, where the presence of brick, as well as row houses or the terraced house is much more prominent.


title: Lille

text: Lille hosts an annual braderie on the first weekend in September. Its origins are thought to date back to the twelfth century and between two and three million visitors are drawn into the city. It is one of the largest gatherings of France and the largest flea market in Europe.


title: Lille

text: Many of the roads in the inner city (including much of the old town) are closed and local shops, residents and traders set up stalls in the street.


title: Lille

text: The Métropole Européenne de Lille has a mixed mode public transport system, which is considered one of the most modern in the whole of France. It comprises buses, trams and a driverless light metro system, all of which are operated under the Transpole name. The Lille Metro is a VAL system ("véhicule automatique léger" = light automated vehicle) that opened on 16 May 1983, becoming the first automatic light metro line in the world. The system has two lines, with a total length of and 60 stations. The tram system consists of two interurban tram lines, connecting central Lille to the nearby communities of Roubaix and Tourcoing, and has 45 stops. Sixty-eight urban bus routes cover the metropolis, 8 of which reach into Belgium.


title: Lille

text: Lille is an important junction in the European high-speed rail network. It lies on the Eurostar line to London (80-minute journey). The French TGV network also puts it only 1 hour from Paris and 38 minutes from Brussels and connects it to other major centres in France such as Marseille, Lyon and Toulouse. Lille has two railway stations next to each other: Lille-Europe station ("Gare de Lille-Europe"), which primarily serves high-speed trains and international services (Eurostar), and Lille-Flandres station ("Gare de Lille-Flandres"), which primarily serves lower-speed regional trains and regional Belgian trains.


title: Lille

text: A sixth one—the A24—would have linked Amiens to Lille if built, but the project was rejected several times then abandoned.


title: Lille

text: Lille Lesquin International Airport is 15 minutes from the city centre by car (11 km). In terms of shipping, it ranks fourth, with almost 38,000 tonnes of freight which pass through each year. Its passenger traffic, around 1.2 million in 2010, is modest due to the proximity to Brussels, Charleroi, and Paris-CDG airports. The airport mostly connects other French and European cities (some with low-cost airlines).


title: Lille

text: Lille is the third-largest French river port after Paris and Strasbourg. The river Deûle is connected to regional waterways with over of navigable waters. The Deûle connects to Northern Europe via the river Scarpe and the river Scheldt (towards Belgium and the Netherlands), and internationally via the Lys (to Dunkerque and Calais).


title: Lille

text: With more than 110,000 students the metropolitan area of Lille is one of France's top student cities.


title: Lille

text: At the beginning of 2018 Lille 1, Lille 2 and Lille 3 merged to form the new University of Lille (student enrollment: 70,000).


title: Lille

text: It is part of the Community of Universities and Institutions (COMUE) Lille Nord de France and the European Doctoral College Lille Nord de France.


title: Lille

text: Lille is also site of the University and Polytechnic Federation of Lille (Fédération Universitaire et Polytechnique de Lille), a large private educational university that includes a medical school, business school, law school, etc.


title: Lille

text: France's national public television network has a channel that focuses on the local area: France 3 Nord-Pas-de-Calais.


title: Lille

text: The city's most major association football club, Lille OSC, currently plays in Ligue 1, the highest level of football in France. The club has won eight major national trophies and regularly features in the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League. In the 2010–11 season, Lille won the league and cup double. In 2020–21, they won the league and supercup.


title: Lille

text: The same venue will host handball at the 2024 Summer Olympics as Paris getting the city being part instead football, where the city was eliminated as co-host city.


title: Lille

text: Lille is home to , former and continuously one of France's best lacrosse teams. The team plays its home games at .


title: Tallow

text: In industry, tallow is not strictly defined as beef or mutton fat. In this context, tallow is animal fat that conforms to certain technical criteria, including its melting point. Commercial tallow commonly contains fat derived from other animals, such as lard from pigs, or even from plant sources.


title: Tallow

text: The solid material remaining after rendering is called cracklings, greaves, or graves. It has been used mostly for animal food, such as dog food.


