title: Layla

text: Rhythm acoustic guitar player Andy Fairweather Low was invited by Clapton to his flat in Chelsea, London to work out the songs to be recorded for the "Unplugged" album in January 1992. During the process, Clapton suggested that it would be a good idea to do another version of "Layla". Fairweather Low agreed because he had wanted to release one himself as a big Derek and the Dominos fan. Clapton thought that the perfect arrangement for the rock anthem would be a shuffle because he always liked changing the tempo of a song and looking at something from a different angle.


title: Layla

text: When Clapton was asked about the acoustic version of the song by the MTV Network, he replied: "'Layla' sort of mystified me. I have done it the same all these years and never ever considered trying to revamp it. And a lot of artists do that, you know? Bob Dylan for instance changes everything everytime he plays it and I thought this was another great opportunity to just take it off on a different path, to put it to a shuffle and for a start, making it acoustic denied all the riffs, really. They would have sounded a bit weak, I think, on the acoustic guitar, so it just seemed to become Jazzier somehow. And of course, I'm singing it a whole octave down. So it gives it a nice kind of atmosphere."


title: Layla

text: The song was written in the key of D minor which Clapton recalled pushed him to the top of his singing range. When Clapton slowed it down, Fairweather Low suggested Clapton should sing the track a whole octave down. Clapton was pleased with the result as it sounded "nice" and "sort of Jazzy" to him. The new arrangement slowed down and reworked the original riff and dispensed with the piano coda. Because Clapton changed the arrangement so much, he decided to introduce this version to the unsuspecting live audience by stating: "See if you can spot this one."


title: Layla

text: AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that "Layla" seemed to be the "Unplugged" album's hit; he describes it as a "slow crawl through Derek & the Dominos' version, turning that anguished howl of pain into a cozy shuffle and the whole album proceeds at a similar amiable gait, taking its time and enjoying detours into old blues standards." Journalist Steve Hochman called the acoustic version a "low-key but seductive recasting". Music broadcaster VH1 thinks the "Unplugged" version revealed Clapton's guitar skills in the acoustic setting, which was particularly obvious on the reworking of "Layla" that "stressed Clapton's tender side without forfeitting intensity". "Entertainment Weekly" journalists picked the tune as the mega hit off the "Unplugged" album. The critics especially liked Leavell's piano work on the song, saying that it "adds a smoky-jazz-joint torch-song ambience that's both expectation shattering and emotionally compelling to the tune".


title: Layla

text: In 1970, "Jamrock Entertainment" listed "Layla" as the best song of the year. In 1972, "Layla" was one of the most performed songs of the year, and was already considered a "rock standard". With its re-release in 1982, the song cemented its reputation. It is featured on a number of "greatest ever" lists. The song was chosen by the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as one of its "500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll", and "Rolling Stone" ranked the song at number 27 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". The Recording Industry Association of America ranked "Layla" at number 118 on their Songs of the Century on 7 March 2001. Music critic Dave Marsh placed the tune at number two in his "Best Singles of the Year 1972" compilation. Based on such rankings, Acclaimed Music lists the original version as the 61st most acclaimed song of all time, the most acclaimed song of 1970 and the 12th most acclaimed song of the 1970s.


title: Layla

text: With its reworking in 1992 for the "Unplugged" album, "Layla" became an all-time hit song, as it won the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song in 1993, and was broadcast nonstop in 1992 and 1993 on the radio, in stores, and on television around the globe. In 1992, "Layla" was the most performed song of the year, and won a BMI Broadcasting Award for radio and television appearances of the 1992 "Layla" for more than two million times in summer of 1994. As of 2011, "Layla" had attained more than six million broadcasts on television and the radio or performances on other records and during live concerts.


title: Layla

text: "Layla" was used in "Goodfellas" during the scene portraying the aftermath of the 1978 Lufthansa heist. Director Martin Scorsese planned out the sequence with the song specifically in mind, playing it on set to synchronise with the staging and camera movement. The song also plays during the film's ending credits, after a cover of "My Way" by Sid Vicious.


title: Layla

text: American record producer DJ Khaled sampled the Derek and the Dominos' arrangement of "Layla" in his 2021 song "I Did It" featuring American rappers Post Malone, Megan Thee Stallion, and Lil Baby.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Nita Strauss (born December 7, 1986) is an American rock musician. She is currently Demi Lovato's touring guitarist and was a former touring guitarist for Alice Cooper from 2014 to 2022 and has a successful career as a solo artist. Strauss was the first female signature artist with Ibanez guitars and is regularly featured on the covers of worldwide print magazines including "Guitar World" and "Guitar Player". She was ranked No. 1 on "Guitar World"s list of "10 Female Guitar Players You Should Know".


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss started touring with her own band Lia-Fail as a teenager, leaving high school in her junior year to pursue music full time; the band included future world champion boxer Mikaela Mayer. Although initially known for her work with Iron Maiden all-female tribute band The Iron Maidens, Strauss' career has included performing with several rock ensembles including Consume the Fire, Femme Fatale, and the video-game supergroup Critical Hit.


title: Nita Strauss

text: In 2014, Strauss was the official in-house guitarist for the Los Angeles Kiss (LA KISS), the arena football team owned by Paul Stanley and Gene Simmons of KISS. The house band played the national anthem and provided additional music during the games.


title: Nita Strauss

text: In June 2014, Strauss was hired to replace Orianthi as Alice Cooper's touring guitarist for the remaining 2014 tour dates. She toured with Alice Cooper until July 2022, when she announced her departure from the touring band. A few days later, Strauss announced that she had joined Demi Lovato's backing band as a touring guitarist.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss is featured as the main guitarist for seven songs on Docker's Guild album called "The Heisenberg Diaries – Book A: Sounds of Future Past", released on January 21, 2016.


title: Nita Strauss

text: In April 2018, Strauss launched a Kickstarter campaign for her debut solo record "Controlled Chaos". The campaign was successfully funded in two hours and eventually raised eight times its initial goal. Strauss produced the record herself, including the majority of the engineering work, and played all of the guitars and bass on the record.


title: Nita Strauss

text: After the record was completed, Strauss signed with Sumerian Records to release and distribute the album worldwide. The first single, "Our Most Desperate Hour", was released in September 2018 along with pre-orders for the record on both CD and vinyl, with the vinyl completely selling out before release. "Controlled Chaos" debuted on the Billboard charts at No. 1 "Top New Artist", No. 3 "Label Independent", No. 4 "Top Hard Music", No. 8 "Top Rock", No. 8 "Top Internet", No. 20 "Top albums", and No. 7 on the "iTunes Rock chart". The album's second single, "Mariana Trench", was chosen by WWE as the official theme for .


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss was introduced to World Wrestling Entertainment by her boyfriend Josh Villalta. She initially started watching because it was important to him, but quickly became a fan herself.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss started performing live at WWE pay-per-view events in 2018. In April 2018, Strauss played Shinsuke Nakamura's entrance music at WrestleMania 34 in New Orleans in front of an audience of 78,000 fans and millions more who watched the worldwide streaming event. On October 28, Strauss performed with Lzzy Hale at WWE Evolution. Her original song "Mariana Trench" was chosen by Triple H as the official theme for .


title: Nita Strauss

text: In January 2018, Strauss became the first ever female Ibanez signature artist with her own model guitar, the Ibanez JIVA10. DiMarzio later released their Pandemonium humbuckers, signature pickups that were developed especially for her JIVA Ibanez guitar.


title: Nita Strauss

text: On January 26, 2019, Strauss was honored at the 7th Annual She Rocks Awards with the "Inspire Award", presented to her by Nick Bowcott and her personal hero, Steve Vai.https://loudwire.com/nita-strauss-first-active-rock-solo-female-chart-topper/


title: Nita Strauss

text: On January 9, 2022, Strauss became the first female rock solo artist in 32 years to hit number one on Billboard's Mainstream Rock chart with her song "Dead Inside".


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss teaches guitar playing, and has gone on teaching tours offering master classes in the US, Canada, UK, Europe, South America, and Asia. She has written articles and recorded companion videos for "Guitar World" and "Premier Guitar" magazines.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss and fellow musicians Rabea Massaad and Plini were selected as celebrity judges to choose the "2019 Young Guitarist of the Year" at the UK Guitar Show.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss says she is a descendant of Austrian composer Johann Strauss through her father. Her sister, Varsha Strauss, is married to Panji Adhikumoro, grandson of Suharto, 2nd President of Indonesia from his son, Bambang Trihatmodjo.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss is an avid fan of the Los Angeles Rams, she frequently appears at Rams games at Sofi Stadium, performing interludes or playing riffs out to the stadium to start crowd chants.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss was honored to play "America the Beautiful" at the Rams' Salute to Service game in November 2018.


