title: Cinema of India

text: "Marupakkam" (1991, K. S. Sethu Madhavan) and "Kanchivaram" (2007) each won the National Film Award for Best Feature Film. Tamil films receive significant patronage in neighbouring Indian states Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and New Delhi. In Kerala and Karnataka the films are directly released in Tamil but in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh they are generally dubbed into Telugu.


title: Cinema of India

text: Tamil films have consistent popularity among audiences in South East Asia. Since "Chandralekha", "Muthu" was the second Tamil film to be dubbed into Japanese (as "Mutu: Odoru Maharaja") and grossed a record $1.6 million in 1998. In 2010, "Enthiran" grossed a record $4 million in North America. Tamil-language films appeared at multiple film festivals. "Kannathil Muthamittal" (Ratnam), "Veyyil" (Vasanthabalan) and "Paruthiveeran" (Ameer Sultan), "Kanchivaram" (Priyadarshan) premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival. Tamil films were submitted by India for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film on eight occasions. Chennai-based music composer A. R. Rahaman achieved global recognition with two Academy Awards and is nicknamed as "Isai Puyal" (musical storm) and "Mozart of Madras". "Nayakan" (1987, Kamal Haasan) was included in "Time" All-Time 100 Movies list.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Kannada film "Samskara" (1970) pioneered the parallel cinema movement in south Indian cinema. The film won Bronze Leopard at the Locarno International Film Festival.


title: Cinema of India

text: Malayalam cinema experienced its own Golden Age in the 1980s and early 1990s. Acclaimed Malayalam filmmakers included Adoor Gopalakrishnan, G. Aravindan, T. V. Chandran and Shaji N. Karun. Gopalakrishnan is often considered to be Ray's spiritual heir. He directed some of his most acclaimed films during this period, including "Elippathayam" (1981) which won the Sutherland Trophy at the London Film Festival. Karun's debut film "Piravi" (1989) won the Caméra d'Or at Cannes, while his second film "Swaham" (1994) was in competition for the Palme d'Or. "Vanaprastham" was screened at the Un Certain Regard section of the Cannes Film Festival. Commercial Malayalam cinema began gaining popularity with the action films of Jayan, the first action-adventure superstar of South Indian Cinema.


title: Cinema of India

text: Salim–Javed were highly influential in South Indian cinema. In addition to writing two Kannada films, many of their Bollywood films had remakes produced in other regions, including Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam cinema. While the Bollywood directors and producers held the rights to their films in Northern India, Salim–Javed retained the rights in South India, where they sold remake rights for films such as "Zanjeer", "Yaadon Ki Baarat" and "Don". Several of these remakes became breakthroughs for actor Rajinikanth.


title: Cinema of India

text: Sridevi is widely regarded as the first female superstar of Bollywood cinema due to her pan-Indian appeal with equally successful careers in Hindi, Tamil and Telugu cinema. She is the only Bollywood actor to have starred in a top 10 grossing film each year of her active career (1983–1997).


title: Cinema of India

text: K. Moti Gokulsing and Wimal Dissanayake identified six major influences that have shaped Indian popular cinema:


title: Cinema of India

text: Sharmistha Gooptu and Bhaumik identify Indo-Persian/Islamicate culture as another major influence. In the early 20th century, Urdu was the lingua franca of popular performances across northern India, established in performance art traditions such as nautch dancing, Urdu poetry and Parsi theatre. Urdu and related Hindi dialects were the most widely understood across northern India, thus Hindustani became the standardised language of early Indian talkies. "One Thousand and One Nights" ("Arabian Nights") had a strong influence on Parsi theatre, which adapted "Persianate adventure-romances" into films, and on early Bombay cinema where ""Arabian Nights" cinema" became a popular genre.


title: Cinema of India

text: Like mainstream Indian popular cinema, Indian parallel cinema was influenced by a combination of Indian theatre and Indian literature (such as Bengali literature and Urdu poetry), but differs when it comes to foreign influences, where it is influenced more by European cinema (particularly Italian neorealism and French poetic realism) than by Hollywood. Ray cited Vittorio De Sica's "Bicycle Thieves" (1948) and Jean Renoir's "The River" (1951), on which he assisted, as influences on his debut film "Pather Panchali" (1955).


title: Cinema of India

text: During colonial rule, Indians bought film equipment from Europe. The British funded wartime propaganda films during the Second World War, some of which showed the Indian army pitted against the Axis powers, specifically the Empire of Japan, which had managed to infiltrate India. One such story was "Burma Rani", which depicted civilian resistance to Japanese occupation by British and Indian forces in Myanmar. Pre-independence businessmen such as J. F. Madan and Abdulally Esoofally traded in global cinema.


title: Cinema of India

text: Early Indian films made early inroads into the Soviet Union, Middle East, Southeast Asia and China. Mainstream Indian movie stars gained international fame across Asia and Eastern Europe. For example, Indian films were more popular in the Soviet Union than Hollywood films and occasionally domestic Soviet films. From 1954 to 1991, 206 Indian films were sent to the Soviet Union, drawing higher average audience figures than domestic Soviet productions, Films such as "Awaara" and "Disco Dancer" drew more than 60 million viewers. Films such as "Awaara", "3 Idiots" and "Dangal", were among the 20 highest-grossing films in China.


title: Cinema of India

text: Many Asian and South Asian countries increasingly found Indian cinema more suited to their sensibilities than Western cinema. Jigna Desai holds that by the 21st century, Indian cinema had become 'deterritorialized', spreading to parts of the world where Indian expatriates were present in significant numbers and had become an alternative to other international cinema.


title: Cinema of India

text: Indian films frequently appeared in international fora and film festivals. This allowed Parallel Bengali filmmakers to achieve worldwide fame.


title: Cinema of India

text: Indian cinema more recently began influencing Western musical films, and played a particularly instrumental role in the revival of the genre in the Western world. Ray's work had a worldwide impact, with filmmakers such as Martin Scorsese, James Ivory, Abbas Kiarostami, François Truffaut, Carlos Saura, Isao Takahata and Gregory Nava citing his influence, and others such as Akira Kurosawa praising his work. The "youthful coming-of-age dramas that flooded art houses since the mid-fifties owe a tremendous debt to the Apu trilogy". Since the 1980s, overlooked Indian filmmakers such as Ghatak and Dutt posthumously gained international acclaim. Baz Luhrmann stated that his successful musical film "Moulin Rouge!" (2001) was directly inspired by Bollywood musicals. That film's success renewed interest in the then-moribund Western musical genre, subsequently fuelling a renaissance. Danny Boyle's "Slumdog Millionaire" (2008) was directly inspired by Indian films, and is considered to be an "homage to Hindi commercial cinema".


title: Cinema of India

text: Indian cinema has been recognised repeatedly at the US-based Academy Awards. Indian films "Mother India" (1957), "Salaam Bombay!" (1988) and "Lagaan" (2001), were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Indian Oscar winners include Bhanu Athaiya (costume designer), Ray (filmmaker), A. R. Rahman (music composer), Resul Pookutty (sound editor) and Gulzar (lyricist), Cottalango Leon and Rahul Thakkar Sci-Tech Award.


title: Cinema of India

text: Masala is a style of Indian cinema that mixes multiple genres in one work, especially in Bollywood, West Bengal and South India. For example, one film can portray action, comedy, drama, romance and melodrama. These films tend to be musicals with songs filmed in picturesque locations. Plots for such movies may seem illogical and improbable to unfamiliar viewers. The genre is named after masala, a mixture of spices in Indian cuisine.


title: Cinema of India

text: Parallel Cinema, also known as Art Cinema or the Indian New Wave, is known for its realism and naturalism, addressing the sociopolitical climate. This movement is distinct from mainstream Bollywood cinema and began around the same time as the French and Japanese New Waves. The movement began in Bengal (led by Ray, Sen and Ghatak) and then gained prominence in other regions. The movement was launched by Bimal Roy's "Do Bigha Zamin" (1953), which was both a commercial and critical success, winning the International Prize at Cannes. Ray's films include the three instalments of "The Apu Trilogy" which won major prizes at the Cannes, Berlin and Venice Film Festivals, and are frequently listed among the greatest films of all time.


title: Cinema of India

text: Some Indian films are known as "multilinguals", filmed in similar but non-identical versions, in different languages. According to Ashish Rajadhyaksha and Paul Willemen in the "Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema" (1994), in its most precise form, a multilingual is


title: Cinema of India

text: Rajadhyaksha and Willemen note that in seeking to construct their "Encyclopedia", they often found it "extremely difficult to distinguish multilinguals in this original sense from dubbed versions, remakes, reissues or, in some cases, the same film listed with different titles, presented as separate versions in different languages ... it will take years of scholarly work to establish definitive data in this respect".


title: Cinema of India

text: Pan-India film is both a style of cinema and a distribution strategy, designed to universally appeal to audiences across the country and simultaneously released in multiple languages. It is a film movement that has gained popularity following the success of "" (2015) which was a Tollywood film. The term "Pan-Indian film" is used for a film that is simultaneously released in Telugu, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Hindi languages, with an aim to maximize the target audience and thus increase revenues.


title: Cinema of India

text: Music is a substantial revenue generator for the Indian film industry, with music rights alone accounting for 4–5% of net revenues. The major film music companies are T-Series at Delhi, Sony Music India at Chennai and Zee Music Company at Mumbai, Aditya Music at Hyderabad and Saregama at Kolkata. Film music accounts for 48% of net music sales in the country. A typical film may feature 5–6 choreographed songs.