title: Tallow

text: In the soap industry and among soap-making hobbyists, the name tallowate is used informally to refer to soaps made from tallow. Sodium tallowate, for example, is obtained by reacting tallow with sodium hydroxide (lye, caustic soda) or sodium carbonate (washing soda). It consists chiefly of a variable mixture of sodium salts of fatty acids, such as oleic and palmitic.


title: Tallow

text: A significant use of tallow is for the production of shortening. It is also one of the main ingredients of the Native American food pemmican. With a smoke point of , tallow is traditionally used in deep frying and was preferred for this use until the rise in popularity of plant oils for frying. Before switching to pure vegetable oil in 1990, McDonald's cooked its French fries in a mixture of 93% beef tallow and 7% cottonseed oil. According to a 1985 article in "The New York Times", tallow was also used for frying at Burger King, Wendy's, Hardee's, Arby's, Dairy Queen, Popeyes, and Bob's Big Boy. Tallow is however making a comeback in certain nutrition circles. See also roux.


title: Tallow

text: Greaves (also graves) or cracklings is the fibrous matter remaining from rendering, typically pressed into cakes and used for animal feed, especially for dogs and hogs, or as fish bait. In the past, it has been both favored and shunned in dog food.


title: Tallow

text: Tallow can be used for the production of biodiesel in much the same way as oils from plants are currently used.


title: Tallow

text: The United States Air Force has experimented successfully with the use of beef tallow in aviation biofuels. During five days of flight testing from August 23 to 27, 2010, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, a U.S. Air Force C-17 Globemaster III flew using JP-8 conventional jet fuel in three of its engines and a 50/50 blend of JP-8 and HRJ biofuel made from beef tallow in one engine on August 23, followed by a flight with the same 50/50 blend in all four engines on August 24. On August 27, it flew using a blend of 50% JP-8, 25% HRJ, and 25% coal-based fuel made through the Fischer–Tropsch process, becoming the first United States Department of Defense aircraft to fly on such a blend and the first aircraft to operate from Edwards using a fuel derived from beef tallow.


title: Tallow

text: Tallow also has a use in printmaking, where it is combined with bitumen and applied to metal print plates to provide a resistance to acid etching.


title: Tallow

text: The use of trace amounts of tallow as an additive to the substrate used in polymer banknotes came to light in November 2016. Notes issued in 24 countries including Canada, Australia, and the United Kingdom were found to be affected, leading to objections from vegans and members of some religious communities.


title: Tallow

text: Tallow once was widely used to make molded candles before more convenient wax varieties became available—and for some time after since they continued to be a cheaper alternative. For those too poor even to avail themselves of homemade, molded tallow candles, the "tallow dip"—a reed that had been dipped in melted tallow or sometimes a strip of burning cloth in a saucer of tallow grease—was an accessible substitute. Such a candle was often simply called a "dip" or, because of its low cost, a "farthing dip" or "penny dip".


title: Tallow

text: Early in the development of steam-driven piston engines, the hot vapors and liquids washed away most lubricants very quickly. It was soon found that tallow was quite resistant to this washing. Tallow and compounds including tallow were widely used to lubricate locomotive and steamship engines at least until the 1950s. (During World War II, the vast fleets of steam-powered ships exhausted the supply, leading to the large-scale planting of rapeseed because rapeseed oil also resisted the washing effect.) Tallow is still used in the steel rolling industry to provide the required lubrication as the sheet steel is compressed through the steel rollers. There is a trend toward replacing tallow-based lubrication with synthetic oils in rolling applications for surface cleanliness reasons.


title: Tallow

text: Another industrial use is as a lubricant for certain types of light engineering work, such as cutting threads on electrical conduit. Specialist cutting compounds are available, but tallow is a traditional lubricant that is easily available for cheap and infrequent use.


title: Tallow

text: The use of tallow or lard to lubricate rifles was the spark that started the Indian Mutiny of 1857. To load the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Rifle, the sepoys had to bite the cartridge open. It was believed that the paper cartridges that were standard issue with the rifle were greased with lard (pork fat), which was regarded as unclean by Muslims, or tallow (cow fat), which is incompatible with Hindu dietary laws. Tallow, along with beeswax, was also used in the lubricant for American Civil War ammunition used in the Springfield rifled musket. A combination of mutton tallow, paraffin wax and beeswax is still used as a patch or projectile lubricant in present-day black powder arms.