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss is a fitness enthusiast, practicing strength training, Muay Thai and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, and posts blogs about fitness issues on social media. She has been featured in "Muscle & Fitness" and Bodybuilding.com. In 2019, Strauss launched the "Nita Strauss: Body Shred" fitness challenge, with a companion e-book titled "Body Shred: Your Guide to Feeling and Looking like a Rock Star".


title: Nita Strauss

text: Strauss has recorded with Alice Cooper, Jamie Christopherson, Critical Hit, Docker's Guild, FB1964, Metal Allegiance, Kane Roberts and We Start Wars. She has been featured on albums by Maxxxwell Carlisle, Tina Guo and Angel Vivaldi, as well as the all-female compilation album "She Rocks". She has played on dozens of albums, trailers and soundtracks, including "Heroes of the Storm" and "". Strauss released her first instrumental solo album, "Controlled Chaos", on November 16, 2018.


title: White movement

text: The White movement () also known as the Whites (Бѣлые / Белые, "Beliye"), was a loose confederation of anti-communist forces that fought the communist Bolsheviks, also known as the "Reds", in the Russian Civil War () and that to a lesser extent continued operating as militarized associations of insurrectionists both outside and within Russian borders in Siberia until roughly World War II (1939–1945). The movement's military arm was the White Army (Бѣлая армія / Белая армия, "Belaya armiya"), also known as the White Guard (Бѣлая гвардія / Белая гвардия, "Belaya gvardiya") or White Guardsmen (Бѣлогвардейцы / Белогвардейцы, "Belogvardeytsi").


title: White movement

text: During the Russian Civil War the White movement functioned as a big-tent political movement representing an array of political opinions in Russia united in their opposition to the communist Bolsheviks—from the republican-minded liberals and Kerenskyite social-democrats on the left through monarchists and supporters of a united multinational Russia to the ultra-nationalist Black Hundreds on the right.


title: White movement

text: Following the military defeat of the Whites, remnants and continuations of the movement remained in several organizations, some of which only had narrow support, enduring within the wider White émigré overseas community until after the fall of the European communist states in the Eastern European Revolutions of 1989 and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. This community-in-exile of anti-communists often divided into liberal and the more conservative segments, with some still hoping for the restoration of the Romanov dynasty. Two claimants to the empty throne emerged during the Civil War, Grand Duke Kirill Vladimirovich of Russia and Grand Duke Nicholas Nikolaevich of Russia.


title: White movement

text: Above all, the White movement emerged as opponents of the Red Army. The White Army had the stated aim to keep law and order in Russia as the Tsar's army before the civil war and the revolution of Russia. They worked to remove Soviet organizations and functionaries in White-controlled territory.


title: White movement

text: Overall, the White Army was nationalistic and rejected ethnic particularism and separatism. The White Army generally believed in a united multinational Russia and opposed separatists who wanted to create nation-states.


title: White movement

text: British parliamentary influential leader Winston Churchill (1874–1965) personally warned General Anton Denikin (1872–1947), formerly of the Imperial Army and later a major White military leader, whose forces effected pogroms and persecutions against the Jews: [M]y task in winning support in Parliament for the Russian Nationalist cause will be infinitely harder if well-authenticated complaints continue to be received from Jews in the zone of the Volunteer Armies.


title: White movement

text: Many of the White leaders accepted autocracy while remaining suspicious of "politics," which they characterized as consisting of speeches, elections, and party activities. Aside from being anti-Bolshevik and anti-Communist and patriotic, the Whites had no set ideology or main leader. The White Armies did acknowledge a single provisional head of state in a Supreme Governor of Russia in a Provisional All-Russian Government, but this post was prominent only under the leadership in the war campaigns during 1918–1920 of Admiral Alexander Kolchak, formerly of the previous Russian Imperial Navy.


title: White movement

text: The movement had no set foreign policy. Whites differed on policies toward the German Empire in its extended occupation of western Russia, the Baltic states, Poland and Ukraine on the Eastern Front in the closing days of the World War, debating whether or not to ally with it. The Whites wanted to keep from alienating any potential supporters and allies and thus saw an exclusively monarchist position as a detriment to their cause and recruitment. White-movement leaders, such as Anton Denikin, advocated for Russians to create their own government, claiming the military could not decide in Russians' steads. Admiral Alexander Kolchak succeeded in creating a temporary wartime government in Omsk, acknowledged by most other White leaders, only for it to fall with the loss of his armies.


title: White movement

text: Some warlords who were aligned with the White movement, such as Grigory Semyonov and Roman Ungern von Sternberg, did not acknowledge any authority but their own. Consequently, the White movement had no unifying political convictions, as members could be monarchists, republicans, rightists, or Kadets. Among White Army leaders, neither General Lavr Kornilov nor General Anton Denikin were monarchists, yet General Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel was a monarchist willing to soldier for a republican Russian government. Moreover, other political parties supported the anti-Bolshevik White Army, among them the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and others who opposed Lenin's Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917. Depending on the time and place, those White Army supporters might also exchange right-wing allegiance for allegiance to the Red Army.


title: White movement

text: Unlike the Bolsheviks, the White Armies did not share a single ideology, methodology, or political goal. They were led by conservative generals with different agendas and methods, and for the most part they operated quite independently of each other, with little coordination or cohesion. The composition and command structure of White armies also varied, some containing hardened veterans of World War I, others more recent volunteers. These differences and divisions, along with their inability to offer an alternative government and win popular support, prevented the White armies from winning the Civil War.


title: White movement

text: The Volunteer Army in South Russia became the most prominent and the largest of the various and disparate White forces. Starting off as a small and well-organized military in January 1918, the Volunteer Army soon grew. The Kuban Cossacks joined the White Army and conscription of both peasants and Cossacks began. In late February 1918, soldiers under the command of General Aleksei Kaledin were forced to retreat from Rostov-on-Don due to the advance of the Red Army. In what became known as the Ice March, they traveled to Kuban in order to unite with the Kuban Cossacks, most of whom did not support the Volunteer Army. In March, men under the command of General Viktor Pokrovsky joined the Volunteer Army, increasing its membership to , and by June to . In 1919 the Don Cossacks joined the Army. In that year between May and October, the Volunteer Army grew from to soldiers and was better supplied than its Red counterpart. The White Army's rank-and-file comprised active anti-Bolsheviks, such as Cossacks, nobles, and peasants, as conscripts and as volunteers.


title: White movement

text: The White movement had access to various naval forces, both seagoing and riverine, especially the Black Sea Fleet.


title: White movement

text: Aerial forces available to the Whites included the Slavo-British Aviation Corps (S.B.A.C.). The Russian ace Alexander Kazakov operated within this unit.


title: White movement

text: The White movement's leaders and first members came mainly from the ranks of military officers. Many came from outside the nobility, such as generals Mikhail Alekseev and Anton Denikin, who originated in serf families, or General Lavr Kornilov, a Cossack.


title: White movement

text: The White generals never mastered administration; they often utilized "prerevolutionary functionaries" or "military officers with monarchististic inclinations" for administering White-controlled regions.


title: White movement

text: The White Armies were often lawless and disordered. Also, White-controlled territories had multiple different and varying currencies with unstable exchange-rates. The chief currency, the Volunteer Army's ruble, had no gold backing.


title: White movement

text: The Whites and the Reds fought the Russian Civil War from November 1917 until 1921, and isolated battles continued in the Far East until 1923. The White Army—aided by the Allied forces (Triple Entente) from countries such as Japan, the United Kingdom, France, Greece, Italy and the United States and (sometimes) the Central Powers forces such as Germany and Austria-Hungary—fought in Siberia, Ukraine, and the Crimea. They were defeated by the Red Army due to military and ideological disunity, as well as the determination and increasing unity of the Red Army.


title: White movement

text: White organising in the South started on 15 November 1917, (Old Style) under General Mikhail Alekseev (1857–1918). In December 1917, General Lavr Kornilov took over the military command of the newly named Volunteer Army until his death in April 1918, after which General Anton Denikin took over, becoming head of the "Armed Forces of the South of Russia" in January 1919.


title: White movement

text: The Southern Front featured massive-scale operations and posed the most dangerous threat to the Bolshevik Government. At first it depended entirely upon volunteers in Russia proper, mostly the Cossacks, among the first to oppose the Bolshevik Government. On 23 June 1918, the Volunteer Army (8,000–9,000 men) began its so-called Second Kuban Campaign with support from Pyotr Krasnov. By September, the Volunteer Army comprised 30,000 to 35,000 members, thanks to mobilization of the Kuban Cossacks gathered in the North Caucasus. Thus, the Volunteer Army took the name of the Caucasus Volunteer Army. On 23 January 1919, the Volunteer Army under Denikin oversaw the defeat of the 11th Soviet Army and then captured the North Caucasus region. After capturing the Donbass, Tsaritsyn and Kharkiv in June, Denikin's forces launched an attack towards Moscow on 3 July, (N.S.). Plans envisaged 40,000 fighters under the command of General Vladimir May-Mayevsky storming the city.


title: White movement

text: After General Denikin's attack upon Moscow failed in 1919, the Armed Forces of the South of Russia retreated. On 26 and 27 March 1920, the remnants of the Volunteer Army evacuated from Novorossiysk to the Crimea, where they merged with the army of Pyotr Wrangel.


title: White movement

text: The Eastern Front started in spring 1918 as a secret movement among army officers and right-wing socialist forces. In that front, they launched an attack in collaboration with the Czechoslovak Legions, who were then stranded in Siberia by the Bolshevik Government, who had barred them from leaving Russia, and with the Japanese, who also intervened to help the Whites in the east. Admiral Alexander Kolchak headed the eastern White counter-revolutionary army and a provisional Russian government. Despite some significant success in 1919, the Whites were defeated being forced back to Far Eastern Russia, where they continued fighting until October 1922. When the Japanese withdrew, the Soviet army of the Far Eastern Republic retook the territory. The Civil War was officially declared over at this point, although Anatoly Pepelyayev still controlled the Ayano-Maysky District at that time. Pepelyayev's Yakut revolt, which concluded on 16 June 1923, represented the last military action in Russia by a White Army. It ended with the defeat of the final anti-communist enclave in the country, signalling the end of all military hostilities relating to the Russian Civil War.


title: White movement

text: Headed by Nikolai Yudenich, Evgeni Miller, and Anatoly Lieven, the White forces in the North demonstrated less co-ordination than General Denikin's Army of Southern Russia. The Northwestern Army allied itself with Estonia, while Lieven's West Russian Volunteer Army sided with the Baltic nobility. Authoritarian support led by Pavel Bermondt-Avalov and Stanisław Bułak-Bałachowicz played a role as well. The most notable operation on this front, Operation White Sword, saw an unsuccessful advance towards the Russian capital of Petrograd in the autumn of 1919.


title: White movement

text: The defeated anti-Bolshevik Russians went into exile, congregating in Belgrade, Berlin, Paris, Harbin, Istanbul, and Shanghai. They established military and cultural networks that lasted through World War II (1939–1945), e.g., the Russian community in Harbin and the Russian community in Shanghai. Afterward, the White Russians' anti-Communist activists established a home base in the United States, to which numerous refugees emigrated.


title: White movement

text: Moreover, in the 1920s and the 1930s the White Movement established organisations outside Russia, which were meant to depose the Soviet Government with guerrilla warfare, e.g., the Russian All-Military Union, the Brotherhood of Russian Truth, and the National Alliance of Russian Solidarists, a far-right anticommunist organization founded in 1930 by a group of young White emigres in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Some White émigrés adopted pro-Soviet sympathies and were termed "Soviet patriots". These people formed organizations such as the Mladorossi, the Eurasianists, and the Smenovekhovtsy. A Russian cadet corps was established to prepare the next generation of anti-Communists for the "spring campaign"—a hopeful term denoting a renewed military campaign to reconquer Russia from the Soviet Government. In any event, many cadets volunteered to fight for the Russian Corps during the Second World War, when some White Russians participated in the Russian Liberation Movement.