title: Cinema of India

text: The demands of a multicultural, increasingly globalised Indian audience led to a mixing of local and international musical traditions. Local dance and music remain a recurring theme in India and followed the Indian diaspora. Playback singers such as Mohammad Rafi, Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar, K. J. Yesudas, P.Susheela, S. Janaki, Asha Bhosle, K. S. Chitra, Kumar Sanu, Udit Narayan and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam drew crowds to presentations of film music. In the 21st century interaction increased between Indian artists and others.


title: Cinema of India

text: A filming location is any place where acting and dialogue are recorded. Sites where filming without dialogue takes place are termed a second unit photography site. Filmmakers often choose to shoot on location because they believe that greater realism can be achieved in a "real" place. Location shooting is often motivated by budget considerations.


title: Cinema of India

text: The most popular locations for filming in India are the main cities of their state for regional industry. Other locations include Manali and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh; Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir; Ladakh; Darjeeling in West Bengal; Ooty and Kodaikanal in Tamil Nadu; Amritsar in Punjab; Udaipur, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer and Jaipur in Rajasthan; Delhi; Kerala; and Goa and Puducherry.


title: Cinema of India

text: More than 1000 production organisations operate in the Indian film industry, but few are successful. AVM Productions is the oldest surviving studio in India. Other major production houses include Yash Raj Films, T-Series, Lyca Productions, Madras Talkies, AGS Entertainment, Sun Pictures, Red Chillies Entertainment, Dharma Productions, Eros International, Ajay Devgn FFilms, Balaji Motion Pictures, UTV Motion Pictures, Raaj Kamal Films International, Aashirvad Cinemas, Wunderbar Films, Cape of Good Films and Geetha Arts.


title: Cinema of India

text: Films are made in many cities and regions in India including Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Jammu, Kashmir, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Konkan (Goa), Kerala, Maharashtra, Manipur, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, Tripura and Mizoram.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Assamese-language film industry is based in Assam in northeastern India. It is sometimes called Jollywood, for the Jyoti Chitraban Film Studio. Some films have been well received by critics but they have not yet captured national audiences. The 21st century has produced Bollywood-style Assamese movies which have set new box office records for the small industry.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Bengali-language cinematic tradition of Tollygunge, West Bengal, is also known as Tollywood. When the term was coined in the 1930s, it was the centre of the Indian film industry. West Bengal cinema is historically known for the parallel cinema movement and art films.


title: Cinema of India

text: Braj-language films present Brij culture mainly to rural people, predominantly in the nebulous Braj region centred around Mathura, Agra, Aligarh and Hathras in Western Uttar Pradesh and Bharatpur and Dholpur in Rajasthan (northern India). It is the predominant language in the central stretch of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in Uttar Pradesh. The first Brij Bhasha movie was "Brij Bhoomi" (1982, Shiv Kumar), which was a success throughout the country. Later Brij Bhasha cinema saw the production of films like "Jamuna Kinare" and "Brij Kau Birju".


title: Cinema of India

text: Bhojpuri-language films predominantly cater to residents of western Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh and also have a large audience in Delhi and Mumbai due to the migration of Bhojpuri speakers to these cities. International markets for these films developed in other Bhojpuri-speaking countries of the West Indies, Oceania and South America.


title: Cinema of India

text: Bhojpuri film history begins with "Ganga Maiyya Tohe Piyari Chadhaibo" ("Mother Ganges, I will offer you a yellow sari", 1962, Kundan Kumar). Throughout the following decades, few films were produced. The industry experienced a revival beginning with the hit "Saiyyan Hamar" ("My Sweetheart", 2001, Mohan Prasad). Although smaller than other Indian film industries, these successes increased Bhojpuri cinema's visibility, leading to an awards show and a trade magazine, "Bhojpuri City".


title: Cinema of India

text: The Chakma language is spoken in Tripura and Mizoram (Northeast India), as well as in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of Bangladesh. Films in Chakma include "Tanyabi Firti" ("Tanyabi's Lake", 2005, Satarupa Sanyal).


title: Cinema of India

text: The Chhattisgarhi-language film industry of Chhattisgarhi state, central India, is known as Chhollywood. Its beginnings are with "Kahi Debe Sandesh" ("In Black and White", 1965, Manu Nayak) No Chhattisgarhi films were released from 1971 until "Mor Chhainha Bhuinya" (2000).


title: Cinema of India

text: Indian filmmakers also produce English language films. Deepa Mehta, Anant Balani, Homi Adajania, Vijay Singh, Vierendrra Lalit and Sooni Taraporevala have garnered recognition in Indian English cinema.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Gujarati-language film industry, also known as Gollywood or Dhollywood, is currently centered in the state of Gujarat. During the silent era, many filmmakers and actors were Gujarati and Parsi, and their films were closely related to Gujarati culture. Twenty film companies and studios, mostly located in Bombay, were owned by Gujaratis and at least 44 major Gujarati directors worked during this era. The first film released in Gujarati was "Narsinh Mehta" (1932). More than one thousand Gujarati films have been released.


title: Cinema of India

text: Gujarati cinema ranges from mythology to history and from social to political. Gujarati films originally targeted a rural audience, but after its revival () catered to an urban audience.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Hindi language film industry of Mumbai (formerly Bombay), also known as Bollywood, is the largest and most powerful branch of Hindi cinema. Hindi cinema explores issues of caste and culture in films such as "Achhut Kanya" (1936) and "Sujata" (1959). International visibility came to the industry with Raj Kapoor's "Awara" and later in Shakti Samantha's "Aradhana". Art film directors include Kaul, Kumar Shahani, Ketan Mehta, Govind Nihalani, Shyam Benegal, Mira Nair, Nagesh Kukunoor, Sudhir Mishra and Nandita Das.


title: Cinema of India

text: Hindi cinema grew during the 1990s with the release of as many as 215 films annually. Magazines such as "Filmfare", "Stardust" and "Cine Blitz" popularly cover the industry.


title: Cinema of India

text: Kannada cinema, also known as Sandalwood or Chandanavana, is the segment of Indian cinema dedicated to the production of motion pictures in the Kannada language, which is widely spoken in Karnataka state. "Sati Sulochana" (1934, Y. V. Rao) was the first talkie film in the Kannada language.


title: Cinema of India

text: Konkani-language films are mainly produced in Goa, one of India's smallest film regions which produced four films in 2009. The first full-length Konkani film was "Mogacho Anvddo" (1950, Jerry Braganza). The film's release date, 24 April, is celebrated as Konkani Film Day. An immense body of Konkani literature and art is a resource for filmmakers. "Kazar" ("Marriage", 2009, Richard Castelino) and "Ujvaadu" ("Shedding New Light on Old Age Issues", Kasaragod Chinna) are major releases. The pioneering Mangalorean Konkani film is "Mog Ani Maipas".


title: Cinema of India

text: Maithili cinema is made in the Maithili language. The first full-length film was "Kanyadan" (1965). There are numerous films made in the Maithili over the years The film "Mithila Makhaan" (2019) won a National Award in the regional films category.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Malayalam-language film industry, also known as Mollywood, is India's fourth-largest film industry. It is mainly based at Kochi, Kerala state. "Neelakkuyil" (1954) is often considered the first authentic Malayali film. "Newspaper Boy (1955)", made by a group of students, was the first neo-realistic Malayalam film. "Chemmeen" (1965, Ramu Kariat), based on a story by Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai, became the first South Indian film to win the National Film Award for Best Feature Film.


title: Cinema of India

text: Malayalam cinema has been in the forefront of technological innovation in Indian filmmaking. The first neorealistic film ("Newspaper Boy"), the first CinemaScope film ("Thacholi Ambu"), the first 70 mm film ("Padayottam"), the first 3D film ("My Dear Kuttichathan"), the first Panavision film ("Vanaprastham"), the first digital film ("Moonnamathoral"), the first Smartphone film ("Jalachhayam"), and the first 8K film ("Villain") in India were made in Malayalam.


title: Cinema of India

text: The period from 1986 to 1990 is regarded as the Golden Age of Malayalam cinema, with four Malayalam films recognized by selection at the Cannes Film Festival—Shaji N. Karun-directed "Piravi" (1989), "Swaham" (1994) and "Vanaprastham" (1999), and Murali Nair-directed "Marana Simhasanam" (1999). "Piravi" (1989) won the Caméra d'Or — Mention Spéciale and "Marana Simhasanam" has won the Caméra d'Or.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Kerala State Film Awards established by the Government of Kerala recognizes the best works in Malayalam cinema every year, along with J. C. Daniel Award for lifetime achievement in Malayalam cinema. K. R. Narayanan National Institute of Visual Science and Arts (KRNNIVSA) is a training and research centre for film and video technology.


title: Cinema of India

text: Manipuri cinema is a small film industry of Manipur, encompassing Meitei language and other languages of the state. It began in the 1970s and gained momentum following a 2002 state ban on Hindi films. 80–100 movies are made each year. Among the notable Manipuri films are "Imagi Ningthem" (1982, Aribam Syam Sharma), "Yenning Amadi Likla", "Phijigee Mani", "Leipaklei", "Loktak Lairembee" and "Eikhoishibu Kanano".


title: Cinema of India

text: Marathi films are produced in the Marathi language in Maharashtra state. It the oldest of India's film industries, which began in Kolhapur, moved to Pune and is now based in old Mumbai.