title: Tallow

text: Tallow is used to make a biodegradable motor oil by a Stamford, Connecticut–based company called Green Earth Technologies.


title: Tallow

text: Tallow has a long history in humanity of being used to soothe and moisturize skin, and the word for sebum (the fat naturally produced by human skin) is the same as that for tallow in some languages, including Latin.


title: Tallow

text: As tallow is rendered animal fat, the composition of the tallow oil is similar to the composition of human skin’s natural sebum. This makes it often a suitable moisturiser for individuals who have sensitivities of commercial moisturisers. Tallow contains Vitamins A, D, K, E, & B12, conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) with natural anti-inflammatory properties, oleic acid (omega 9), palmitic acid, and stearic acid which have beneficial healing and soothing properties.


title: Tallow

text: While tallow can be useful for skincare there are stability issues that prevent it from mainstream commercialisation. They do not always have a consistent colour, appearance, and odor from batch to batch.


title: Tallow

text: Mutton tallow is widely used as starch, lubricant & softener in textile manufacturing. Pretreatment processes in textiles include a process called sizing. In sizing, a chemical is necessary to provide required strength to yarns mounted on the loom. Mutton tallow provides required strength and lubrication to the yarns.


title: Tallow

text: Mutton tallow is also used as softener in textile finishing. Tallow dimethyl ammonium chloride is the famous example.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Arnold Jacob "Red" Auerbach (September 20, 1917 – October 28, 2006) was an American professional basketball coach and executive. He served as a head coach in the National Basketball Association (NBA), most notably with the Boston Celtics. Auerbach was also the head coach of the Washington Capitols and Tri-Cities Blackhawks. As a coach, Auerbach set NBA records with 938 wins and nine championships. After his coaching retirement in 1966, he served as president and front office executive of the Celtics until his death. As general manager and team president of the Celtics, he won an additional seven NBA titles for a grand total of 16 in a span of 29 years, making him one of the most successful team officials in the history of North American professional sports.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach is remembered for being a pioneer of modern basketball, redefining basketball as a game dominated by team play and defence, and introducing the fast break as a potent offensive weapon. He coached many players who went on to be inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame. Additionally, Auerbach was vital in breaking down color barriers in the NBA. He made history by drafting the first African-American NBA player, Chuck Cooper in 1950, introducing the first African-American starting five in 1964, and hiring Bill Russell as the first African-American head coach in North American sports in 1966. Famous for his polarizing nature, he was also well known for smoking a cigar when he thought a victory was assured, a habit that became, for many, "the ultimate symbol of victory" during his Boston tenure.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1967, the NBA Coach of the Year award, which he had won in 1965, was named the "Red Auerbach Trophy", and Auerbach was inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 1969. In 1970, Auerbach was named President of the Boston Celtics, and first held the presidency from 1970–1997. In 2001, after having spent four years as the team's vice-chairman, he returned to the role of team president and served in that capacity until his death in 2006. In 1980, he was named the greatest coach in the history of the NBA by the Professional Basketball Writers Association of America, and was NBA Executive of the Year in 1980. In addition, Auerbach was voted one of the NBA 10 Greatest Coaches in history, inducted into the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame, and honoured with a retired number 2 jersey in the TD Garden, the home of the Boston Celtics.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Arnold Jacob Auerbach was one of the four children of Marie and Hyman Auerbach. Hyman was a Russian-Jewish immigrant from Minsk, Russia, and Marie Auerbach, née Thompson, was American-born. Auerbach Sr. had left Russia when he was thirteen, and the couple owned a delicatessen store and later went into the dry-cleaning business. Auerbach spent his whole childhood in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, playing basketball. With his flaming red hair and fiery temper, Auerbach was soon nicknamed "Red."