title: White movement

text: After the war, active anti-Soviet combat was almost exclusively continued by the National Alliance of Russian Solidarists. Other organizations either dissolved, or began concentrating exclusively on self-preservation and/or educating the youth. Various youth organizations, such as the Russian Scouts-in-Exteris, promoted providing children with a background in pre-Soviet Russian culture and heritage. Some supported Zog I of Albania during the 1920s and a few independently served with the Nationalists during the Spanish Civil War. White Russians also served alongside the Soviet Red Army during the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang and the Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang in 1937.


title: White movement

text: After the February Revolution, in western Russia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania declared themselves independent, but they had substantial Communist or Russian military presence. Civil wars followed, wherein the anti-Communist side may be referred to as White Armies, e.g. the White Guard-led, partially conscripted army in Finland ("valkoinen armeija"). However, since they were nationalists, their aims were substantially different from the Russian White Army proper; for instance, Russian White generals never supported Finnish independence. The defeat of the Russian White Army made the point moot in this dispute. The countries remained independent and governed by non-Communist governments.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula . It is a white crystalline solid at room temperature, and it is highly soluble in water. It can be created by neutralising hydrochloric acid with calcium hydroxide.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is commonly encountered as a hydrated solid with generic formula , where "n" = 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6. These compounds are mainly used for de-icing and dust control. Because the anhydrous salt is hydroscopic and deliquescent, it is used as a desiccant.


title: Calcium chloride

text: By depressing the freezing point of water, calcium chloride is used to prevent ice formation and is used to de-ice. This application consumes the greatest amount of calcium chloride. Calcium chloride is relatively harmless to plants and soil. As a deicing agent, it is much more effective at lower temperatures than sodium chloride. When distributed for this use, it usually takes the form of small, white spheres a few millimeters in diameter, called prills. Solutions of calcium chloride can prevent freezing at temperatures as low as −52 °C (−62 °F), making it ideal for filling agricultural implement tires as a liquid ballast, aiding traction in cold climates.


title: Calcium chloride

text: The second largest application of calcium chloride exploits its hygroscopic nature and the tackiness of its hydrates; calcium chloride is highly hygroscopic and its hydration is an exothermic process. A concentrated solution keeps a liquid layer on the surface of dirt roads, which suppresses the formation of dust. It keeps the finer dust particles on the road, providing a cushioning layer. If these are allowed to blow away, the large aggregate begins to shift around and the road breaks down. Using calcium chloride reduces the need for grading by as much as 50% and the need for fill-in materials as much as 80%.


title: Calcium chloride

text: The average intake of calcium chloride as food additives has been estimated to be 160–345 mg/day. Calcium chloride is permitted as a food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant and firming agent with the E number E509. It is considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under the US National Organic Program.


title: Calcium chloride

text: In marine aquariums, calcium chloride is one way to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate-shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians. Calcium hydroxide (limewater) or a calcium reactor can also be used.


title: Calcium chloride

text: As a firming agent, calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables, in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices. It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages, including bottled water. The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles without increasing the food's sodium content. Calcium chloride's freezing-point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the caramel in caramel-filled chocolate bars. Also, it is frequently added to sliced apples to maintain texture.


title: Calcium chloride

text: In brewing beer, calcium chloride is sometimes used to correct mineral deficiencies in the brewing water. It affects flavor and chemical reactions during the brewing process, and can also affect yeast function during fermentation.


title: Calcium chloride

text: In cheesemaking, calcium chloride is sometimes added to processed (pasteurized/homogenized) milk to restore the natural balance between calcium and protein in casein. It is added before the coagulant.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is used to prevent cork spot and bitter pit on apples by spraying on the tree during the late growing season.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Drying tubes are frequently packed with calcium chloride. Kelp is dried with calcium chloride for use in producing sodium carbonate. Anhydrous calcium chloride has been approved by the FDA as a packaging aid to ensure dryness (CPG 7117.02).


title: Calcium chloride

text: The hydrated salt can be dried for re-use but will dissolve in its own water of hydration if heated quickly and form a hard amalgamated solid when cooled.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is used in concrete mixes to accelerate the initial setting, but chloride ions lead to corrosion of steel rebar, so it should not be used in reinforced concrete. The anhydrous form of calcium chloride may also be used for this purpose and can provide a measure of the moisture in concrete.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is included as an additive in plastics and in fire extinguishers, in blast furnaces as an additive to control scaffolding (clumping and adhesion of materials that prevent the furnace charge from descending), and in fabric softener as a thinner.


title: Calcium chloride

text: In the oil industry, calcium chloride is used to increase the density of solids-free brines. It is also used to provide inhibition of swelling clays in the water phase of invert emulsion drilling fluids.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride is also an ingredient used in ceramic slipware. It suspends clay particles so that they float within the solution, making it easier to use in a variety of slipcasting techniques.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride dihydrate (20 percent by weight) dissolved in ethanol (95 percent ABV) has been used as a sterilant for male animals. The solution is injected into the testes of the animal. Within one month, necrosis of testicular tissue results in sterilization.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Cocaine producers in Colombia import tons of calcium chloride to recover solvents that are on the INCB Red List and are more tightly controlled.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Similarly, is used as a flux and electrolyte in the FFC Cambridge electrolysis process for titanium production, where it ensures the proper exchange of calcium and oxygen ions between the electrodes.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Although non-toxic in small quantities when wet, the strongly hygroscopic properties of the non-hydrated salt present some hazards. Calcium chloride can act as an irritant by desiccating moist skin. Solid calcium chloride dissolves exothermically, and burns can result in the mouth and esophagus if it is ingested. Ingestion of concentrated solutions or solid products may cause gastrointestinal irritation or ulceration.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride dissolves in water, producing chloride and the aquo complex . In this way, these solutions are sources of "free" calcium and free chloride ions. This description is illustrated by the fact that these solutions react with phosphate sources to give a solid precipitate of calcium phosphate:


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride has a very high enthalpy change of solution, indicated by considerable temperature rise accompanying dissolution of the anhydrous salt in water. This property is the basis for its largest-scale application.


title: Calcium chloride

text: In much of the world, calcium chloride is derived from limestone as a by-product of the Solvay process, which follows the net reaction below:


title: Calcium chloride

text: As with most bulk commodity salt products, trace amounts of other cations from the alkali metals and alkaline earth metals (groups 1 and 2) and other anions from the halogens (group 17) typically occur, but the concentrations are trifling.


title: Calcium chloride

text: Calcium chloride occurs as the rare evaporite minerals sinjarite (dihydrate) and antarcticite (hexahydrate). Another natural hydrate known is ghiaraite – a tetrahydrate. The related minerals chlorocalcite (potassium calcium chloride, ) and tachyhydrite (calcium magnesium chloride, ) are also very rare. So is true for rorisite, CaClF (calcium chloride fluoride).


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Robert Cletus Driscoll (March 3, 1937 – March 30, 1968) was an American actor known for his film and television performances from 1943 to 1960. He starred in some of the Walt Disney Studios' best-known live-action pictures of that period: "Song of the South" (1946), "So Dear to My Heart" (1949), and "Treasure Island" (1950), as well as RKO's "The Window" (1949). He served as the animation model and provided the voice for the title role in "Peter Pan" (1953). He received an Academy Juvenile Award for outstanding performances in "So Dear to My Heart" and "The Window".


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In the mid-1950s, Driscoll's acting career began to decline, and he turned primarily to guest appearances on anthology TV series. He became addicted to narcotics, and was sentenced to prison for illicit drug use. After his release, he focused his attention on the "avant-garde" art scene. In ill health from his substance abuse, and with his funds depleted, his body was discovered on March 30, 1968, in an abandoned building in the East Village of Manhattan.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: He was born Robert Cletus Driscoll in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, the only child of Cletus (1901–1969), an insulation salesman, and Isabelle (née Kratz; 1904–1981), a former schoolteacher. Shortly after his birth, the family moved to Des Moines, where they stayed until early 1943. The family moved to Los Angeles when a doctor advised the father to relocate to California because he was suffering from work-related handling of asbestos.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll's parents were encouraged to help their son become a child performer in films. Their barber's son, an actor, got Bobby an audition at MGM for a role in the family drama "Lost Angel" (1943), which starred Margaret O'Brien. While on a tour across the studio lot, five-year-old Driscoll noticed a mock-up ship and asked where the water was. The director was impressed by the boy's curiosity and intelligence and chose him over 40 applicants.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll's brief, two-minute debut helped him win the role of young Al Sullivan, the youngest of the five Sullivan brothers, in the 20th Century Fox's World War II drama "The Fighting Sullivans" (1944) with Thomas Mitchell and Anne Baxter. Additional screen portrayals included the boy who could blow his whistle while standing on his head in "Sunday Dinner for a Soldier", the "child brother" of Richard Arlen in "The Big Bonanza" (both 1944), and young Percy Maxim in "So Goes My Love" (1946), with Don Ameche and Myrna Loy. He also had smaller roles in movies such as "Identity Unknown" (1945) and "Miss Susie Slagle's", "From This Day Forward", and "O.S.S." with Alan Ladd (all 1946).


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll and Luana Patten were the first two actors Walt Disney placed under contract. Driscoll then played the lead character in "Song of the South" (1946), which introduced live action into the producer's films in conjunction with extensive animated footage. The film turned Driscoll and his co-star Luana Patten into child stars, and they were discussed for a special Academy Award as the best child actors of the year, but for the year of its release, no juvenile awards were presented at all.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Now nicknamed by the American press as Walt Disney's "Sweetheart Team", Driscoll and Patten starred together in "So Dear to My Heart" (1948) with Burl Ives and Beulah Bondi. It was planned as Disney's first all-live-action movie, with production beginning immediately after "Song of the South", but its release was delayed until late 1948 to meet the demands of Disney's co-producer and longtime distributor RKO Radio Pictures for animated content in the film.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll played Eddie Cantor's screen son in the RKO Studios musical comedy "If You Knew Susie" (also 1948), in which he teamed with former Our Gang member Margaret Kerry. Patten and he appeared with Roy Rogers and the Sons of the Pioneers in the live-action teaser for the "Pecos Bill" segment of Disney's cartoon compilation "Melody Time" (also 1948).