title: Cinema of India

text: Some of the more notable films are "Sangte Aika", "Ek Gaon Bara Bhangadi", "Pinjara", "Sinhasan", "Pathlaag", "Jait Re Jait", "Saamana", "Santh Wahate Krishnamai", "Sant Tukaram" and "Shyamchi Aai".


title: Cinema of India

text: Nagpuri films are produced in the Nagpuri language in Jharkhand state. The first Nagpuri feature film was "Sona Kar Nagpur" (1992). With a mainly rural population and cinema halls closing, non-traditional distribution models may be used.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Odia-language film industry of Bhubaneswar and Cuttack, Odisha state, is also known as Ollywood. The first Odia-language film was "Sita Bibaha" (1936). The best year for Odia cinema was 1984 when "Maya Miriga" (Nirad Mohapatra) and "Dhare Alua" were showcased in Indian Panorama and "Maya Miriga" was invited to Critics Week at Cannes. The film received the Best Third World Film award at Mannheim Film Festival, Jury Award in Hawaii and was shown at the London Film Festival.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Punjabi-language film industry, based in Amritsar and Mohali, Punjab, is also known as Pollywood. K. D. Mehra made the first Punjabi film, "Sheela" (1935). As of 2009, Punjabi cinema had produced between 900 and 1,000 movies.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Sindhi-language film industry is largely based in Sindh, Pakistan, and with Sindhi speakers in North Gujarat and Southwestern Rajasthan, India, and elsewhere among the Sindhi diaspora. The first Indian-made Sindhi film was "Ekta" (1940). while the first Sindhi film produced in Pakistan was "Umar Marvi" (1956). The industry has produced some Bollywood-style films.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Sindhi film industry produces movies at intervals. The first was "Abana" (1958), which was a success throughout the country. Sindhi cinema then produced some Bollywood-style films such as "Hal Ta Bhaji Haloon", "Parewari", "Dil Dije Dil Waran Khe", "Ho Jamalo", "" and "The Awakening". Additionally, numerous Sindhi have contributed in Bollywood, including G P Sippy, Ramesh Sippy, Nikhil Advani, Tarun Mansukhani, Ritesh Sidhwani and Asrani.


title: Cinema of India

text: Director Songe Dorjee Thongdok introduced the first Sherdukpen-language film "Crossing Bridges" (2014). Sherdukpen is native to the north-eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Tamil-language film industry based in Chennai, also known as Kollywood, once served as a hub for all South Indian film industries.


title: Cinema of India

text: The first South Indian talkie film "Kalidas" (1931, H. M. Reddy) was shot in Tamil. Sivaji Ganesan became India's first actor to receive an international award when he won Best Actor at the Afro-Asian film festival in 1960 and the title of "Chevalier" in the Legion of Honour by the French Government in 1995.


title: Cinema of India

text: Tamil cinema is influenced by Dravidian politics and has a tradition of addressing social issues. Many of Tamil Nadu's prominent Chief Ministers previously worked in cinema: Dravidian stalwarts C N Annadurai and M Karunanidhi were scriptwriters and M G Ramachandran and Jayalalithaa gained a political base through their fan followings.


title: Cinema of India

text: Tamil films are distributed to Tamil diaspora populations in various parts of Asia, Southern Africa, Northern America, Europe, and Oceania. The industry-inspired Tamil film-making in Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Singapore and Canada.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Telugu-language film industry based in Hyderabad, Telangana, also known as Tollywood, is the third-largest film industry in India. The more-successful Telugu films are frequently remade for the Bengali and Hindi markets.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Film and Television Institute of Telangana, Film and Television Institute of Andhra Pradesh, Ramanaidu Film School and Annapurna International School of Film and Media are among the largest film schools in India. The Telugu states are home to approximately 2800 theaters, more than any single state in India. Being commercially consistent, Telugu cinema had its influence over commercial cinema in India.


title: Cinema of India

text: The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world, Ramoji Film City. The Prasads IMAX located in Hyderabad is one of the largest 3D IMAX screens, and is the most attended cinema screen in the world. As per the CBFC report of 2014, the industry is placed first in India, in terms of films produced yearly. In the years 2005, 2006, 2008, and 2014 the industry has produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Tulu-language film industry based in the port city of Mangalore, Karnataka, is also known as Coastalwood. A small industry, its origins trace to the release of "Enna Thangadi" (1971) with about one release per year until growth was spurred by the commercial success of "Oriyardori Asal" (2011). Films are released across the Tulu Nadu cultural region, with some recent films having a simultaneous release in Mumbai, Bangalore, and Arabian Gulf countries.


title: Cinema of India

text: The Dadasaheb Phalke Award, named for "father of Indian cinema" Dadasaheb Phalke, is given in recognition of lifetime contribution to cinema. It was established by the government of India in 1969, and is the country's most prestigious film award.


title: Cinema of India

text: Government-run and private institutes provide formal education in various aspects of filmmaking. Some of the prominent ones include:


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is a coenzyme central to metabolism. Found in all living cells, NAD is called a dinucleotide because it consists of two nucleotides joined through their phosphate groups. One nucleotide contains an adenine nucleobase and the other nicotinamide. NAD exists in two forms: an oxidized and reduced form, abbreviated as NAD and NADH (H for hydrogen), respectively.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In metabolism, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is involved in redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. The cofactor is, therefore, found in two forms in cells: NAD is an oxidizing agent – it accepts electrons from other molecules and becomes reduced. This reaction, also with H, forms NADH, which can then be used as a reducing agent to donate electrons. These electron transfer reactions are the main function of NAD. However, it is also used in other cellular processes, most notably as a substrate of enzymes in adding or removing