title: Red Auerbach

text: Amid the Great Depression, Auerbach played basketball as a guard at PS 122 and in the Eastern District High School, where he was named "Second Team All-Brooklyn" by the World-Telegram in his senior year. After a season at Seth Low Junior College, Auerbach received an athletic scholarship to the basketball program of Bill Reinhart at George Washington University in Washington, D.C. Auerbach was a standout basketball player and graduated with a M.A. in 1941. In those years, Auerbach began to understand the importance of the fast break, appreciating how potent three charging attackers against two back-pedalling defenders could be.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1940, Auerbach began coaching basketball at the St. Albans School and Roosevelt High School in Washington, D.C. Three years later, he joined the US Navy for three years, coaching the Navy basketball team in Norfolk. There, he caught the eye of Washington millionaire Mike Uline, who hired him to coach the Washington Capitols in the newly founded Basketball Association of America (BAA), a predecessor of the NBA.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In the 1946–47 BAA season, Auerbach led a fast break-oriented team built around early BAA star Bones McKinney and various ex-Navy players to a 49–11 win–loss record, including a standard-setting 17-game winning streak that stood as the single-season league record until 1969. In the playoffs, however, they were defeated by the Chicago Stags in six games.


title: Red Auerbach

text: The next year the Capitols went 28–20 but were eliminated from the playoffs in a one-game Western Division tie-breaker. In the 1948–49 BAA season, the Caps won their first fifteen games and finished the season at 38–22. The team reached the BAA Finals, but were beaten by the Minneapolis Lakers, who were led by Hall-of-Fame center George Mikan. In the next season, the BAA and the rival league National Basketball League merged to become the NBA, and Auerbach felt he had to rebuild his squad. However, owner Uline declined his proposals, and Auerbach resigned.


title: Red Auerbach

text: After leaving the Capitols, Auerbach became assistant coach of the Duke Blue Devils men's basketball team. It was assumed that Auerbach would take over for head coach Gerry Gerard, who was battling cancer. During his tenure at Duke, Auerbach regularly worked with future All-American Dick Groat. Auerbach later wrote that he "felt pretty bad waiting for [Gerard] to die" and that it was "no way to get a job".


