title: Kaduva

text: In October 2020, upholding the order of District Court, the High Court of Kerala gave clearance to "Kaduva" to proceed with production while restricting "SG250" from making a film unless they create a new character and make major changes in the screenplay. A plea challenging the stay order of District Court was filed by the makers of "SG250" (officially titled "Ottakkomban"), but it was dismissed by the Supreme Court of India in April 2022.


title: Kaduva

text: A petitioner, Kuruvinakunnel expressed doubt as whether "Kaduva" and "SG250" are based on his life. Clarifying that, Kailas said it was Abraham who came to him with the screenplay which he originally wrote for another director, and "Kaduva" is not based on Kuruvinakunnel's life and Abraham's Kuruvachan is an imaginary character who also happens to be a planter. The District Court s quashed the petition and questioned the intentions of the petitioner in filing a case just before the release of the movie.


title: Kaduva

text: Prithviraj said that they shortlisted several names for the character of Joseph Chandy, and at one times considered Biju Menon for the role, but since both Prithviraj and Menon has done similar roles in "Ayyappanum Koshiyum" they ruled out Menon and ultimately zeroed in Vivek Oberoi as per majority opinion. There were rumours that Mohanlal was part of the cast, appearing in a cameo role. Addressing it, Kailas clarified that they indeed had planned to cast Mohanlal in a cameo role, but it did not work out.


title: Kaduva

text: Principal photography began on 17 April 2021. However, by the end of that month, filming was suspended after a surge in COVID-19 cases in Kerala. After completing "Alone", Kailas began the second schedule of "Kaduva" on 24 October, which was expected to last for 70 days. Prithviraj joined in the second schedule. Oberoi joined the set in November. Abinandhan Ramanujam was the cinematographer. Filming was completed in March 2022.


title: Kaduva

text: The film was mainly shot at locations in Pala and Erattupetta in Kottayam district and Vandiperiyar in Idukki district. Since the film is set in 1990s, they wanted to recreate old District Court, Kottayam, it was created as set in a 4-5 acre land at Ernakulam. While filming in Mundakkayam, there was a 50-person limit pertaining to COVID-19 restrictions set by the government. At Mundakkayam, the crew suffered flood and landslide, the set constructed was damaged. Filming went past three waves of COVID-19 in India. Prithviraj and Kailas was tested COVID-19 positive. Five fight sequences and three songs were filmed for the film. Kalabhavan Shajohn was tested COVID-19 positive while filming in Kochi. The film took two years to complete, overcoming COVID-19 pandemic, flood, and landslide.


title: Kaduva

text: The film was announced with Thaman. S as the music director, making his Malayalam debut. But after the project was delayed, Thaman was replaced by Jakes Bejoy. The first single was released on 19 June 2022.


title: Kaduva

text: "Kaduva" was released on 7 July 2022. In addition, the film will be released in dubbed versions of Tamil, Kannada, Hindi, and Telugu languages. It was initially scheduled for a theatrical release on 30 June 2022. The team promoted the film at an event in Bangalore and Chennai.


title: Kaduva

text: The satellite and digital streaming rights of the film were sold to Surya TV and Amazon Prime Video. The film was digitally streamed on Amazon Prime Video from 4 August 2022


title: Kaduva

text: On its opening day, the film had grossed around 7 crore. On its third day, the film has earned around 15 crore at the Kerala box office. On the seventh day of its release, the film has grossed around 30.20 crore and became one of profitable ventures in Mollywood after "Bheeshma Parvam", "Hridayam" and "Jana Gana Mana". The film grossed over and became one of the highest grossing Malayalam films of the year.


title: Kaduva

text: Sajin Shrijith of "The New Indian Express" rated 3.5 out of 5 and stated "We need to see the bad guys do something that would provoke our ire so that when, finally, the hero returns for payback, we take delight in every punch that lands. Thankfully, Kaduva follows this philosophy to a T, and I had quite a blast." Arjun Menon of


title: Kaduva

text: "Pinkvilla" rated the film to be 3.5 out of 5 stars stating that "However, the film is a made-for-theatre watch, aided by a splendidly enjoyable background score from Jakes Bejoy and the thunderous frames that elevate the commonplace plot to new heights of first-rate commercial filmmaking that is meant to be experienced with a bunch of strangers in a dark room. Yes, Kaduva might have just saved Malayalam cinema for all we know or set off a new focus on narrating larger-than-life tales with the grounded, economy of new-age storytelling.