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: chemical groups to or from, respectively, proteins, in posttranslational modifications. Because of the importance of these functions, the enzymes involved in NAD metabolism are targets for drug discovery.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In organisms, NAD can be synthesized from simple building-blocks ("de novo") from either tryptophan or aspartic acid, each a case of an amino acid; alternatively, more complex components of the coenzymes are taken up from nutritive compounds such as niacin; similar compounds are produced by reactions that break down the structure of NAD, providing a salvage pathway that “recycles” them back into their respective active form.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Some NAD is converted into the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP); its chemistry largely parallels that of NAD, though predominantly its role is as a cofactor in anabolic metabolism.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The NAD chemical species’ superscripted addition sign reflects the formal charge on one of its nitrogen atoms; this species is actually a singly charged anion – carrying a (negative) ionic charge of 1 – under conditions of physiological pH.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide consists of two nucleosides joined by pyrophosphate. The nucleosides each contain a ribose ring, one with adenine attached to the first carbon atom (the 1' position) (adenosine diphosphate ribose) and the other with nicotinamide at this position.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The compound accepts or donates the equivalent of H. Such reactions (summarized in formula below) involve the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the reactant (R), in the form of a hydride ion (H), and a proton (H). The proton is released into solution, while the reductant RH is oxidized and NAD reduced to NADH by transfer of the hydride to the nicotinamide ring.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: From the hydride electron pair, one electron is transferred to the positively charged nitrogen atom of the nicotinamide ring of NAD, and the second hydrogen atom transferred to the C4 carbon atom opposite this N atom. The midpoint potential of the NAD/NADH redox pair is −0.32 volts, which makes NADH a moderately strong "reducing" agent. The reaction is easily reversible, when NADH reduces another molecule and is re-oxidized to NAD. This means the coenzyme can continuously cycle between the NAD and NADH forms without being consumed.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In appearance, all forms of this coenzyme are white amorphous powders that are hygroscopic and highly water-soluble. The solids are stable if stored dry and in the dark. Solutions of NAD are colorless and stable for about a week at 4 °C and neutral pH, but decompose rapidly in acidic or alkaline solutions. Upon decomposition, they form products that are enzyme inhibitors.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Both NAD and NADH strongly absorb ultraviolet light because of the adenine. For example, peak absorption of NAD is at a wavelength of 259 nanometers (nm), with an extinction coefficient of 16,900 Mcm. NADH also absorbs at higher wavelengths, with a second peak in UV absorption at 339 nm with an extinction coefficient of 6,220 Mcm. This difference in the ultraviolet absorption spectra between the oxidized and reduced forms of the coenzymes at higher wavelengths makes it simple to measure the conversion of one to another in enzyme assays – by measuring the amount of UV absorption at 340 nm using a spectrophotometer.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: NAD and NADH also differ in their fluorescence. Freely diffusing NADH in aqueous solution, when excited at the nicotinamide absorbance of ~335 nm (near UV), fluoresces at 445–460 nm (violet to blue) with a fluorescence lifetime of 0.4 nanoseconds, while NAD does not fluoresce. The properties of the fluorescence signal changes when NADH binds to proteins, so these changes can be used to measure dissociation constants, which are useful in the study of enzyme kinetics. These changes in fluorescence are also used to measure changes in the redox state of living cells, through fluorescence microscopy.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In rat liver, the total amount of NAD and NADH is approximately 1 μmole per gram of wet weight, about 10 times the concentration of NADP and NADPH in the same cells. The actual concentration of NAD in cell cytosol is harder to measure, with recent estimates in animal cells ranging around 0.3 mM, and approximately 1.0 to 2.0 mM in yeast. However, more than 80% of NADH fluorescence in mitochondria is from bound form, so the concentration in solution is much lower.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: NAD concentrations are highest in the mitochondria, constituting 40% to 70% of the total cellular NAD. NAD in the cytosol is carried into the mitochondrion by a specific membrane transport protein, since the coenzyme cannot diffuse across membranes. The intracellular half-life of NAD was claimed to be between 1–2 hours by one review, whereas another review gave varying estimates based on compartment: intracellular 1–4 hours, cytoplasmic 2 hours, and mitochondrial 4–6 hours.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The balance between the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide is called the NAD/NADH ratio. This ratio is an important component of what is called the "redox state" of a cell, a measurement that reflects both the metabolic activities and the health of cells. The effects of the NAD/NADH ratio are complex, controlling the activity of several key enzymes, including glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and pyruvate dehydrogenase. In healthy mammalian tissues, estimates of the ratio of free NAD to NADH in the cytoplasm typically lie around 700:1; the ratio is thus favorable for oxidative reactions. The ratio of total NAD/NADH is much lower, with estimates ranging from 3–10 in mammals. In contrast, the NADP/NADPH ratio is normally about 0.005, so NADPH is the dominant form of this coenzyme. These different ratios are key to the different metabolic roles of NADH and NADPH.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: NAD is synthesized through two metabolic pathways. It is produced either in a "de novo" pathway from amino acids or in salvage pathways by recycling preformed components such as nicotinamide back to NAD. Although most tissues synthesize NAD by the salvage pathway in mammals, much more "de novo" synthesis occurs in the liver from tryptophan, and in the kidney and macrophages from nicotinic acid.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Most organisms synthesize NAD from simple components. The specific set of reactions differs among organisms, but a common feature is the generation of quinolinic acid (QA) from an amino acideither tryptophan (Trp) in animals and some bacteria, or aspartic acid (Asp) in some bacteria and plants. The quinolinic acid is converted to nicotinic acid mononucleotide (NaMN) by transfer of a phosphoribose moiety. An adenylate moiety is then transferred to form nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide (NaAD). Finally, the nicotinic acid moiety in NaAD is amidated to a nicotinamide (Nam) moiety, forming nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In a further step, some NAD is converted into NADP by NAD kinase, which phosphorylates NAD. In most organisms, this enzyme uses ATP as the source of the phosphate group, although several bacteria such as "Mycobacterium tuberculosis" and a hyperthermophilic archaeon "Pyrococcus horikoshii", use inorganic polyphosphate as an alternative phosphoryl donor.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Despite the presence of the "de novo" pathway, the salvage reactions are essential in humans; a lack of niacin in the diet causes the vitamin deficiency disease pellagra. This high requirement for NAD results from the constant consumption of the coenzyme in reactions such as posttranslational modifications, since the cycling of NAD between oxidized and reduced forms in redox reactions does not change the overall levels of the coenzyme.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The major source of NAD in mammals is the salvage pathway which recycles the nicotinamide produced by enzymes utilizing NAD. The first step, and the rate-limiting enzyme in the salvage pathway is nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT), which produces nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN). NMN is the immediate precursor to NAD+ in the salvage pathway.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Besides assembling NAD "de novo" from simple amino acid precursors, cells also salvage preformed compounds containing a pyridine base. The three vitamin precursors used in these salvage metabolic pathways are nicotinic acid (NA), nicotinamide (Nam) and nicotinamide riboside (NR). These compounds can be taken up from the diet and are termed vitamin B or "niacin". However, these compounds are also produced within cells and by digestion of cellular NAD. Some of the enzymes involved in these salvage pathways appear to be concentrated in the cell nucleus, which may compensate for the high level of reactions that consume NAD in this organelle. There are some reports that mammalian cells can take up extracellular NAD from their surroundings, and both nicotinamide and nicotinamide riboside can be absorbed from the gut.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The salvage pathways used in microorganisms differ from those of mammals. Some pathogens, such as the yeast "Candida glabrata" and the bacterium "Haemophilus influenzae" are NAD auxotrophs – they cannot synthesize NAD – but possess salvage pathways and thus are dependent on external sources of NAD or its precursors. Even more surprising is the intracellular pathogen "Chlamydia trachomatis", which lacks recognizable candidates for any genes involved in the biosynthesis or salvage of both NAD and NADP, and must acquire these coenzymes from its host.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide has several essential roles in metabolism. It acts as a coenzyme in redox reactions, as a donor of ADP-ribose moieties in ADP-ribosylation reactions, as a precursor of the second messenger molecule cyclic ADP-ribose, as well as acting as a substrate for bacterial DNA ligases and a group of enzymes called sirtuins that use NAD to remove acetyl groups from proteins. In addition to these metabolic functions, NAD emerges as an adenine nucleotide that can be released from cells spontaneously and by regulated mechanisms, and can therefore have important extracellular roles.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The main role of NAD in metabolism is the transfer of electrons from one molecule to another. Reactions of this type are catalyzed by a large group of enzymes called oxidoreductases. The correct names for these enzymes contain the names of both their substrates: for example NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation of NADH by coenzyme Q. However, these enzymes are also referred to as "dehydrogenases" or "reductases", with NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase commonly being called "NADH dehydrogenase" or sometimes "coenzyme Q reductase".


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: There are many different superfamilies of enzymes that bind NAD / NADH. One of the most common superfamilies includes a structural motif known as the Rossmann fold. The motif is named after Michael Rossmann, who was the first scientist to notice how common this structure is within nucleotide-binding proteins.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: An example of a NAD-binding bacterial enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism that does not have the Rossmann fold is found in "Pseudomonas syringae" pv. tomato (; ).


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: When bound in the active site of an oxidoreductase, the nicotinamide ring of the coenzyme is positioned so that it can accept a hydride from the other substrate. Depending on the enzyme, the hydride donor is positioned either "above" or "below" the plane of the planar C4 carbon, as defined in the figure. Class A oxidoreductases transfer the atom from above; class B enzymes transfer it from below. Since the C4 carbon that accepts the hydrogen is prochiral, this can be exploited in enzyme kinetics to give information about the enzyme's mechanism. This is done by mixing an enzyme with a substrate that has deuterium atoms substituted for the hydrogens, so the enzyme will reduce NAD by transferring deuterium rather than hydrogen. In this case, an enzyme can produce one of two stereoisomers of NADH.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Despite the similarity in how proteins bind the two coenzymes, enzymes almost always show a high level of specificity for either NAD or NADP. This specificity reflects the distinct metabolic roles of the respective coenzymes, and is the result of distinct sets of amino acid residues in the two types of coenzyme-binding pocket. For instance, in the active site of NADP-dependent enzymes, an ionic bond is formed between a basic amino acid side-chain and the acidic phosphate group of NADP. On the converse, in NAD-dependent enzymes the charge in this pocket is reversed, preventing NADP from binding. However, there are a few exceptions to this general rule, and enzymes such as aldose reductase, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, and methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase can use both coenzymes in some species.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The redox reactions catalyzed by oxidoreductases are vital in all parts of metabolism, but one particularly important area where these reactions occur is in the release of energy from nutrients. Here, reduced compounds such as glucose and fatty acids are oxidized, thereby releasing energy. This energy is transferred to NAD by reduction to NADH, as part of beta oxidation, glycolysis, and the citric acid cycle. In eukaryotes the electrons carried by the NADH that is produced in the cytoplasm are transferred into the mitochondrion (to reduce mitochondrial NAD) by mitochondrial shuttles, such as the malate-aspartate shuttle. The mitochondrial NADH is then oxidized in turn by the electron transport chain, which pumps protons across a membrane and generates ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. These shuttle systems also have the same transport function in chloroplasts.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Since both the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide are used in these linked sets of reactions, the cell maintains significant concentrations of both NAD and NADH, with the high NAD/NADH ratio allowing this coenzyme to act as both an oxidizing and a reducing agent. In contrast, the main function of NADPH is as a reducing agent in anabolism, with this coenzyme being involved in pathways such as fatty acid synthesis and photosynthesis. Since NADPH is needed to drive redox reactions as a strong reducing agent, the NADP/NADPH ratio is kept very low.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Although it is important in catabolism, NADH is also used in anabolic reactions, such as gluconeogenesis. This need for NADH in anabolism poses a problem for prokaryotes growing on nutrients that release only a small amount of energy. For example, nitrifying bacteria such as "Nitrobacter" oxidize nitrite to nitrate, which releases sufficient energy to pump protons and generate ATP, but not enough to produce NADH directly. As NADH is still needed for anabolic reactions, these bacteria use a nitrite oxidoreductase to produce enough proton-motive force to run part of the electron transport chain in reverse, generating NADH.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The coenzyme NAD is also consumed in ADP-ribose transfer reactions. For example, enzymes called ADP-ribosyltransferases add the ADP-ribose moiety of this molecule to proteins, in a posttranslational modification called ADP-ribosylation. ADP-ribosylation involves either the addition of a single ADP-ribose moiety, in "mono-ADP-ribosylation", or the transferral of ADP-ribose to proteins in long branched chains, which is called "poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation". Mono-ADP-ribosylation was first identified as the mechanism of a group of bacterial toxins, notably cholera toxin, but it is also involved in normal cell signaling. Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is carried out by the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases. The poly(ADP-ribose) structure is involved in the regulation of several cellular events and is most important in the cell nucleus, in processes such as DNA repair and telomere maintenance. In addition to these functions within the cell, a group of extracellular ADP-ribosyltransferases has recently been discovered, but their functions remain obscure.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Another function of this coenzyme in cell signaling is as a precursor of cyclic ADP-ribose, which is produced from NAD by ADP-ribosyl cyclases, as part of a second messenger system. This molecule acts in calcium signaling by releasing calcium from intracellular stores. It does this by binding to and opening a class of calcium channels called ryanodine receptors, which are located in the membranes of organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, and inducing the activation of the transcription factor NAFC3