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach left Duke after a few months when Ben Kerner, owner of the Tri-Cities Blackhawks, gave him the green light to rebuild the team from scratch. Auerbach traded more than two dozen players in just six weeks, and the revamped Blackhawks improved, but ended the 1949–50 NBA season with a losing record of 28–29. When Kerner traded Auerbach's favourite player John Mahnken, an angry Auerbach resigned again.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1950, Auerbach took a position as the athletic director of Kutsher's Hotel in the Catskills, NY. Kutsher's was the center of a summertime basketball league, and players from the New York City area would participate, playing for one of several local country clubs and hotels.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Prior to the 1950–51 NBA season, Walter Brown, owner of the Boston Celtics, was desperate to turn around his struggling and financially strapped franchise, which was reeling from a 22–46 record. Brown, in characteristic candor, said to a gathering of local Boston sportswriters, "Boys, I don't know anything about basketball. Who would you recommend I hire as coach?" The group vociferously answered that he get the recently available Auerbach, and Brown complied. In the 1950 NBA draft, Auerbach made some notable moves. First, he famously snubbed Hall-of-Fame New England point guard Bob Cousy in the 1950 NBA draft, infuriating the Boston crowd. He argued that the flashy Cousy lacked the poise necessary to make his team, taunting him as a "local yokel". Second, he drafted African-American Chuck Cooper, the first black player to be drafted by an NBA club. With that, Auerbach effectively broke down the color barrier in professional basketball.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In that year, the core of the Celtics consisted of Hall-of-Fame center Ed Macauley, Auerbach's old favorite McKinney, and an unlikely addition, Cousy. Cousy had refused to report to the club that had drafted him (which happened to be the Blackhawks, Auerbach's old club), and because his next team (the Chicago Stags) folded, he ended up with the Celtics. With Auerbach's fast-break tactics, the Celtics achieved a 39–30 record but lost in the 1951 NBA Playoffs to the New York Knicks. However, the relationship between Auerbach and Cousy improved when the coach saw that the "Houdini of the Hardwood"—as the spectacular dribbler and flashy passer Cousy was lovingly called—became the first great playmaker of the fledgling NBA.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In the following 1951–52 NBA season, Auerbach made a remarkable draft pick of future Hall-of-Fame guard Bill Sharman. With the high-scoring Macauley, elite passer Cousy, and new prodigy Sharman, Auerbach had a core that provided high-octane fast-break basketball. Other notable players who joined the Celtics were the forwards Frank Ramsey and Jim Loscutoff. Until 1956, the Celtics would make the playoffs every year, but never won the title. In fact, the Celtics often choked in the playoffs, going a mere 10–17 in the postseason from 1951 through 1956. As Cousy put it: "We would get tired in the end and could not get the ball." As a result, Auerbach sought a defensive big man who could get easy rebounds, initiate fast breaks, and close out games.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Before the 1956 NBA draft, Auerbach had already set his sights on defensive rebounding center Bill Russell. Via a draft-day trade that sent Macauley and rookie Cliff Hagan to the rival St. Louis Hawks (Kerner had moved the Blackhawks to St. Louis), he acquired a center in Russell, who would go on to become one of the greatest basketball players of all time. In the same draft, Auerbach picked up forward Tom Heinsohn and guard K.C. Jones, also two future Hall-of-Famers. Emphasising team play rather than individual performances, and stressing that defence was more important than offence, Auerbach drilled his players to play tough defense and force opposing turnovers for easy fast-break points. Forward Tom Sanders recalled that the teams were also regularly among the best-conditioned and toughest squads.