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll was lent to RKO to star in "The Window", based on Cornell Woolrich's short story "The Boy Cried Murder". Howard Hughes, who had bought RKO the previous year, considered the film unworthy of release and Driscoll not much of an actor, so delayed its release. When it was released in May 1949, it became a surprise hit. "The New York Times" credited Driscoll with the film's success:


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: "So Dear to My Heart" and "The Window" earned Driscoll a special Juvenile Academy Award in March 1950 as the outstanding juvenile actor of 1949.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll was cast to play Jim Hawkins in Walt Disney's version of Robert Louis Stevenson's "Treasure Island" (1950), with British actor Robert Newton as Long John Silver, the studio's first all-live-action picture. The feature was filmed in the United Kingdom, and during production, Driscoll was found to not have a valid British work permit, so his family and Disney were fined and ordered to leave the country. They were allowed to remain for six weeks to prepare an appeal, and director Byron Haskin hastily shot all of Driscoll's close-ups, using his British stand-in to film missing location scenes after his parents and he had returned to California.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: "Treasure Island" was an international hit, and several other film projects involving Driscoll were under discussion, but none materialized. For example, Haskin recalled in his memoirs that Disney, although interested in Robert Louis Stevenson's pirate story as a full-length cartoon, always planned to cast Driscoll as Mark Twain's Tom Sawyer. He was at the perfect age for the role, but because of a story rights ownership dispute with Hollywood producer David O. Selznick, who had previously produced the property in 1938, Disney ultimately had to cancel the entire project. Driscoll also was scheduled to portray a youthful follower of Robin Hood following "Treasure Island", again with Robert Newton, who would play Friar Tuck, but Driscoll's run-in with British immigration made this impossible.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll's second long-run Disney contract allowed him to be lent to independent Horizon Pictures for the double role of Danny/Josh Reed in "When I Grow Up" (1951). His casting was suggested by screenwriter Michael Kanin.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In addition to his brief guest appearance in Walt Disney's first television Christmas show in 1950, "One Hour in Wonderland", Driscoll lent his voice to Goofy, Jr. in the Disney cartoon shorts "Fathers are People" and "Father's Lion", which were released in 1951 and 1952, respectively.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll portrayed Robert "Bibi" Bonnard in Richard Fleischer's comedy "The Happy Time" (1952), which was based on a Broadway play of the same name by Samuel A. Taylor. Cast with Charles Boyer, Marsha Hunt, Louis Jourdan, and Kurt Kasznar, he played the juvenile offspring of a patriarch in Quebec of the 1920s, the character upon whom the plot centered.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll's last major success, "Peter Pan" (1953), was produced largely between May 1949 and mid-1951. Driscoll was cast with Disney's "Little British Lady" Kathryn Beaumont, who was in the role of Wendy Darling; he was used as the reference model for the close-ups and provided Peter Pan's voice, and dancer and choreographer Roland Dupree was the model for the character's motion. Scenes were played on an almost empty sound stage, with only the most essential props, and filmed for use by the animators.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In his biography on Disney, Marc Elliot described Driscoll as the producer's favorite "live action" child star: "Walt often referred to Driscoll with great affection as the living embodiment of his own youth". During a project meeting following the completion of "Peter Pan", though, Disney stated that he now saw Driscoll as best suited for roles as a young bully rather than a likeable protagonist. Driscoll's salary at Disney had been raised to $1,750 per week and compared to his salary, Driscoll had little work from 1952 on. In March 1953, the additional two-year option Driscoll had been extended (which would have kept him at Disney into 1956) was cancelled, just weeks after "Peter Pan" was released theatrically. A severe case of acne accompanying the onset of puberty, explaining why it was necessary for Driscoll to use heavy makeup for his performances on dozens of TV shows, was officially provided as the final reason for the termination of his connection with the Disney Studios.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll encountered increasing indifference from the other Hollywood studios. Still perceived as "Disney's kid actor", he was unable to get movie roles as a serious character actor. Beginning in 1953 and for most of the next three years, the bulk of his work was on television, on such anthology and drama series as "Fireside Theater", "Schlitz Playhouse of Stars", "Front Row Center", "Navy Log", "TV Reader's Digest", "Climax!", "Ford Theatre", "Studio One", "Dragnet", "Medic", and "Dick Powell's Zane Grey Theatre". On another series, "Men of Annapolis", he appeared with John Smith, future second husband of Driscoll's "Song of the South" co-star, Luana Patten.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In some special star-focusing series, Driscoll appeared with Loretta Young, Gloria Swanson, and Jane Wyman.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Between 1948 and 1957, he performed on a number of radio productions, which included a special broadcast version of "Treasure Island" in January 1951 and of "Peter Pan" in December 1953. As it was common practice in this business, Driscoll and Luana Patten also did promotional radio gigs (starting in late 1946 for "Song of the South") and toured the country for various parades and charity events through the years.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In 1947, he recorded a special version of "So Dear to My Heart" at Capitol Records. In 1954, he was awarded a Milky Way Gold Star Award, chosen in a nationwide poll for his work on television and radio.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: After Driscoll left the Disney studios, his parents withdrew him from the Hollywood Professional School, which served child movie actors, and sent him to the public West Los Angeles University High School, instead. There, his grades dropped substantially, he was the target of ridicule for his previous film career, and he began to take drugs. He said later, "The other kids didn't accept me. They treated me as one apart. I tried desperately to be one of the gang. When they rejected me, I fought back, became belligerent and cocky—and was afraid all the time." At his request, Driscoll's parents returned him the next year to Hollywood Professional School, where in May 1955 he graduated.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: His drug use increased; in an interview years later, he stated, "I was 17 when I first experimented with the stuff. In no time I was using whatever was available... mostly heroin, because I had the money to pay for it." In 1956, he was arrested for the first time for possession of marijuana, but the charge was dismissed. On July 24, 1956, Hedda Hopper wrote in the "Los Angeles Times": "This could cost this fine lad and good actor his career." In 1957, he had only two television parts, as the loyal brother of a criminal immigrant in "M Squad", a long-running crime series starring Lee Marvin, and as an officer aboard the submarine S-38 in an episode of the World War II docudrama series "The Silent Service".


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In December 1956, Driscoll and his longtime girlfriend, Marilyn Jean Rush (occasionally misspelled as "Brush"), eloped to Mexico to marry despite their parents' objections. The couple was later rewed in a ceremony that took place in Los Angeles in March 1957. They had two daughters and one son, but the relationship did not last. They separated, then divorced in 1960.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll began using the name "Robert Driscoll" to distance himself from his youthful roles as "Bobby" (since 1951, he had been known to friends and family as "Bob", and in "Schlitz Playhouse of Stars" – Early Space Conquerors, 1952, was credited as "Bob Driscoll"). He landed two final screen roles: with Cornel Wilde in "The Scarlet Coat" (1955) and opposite Mark Damon, Connie Stevens, and Frances Farmer in "The Party Crashers" (1958).


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: He was charged with disturbing the peace and assault with a deadly weapon, the latter after hitting one of two hecklers with a pistol who had made insulting remarks while he was washing a girlfriend's car; the charges were dropped.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: His last known appearances on TV were small roles in two single-season series: "The Best of the Post", a syndicated anthology series adapted from stories published in "The Saturday Evening Post" magazine, and "The Brothers Brannagan", an unsuccessful crime series starring Stephen Dunne and Mark Roberts. Both were originally aired on November 5, 1960.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Late in 1961, he was sentenced as a drug addict and imprisoned at the Narcotic Rehabilitation Center of the California Institution for Men in Chino, California. When Driscoll left Chino in early 1962, he was unable to find acting work. Embittered by this, he said, "I have found that memories are not very useful. I was carried on a silver platter—and then dumped into the garbage."


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In 1965, a year after his parole expired, he relocated to New York, hoping to revive his career on the Broadway stage, but was unsuccessful. He became part of Andy Warhol's Greenwich Village art community known as the Factory, where he began focusing on his artistic talents.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: He had previously been encouraged to do so by artist and poet Wallace Berman, whom he had befriended after joining Berman's art circle (now also known as Semina Culture) in Los Angeles in 1956. Some of his works were considered outstanding, and a few of his surviving collages and cardboard mailers were temporarily exhibited in Los Angeles at the Santa Monica Museum of Art.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In 1965, early in his tenure at the Factory, Driscoll gave his last known film performance, in experimental filmmaker Piero Heliczer's underground movie "Dirt".


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: On March 30, 1968, two boys playing in a deserted East Village tenement at 371 East 10th St. found Driscoll's body lying on a cot, with two empty beer bottles and religious pamphlets scattered on the ground. A post mortem examination determined that he had died from heart failure caused by advanced atherosclerosis from his drug use. No identification was on the body, and photos shown around the neighborhood yielded no positive identification. His unclaimed body was buried in an unmarked pauper's grave in New York City's Potter's Field on Hart Island.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Late in 1969, Driscoll's mother sought the help of officials at Disney studios to contact him, for a hoped-for reunion with his father, who was nearing death. This resulted in a fingerprint match at the New York City Police Department, which located his burial on Hart Island. Although his name appears on his father's gravestone at Eternal Hills Memorial Park in Oceanside, California, his remains are still on Hart Island. In connection with the re-release of "Song of the South" in 1971, reporters researching the whereabouts of the film's star first reported his death.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: Driscoll received an Academy Juvenile Award from the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences at the 22nd Academy Awards presentation in 1950. The award was presented as a special miniature Oscar statuette for "the outstanding juvenile actor of 1949" for his roles in "So Dear to My Heart" and "The Window", both released that year. He also received the "Milky Way Gold Star Award" in 1954 for his work on television and radio.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: For his contributions to the motion picture industry, Driscoll received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 1560 Vine Street in 1960.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In February 2009, singer-songwriter Benjy Ferree released "Come Back to the Five and Dime Bobby Dee Bobby Dee", a concept album based in part on Driscoll's life.


title: Bobby Driscoll

text: In September 2011, American singer-songwriter Tom Russell released the song "Farewell Never Neverland" on the album "Mesabi", an elegy for Bobby Driscoll as Peter Pan.