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: NAD is also consumed by different NAD+-consuming enzymes, such as CD38, CD157, PARPs and the NAD-dependent deacetylases (sirtuins,such as Sir2.). These enzymes act by transferring an acetyl group from their substrate protein to the ADP-ribose moiety of NAD; this cleaves the coenzyme and releases nicotinamide and O-acetyl-ADP-ribose. The sirtuins mainly seem to be involved in regulating transcription through deacetylating histones and altering nucleosome structure. However, non-histone proteins can be deacetylated by sirtuins as well. These activities of sirtuins are particularly interesting because of their importance in the regulation of aging.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Other NAD-dependent enzymes include bacterial DNA ligases, which join two DNA ends by using NAD as a substrate to donate an adenosine monophosphate (AMP) moiety to the 5' phosphate of one DNA end. This intermediate is then attacked by the 3' hydroxyl group of the other DNA end, forming a new phosphodiester bond. This contrasts with eukaryotic DNA ligases, which use ATP to form the DNA-AMP intermediate.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Li et al. have found that NAD directly regulates protein-protein interactions. They also show that one of the causes of age-related decline in DNA repair may be increased binding of the protein DBC1 (Deleted in Breast Cancer 1) to PARP1 (poly[ADP–ribose] polymerase 1) as NAD levels decline during aging. Thus, the modulation of NAD may protect against cancer, radiation, and aging.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In recent years, NAD has also been recognized as an extracellular signaling molecule involved in cell-to-cell communication. NAD is released from neurons in blood vessels, urinary bladder, large intestine, from neurosecretory cells, and from brain synaptosomes, and is proposed to be a novel neurotransmitter that transmits information from nerves to effector cells in smooth muscle organs. In plants, the extracellular nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide induces resistance to pathogen infection and the first extracellular NAD receptor has been identified. Further studies are needed to determine the underlying mechanisms of its extracellular actions and their importance for human health and life processes in other organisms.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The enzymes that make and use NAD and NADH are important in both pharmacology and the research into future treatments for disease. Drug design and drug development exploits NAD in three ways: as a direct target of drugs, by designing enzyme inhibitors or activators based on its structure that change the activity of NAD-dependent enzymes, and by trying to inhibit NAD biosynthesis.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Because cancer cells utilize increased glycolysis, and because NAD enhances glycolysis, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAD salvage pathway) is often amplified in cancer cells.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: It has been studied for its potential use in the therapy of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease and Muliple sclerosis. A placebo-controlled clinical trial of NADH (which excluded NADH precursors) in people with Parkinson's failed to show any effect.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: NAD is also a direct target of the drug isoniazid, which is used in the treatment of tuberculosis, an infection caused by "Mycobacterium tuberculosis". Isoniazid is a prodrug and once it has entered the bacteria, it is activated by a peroxidase enzyme, which oxidizes the compound into a free radical form. This radical then reacts with NADH, to produce adducts that are very potent inhibitors of the enzymes enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase, and dihydrofolate reductase.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Since many oxidoreductases use NAD and NADH as substrates, and bind them using a highly conserved structural motif, the idea that inhibitors based on NAD could be specific to one enzyme is surprising. However, this can be possible: for example, inhibitors based on the compounds mycophenolic acid and tiazofurin inhibit IMP dehydrogenase at the NAD binding site. Because of the importance of this enzyme in purine metabolism, these compounds may be useful as anti-cancer, anti-viral, or immunosuppressive drugs. Other drugs are not enzyme inhibitors, but instead activate enzymes involved in NAD metabolism. Sirtuins are a particularly interesting target for such drugs, since activation of these NAD-dependent deacetylases extends lifespan in some animal models. Compounds such as resveratrol increase the activity of these enzymes, which may be important in their ability to delay aging in both vertebrate, and invertebrate model organisms. In one experiment, mice given NAD for one week had improved nuclear-mitochrondrial communication.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Because of the differences in the metabolic pathways of NAD biosynthesis between organisms, such as between bacteria and humans, this area of metabolism is a promising area for the development of new antibiotics. For example, the enzyme nicotinamidase, which converts nicotinamide to nicotinic acid, is a target for drug design, as this enzyme is absent in humans but present in yeast and bacteria.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: In bacteriology, NAD, sometimes referred to factor V, is used as a supplement to culture media for some fastidious bacteria.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The coenzyme NAD was first discovered by the British biochemists Arthur Harden and William John Young in 1906. They noticed that adding boiled and filtered yeast extract greatly accelerated alcoholic fermentation in unboiled yeast extracts. They called the unidentified factor responsible for this effect a "coferment". Through a long and difficult purification from yeast extracts, this heat-stable factor was identified as a nucleotide sugar phosphate by Hans von Euler-Chelpin. In 1936, the German scientist Otto Heinrich Warburg showed the function of the nucleotide coenzyme in hydride transfer and identified the nicotinamide portion as the site of redox reactions.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: Vitamin precursors of NAD were first identified in 1938, when Conrad Elvehjem showed that liver has an "anti-black tongue" activity in the form of nicotinamide. Then, in 1939, he provided the first strong evidence that niacin is used to synthesize NAD. In the early 1940s, Arthur Kornberg was the first to detect an enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway. In 1949, the American biochemists Morris Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger proved that NADH linked metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle with the synthesis of ATP in oxidative phosphorylation. In 1958, Jack Preiss and Philip Handler discovered the intermediates and enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of NAD; salvage synthesis from nicotinic acid is termed the Preiss-Handler pathway. In 2004, Charles Brenner and co-workers uncovered the nicotinamide riboside kinase pathway to NAD.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The non-redox roles of NAD(P) were discovered later. The first to be identified was the use of NAD as the ADP-ribose donor in ADP-ribosylation reactions, observed in the early 1960s. Studies in the 1980s and 1990s revealed the activities of NAD and NADP metabolites in cell signaling – such as the action of cyclic ADP-ribose, which was discovered in 1987.


title: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

text: The metabolism of NAD remained an area of intense research into the 21st century, with interest heightened after the discovery of the NAD-dependent protein deacetylases called sirtuins in 2000, by Shin-ichiro Imai and coworkers in the laboratory of Leonard P. Guarente. In 2009 Imai proposed the "NAD World" hypothesis that key regulators of aging and longevity in mammals are sirtuin 1 and the primary NAD synthesizing enzyme nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT). In 2016 Imai expanded his hypothesis to "NAD World 2.0", which postulates that extracellular NAMPT from adipose tissue maintains NAD in the hypothalamus (the control center) in conjunction with myokines from skeletal muscle cells.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Sean Carl Roland Pertwee (born 4 June 1964) is an English actor, narrator and producer with an extensive career since the 1980s in television and cinema productions.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: He is known for the role of Sgt. Wells in the film "Dog Soldiers", W.F. "Smitty" Smith in "Event Horizon", Inspector Lestrade in CBS's "Elementary" and Alfred Pennyworth in Fox's "Gotham". He is also the narrator of "" and "Zero Hour".


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee was born on 4 June 1964 in Hammersmith, London, the son of the actor Jon Pertwee and his German second wife, Ingeborg Rhoesa. Playwright and screenwriter Roland Pertwee was his grandfather; his sister is the actress Dariel Pertwee, and "Dad's Army" actor Bill Pertwee was a cousin.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee received his formal education at Teddington Boys' School in Richmond upon Thames and Sunbury College, Surrey.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee trained at Bristol Old Vic Theatre School. After graduating in 1986, he toured with the Royal Shakespeare Company for three years. He appeared in Agatha Christie's "Hercule Poirot – The King of Clubs" alongside David Suchet (12 March 1989). He later appeared as Hugh Beringar alongside Derek Jacobi in the first series of the television series "Cadfael" in 1994. In 1999 he portrayed Brutus in the Hallmark Channel film "Cleopatra". He co-owned the Natural Nylon film production company along with Sadie Frost, Jude Law, Jonny Lee Miller, and Ewan McGregor. The company folded in 2003. Pertwee is perhaps best known for his portrayal of grimacing death, particularly in the film "Dog Soldiers", a skill which led to him being given an award for 'Best Death Face' at Bristol Old Vic.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: He appeared in the 2008 film "Doomsday" as Doctor Talbot. His voice is frequently heard in a variety of television commercials, documentaries and video games, including the medieval empire-building computer game "" and futuristic war games "Killzone" (as Colonel Gregor Hakha), "Killzone 2" (as Colonel Mael Radec) and "Fire Warrior" (as Governor Severus). He is also the voice behind the Northeast's tourism advertisement which started broadcasting at the start of 2009. He is the narrator of "", replacing India Fisher from the fourth series onwards.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: He starred alongside John Hurt as Brother Proteus in the 2010 animated film Ultramarines: a Warhammer 40,000 Movie.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: He appeared in the film "Devil's Playground", a horror film directed by Mark McQueen. He starred alongside Danny Dyer, Jaime Murray, Janet Montgomery and Craig Fairbrass. The film was released in October 2010. Pertwee appeared in the Nazi zombie film "The 4th Reich" which he filmed in 2010, directed by Shaun Smith.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee has been in several dramatic works for BBC Radio 4, including playing the actor Oliver Reed in the play "Burning Both Ends" by Matthew Broughton in 2011.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: In 2014 he was cast in Fox's TV series "Gotham", a series presenting an origin for the characters of the Batman franchise. Pertwee portrays Alfred Pennyworth, an ex-special forces soldier from London who works as the Wayne family's loyal butler. After Thomas and Martha Wayne are murdered, he becomes guardian and mentor to the future Batman.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee married Jacqueline Jane "Jacqui" Hamilton-Smith, a make-up artist, daughter of Anthony Hamilton-Smith, on 12 June 1999 at the House of Lords. His wife gave birth to twins, around Christmas 2001. They were born prematurely; one dying four days later.