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Anchored by defensive stalwart Russell, the tough Celtics forced their opponents to take low-percentage shots from farther distances (there was no three-point arc at the time); misses were then often grabbed by perennial rebounding champion Russell, who then either passed it on to elite fast-break distributor Cousy or made the outlet pass himself, providing their sprinting colleagues opportunities for an easy slam dunk or layup. Auerbach also emphasised the need for role players like Frank Ramsey and John Havlicek, who became two of the first legitimate sixth men in NBA history, a role later played by Don Nelson. Auerbach's recipe proved devastating to the opposition. From 1957 to 1966, the Celtics won nine of ten NBA championships. This included eight consecutive championships—which is the longest championship streak in North American sports—and six victories over the Los Angeles Lakers of Hall-of-Famers Elgin Baylor and Jerry West in the NBA Finals. The streak also denied perennial scoring and rebounding champion Wilt Chamberlain a title during Auerbach's coaching reign.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Flowing from Auerbach's emphasis on teamwork, what was also striking about his teams was that they never seemed to have a dominant scorer: in the 1960–61 NBA season, for instance, the Celtics had six players who scored between 15 and 21 points per game, but none made the Top 10 scoring list. In 1964, he sent out the first-ever NBA starting five consisting of an African-American quintet, namely Russell, Willie Naulls, Tom Sanders, Sam Jones, and K. C. Jones. Auerbach would go a step further in the 1966–67 NBA season, when he stepped down after winning nine titles in 11 years, and made Bill Russell player-coach. Auerbach also popularised smoking a victory cigar whenever he thought a game was already decided, a habit that became cult-like in popularity in the Boston area. Furthermore, having acquired a reputation as a fierce competitor, he often got into verbal altercations with officials, receiving more fines and getting ejected more often than any other coach in NBA history.


title: Red Auerbach

text: All in all, Auerbach directly coached nine NBA championship teams and mentored four players—Russell, Sharman, Heinsohn, and K.C. Jones—who would go on to win an additional seven NBA championships as coaches (two each for Russell, Heinsohn and Jones, all with the Celtics, and one for Sharman with the Lakers). Thirteen players who played for Auerbach have been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame—Macauley, Ramsey, Cousy, Sharman, Heinsohn, Clyde Lovellette, Arnie Risen, Andy Phillip, John R. Thompson (as a coach), Russell, K. C. Jones, Havlicek, and Sam Jones. Although Don Nelson played for Auerbach only during his last year as coach, his influence was profound: Nelson would later join Auerbach as one of the 10 Greatest Coaches in NBA history. Sharman and Heinsohn would become two of only four people to be inducted into the Hall of Fame as both a player and a coach. Few if any coaches can match Auerbach's record of wins and successful mentorship of his players.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Prior to the 1965–66 NBA season, Auerbach announced the coming year would be his last as coach, stating to the rest of the league, "This is your chance to take your last shot at me." After losing game 1 of the 1966 finals to the Lakers, he publicly named his successor, center Bill Russell. The Celtics won the series in seven games, sending Auerbach out on top. Russell then took over as a player-coach, and so became the first African-American head coach ever in the four major North American professional team sports. While his pupil led the Celtics to two further titles in 1968 and 1969, Auerbach rebuilt the aging Celtics with shrewd draft picks, among them future Hall-of-Famers Dave Cowens and Jo Jo White, as well as Paul Westphal and Don Chaney. With his ex-player Tom Heinsohn coaching the Celtics and led by former sixth man John Havlicek, Auerbach's new recruits won the Atlantic Division every year from 1972 to 1976, winning the NBA title in 1974 and 1976. Auerbach also signed veteran forward/center Paul Silas and ex-ABA star Charles Scott.