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos ( ; , meaning "red bush"), or Aspalathus linearis, is a broom-like member of the plant family Fabaceae that grows in South Africa's fynbos biome.


title: Rooibos

text: The leaves are used to make a herbal tea that is called rooibos (especially in Southern Africa), bush tea, red tea, or redbush tea (predominantly in Great Britain).


title: Rooibos

text: The tea has been popular in Southern Africa for generations and, since the 2000s has gained popularity internationally.


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos was formerly classified as "Psoralea" but is now thought to be part of "Aspalathus" following Dahlgren (1980).


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos is usually grown in the Cederberg, a small mountainous area in the West Coast District of the Western Cape province of South Africa.


title: Rooibos

text: Generally, the leaves undergo oxidation. This process produces the distinctive reddish-brown colour of rooibos and enhances the flavour. Unoxidised "green" rooibos is also produced, but the more demanding production process for green rooibos (similar to the method by which green tea is produced) makes it more expensive than traditional rooibos. It carries a malty and slightly grassy flavour somewhat different from its red counterpart.


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos tea is commonly prepared by steeping in hot water, in the same manner as black tea. The infusion is consumed on its own or flavored by addition of milk, lemon, sugar or honey. It is also served as lattes, cappuccinos or iced tea.


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos tea does not contain caffeine and has low tannin levels compared to black tea or green tea. Rooibos contains polyphenols, including flavanols, flavones, flavanones, dihydrochalcones, aspalathin and nothofagin.


title: Rooibos

text: Rooibos grades are largely related to the percentage "needle" or leaf to stem content in the mix. A higher leaf content results in a darker liquor, richer flavour and less "dusty" aftertaste. The high-grade rooibos is exported and does not reach local markets, with major consumers being the EU, particularly Germany, where it is used in creating flavoured blends for loose-leaf tea markets.


title: Rooibos

text: Three species of the Borboniae group of "Aspalathus", namely "A. angustifolia", "A. cordata" and "A. crenata", were once used as tea. These plants have simple, rigid, spine-tipped leaves, hence the common name 'stekeltee'. The earliest record of the use of "Aspalathus" as a source of tea was that of Carl Peter Thunberg, who wrote about the use of "A. cordata" as tea: "Of the leaves of "Borbonia cordata" the country people make tea" (Thunberg, July 1772, at Paarl). This anecdote is sometimes erroneously associated with rooibos tea ("Aspalathus linearis").


title: Rooibos

text: Archaeological records suggest that "Aspalathus linearis" could have been used thousands of years ago, but that does not imply rooibos tea was made in precolonial times. The traditional method of harvesting and processing rooibos (for making rooibos infusion or decoction tea) could have, at least partly, originated in precolonial times. However, it does not necessarily follow that San and Khoikhoi used that method to prepare a beverage that they consumed for pleasure as tea.


title: Rooibos

text: The earliest available ethnobotanical records of rooibos tea originate in the late 19th century. No Khoi or San vernacular names of the species have been recorded. Several authors have assumed that the tea originated from the local inhabitants of the Cederberg. Apparently, rooibos tea is a traditional drink of Khoi-descended people of the Cederberg (and "poor whites"). However, that tradition has not been traced further back than the last quarter of the 19th century.


title: Rooibos

text: Traditionally, the local people would climb the mountains and cut the fine needle-like leaves from wild rooibos plants. They then rolled the bunches of leaves into hessian bags and brought them down the steep slopes using donkeys. Rooibos tea was traditionally processed by beating the material on a flat rock with a heavy wooden pole or club or a large wooden hammer.


title: Rooibos

text: The historical record of the use of rooibos in precolonial and early colonial times is mostly a record of absence. Colonial-era settlers could have learnt about some properties of the "Aspalathus linearis" from pastoralists and hunter-gatherers of the Cederberg region. The nature of that knowledge was not documented. Given the available data, the origin of rooibos tea can be viewed in the context of the global expansion of tea trade and the colonial habit of drinking Chinese and later Ceylon tea. In that case, the rooibos infusion or decoction served as a local replacement for the expensive Asian product.


title: Rooibos

text: It appears that both the indigenous (San and Khoikhoi) and the colonial inhabitants of rooibos-growing areas contributed to the traditional knowledge of rooibos in some way. For instance, medicinal uses might have been introduced before the 18th century by Khoisan pastoralists or San hunter-gatherers. Also, the use of the "Aspalathus linearis" to make tea, including the production processes, such as bruising and oxidising the leaves, is more likely to have been introduced in colonial times by settlers who were accustomed to drinking Asian tea or its substitutes.


title: Rooibos

text: In 1904, Benjamin Ginsberg ran a variety of experiments at Rondegat Farm and finally cured rooibos. He simulated the traditional Chinese method of making Keemun by fermenting the tea in barrels. The major hurdle in growing rooibos commercially was that farmers could not germinate the rooibos seeds. The seeds were hard to find and impossible to germinate commercially. A medical doctor by profession and business partner to Ginsberg, Pieter Lafras Nortier, ascertained that seeds require a process of scarification before they are planted in acidic, sandy soil.


title: Rooibos

text: By the late 1920s, growing demand for the tea had led to problems with supply of the wild rooibos plants. As a remedy, Pieter Lefras Nortier, a district surgeon in Clanwilliam and an avid naturalist, proposed to develop a cultivated variety of rooibos to be raised on appropriately-situated land. Nortier worked on cultivation of the rooibos species in partnership with the farmers Oloff Bergh and William Riordan and with the encouragement of Benjamin Ginsberg.


title: Rooibos

text: Bergh harvested a large amount of rooibos in 1925 on his farm Kleinvlei, in the Pakhuis Mountains. Nortier collected seeds in the Pakhuis Mountains (Rocklands) and in a large valley, called Grootkloof, and those first selected seeds are known as the Nortier-type and Redtea-type.


title: Rooibos

text: In 1930, Nortier began conducting experiments with the commercial cultivation of the rooibos plant. He cultivated the first plants at Clanwilliam on his farm of Eastside and on the farm of Klein Kliphuis. The tiny seeds were very difficult to come by Nortier, who paid the local villagers £5 per matchbox of seeds collected. An aged Khoi woman found an unusual seed source: having chanced upon ants dragging seed, she followed them back to their nest and, on breaking it open, found a granary.


title: Rooibos

text: Nortier's research was ultimately successful, and he subsequently showed all the local farmers how to germinate their own seeds. The secret lay in scarifying the seed pods. Nortier placed a layer of seeds between two mill stones and ground away some of the seed pod wall. Thereafter the seeds were easily propagated. Over the next decade the price of seeds rose to £80 per pound, the most expensive vegetable seed in the world, as farmers rushed to plant rooibos. Today, the seed is gathered by special sifting processes. Nortier is today accepted as the father of the rooibos tea industry.


title: Rooibos

text: The variety developed by Nortier has become the mainstay of the rooibos industry enabling it to expand and create income and jobs for inhabitants of rooibos-growing regions. Thanks to Nortier's research, rooibos tea became an iconic national beverage and then a globalised commodity. Production is today the economic mainstay of the Clanwilliam district. In 1948, the University of Stellenbosch awarded Nortier an Honorary Doctorate D.Sc. (Agria) in recognition for his valuable contribution to South African agriculture.


title: Rooibos

text: "Aspalathus linearis" has a small endemic range in the wild, but horticultural techniques to maximize production have been effective at maintaining cultivation as a semi-wild crop to supply the new demands of the broadening "rooibos" tea industry. "A. linearis" is often grouped with the honeybush ("Cyclopia"), another plant from the Fynbos region of Southern Africa, which is also used to make tea. Like other members of the genus, "A. linearis" is considered a part of the Fynbos ecoregion in the Cape Floristic Region, whose plants often depend on fire for reproduction.


title: Rooibos

text: "A. linearis" is a legume and thus an angiosperm and produces an indehiscent fruit. Its flowers make up a raceme inflorescence. Seed germination can be slow, but sprouting can be induced by acid treatment. The seeds are hard-shelled and often need scarification.


title: Rooibos

text: For "A. linearis", fire can stimulate resprouting in the species, but the sprouting is less than that of other plants in the Fynbos ecoregion. "A. linearis" can be considered facultative and obligate sprouters and have lignotuber development for after fires. Typically, there are two classifications of "A. lineraris" in response to fire: "reseeders" and "resprouters". Reseeders are killed by fire, but it stimulates their seeds’ germination. Resprouters are not completely killed during a fire and grow back from established lignotubers.


title: Rooibos

text: Seeds of wild populations are dispersed by species of ants, whose use as dispersers reduces parent-offspring and sibling-sibling competition.


title: Rooibos

text: Like most other legumes, there is a symbiotic relationship between rhizoids and the underground lignotuber structure that promotes nitrogen fixation and growth. The nitrogen content in the soil is an important environmental factor for growth, development, and reproduction. Hawkins, Malgas, & Biénabe (2011) suggested that there are multiple ecotypes of "A. linearis" that have different selected methods of growth and morphology and are dependent on the environment. It is unclear how many ecotypes there might be, given their limited geographic range and the limited literature about genetic diversity. Van der Bank, Van der Bank, & Van Wyk (1999) suggest that resprouting populations and reseeding populations have been selected for based on the environment as a way to reduce genetic bottlenecks; however, whether that promotes certain reproductive strategies over others was unclear.


title: Rooibos

text: Wild populations can contain both sprouting and non-sprouting individuals, but cultivated rooibos are typically reseeders, not resprouters, and have higher growth rates. Cultivated "A. linearis" can be selected for certain traits that are desirable for human use. Cultivated plants are diploid with a base chromosome number of 9 ( 18 chromosomes), but the understanding of how this might differ in ecotypes is limited. The selection process can include human-mediated pollination, fire suppression, and supplementing soil contents.