title: Sean Pertwee

text: Pertwee presented a television party political broadcast on behalf of the Labour Party in the 2010 UK general election.


title: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?

text: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who? is an American animated television series produced by Warner Bros. Animation and the thirteenth television series in the "Scooby-Doo" franchise. The series is produced by Chris Bailey.


title: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?

text: The show first premiered on Boomerang's SVOD service on June 27, 2019, before making its linear debut on Cartoon Network on July 8, 2019, and on the Boomerang channel on October 1, 2020. The series moved to HBO Max and the remaining second-season episodes were released on October 1, 2021.


title: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?

text: Following a similar premise to "The New Scooby-Doo Movies", the series focuses on the Mystery Inc. gang as they solve mysteries while encountering and being assisted by various celebrities and fictional characters, including crossovers with DC Comics and Hanna-Barbera characters, and even the Scooby gang's very own voice actors.


title: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?

text: Fictional guest characters include The Hex Girls, Steve Urkel, Wonder Woman, Sherlock Holmes, Batman, Alfred Pennyworth, Joker, Flash, Trickster, Magilla Gorilla, the Ghost of Abraham Lincoln, Blue Falcon and Dynomutt and the characters from "The Funky Phantom".


title: Scooby-Doo and Guess Who?

text: The first season was released on DVD on January 19, 2021, by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment. The second season was released on DVD on June 28, 2022.


title: BWF World Ranking

text: The BWF World Ranking is the official ranking of the Badminton World Federation for badminton players who participate in tournaments sanctioned by Badminton World Federation. It is used to determine the qualification for the World Championships and Summer Olympic Games, as well as BWF World Tour tournaments. Seedings of draws at all BWF-sanctioned tournaments are conducted using the BWF World Ranking.


title: BWF World Ranking

text: Players under 19 years of age are eligible to rank in the BWF World Junior Ranking, which were introduced in January 2011. The following lists are the rankings:


title: BWF World Ranking

text: The ranking points are awarded based on the level and progress of the tournament from each player/pair. Ranking points calculated are based on the tournaments each players/pairs participate in from the last 52 weeks. If a player or pair has participated in ten or fewer World Ranking tournaments, then the ranking is worked out by adding together the points won at tournaments in the last 52 weeks. If a player or pair has participated in 11 or more World Ranking tournaments, only the 10 highest points scored in the tournaments during the 52-week period count towards their ranking. The highest possible ranking points are 124,000 as of 2022 but will soon increase to 125,000 in 2023 with 4 Super 1000 Tournaments. Though the highest points ever achieved are 122,606 by Viktor Axelsen.


title: BWF World Ranking

text: The following is a list of players who have achieved the number one position since 1 October 2009 (active players in , and current number 1 players are marked in bold):


title: BWF World Ranking

text: NOTE: BWF froze the World Rankings from 18 March 2020 to 2 February 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: BWF World Ranking

text: The following is a list of players who were ranked world no. 5 or higher but not no. 1 in the period since the introduction of the BWF computer rankings (active players in ):


title: Software testing

text: Software testing is the act of examining the artifacts and the behavior of the software under test by validation and verification. Software testing can also provide an objective, independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. Test techniques include, but not necessarily limited to:


title: Software testing

text: Software testing can provide objective, independent information about the quality of software and risk of its failure to users or sponsors.


title: Software testing

text: Software testing can determine the correctness of software under the assumption of some specific hypotheses (see the hierarchy of testing difficulty below), testing cannot identify all the failures within the software. Instead, it furnishes a "criticism" or "comparison" that compares the state and behavior of the product against test oracles — principles or mechanisms by which someone might recognize a problem. These oracles may include (but are not limited to) specifications, contracts, comparable products, past versions of the same product, inferences about intended or expected purpose, user or customer expectations, relevant standards, applicable laws, or other criteria.


title: Software testing

text: A primary purpose of testing is to detect software failures so that defects may be discovered and corrected. Testing cannot establish that a product functions properly under all conditions, but only that it does not function properly under specific conditions. The scope of software testing may include the examination of code as well as the execution of that code in various environments and conditions as well as examining the aspects of code: does it do what it is supposed to do and do what it needs to do. In the current culture of software development, a testing organization may be separate from the development team. There are various roles for testing team members. Information derived from software testing may be used to correct the process by which software is developed.


title: Software testing

text: Every software product has a target audience. For example, the audience for video game software is completely different from banking software. Therefore, when an organization develops or otherwise invests in a software product, it can assess whether the software product will be acceptable to its end users, its target audience, its purchasers, and other stakeholders. Software testing assists in making this assessment.


title: Software testing

text: Software faults occur through the following process: A programmer makes an error (mistake), which results in a fault (defect, bug) in the software source code. If this fault is executed, in certain situations the system will produce wrong results, causing a failure.


title: Software testing

text: Not all faults will necessarily result in failures. For example, faults in the dead code will never result in failures. A fault that did not reveal failures may result in a failure when the environment is changed. Examples of these changes in environment include the software being run on a new computer hardware platform, alterations in source data, or interacting with different software. A single fault may result in a wide range of failure symptoms.


title: Software testing

text: Not all software faults are caused by coding errors. One common source of expensive defects is requirement gaps, that is, unrecognized requirements that result in errors of omission by the program designer. Requirement gaps can often be non-functional requirements such as testability, scalability, maintainability, performance, and security.


title: Software testing

text: A fundamental problem with software testing is that testing under "all" combinations of inputs and preconditions (initial state) is not feasible, even with a simple product. This means that the number of faults in a software product can be very large and defects that occur infrequently are difficult to find in testing and debugging. More significantly, non-functional dimensions of quality (how it is supposed to "be" versus what it is supposed to "do") — usability, scalability, performance, compatibility, and reliability — can be highly subjective; something that constitutes sufficient value to one person may be intolerable to another.


title: Software testing

text: Software developers can't test everything, but they can use combinatorial test design to identify the minimum number of tests needed to get the coverage they want. Combinatorial test design enables users to get greater test coverage with fewer tests. Whether they are looking for speed or test depth, they can use combinatorial test design methods to build structured variation into their test cases.


title: Software testing

text: A study conducted by NIST in 2002 reports that software bugs cost the U.S. economy $59.5 billion annually. More than a third of this cost could be avoided, if better software testing was performed.


title: Software testing

text: Outsourcing software testing because of costs is very common, with China, the Philippines, and India, being preferred destinations.


title: Software testing

text: Software testing can be done by dedicated software testers; until the 1980s, the term "software tester" was used generally, but later it was also seen as a separate profession. Regarding the periods and the different goals in software testing, different roles have been established, such as "test manager", "test lead", "test analyst", "test designer", "tester", "automation developer", and "test administrator". Software testing can also be performed by non-dedicated software testers.


title: Software testing

text: Glenford J. Myers initially introduced the separation of debugging from testing in 1979. Although his attention was on breakage testing ("A successful test case is one that detects an as-yet undiscovered error."), it illustrated the desire of the software engineering community to separate fundamental development activities, such as debugging, from that of verification.


title: Software testing

text: There are many approaches available in software testing. Reviews, walkthroughs, or inspections are referred to as static testing, whereas executing programmed code with a given set of test cases is referred to as dynamic testing.


title: Software testing

text: Static testing is often implicit, like proofreading, plus when programming tools/text editors check source code structure or compilers (pre-compilers) check syntax and data flow as static program analysis. Dynamic testing takes place when the program itself is run. Dynamic testing may begin before the program is 100% complete in order to test particular sections of code and are applied to discrete functions or modules. Typical techniques for these are either using stubs/drivers or execution from a debugger environment.


title: Software testing

text: Passive testing means verifying the system behavior without any interaction with the software product. Contrary to active testing, testers do not provide any test data but look at system logs and traces. They mine for patterns and specific behavior in order to make some kind of decisions. This is related to offline runtime verification and log analysis.


title: Software testing

text: Exploratory testing is an approach to software testing that is concisely described as simultaneous learning, test design, and test execution. Cem Kaner, who coined the term in 1984, defines exploratory testing as "a style of software testing that emphasizes the personal freedom and responsibility of the individual tester to continually optimize the quality of his/her work by treating test-related learning, test design, test execution, and test result interpretation as mutually supportive activities that run in parallel throughout the project."


title: Software testing

text: Software testing methods are traditionally divided into white- and black-box testing. These two approaches are used to describe the point of view that the tester takes when designing test cases. A hybrid approach called grey-box testing may also be applied to software testing methodology. With the concept of grey-box testing—which develops tests from specific design elements—gaining prominence, this "arbitrary distinction" between black- and white-box testing has faded somewhat.


title: Software testing

text: White-box testing (also known as clear box testing, glass box testing, transparent box testing, and structural testing) verifies the internal structures or workings of a program, as opposed to the functionality exposed to the end-user. In white-box testing, an internal perspective of the system (the source code), as well as programming skills, are used to design test cases. The tester chooses inputs to exercise paths through the code and determine the appropriate outputs. This is analogous to testing nodes in a circuit, e.g., in-circuit testing (ICT).