title: Red Auerbach

text: However, Auerbach could not prevent the Celtics from going into a slump at the end of the 1970s. He traded away both Silas and Westphal because they wanted salary increases that would have made them higher earners than the best player on the Celtics (Cowens), which was not acceptable to Auerbach. While the Westphal trade to the Phoenix Suns in exchange for Charlie Scott was considered a success due to the Celtics' 13th title in 1976, Auerbach later admitted he erred in letting Silas go, even after Cowens personally begged him to give Silas a new deal. When Havlicek retired in 1978, the Celtics went 61–103 in two seasons. In the summer of 1978, after the worst in a string of contentious clashes with several different owners after Walter Brown's passing in 1964, Auerbach hopped into a taxi to take him to Logan Airport, where he was to board a flight to New York to consider a lucrative contract offer from Knicks owner Sonny Werblin. However, the cab driver pleaded with him to stay, emphasizing how much Bostonians loved him and considered him family. Soon after, heading a team press conference, and with his typical bravado, Auerbach puffed on his trademark cigar and stated simply, "I'm not going anywhere. We're going to sign Larry Bird, and we're going to be on top again." Despite knowing that Bird, a talented young player from unheralded Indiana State, had a year of college eligibility remaining, he had drafted Bird as a junior eligible in the 1978 NBA draft and waited for a year until the future Hall-of-Fame forward Bird arrived, finally setting aside his team salary rules when it became clear that his choices were paying Bird a record-setting rookie salary or watch him simply re-enter the 1979 draft. Bird then became the highest-paid Celtic as a rookie, with a $650,000-per year deal. Auerbach knew that the brilliant, hardworking Bird would be the cornerstone of a new Celtics generation.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1980, Auerbach achieved another great coup, which was dubbed "The Steal of The Century". He convinced the Golden State Warriors to trade him a #3 overall pick and future Hall-of-Fame center Robert Parish in exchange for two picks in the 1980 NBA draft: #1 overall Joe Barry Carroll and the #13 pick Rickey Brown. With the #3 pick, Auerbach selected the player he most wanted in the draft, Kevin McHale, who would also be inducted into the Hall of Fame. The frontcourt of Parish-McHale-Bird became one of the greatest front lines in NBA history. Auerbach hired head coach Bill Fitch who led the revamped Celtics to the 1981 title.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1983, Auerbach named former Celtics player K.C. Jones coach of the Celtics. Starting in 1984, Jones coached the Celtics to four straight appearances in the NBA Finals, winning championships in 1984 and 1986.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach as a part-time side gig was the colour analyst on NBA and college basketball games for TBS sports from 1982–87.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In 1984, after he relinquished his general managing duties to Jan Volk, Auerbach focused on continuing as president and later vice-chairman of the Boston Celtics. In a surprising move after winning their 15th title, he traded popular guard Gerald Henderson, the game-2 hero in the finals against the Lakers, for Seattle's first-round draft pick in 1986. Two years later, after the Celtics defeated Houston in the finals for their 16th championship, he used the second overall pick in the 1986 draft, the pick acquired from Seattle, to take college prodigy Len Bias from Maryland, arguably the most brilliant coup in Auerbach's stellar career. With the team's star players still in their prime, the defending champions appeared set to compete at the top for years. However, tragedy struck just two days later, when Bias died of a cocaine overdose. Several years later, Celtics star player Reggie Lewis died suddenly in 1993, and without any league compensation for either loss, the team fell into decline, not seeing another Finals in Auerbach's lifetime.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In an interview, Auerbach confessed that he lost interest in big-time managing in the early 1990s, preferring to stay in the background and concentrating on his pastimes, racquetball and his beloved cigar-smoking. He would, however, stay on with the Celtics as president until 1997, as vice chairman until 2001, and then became president again, a position he held until his death, although in his final years, he was weakened by heart problems and often used a wheelchair.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach was one of four children of American-born Marie Auerbach and Russian Jewish immigrant Hyman Auerbach in Brooklyn. His brother Zang Auerbach, four years his junior, was a respected cartoonist and portraitist at the "Washington Star". He married Dorothy Lewis in the spring of 1941. The couple had two daughters, Nancy and Randy. They also helped raise Nancy’s daughter Julie.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach was known for his love for cigar smoking. Because Auerbach made his victory cigars a cult in the 1960s, Boston restaurants would often say "no cigar or pipe smoking, except for Red Auerbach". In addition, Auerbach was well known for his love of Chinese food. In an interview shortly before his death, he explained that since the 1950s, Chinese takeout was the most convenient nutrition: back then, NBA teams travelled on regular flights and had a tight time schedule, so filling up the stomach with heavier non-Chinese food meant wasting time and risking travel-sickness. Over the years, Auerbach became so fond of this food that he even became a part-owner of a Chinese restaurant in Boston. Despite a heart operation, he remained active in his 80s, playing racquetball and making frequent public appearances.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Despite his fierce nature, Auerbach was popular among his players. He recalled that on his 75th birthday party, 45 of his former players showed up; and when he turned 80, his perennial 1960s victim Wilt Chamberlain showed up, a gesture which Auerbach dearly appreciated.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In an interview with ESPN, Auerbach stated that his all-star fantasy team would consist of Bill Russell—who in the former's opinion was the ultimate player to start a franchise with—as well as Bob Pettit, Elgin Baylor, Oscar Robertson and Jerry West, with John Havlicek as the sixth man. Regarding greatest basketballers of all time, Auerbach's candidates were Russell, Larry Bird, Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Michael Jordan."