title: Rooibos

text: Like many other Fynbos plants, "A. linearis" is not significantly pollinated by cape honey bees, which suggests an alternative way of primary pollination. Some wasps likely play an important role in pollinating the flowers and some wasp species are thought to be specially adapted to accessing the "A. linearis" flower.


title: Rooibos

text: In 1994, Burke International registered the name "Rooibos" with the US Patent and Trademark Office and so established a monopoly on the name in the United States when the plant was virtually unknown there. When it later entered more widespread use, Burke demanded for companies to pay fees to use the name or to cease its use. In 2005, the American Herbal Products Association and a number of import companies succeeded in defeating the trademark through petitions and lawsuits. After losing one of the cases, Burke surrendered the name to the public domain.


title: Rooibos

text: The South African Department of Trade and Industry issued final rules on 6 September 2013 that protects and restricts the use of the names "rooibos", "red bush", "rooibostee", "rooibos tea", "rooitee", and "rooibosch" in the country so that the name cannot be used for things unless they are derived from the "Aspalathus linearis" plant. It also provides guidance and restrictions for how products that include rooibos and in what measures should use the name "rooibos" in their branding.


title: Rooibos

text: In May/2021, the European Union conferred protected designation of origin (PDO) status to "rooibos". Any foodstuff sold as "rooibos" in the EU and several countries outside the bloc must be made by using only "Aspalathus linearis" leaves that are cultivated in the Cederberg region of South Africa.


title: Rooibos

text: The rooibos plant is endemic to a small part of the Western Cape Province, South Africa. It grows in a symbiotic relationship with local micro-organisms. A 2012 South African news item cited concerns regarding the prospects of rooibos farming in the face of climate change.


title: Rooibos

text: The use of rooibos and the expansion of its cultivation are threatening other local species of plants endemic to the area such as "Protea convexa" and "P. scolymocephala".


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong Min (Hangul: 남궁민, born March 12, 1978) is a South Korean actor, director and screenwriter. He first gained recognition with neo-noir film "A Dirty Carnival" (2006), and has since received praise for his performances in "Remember: War of the Son" (2015–2016), "Beautiful Gong Shim" (2016), "Good Manager" (2017), "Falsify "(2017), "Doctor Prisoner" (2019), "Hot Stove League" (2019–2020), Awaken (2020–2021), "The Veil" (2021), and "One Dollar Lawyer" (2022) .


title: Namkoong Min

text: He won the Grand Prize (Daesang) at the 2020 SBS Drama Awards for his performance as Baek Seung-soo in the "Hot Stove League". and year later, again won the Grand Prize at the 2021 MBC Drama Awards for his performance in "The Veil".


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong Min was born on March 12, 1978, in Seoul. He has a brother, Namkoong Yoon. His father, Namkoong Hwon, was a principal of Sinneung Middle School (2005-2009). Namkoong was educated at Daesung High School in Eunpyeong-gu, Seoul, and Ilsan Seongsa Elementary School. He graduated from the Chung-Ang University with a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering. After his graduation on August 31, 2006, he worked as a Social Service Agent for 18 months at Korea Army Training Center in Nonsan.


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong Min debuted as an actor in the film "Bungee Jumping of Their Own" as the protagonist's best friend, and subsequently appeared in the movie "Bad Guy" as the female lead's boyfriend. In 2002, Namkoong featured in the sitcom "Dae Bak Family" and attracted attention with his performance. Since then, he appeared in the television series and single-act dramas such as "Rose Fence", "Pearl Necklace", "Mould Flower" and "After Love". Namkoong also became known as "little Bae Yong-joon" due to his resemblance with the actor. In 2004, Namkoong starred in the KBS daily drama "My Lovely Family", which garnered over 30% in ratings and led to increased recognition for the actor.


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong subsequently received acclaim with neo-noir film "A Dirty Carnival" (2006), and drew widespread notice for his performance in melodrama "Listen to My Heart" (2011).


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong subsequently returned with a changed mindset and new-found determination. His efforts paid off when he achieved recognition for his villainous role as a serial killer in "The Girl Who Sees Smells" (2015), and he won the Best Villain Award at the annual 2016 DramaFever Awards. Since then, he has received praise for his performances in legal thriller "Remember: War of the Son" (2015–2016) and romantic comedy "Beautiful Gong Shim" (2016).


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong's breakout role was in the hit comedy drama "Good Manager" (2017), where he played the central protagonist. Namkoong was praised for his "perfect amalgamation of character creation and acting" which contributed to the success of the drama. He then starred in SBS's legal thriller "Falsify" (2017), playing a trashy tabloid reporter with no work ethics.


title: Namkoong Min

text: In 2018, Namkoong starred alongside "Listen to My Heart" co-star Hwang Jung-eum in the romantic comedy series "The Undateables".


title: Namkoong Min

text: From 2019 to 2020, Namkoong starred in the sports television series "Hot Stove League". The television series received positive reviews for its high quality script and attained high ratings. He played the role of the new leader of the last-place team, the Dreams. Hot Stove League won 56th Baeksang Arts Awards 2020 for best drama. Through that drama, he also received his first daesang/grand prize in his career from 2020 SBS Drama Awards.


title: Namkoong Min

text: In September 2021, Namkoong decided to renew his contract with 935 Entertainment. This is the third contract renewal.


title: Namkoong Min

text: Namkoong has been in a relationship with model Jin Ah-reum since late 2015, who he met while filming movie "Light My Fire" as a director and actress. They married in a private ceremony on October 7, 2022, at Hotel Shilla in Seoul. The ceremony was attended by the couple's closest family and friends, including actors Jung Moon-sung as host, and TVXQ was the congratulatory song.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: A nut is a fruit consisting of a hard or tough nutshell protecting a kernel which is usually edible. In general usage and in a culinary sense, a wide variety of dry seeds are called nuts, but in a botanical context "nut" implies that the shell does not open to release the seed (indehiscent).


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Most seeds come from fruits that naturally free themselves from the shell, but this is not the case in nuts such as hazelnuts, chestnuts, and acorns, which have hard shell walls and originate from a compound ovary. The general and original usage of the term is less restrictive, and many nuts (in the culinary sense), such as almonds, pecans, pistachios, walnuts, and Brazil nuts, are not nuts in a botanical sense. Common usage of the term often refers to any hard-walled, edible kernel as a nut. Nuts are an energy-dense and nutrient-rich food source.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: A seed is the mature fertilised ovule of a plant; it consists of three parts, the embryo which will develop into a new plant, stored food for the embryo, and a protective seed coat. Botanically, a nut is a fruit with a woody pericarp developing from a syncarpous gynoecium. Nuts may be contained in an involucre, a cup-shaped structure formed from the flower bracts. The involucre may be scaly, spiny, leafy or tubular, depending on the species of nut. Most nuts come from the pistils with "inferior" ovaries (see flower) and all are "indehiscent" (not opening at maturity). True nuts are produced, for example, by some plant families of the order Fagales. These include beech ("Fagus"), chestnut ("Castanea"), oak ("Quercus"), stone-oak ("Lithocarpus") and tanoak ("Notholithocarpus") in the family Fagaceae, as well as hazel, filbert ("Corylus") and hornbeam ("Carpinus") in the family Betulaceae.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Also widely known as nuts are dry drupes, which include pecans ("Carya illinoensis"), almonds ("Prunus amygdalus"), macadamia ("Macadamia integrifolia"), candlenut ("Aleurites moluccanus"), water caltrop ("Trapa bicornis") and walnuts ("Juglans regia"). A drupe is an indehiscent fruit which has an outer fleshy part consisting of the exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, which surround a single pit or stone, the endocarp with a seed (kernel) inside. In a dry drupe, the outer parts dry up and the remaining husk is part of the ovary wall or pericarp, and the hard inner wall surrounding the seed represents the inner part of the pericarp.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: A small nut may be called a "nutlet" (or nucule, a term otherwise referring to the oogonium of stoneworts). In botany, the term "nutlet" specifically refers to a pyrena or pyrene, which is a seed covered by a stony layer, such as the kernel of a drupe. Walnuts and hickories (Juglandaceae) have fruits that are difficult to classify. They are considered to be nuts under some definitions but are also referred to as drupaceous nuts.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: In common use, a "tree nut" is, as the name implies, any nut coming from a tree. This most often comes up regarding food allergies; a person may be allergic specifically to peanuts (which are not tree nuts but legumes), whereas others may be allergic to the wider range of nuts that grow on trees.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: In the 21st century, some dozen species constitute most of the worldwide production of nuts, shown in the table below for major commercial nuts.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Nuts contain the diverse nutrients that are needed for the growth of a new plant. Composition varies, but they tend to have a low water and carbohydrate content, with high levels of fats, protein, dietary minerals, and vitamins. The digestibility of the protein at about 90% is slightly lower than that of meat and fish, but can be improved by thorough chewing. The fats are largely unsaturated and nuts are a source of essential omega-3 fatty acids. As part of a healthy human diet, long-term consumption of diverse nutrients in nuts may contribute to a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, reduced levels of blood cholesterol, and lower all-cause mortality. For vegetarians and vegans, nuts provide many of the essential nutrients which may be in short supply in other plant foods.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Nuts supply nutrients for humans and wildlife. Because nuts generally have a high oil content, they are a significant energy source. Many seeds are edible by humans and used in cooking, eaten raw, sprouted, or roasted as a snack food, ground to make nut butters, or pressed for oil that is used in cooking and cosmetics. Moderate nut consumption about per week may benefit weight control and contribute to lowering body weight in humans.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Nuts used for food are a common source of food allergens. Reactions can range from mild symptoms to severe ones, a condition known as anaphylaxis, which can be life-threatening. The reaction is due to the release of histamine by the body in response to an allergen in the nuts, causing skin and other possible reactions. Many experts suggest that a person with an allergy to peanuts should avoid eating tree nuts, and vice versa.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Nuts are the source of energy and nutrients for the new plant. They contain a relatively large quantity of calories, essential unsaturated and monounsaturated fats including linoleic acid and linolenic acid, vitamins, and essential amino acids. Many nuts are good sources of vitamin E, vitamin B, folate, fiber, and essential minerals, such as magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, copper, and selenium.