title: Software testing

text: While white-box testing can be applied at the unit, integration, and system levels of the software testing process, it is usually done at the unit level. It can test paths within a unit, paths between units during integration, and between subsystems during a system–level test. Though this method of test design can uncover many errors or problems, it might not detect unimplemented parts of the specification or missing requirements.


title: Software testing

text: Code coverage tools can evaluate the completeness of a test suite that was created with any method, including black-box testing. This allows the software team to examine parts of a system that are rarely tested and ensures that the most important function points have been tested. Code coverage as a software metric can be reported as a percentage for:


title: Software testing

text: 100% statement coverage ensures that all code paths or branches (in terms of control flow) are executed at least once. This is helpful in ensuring correct functionality, but not sufficient since the same code may process different inputs correctly or incorrectly. Pseudo-tested functions and methods are those that are covered but not specified (it is possible to remove their body without breaking any test case).


title: Software testing

text: Black-box testing (also known as functional testing) treats the software as a "black box," examining functionality without any knowledge of internal implementation, without seeing the source code. The testers are only aware of what the software is supposed to do, not how it does it. Black-box testing methods include: equivalence partitioning, boundary value analysis, all-pairs testing, state transition tables, decision table testing, fuzz testing, model-based testing, use case testing, exploratory testing, and specification-based testing.


title: Software testing

text: Specification-based testing aims to test the functionality of software according to the applicable requirements. This level of testing usually requires thorough test cases to be provided to the tester, who then can simply verify that for a given input, the output value (or behavior), either "is" or "is not" the same as the expected value specified in the test case.


title: Software testing

text: Test cases are built around specifications and requirements, i.e., what the application is supposed to do. It uses external descriptions of the software, including specifications, requirements, and designs to derive test cases. These tests can be functional or non-functional, though usually functional.


title: Software testing

text: Specification-based testing may be necessary to assure correct functionality, but it is insufficient to guard against complex or high-risk situations.


title: Software testing

text: One advantage of the black box technique is that no programming knowledge is required. Whatever biases the programmers may have had, the tester likely has a different set and may emphasize different areas of functionality. On the other hand, black-box testing has been said to be "like a walk in a dark labyrinth without a flashlight." Because they do not examine the source code, there are situations when a tester writes many test cases to check something that could have been tested by only one test case or leaves some parts of the program untested.


title: Software testing

text: This method of test can be applied to all levels of software testing: unit, integration, system and acceptance. It typically comprises most if not all testing at higher levels, but can also dominate unit testing as well.


title: Software testing

text: Component interface testing is a variation of black-box testing, with the focus on the data values beyond just the related actions of a subsystem component. The practice of component interface testing can be used to check the handling of data passed between various units, or subsystem components, beyond full integration testing between those units. The data being passed can be considered as "message packets" and the range or data types can be checked, for data generated from one unit, and tested for validity before being passed into another unit. One option for interface testing is to keep a separate log file of data items being passed, often with a timestamp logged to allow analysis of thousands of cases of data passed between units for days or weeks. Tests can include checking the handling of some extreme data values while other interface variables are passed as normal values. Unusual data values in an interface can help explain unexpected performance in the next unit.


title: Software testing

text: The aim of visual testing is to provide developers with the ability to examine what was happening at the point of software failure by presenting the data in such a way that the developer can easily find the information she or he requires, and the information is expressed clearly.


title: Software testing

text: At the core of visual testing is the idea that showing someone a problem (or a test failure), rather than just describing it, greatly increases clarity and understanding. Visual testing, therefore, requires the recording of the entire test process – capturing everything that occurs on the test system in video format. Output videos are supplemented by real-time tester input via picture-in-a-picture webcam and audio commentary from microphones.


title: Software testing

text: Visual testing provides a number of advantages. The quality of communication is increased drastically because testers can show the problem (and the events leading up to it) to the developer as opposed to just describing it and the need to replicate test failures will cease to exist in many cases. The developer will have all the evidence she or he requires of a test failure and can instead focus on the cause of the fault and how it should be fixed.


title: Software testing

text: Ad hoc testing and exploratory testing are important methodologies for checking software integrity, because they require less preparation time to implement, while the important bugs can be found quickly. In ad hoc testing, where testing takes place in an improvised, impromptu way, the ability of the tester(s) to base testing off documented methods and then improvise variations of those tests can result in more rigorous examination of defect fixes. However, unless strict documentation of the procedures are maintained, one of the limits of ad hoc testing is lack of repeatability.


title: Software testing

text: Grey-box testing (American spelling: gray-box testing) involves having knowledge of internal data structures and algorithms for purposes of designing tests while executing those tests at the user, or black-box level. The tester will often have access to both "the source code and the executable binary." Grey-box testing may also include reverse engineering (using dynamic code analysis) to determine, for instance, boundary values or error messages. Manipulating input data and formatting output do not qualify as grey-box, as the input and output are clearly outside of the "black box" that we are calling the system under test. This distinction is particularly important when conducting integration testing between two modules of code written by two different developers, where only the interfaces are exposed for the test.


title: Software testing

text: By knowing the underlying concepts of how the software works, the tester makes better-informed testing choices while testing the software from outside. Typically, a grey-box tester will be permitted to set up an isolated testing environment with activities such as seeding a database. The tester can observe the state of the product being tested after performing certain actions such as executing SQL statements against the database and then executing queries to ensure that the expected changes have been reflected. Grey-box testing implements intelligent test scenarios, based on limited information. This will particularly apply to data type handling, exception handling, and so on.


title: Software testing

text: Broadly speaking, there are at least three levels of testing: unit testing, integration testing, and system testing. However, a fourth level, acceptance testing, may be included by developers. This may be in the form of operational acceptance testing or be simple end-user (beta) testing, testing to ensure the software meets functional expectations. Based on the ISTQB Certified Test Foundation Level syllabus, test levels includes those four levels, and the fourth level is named acceptance testing. Tests are frequently grouped into one of these levels by where they are added in the software development process, or by the level of specificity of the test.


title: Software testing

text: Unit testing refers to tests that verify the functionality of a specific section of code, usually at the function level. In an object-oriented environment, this is usually at the class level, and the minimal unit tests include the constructors and destructors.


title: Software testing

text: These types of tests are usually written by developers as they work on code (white-box style), to ensure that the specific function is working as expected. One function might have multiple tests, to catch corner cases or other branches in the code. Unit testing alone cannot verify the functionality of a piece of software, but rather is used to ensure that the building blocks of the software work independently from each other.


title: Software testing

text: Unit testing is a software development process that involves a synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development life cycle. Unit testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to additional testing; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development process.


title: Software testing

text: Depending on the organization's expectations for software development, unit testing might include static code analysis, data-flow analysis, metrics analysis, peer code reviews, code coverage analysis and other software testing practices.


title: Software testing

text: Integration testing is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces between components against a software design. Software components may be integrated in an iterative way or all together ("big bang"). Normally the former is considered a better practice since it allows interface issues to be located more quickly and fixed.


title: Software testing

text: Integration testing works to expose defects in the interfaces and interaction between integrated components (modules). Progressively larger groups of tested software components corresponding to elements of the architectural design are integrated and tested until the software works as a system.


title: Software testing

text: Integration tests usually involve a lot of code, and produce traces that are larger than those produced by unit tests. This has an impact on the ease of localizing the fault when an integration test fails. To overcome this issue, it has been proposed to automatically cut the large tests in smaller pieces to improve fault localization.


title: Software testing

text: System testing tests a completely integrated system to verify that the system meets its requirements. For example, a system test might involve testing a login interface, then creating and editing an entry, plus sending or printing results, followed by summary processing or deletion (or archiving) of entries, then logoff.


title: Software testing

text: Operational acceptance is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, or to become part of the production environment. Hence, it is also known as operational readiness testing (ORT) or Operations readiness and assurance (OR&A) testing. Functional testing within OAT is limited to those tests that are required to verify the "non-functional" aspects of the system.


title: Software testing

text: In addition, the software testing should ensure that the portability of the system, as well as working as expected, does not also damage or partially corrupt its operating environment or cause other processes within that environment to become inoperative.


title: Software testing

text: Contractual acceptance testing is performed based on the contract's acceptance criteria defined during the agreement of the contract, while regulatory acceptance testing is performed based on the relevant regulations to the software product. Both of these two testings can be performed by users or independent testers. Regulation acceptance testing sometimes involves the regulatory agencies auditing the test results.


title: Software testing

text: Different labels and ways of grouping testing may be testing types, software testing tactics or techniques.


title: Software testing

text: Most software systems have installation procedures that are needed before they can be used for their main purpose. Testing these procedures to achieve an installed software system that may be used is known as installation testing.


title: Software testing

text: A common cause of software failure (real or perceived) is a lack of its compatibility with other application software, operating systems (or operating system versions, old or new), or target environments that differ greatly from the original (such as a terminal or GUI application intended to be run on the desktop now being required to become a Web application, which must render in a Web browser). For example, in the case of a lack of backward compatibility, this can occur because the programmers develop and test software only on the latest version of the target environment, which not all users may be running. This results in the unintended consequence that the latest work may not function on earlier versions of the target environment, or on older hardware that earlier versions of the target environment were capable of using. Sometimes such issues can be fixed by proactively abstracting operating system functionality into a separate program module or library.