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach died of a heart attack on October 28, 2006, at the age of 89. NBA commissioner David Stern said, "the void caused by his death will never be filled" and players Bill Russell, K.C. Jones, John Havlicek and Larry Bird, as well as contemporaries like Jerry West, Pat Riley, and Wayne Embry universally hailed Auerbach as one of the greatest personalities in NBA history. Bird stated "Red shared our passion for the game, our commitment to excellence, and our desire to do whatever it takes to win." Auerbach was survived by his daughters, Nancy, Randy, Julie, and Julie’s children Peter, Hope, and Noelle. Auerbach was interred in Falls Church, Virginia at King David Memorial Gardens within National Memorial Park on October 31, 2006. Attendees included basketball dignitaries Bill Russell, Kevin McHale, Danny Ainge, and David Stern.


title: Red Auerbach

text: During the 2006–07 NBA season, NBA TV and NBA.com aired reruns of Auerbach's four-minute instructional videos known as "Red on Roundball" previously aired during "NBA on CBS" halftime shows in the 1970s and 1980s, and as a testament to his importance in the Boston sports world, the Boston Red Sox honored Auerbach at their April 20, 2007 game against the New York Yankees by wearing green uniforms and by hanging replicated Celtics championship banners on the "Green Monster" at Fenway Park. Boston won 7–6.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Prior to Boston's season opener against the Wizards, his signature was officially placed on the parquet floor near center court, thereby naming the court as "Red Auerbach Parquet Floor." The ceremony was attended by his daughter Randy and some of the Celtics legends. The signature replaced the Red Auerbach memorial logo used during the 2007 season.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Auerbach was the author of seven books. His first, "Basketball for the Player, the Fan and Coach", has been translated into seven languages and is the best-selling basketball book in print. His second book, co-authored with Paul Sann, was "Winning the Hard Way." He also wrote a pair of books with Joe Fitzgerald: "Red Auerbach: An Autobiography" and "Red Auerbach On and Off the Court." In October 1991 "M.B.A.: Management by Auerbach" was co-authored with Ken Dooley. In 1994, "Seeing Red" was written with Dan Shaughnessy. In October 2004, his last book, "Let Me Tell You a Story", was co-authored with sports journalist John Feinstein.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Among Auerbach's accomplishments during his 20-year professional coaching career were eleven Eastern Division titles (including nine in a row from 1957–65), eleven appearances in the finals (including ten in a row from 1957–66), and nine NBA championships. With a total of sixteen NBA championship rings in a span of 29 years (1957–86) as the Celtics coach, general manager, and team president, Auerbach is the most successful team official in NBA history. He is credited with creating several generations of championship Boston Celtics teams, including the first Celtics dynasty with Bill Russell, which won an NBA record eight titles in a row (1959–66). As Celtics general manager, he created championship-winning teams around Hall-of-Famers Dave Cowens and John Havlicek in the 1970s and Larry Bird in the 1980s.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In addition to coaching, Auerbach was a highly effective mentor; several players coached by Auerbach would become successful coaches themselves. Bill Russell won two titles as Auerbach's successor, Tom Heinsohn won a pair of championships as a Celtics coach in the 1970s, K.C. Jones led the Celtics to two further titles in the 1980s, and Bill Sharman coached the Los Angeles Lakers to their first title in 1972. In addition, prototypical sixth man Don Nelson had a highly successful coaching career and joined his mentor Auerbach as one of 10 Greatest Coaches in NBA history. Outside the NBA, former Auerbach pupil John Thompson became a highly successful college coach with the Georgetown Hoyas, leading the team to the 1984 NCAA championship and mentored Hall of Fame players Patrick Ewing, Dikembe Mutombo, Alonzo Mourning, and Allen Iverson.


title: Red Auerbach

text: Throughout his coaching tenure in Boston, Auerbach served several other roles including, but not limited to, general manager, head of scouting, personnel director and travel agent. In the early offseasons, he would take the Celtics on barnstorming tours around New England, promoting the still fledgling NBA. At the end of every season, regardless of their on-court success, he approached owner Brown and ask, "Walter, are our last paychecks going to clear?" to which Brown would always positively respond, and they would. Despite Brown's own close association with the NHL's Boston Bruins, whose owners also possessed the Boston Garden, the Celtics were fleeced on concessions and profits as tenants. During this era, when most team owners not only thought of, but also treated their players as cattle and/or slaves, athletes from all the four major professional sports leagues were fighting for their rights and economic fairness. As Auerbach represented management of the Celtics, team members frustrated with their salaries had only him to complain to, or about, in their role in the formation of the players' union. These interpersonal dynamics are construed as follows by journalist David Halberstam:


title: Red Auerbach

text: Pertaining to the above, Walter Brown was not rich; also that as Auerbach was as tough at the negotiating table as he was on the practice court and in the locker room, it was always for the purpose of getting the most out of his players. In the summer of 1984, with much trepidation, Auerbach reluctantly signed former finals MVP Cedric Maxwell to a lucrative guaranteed contract to stay with the Celtics. Then, Auerbach's worst fears came true when Maxwell arrived that fall out of shape, and, suffering from various injuries, provided little contribution as the team lost a playoff for the first time ever to the Lakers in the 1985 Finals. Two subsequent facts are perhaps most relevant in evaluating Auerbach's legacy: First, he was able to trade Maxwell to San Diego in exchange for former MVP Bill Walton, who was a major contributor to the team winning its 16th title in 1986, the last of Auerbach's career. Second, Maxwell continues to be embraced as a beloved member of the Celtics family, including having his number retired alongside the team's legendary greats.


title: Red Auerbach

text: In Auerbach's honor, the Celtics have retired a number-2 jersey with the name "AUERBACH", memorializing his role as the second most important Celtic ever, behind founder Walter Brown, in whose honor the number-1 "BROWN" jersey is retired.


title: Red Auerbach

text: His story is documented in "The First Basket", the first and most comprehensive documentary on the history of Jews and Basketball. He is also featured as an interview subject for the film.