title: Nut (fruit)

text: Nuts are under preliminary research to assess whether their consumption may lower risk for some diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancer. A 2014 review indicated that consuming one or more servings of nuts or peanut butter per day could lower the risk of ischemic heart disease, overall cardiovascular disease, stroke in women, and all-cause mortality. A 2022 umbrella review confirmed these findings and found a 22% reduction in all-cause mortality.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: Colin Trevorrow (;) is an American filmmaker. He made his feature directorial debut with the science fiction comedy "Safety Not Guaranteed" (2012) to critical and commercial success. Trevorrow achieved mainstream recognition for his work on the "Jurassic World" entries of the "Jurassic Park" franchise, which began when he co-wrote and directed the eponymous first installment in 2015. After the film grossed over $1 billion, Trevorrow co-wrote the 2018 sequel "" and co-wrote and directed the third installment "Dominion" (2022). He was also the co-writer and director of "" until his departure in 2017, although he retained story credit when the project was re-envisioned as "" (2019). On many of his projects, Trevorrow collaborates with fellow screenwriter Derek Connolly.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: Trevorrow was born in San Francisco, California. He was raised in Oakland, California. His father was a musician in a country rock band and his mother was a photographer who also operated a day-care center. His maternal grandmother was of Sephardi Jewish ancestry; her ancestors settled in the Caribbean several centuries ago.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: As a boy, he sang in the chorus of the San Francisco Opera. As a teenager, Trevorrow won awards from the Mill Valley Film Festival and the San Francisco Youth Film Festival. Trevorrow graduated from Piedmont High School in Piedmont, California and later graduated from New York University's Tisch School of the Arts in 1999.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: In 2002, he wrote and directed his first short film, "Home Base"; as of 2012, it had received over 20 million hits online. Trevorrow's first theatrical release was with "Reality Show", a 2004 documentary film about the failed production of a reality television show. Trevorrow sold his first spec script titled "Tester" to DreamWorks in 2006. In 2008, he paired up with Derek Connolly, ten years after they had first met as NYU students while working as interns on "Saturday Night Live", to write a buddy cop film script called "Cocked and Loaded". Trevorrow said that the experience was so enjoyable that he decided to give up solo screenwriting and work with Connolly.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: In 2012, Trevorrow directed "Safety Not Guaranteed", a film inspired by a classified advertisement which ran in a 1997 issue of "Backwoods Home Magazine" that read: "Somebody to go back in time with me. This is not a joke. P.O. Box 322, Oakview, CA 93022. You'll get paid after we get back. Must bring your own weapons. Safety not guaranteed. I have only done this once before." The script was by Connolly, who intended for Trevorrow to direct it. The film received various accolades, including a nomination for Trevorrow for the Independent Spirit Award for Best First Feature. The film was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize at Sundance, where it picked up the Waldo Salt Screenwriting Award. After the release of "Safety Not Guaranteed", Trevorrow and Connolly were hired by the Walt Disney Company to write an as-yet unmade remake of the film "Flight of the Navigator" (1986). Trevorrow co-wrote and directed "Jurassic World" (2015), and also provided his voice for the film's character of Mr. DNA. Connolly and Trevorrow also co-wrote the screenplay for its sequel, "", which was released in June 2018 and for which Trevorrow is an executive producer.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: After "Jurassic World", Trevorrow next directed "The Book of Henry", which was written by Gregg Hurwitz. The film was released by Focus Features on June 16, 2017, to generally negative reviews, although Trevorrow stood by the film.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: In March 2015, it was announced that Trevorrow would be directing the sci-fi thriller film "Intelligent Life", which was bought by DreamWorks. Trevorrow wrote the screenplay with Connolly, while Trevorrow, Frank Marshall, Big Beach, and Spielberg's Amblin Entertainment were announced as producing the film. While there has been other production news since, including Ava DuVernay being attached to direct, as of December 2019 the film has not entered into production.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: In August 2015, Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan Horn announced that Trevorrow would direct "" (2019). Trevorrow and Connolly subsequently began writing the script for the film; titled "". However, in August 2017, writer Jack Thorne was brought in to rewrite the script due to dissatisfaction by Lucasfilm with their script. By September 2017, Trevorrow was let go from the project due to creative differences and was replaced as director by "" director J. J. Abrams, who co-wrote the script with Chris Terrio. However, Trevorrow and Connolly still received story writing credit in addition to Abrams and Terrio. Trevorrow donated residuals he earned from the film to charity.


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: On March 30, 2018, it was announced that Trevorrow would be returning to the "Jurassic Park" franchise, directing "Jurassic World Dominion" (2022).


title: Colin Trevorrow

text: On March 16, 2021, it was announced that Trevorrow would direct "War Magician", a historical war film about Jasper Maskelyne, a British illusionist who used magic to defeat Nazis in World War II. Benedict Cumberbatch is set to star.


title: Web server directory index

text: When an HTTP client (generally a web browser) requests a URL that points to a directory structure instead of an actual web page within the directory structure, the web server will generally serve a default page, which is often referred to as a main or "index" page.


title: Web server directory index

text: A common filename for such a page is codice_1, but most modern HTTP servers offer a configurable list of filenames that the server can use as an index. If a server is configured to support server-side scripting, the list will usually include entries allowing dynamic content to be used as the index page (e.g. codice_2, codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, codice_6, codice_7) even though it may be more appropriate to still specify the HTML output (codice_8 or codice_9), as this should not be taken for granted. An example is the popular open source web server Apache, where the list of filenames is controlled by the DirectoryIndex directive in the main server configuration file or in the configuration file for that directory. It is possible to not use file extensions at all, and be neutral to content delivery methods, and set the server to automatically pick the best file through content negotiation.


title: Web server directory index

text: If the server is unable to find a file with any of the names listed in its configuration, it may either return an error (usually 403 Index Listing Forbidden or 404 Not Found) or generate its own index page listing the files in the directory. Usually this option, often named codice_10, is also configurable.


title: Web server directory index

text: A scheme where web server serves a default file on per-subdirectory basis has been supported as early as NCSA HTTPd 0.3beta (22 April 1993), which defaults to serve codice_1 file in the directory. This scheme has been then adopted by CERN HTTPd since at least 2.17beta (5 April 1994), whose default supports codice_12 and codice_13 in addition to the NCSA-originated codice_1.


title: Web server directory index

text: Later web servers typically support this default file scheme in one form or another; this is usually configurable, with codice_1 being one of the default file names.


title: Web server directory index

text: In some cases, the home page of a website can be a menu of language options for large sites that use geotargeting. It is also possible to avoid this step, for example, by using content negotiation.


title: Web server directory index

text: In cases where no known codice_16 file exists within a given directory, the web server may be configured to provide an automatically generated listing of the files within the directory instead. With the Apache web server, for example, this behavior is provided by the mod_autoindex module and controlled by the codice_17 directive in the web server configuration files. These automated "directory listings" are sometimes a security risk because they enumerate sensitive files which may not be intended for public access, in a process known as a directory indexing attack. Such a security misconfiguration may also assist in other attacks, such as a path or directory traversal attack.


title: Web server directory index

text: When accessing a directory, the various available index methods may also have a different impact on usage of OS resources (RAM, CPU time, etc.) and thus on web server performances.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Hasan ibn Ali (; ) was a prominent early Islamic figure. He was the eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. He briefly ruled as caliph from January 661 until August 661. He is considered as the second Imam in Shia Islam, succeeding Ali and preceding his brother Husayn. As a grandson of the prophet, he is part of the and the , also is said to have participated in the event of Mubahala.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: During the caliphate of Ali (), Hasan accompanied him in the military campaigns of the First Muslim Civil War. After Ali's assassination in 661, Hasan was acknowledged caliph in Kufa. His sovereignty was not recognized by Syria's governor Mu'awiya I (), who led an army into Kufa while pressing Hasan for abdication in letters. In response, Hasan sent a vanguard under Ubayd Allah ibn al-Abbas to block Mu'awiya's advance until he arrived with the main army. Meanwhile, Hasan was severely wounded in an abortive assassination attempt by the Kharijites, a faction opposed to both Ali and Mu'awiya. This attack demoralized Hasan's army and led to widespread desertion. Ubayd Allah and most of his troops also defected after Mu'awiya bribed him. In August 661, Hasan signed a peace treaty with Mu'awiya on the condition that the latter should rule in compliance with the Quran and the , a council should appoint his successor, and Hasan's supporters would receive amnesty. Hasan retired from politics and abdicated in Medina where he died either from illness or poisoning, though the early sources are nearly unanimous that he was poisoned. Mu'awiya is commonly viewed as the instigator in the murder of Hasan, which removed an obstacle to the succession of his son Yazid ().


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Critics of Hasan call his treaty with Mu'awiya an indication of weakness, saying that he intended to surrender from the beginning. Given Mu'awiya's military superiority, supporters of Hasan maintain that his abdication was inevitable after his soldiers mutinied and that he was motivated by the desire for unity and peace among Muslims, which was reportedly predicted by Muhammad in a Sunni hadith. Another Sunni hadith, also attributed to Muhammad, predicted that the prophetic succession would last for thirty years, which was probably interpreted by some early Sunni scholars as evidence that Hasan's caliphate was rightly-guided (). In Shia theology, the divine infallibility () of Hasan as the second Shia Imam further justified his course of action. As the rightful successor of Muhammad in Shia Islam, Hasan's all-inclusive temporal and religious authority came from divinely-inspired designation (), which was not annulled by abdication to Mu'awiya, who usurped only the temporal authority. The imamate and caliphate are viewed as separate institutions in Shia Islam until such time that God would make the Imam victorious.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Hasan was born in Medina in . Sources differ on whether he was born in Ramadan or Shaban, though most early works give his birthdate as 15 Ramadan 3 AH (2 March 625 CE), which is annually celebrated by the Shia. Hasan was the firstborn of Muhammad's daughter Fatima and his cousin Ali. Their union holds a special spiritual significance for Muslims, write Nasr and Afsaruddin, and Muhammad said he followed divine orders to marry Fatima to Ali, narrates the Sunni al-Suyuti (), among others. Ali reportedly had chosen another name in Sunni sources but deferred to Muhammad who named the child Hasan (). To celebrate his birth, Muhammad sacrificed a ram, while Fatima shaved Hasan's head and donated the weight of his hair in silver.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Hasan was raised in Muhammad's household until the age of seven when his grandfather died. Early sources widely report Muhammad's love for Hasan and his brother Husayn, saying that Muhammad allowed the boys to climb on his back while he was prostrate in prayer, and interrupted a sermon to pick Hasan up after his grandson fell. On one occasion, Hasan later recalled, his grandfather took away a date from him and explained that receiving alms () was forbidden for his family.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: A hadith () in the canonical Sunni collection "Sunan ibn Majah" names Hasan and Husayn as the s () of the youth in the paradise. Madelung adds that this hadith is widely reported, while Veccia Vaglieri () notes that its authenticity was disputed by the Umayyad Marwan (). The same source and the canonical Shia "Kitab al-Irshad" narrate the prophetic hadith, "He who has loved Hasan and Husayn has loved me and he who has hated them has hated me." The canonical Sunni source "Sahih al-Tirmidhi" ascribe to Muhammad, "Whoever loves me and loves these two [Hasan and Husayn] and loves their mother and father [Fatima and Ali], will be with me in my station on the Day of Resurrection."