title: Software testing

text: Smoke testing consists of minimal attempts to operate the software, designed to determine whether there are any basic problems that will prevent it from working at all. Such tests can be used as build verification test.


title: Software testing

text: Regression testing focuses on finding defects after a major code change has occurred. Specifically, it seeks to uncover software regressions, as degraded or lost features, including old bugs that have come back. Such regressions occur whenever software functionality that was previously working correctly, stops working as intended. Typically, regressions occur as an unintended consequence of program changes, when the newly developed part of the software collides with the previously existing code. Regression testing is typically the largest test effort in commercial software development, due to checking numerous details in prior software features, and even new software can be developed while using some old test cases to test parts of the new design to ensure prior functionality is still supported.


title: Software testing

text: Common methods of regression testing include re-running previous sets of test cases and checking whether previously fixed faults have re-emerged. The depth of testing depends on the phase in the release process and the risk of the added features. They can either be complete, for changes added late in the release or deemed to be risky, or be very shallow, consisting of positive tests on each feature, if the changes are early in the release or deemed to be of low risk. In regression testing, it is important to have strong assertions on the existing behavior. For this, it is possible to generate and add new assertions in existing test cases, this is known as automatic test amplification.


title: Software testing

text: Alpha testing is simulated or actual operational testing by potential users/customers or an independent test team at the developers' site. Alpha testing is often employed for off-the-shelf software as a form of internal acceptance testing before the software goes to beta testing.


title: Software testing

text: Beta testing comes after alpha testing and can be considered a form of external user acceptance testing. Versions of the software, known as beta versions, are released to a limited audience outside of the programming team known as beta testers. The software is released to groups of people so that further testing can ensure the product has few faults or bugs. Beta versions can be made available to the open public to increase the feedback field to a maximal number of future users and to deliver value earlier, for an extended or even indefinite period of time (perpetual beta).


title: Software testing

text: Functional testing refers to activities that verify a specific action or function of the code. These are usually found in the code requirements documentation, although some development methodologies work from use cases or user stories. Functional tests tend to answer the question of "can the user do this" or "does this particular feature work."


title: Software testing

text: Non-functional testing refers to aspects of the software that may not be related to a specific function or user action, such as scalability or other performance, behavior under certain constraints, or security. Testing will determine the breaking point, the point at which extremes of scalability or performance leads to unstable execution. Non-functional requirements tend to be those that reflect the quality of the product, particularly in the context of the suitability perspective of its users.


title: Software testing

text: Continuous testing is the process of executing automated tests as part of the software delivery pipeline to obtain immediate feedback on the business risks associated with a software release candidate. Continuous testing includes the validation of both functional requirements and non-functional requirements; the scope of testing extends from validating bottom-up requirements or user stories to assessing the system requirements associated with overarching business goals.


title: Software testing

text: Destructive testing attempts to cause the software or a sub-system to fail. It verifies that the software functions properly even when it receives invalid or unexpected inputs, thereby establishing the robustness of input validation and error-management routines. Software fault injection, in the form of fuzzing, is an example of failure testing. Various commercial non-functional testing tools are linked from the software fault injection page; there are also numerous open-source and free software tools available that perform destructive testing.


title: Software testing

text: Performance testing is generally executed to determine how a system or sub-system performs in terms of responsiveness and stability under a particular workload. It can also serve to investigate, measure, validate or verify other quality attributes of the system, such as scalability, reliability and resource usage.


title: Software testing

text: "Load testing" is primarily concerned with testing that the system can continue to operate under a specific load, whether that be large quantities of data or a large number of users. This is generally referred to as software scalability. The related load testing activity of when performed as a non-functional activity is often referred to as "endurance testing". "Volume testing" is a way to test software functions even when certain components (for example a file or database) increase radically in size. "Stress testing" is a way to test reliability under unexpected or rare workloads. "Stability testing" (often referred to as load or endurance testing) checks to see if the software can continuously function well in or above an acceptable period.


title: Software testing

text: There is little agreement on what the specific goals of performance testing are. The terms load testing, performance testing, scalability testing, and volume testing, are often used interchangeably.


title: Software testing

text: Real-time software systems have strict timing constraints. To test if timing constraints are met, real-time testing is used.


title: Software testing

text: Usability testing is to check if the user interface is easy to use and understand. It is concerned mainly with the use of the application. This is not a kind of testing that can be automated; actual human users are needed, being monitored by skilled UI designers.


title: Software testing

text: Accessibility testing is done to ensure that the software is accessible to persons with disabilities. Some of the common web accessibility tests are


title: Software testing

text: Security testing is essential for software that processes confidential data to prevent system intrusion by hackers.


title: Software testing

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines this as a "type of testing conducted to evaluate the degree to which a test item, and associated data and information, are protected so that unauthorised persons or systems cannot use, read or modify them, and authorized persons or systems are not denied access to them."


title: Software testing

text: Testing for internationalization and localization validates that the software can be used with different languages and geographic regions. The process of pseudolocalization is used to test the ability of an application to be translated to another language, and make it easier to identify when the localization process may introduce new bugs into the product.


title: Software testing

text: Globalization testing verifies that the software is adapted for a new culture (such as different currencies or time zones).


title: Software testing

text: Actual translation to human languages must be tested, too. Possible localization and globalization failures include:


title: Software testing

text: Development Testing is a software development process that involves the synchronized application of a broad spectrum of defect prevention and detection strategies in order to reduce software development risks, time, and costs. It is performed by the software developer or engineer during the construction phase of the software development lifecycle. Development Testing aims to eliminate construction errors before code is promoted to other testing; this strategy is intended to increase the quality of the resulting software as well as the efficiency of the overall development process.


title: Software testing

text: Depending on the organization's expectations for software development, Development Testing might include static code analysis, data flow analysis, metrics analysis, peer code reviews, unit testing, code coverage analysis, traceability, and other software testing practices.


title: Software testing

text: A/B testing is a method of running a controlled experiment to determine if a proposed change is more effective than the current approach. Customers are routed to either a current version (control) of a feature, or to a modified version (treatment) and data is collected to determine which version is better at achieving the desired outcome.


title: Software testing

text: Concurrent or concurrency testing assesses the behaviour and performance of software and systems that use concurrent computing, generally under normal usage conditions. Typical problems this type of testing will expose are deadlocks, race conditions and problems with shared memory/resource handling.


title: Software testing

text: In software testing, conformance testing verifies that a product performs according to its specified standards. Compilers, for instance, are extensively tested to determine whether they meet the recognized standard for that language.


title: Software testing

text: Creating a display expected output, whether as data comparison of text or screenshots of the UI, is sometimes called snapshot testing or Golden Master Testing unlike many other forms of testing, this cannot detect failures automatically and instead requires that a human evaluate the output for inconsistencies.


title: Software testing

text: Property testing is a testing technique where, instead of asserting that specific inputs produce specific expected outputs, the practitioner randomly generates many inputs, runs the program on all of them, and asserts the truth of some "property" that should be true for every pair of input and output. For example, every input to a sort function should have the same length as its output. Every output from a sort function should be a monotonically increasing list.


title: Software testing

text: Property testing libraries allow the user to control the strategy by which random inputs are constructed, to ensure coverage of degenerate cases, or inputs featuring specific patterns that are needed to fully exercise aspects of the implementation under test.


title: Software testing

text: Property testing is also sometimes known as "generative testing" or "QuickCheck testing" since it was introduced and popularized by the Haskell library QuickCheck.


title: Software testing

text: Metamorphic testing (MT) is a property-based software testing technique, which can be an effective approach for addressing the test oracle problem and test case generation problem. The test oracle problem is the difficulty of determining the expected outcomes of selected test cases or to determine whether the actual outputs agree with the expected outcomes.


title: Software testing

text: VCR testing, also known as "playback testing" or "record/replay" testing, is a testing technique for increasing the reliability and speed of regression tests that involve a component that is slow or unreliable to communicate with, often a third-party API outside of the tester's control. It involves making a recording ("cassette") of the system's interactions with the external component, and then replaying the recorded interactions as a substitute for communicating with the external system on subsequent runs of the test.


title: Software testing

text: A common practice in waterfall development is that testing is performed by an independent group of testers. This can happen:


title: Software testing

text: However, even in the waterfall development model, unit testing is often done by the software development team even when further testing is done by a separate team.


title: Software testing

text: In contrast, some emerging software disciplines such as extreme programming and the agile software development movement, adhere to a "test-driven software development" model. In this process, unit tests are written first, by the software engineers (often with pair programming in the extreme programming methodology). The tests are expected to fail initially. Each failing test is followed by writing just enough code to make it pass. This means the test suites are continuously updated as new failure conditions and corner cases are discovered, and they are integrated with any regression tests that are developed. Unit tests are maintained along with the rest of the software source code and generally integrated into the build process (with inherently interactive tests being relegated to a partially manual build acceptance process).


title: Software testing

text: The ultimate goals of this test process are to support continuous integration and to reduce defect rates.


title: Software testing

text: This methodology increases the testing effort done by development, before reaching any formal testing team. In some other development models, most of the test execution occurs after the requirements have been defined and the coding process has been completed.


title: Software testing

text: Although variations exist between organizations, there is a typical cycle for testing. The sample below is common among organizations employing the Waterfall development model. The same practices are commonly found in other development models, but might not be as clear or explicit.


title: Software testing

text: Many programming groups are relying more and more on automated testing, especially groups that use test-driven development. There are many frameworks to write tests in, and continuous integration software will run tests automatically every time code is checked into a version control system.