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: After an inconclusive debate in 10/631-2, Muhammad and the Najranite Christians decided to engage in , where both parties would pray to invoke God's curse upon the liar. Madelung argues that Muhammad participated in this event alongside Hasan, Husayn, and their parents. This is also the Shia view. In contrast, most Sunni accounts by al-Tabari () do not name the participants of the event, while some other Sunni historians agree with the Shia view.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: During the event, Muhammad gathered Hasan, Husayn, Ali, and Fatima under his cloak and addressed them as his , according to some Shia and Sunni sources, including the canonical "Sahih Muslim" and "Sahih al-Tirmidhi". Madelung suggests that their inclusion by Muhammad in this significant ritual must have raised the religious rank of his family. A similar view is voiced by Lalani.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Muhammad died in 11/632 when Hasan was about seven. As his family prepared for the burial, a group of Muslims gathered at the Saqifa and appointed Abu Bakr as Muhammad's successor, in the absence of his family and the majority of the Muhajirun (Meccan Muslims). Ali, Fatima, and some supporters did not recognize the caliphate of Abu Bakr, saying that Muhammad had appointed Ali as his successor, possibly referring to the Ghadir Khumm in 632.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Fatima died also in 632, within six months of Muhammad's death, at the age of about eighteen or twenty-seven years old. Shias hold that she miscarried her child and died from the injuries she suffered in an attack on her house, intended to subdue Ali, at the order of Abu Bakr. These allegations are rejected by Sunnis, who believe that Fatima died from grief after Muhammad's death and that her child died in infancy of natural causes.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Hasan did not play a major role under the first three caliphs, namely, Abu Bakr (), Umar (), and Uthman (). He might have had a share of five thousand dirhams in Umar's system of state pension. According to Ibn Isfandiyar, Hasan also took part in an expedition to Amol during the caliphate of Umar, though the veracity of such reports have been questioned by Paktchi et al.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Defying Uthman, Hasan joined his father in bidding farewell to Abu Dharr al-Ghifari (), who was exiled from Medina after he preached against the misdeeds of the powerful. When Uthman's half-brother al-Walid ibn Uqba was accused of drinking alcohol, Ali asked Hasan to carry out the punishment of forty lashes, though the latter reportedly refused and Abdullah ibn Ja'far instead administered the penalty. Veccia Vaglieri does not mention any disagreements and writes that Ali meted out the punishment himself. She also suggests that the young Hasan and his brother Husayn lived in a state of obedience to their father Ali, following Ali whenever he opposed Uthman.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: In June 656, Uthman was besieged in his home by rebels. Hasan and Husayn were likely wounded while guarding Uthman's house at the request of Ali. In particular, the reports that Hasan was among the defenders are considered numerous and reliable by Madelung. On the final day, however, Hasan and most of the guards are said to have laid down their weapons at Uthman's request. Yet another report states that Hasan arrived at the scene of Uthman's murder in time to identify his assassins. According to Madelung, Hasan later criticized Ali for not doing enough to defend Uthman.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Ali was elected caliph after the assassination of Uthman. Immediately after his accession, the new caliph faced a rebellion led by Aisha, a widow of Muhammad, and Talha and Zubayr, two companions of Muhammad. Hasan and Ammar ibn Yasir () were subsequently sent to Kufa to rally support and raised an army of some 6,000 men. He also helped remove Abu Musa al-Ash'ari from the rule of Kufa, as the latter continued to hinder Ali's efforts against the rebels. Hasan later fought in the Battle of the Camel (656) against Aisha, Talha, and Zubayr.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Hasan also fought against Mu'awiya () in the Battle of Siffin (657), though (Sunni) sources do not view him as a prominent participant. Madelung writes that Hasan criticized Ali's alleged aggressive war policy, saying that it stoked division among Muslims. In contrast, the Sunni Ibn 'Abd al-Barr () lists Hasan as a commander at Siffin and the Shia Nasr ibn Muzahim () narrates that Mu'awiya offered Hasan to switch sides at Siffin but was rejected. Haj-Manouchehri writes that Hasan persuaded some neutral figures to support Ali at Siffin, including Sulayman ibn Surad al-Khuza'i. He adds that Hasan vigorously opposed the arbitration process after Siffin, alongside his father. In November 658, Ali placed Hasan in charge of his land endowments.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: In January 661, Ali was assassinated by the Kharijite Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam. Hasan was subsequently acknowledged caliph in Kufa, the seat of Ali's caliphate. Madelung writes that Ali had apparently not nominated a successor before his sudden death but had often said that only members of Muhammad's household () were entitled to the caliphate. As Ali's legatee, Hasan must have been the obvious choice for the caliphate. Some Shia reports add that Ali also designated Hasan as his , thus giving him his own authority to command, and also his , responsible for punishing his assassin. Some authors have noted that Muhammad's surviving companions were primarily in Ali's army and must have therefore pledged allegiance to Hasan, as evidenced by the lack of any reports to the contrary.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: In his inaugural speech at the Great Mosque of Kufa, Hasan praised the and quoted verse 42:23 of the Quran:


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Ali's commander Qays ibn Sa'd was the first to pledge his allegiance to Hasan. Qays offered his oath based on the Quran, precedent (), and jihad against those who declared lawful () what was unlawful (). Hasan, however, avoided the last condition by saying that it was implicit in the first two. About this episode, Jafri () suggests that Hasan was probably already apprehensive about the Kufans' support and wanted to avoid unrealistic commitments. The oath stipulated that people "should make war on those who were at war with Hasan, and should live in peace with those who were at peace with him," writes the Sunni al-Baladhuri (), adding that this condition astonished the people, who suspected that he intended to make peace with Mu'awiya. In contrast, Madelung notes that the oath was identical to the one demanded earlier by Ali and denounced by the Kharijites. The view of Dakake is similar.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Having been at war with Ali, Mu'awiya did not recognize the caliphate of his successor and prepared for war. He marched an army of sixty thousand men through al-Jazira to Maskin, about north of the present-day Baghdad. Concurrently, Mu'awiya also corresponded with Hasan, urging him to give up his claim to the caliphate. Jafri suggests that he might have hoped to force Hasan to abdicate or attack the Iraqi forces before they were fortified. Mu'awiya might have believed that Hasan would remain a threat even if he was defeated and killed, since another Hashemite could continue the fight. If Hasan abdicated in favor of Mu'awiya, he writes, such claims would have no weight. The view of Momen is similar.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: Their letters revisit the succession of Muhammad. Hasan urged Mu'awiya to pledge allegiance to him with the same arguments advanced by Ali against Abu Bakr after Muhammad's death. Ali had said that if the Quraysh could successfully claim the leadership because Muhammad belonged to them, then Muhammad's family was the most qualified to lead. Mu'awiya replied that Muslims were not unaware of the merits of the but had selected Abu Bakr to keep the caliphate within the Quraysh. Hassan also wrote that Mu'awiya had no true merit in Islam and was the son of Muhammad's arch-enemy Abu Sufyan. Mu'awiya replied that he was better suited for the caliphate because of his age, governing experience, and superior military strength, thus implying that these qualities were more important than religious precedence. Jafri comments that Mu'awiya's response made explicit the separation of politics and religion, which later became a tenet of Sunni Islam. In contrast, Shia Islam vested all authority in the household of Muhammad.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: As the news of Mu'awiya's advance reached Hasan, he ordered his local governors to mobilize and invited the Kufans to prepare for war, "God had prescribed the jihad for his creation and called it a loathsome duty ()," referring to verse 2:216 of the Quran. There was no response at first, possibly because some tribal chiefs were bribed by Mu'awiya. Hasan's companions now scolded the crowd and inspired them to leave in large numbers for the army campgrounds in Nukhayla. Hasan soon joined them and appointed Ubayd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of a vanguard of twelve thousand men tasked with holding Mu'awiya back in Maskin until the arrival of Hasan's main army. Ubayd Allah was advised not to fight unless attacked and to consult with Qays ibn Sa'd, the second in command. Wellhausen () names Abd Allah ibn Abbas as the commander of the vanguard, but this is rejected by Madelung, who suggests that the choice of Ubayd Allah indicates Hasan's peace intentions because the former had earlier surrendered Yemen to Mu'awiya without a fight. This is the view of al-Zuhri (), the Umayyad-era historian who adopted the pro-Umayyad account that depicts a greedy Hasan eager to renounce his caliphate for money. This must have been the official Umayyad account, distributed to legitimize Mu'awiya's rule in the absence of a council () or election or designation (), suggests Jafri.


title: Hasan ibn Ali

text: While the vanguard was awaiting his arrival in Maskin, Hasan faced a mutiny at his military camp near al-Mada'in. Among the five surviving accounts, Jafri prefers the one by Abu Hanifa Dinawari (), which states that Hasan was concerned about his troops' resolve by the time he reached the outskirts of al-Mada'in. He thus halted the army at Sabat and told them in a speech that he preferred peace over war because his men were reluctant to fight. According to al-Mada'ini (), Hasan also quoted Ali as saying, "Do not loathe the reign of Mu'awiya," which Madelung finds incredible.