title: Kaduva

text: Cris of "The News Minute" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "The film starts and ends in the middle of nowhere, extracting a slice of Kuriachan's life. You do get to taste a bit of nostalgia in seeing land phones, Doordarshan's intro theme and a single television reporter in front of the CM. But the rest of the film is just a nicely edited long and unexciting script." Anna Mathews of "The Times of India" rated the film 3 out of 5 and wrote "If you are in the mood for a Prithviraj mass thriller, you might enjoy the movie, but don't expect to be wow-ed."


title: Kaduva

text: "India Today" gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Kaduva is entertaining despite its predictability. But, a little bit of inventiveness could have elevated Kaduva more." Jayadeep Jayesh of "Deccan Herald" gave 2.5 out of 5 and stated "'Kaduva' can be appreciated for representing a style of filmmaking that Malayalam cinema has long forgotten. There are many nostalgia-inducing moments and Prithviraj's charisma is captivating. Apart from these aspects, the film is just average.


title: Kaduva

text: Vishal Menon of "Film Companion" after reviewing the film wrote "Yet you have to give it to Jakes Bejoy's background score and Abhinandan Ramanujam's camera for working overtime to re-interpret what could have been a 30-year-old film. Not only do they get exactly what the director's trying to make, but they also give it their own individual tributes to make something old feel new. The result is a balls-out unpretentious action movie that owns every second of its pitch as an ultimate male revenge fantasy."


title: Kaduva

text: Anna M. M. Vetticad of "Firstpost" rated the film to be 1.75 out of 5 stating that "There is a lot of physical movement in Kaduva – fists and legs swing across the screen, vehicles speed and overturn, bodies spin in mid-air. Shaji Kailas' storytelling though remains frozen in time, back in the 1990s when he first shot into the limelight, as unmoving as the mundu tucked around Kuriyaachan's waist." Manoj Kumar R of "The Indian Express" after reviewing the film wrote "And this entire movie, which is a celebration of vanity, is so excruciatingly dull. One can't help but wonder, who still finds slow-motion walks and frequent twirls of moustache a product of big-screen entertainment?"


title: Kaduva

text: S. R. Praveen of "The Hindu" stated that "Shaji does manage to deliver that, dipped in more than an ounce of predictability, but for those looking for some novelty, Kaduva might not be it. This is despite it being a notch better than all of the work that Shaji has done post-2000."


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The first-generation Ford Mustang was manufactured by Ford from March 1964 until 1973. The introduction of the Mustang created a new class of automobiles known as the pony cars. The Mustang’s styling, with its long hood and short deck, proved wildly popular and inspired a host of competition.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: It was initially introduced on April 17, 1964, as a hardtop and convertible with the fastback version put on sale in August 1964. At the time of its introduction, the Mustang, sharing its platform with the Falcon, was slotted into a compact car segment.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: With each revision, the Mustang saw an increase in overall dimensions and in engine power. The 1971 model saw a drastic redesign to its predecessors. After an initial surge, sales were steadily declining, as Ford began working on a new generation Mustang. With the onset of the 1973 oil crisis, Ford was prepared, having already designed the smaller Mustang II for the 1974 model year. This new car had no common components with preceding models.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: As Lee Iacocca's assistant general manager and chief engineer, Donald N. Frey was the head engineer for the Mustang project — supervising the development of the Mustang in a record 18 months from September 1962 to April 1964. — while Iacocca himself championed the project as Ford Division general manager.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Drawing on inspiration from the mid-engined Ford Mustang I concept vehicle, Lee Iacocca ordered development of a new "small car" to vice-president of design at Ford, Eugene Bordinat.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Bordinat tasked Ford's three design studios (Ford, Lincoln-Mercury, and Advanced Design) to create proposals for the new vehicle.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The design teams had been given five goals for the design of the Mustang: It would seat four, have bucket seats and a floor mounted shifter, weigh no more than and be no more than in length, sell for less than , and have multiple power, comfort, and luxury options.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The Ford design studio ultimately produced the winning design in the intramural contest, under Project Design Chief Joe Oros and his team of L. David Ash, Gale Halderman, John Foster and George Schumaker. This design was called the Cougar by the design team.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: L. David Ash is often credited with the actual styling of the Mustang. Ash, in a 1985 interview speaking of the origin of the Mustang design, when asked the degree of his contribution, said:


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Gale Halderman, in a 2002 interview with Collectible Automobile, spoke of the Mustang's evolution through the Ford design studio:


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: To decrease developmental costs, the Mustang used chassis, suspension, and drivetrain components derived from the Ford Falcon and Fairlane. It used a unitized platform-type frame from the 1964 Falcon and welded box-section side rails, including welded crossmembers. Although hardtop Mustangs accounted for the highest sales, durability problems with the new frame led to the engineering of a convertible first, which ensured adequate stiffness. The overall length of the Mustang and Falcon was identical, although the Mustang's wheelbase was slightly shorter. With an overall width of , it was narrower, yet the wheel track was nearly identical. Shipping weight, approximately with the straight six-cylinder engine, was also similar to the Falcon. A fully equipped V8 model weighed approximately . Although most of the mechanical parts were from the Falcon, the Mustang's body was completely different; sporting a shorter wheelbase, wider track, lower seating position, and lower overall height. An industry first, the "torque box" was an innovative structural system that greatly stiffened the Mustang's construction and helped contribute to better handling.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The idea for a fastback originated with Joe Oros as well, and was designed in Charlie Phaneuf's studio. Haldeman recalls:


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Since it was introduced four months before the normal start of the 1965 production year and manufactured alongside 1964 Ford Falcons and 1964 Mercury Comets, the earliest Mustangs are widely referred to as the 1964½ model by enthusiasts. Nevertheless, all "1964½" cars were given 1965 U.S. standard VINs at the time of production, and – with limited exception to the earliest of promotional materials – were marketed by Ford as 1965 models. The low-end model hardtop used a "U-code" straight-6 engine borrowed from the Falcon, as well as a three-speed manual transmission and retailed for . Standard equipment for the early 1965 Mustangs included black front seat belts, a glove box light, and a padded dash board. Production began in March 1964 and Mustang Serial Number One (5F08F100001) was sold on April 14, 1964, at the George Parsons Ford dealership in St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. Official introduction followed on April 17 at the 1964 World's Fair. The V8 models were identified with a badge on the front fender that spelled out the engine's cubic inch displacement ("260" or "289") over a wide "V." This emblem was identical to the one on the 1964 Fairlane.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Several changes to the Mustang occurred at the start of the "normal" 1965 model year in August 1964, about four months after its introduction. These cars are known as "late 65's". The engine lineup was changed, with a "T-code" engine that produced . Production of the Fairlane's "F-code" engine ceased when the 1964 model year ended. It was replaced with a new "C-code" engine with a two-barrel carburetor as the base V8. An "A-code" four-barrel carbureted version was next in line, followed by the unchanged 289 HiPo "K-code" equipped with a 4-barrel Autolite 4100 carburetor rated at at 6000 rpm and at 3400 rpm. The DC electrical generator was replaced by a new AC alternator on all Fords (a way to distinguish a 1964 from a 1965 is to see if the alternator light on the dash says "GEN" or "ALT").


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The Mustang GT version was introduced as the "GT Equipment Package" and included a V8 engine (most often the "289"), grille-mounted fog lamps, rocker-panel stripes, and disc brakes. In the interior, the GT option added a different instrument panel that included a speedometer, fuel gauge, temp. gauge, oil pressure gauge and amp meter in five round dials (the gauges were not marked with numbers, however.) A four-barrel carbureted engine was now available with any body style. Additionally, reverse lights were an option added to the car from August 1964 production. The Mustang was originally available as either a hardtop or convertible, but during the car's early design phases a fastback model was strongly considered. For 1965, the Shelby Mustang was born, available only in a newly introduced fastback body version with its swept-back rear glass and distinctive ventilation louvers. In 1965 they built 15,079 Mustangs that featured the GT Equipment Group. For 1966, they built 25,517 GTs. According to Jim Smart production guide, the fastback would have been the most common, followed by the coupe and then the convertible.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The standard interior features of the 1965 Mustang included adjustable driver and passenger bucket seats, an AM radio, and a floor-mounted shifter in a variety of color options. Ford added additional interior options during the 1965 model year. The Interior Decor Group was popularly known as "Pony Interior" due to the addition of embossed running ponies on the seat fronts, and also included integral armrests, woodgrain appliqué accents, and a round gauge cluster that would replace the standard Falcon instrumentation. Also available were sun visors, a (mechanical) remote-operated mirror, a floor console, and a bench seat. Ford later offered an under-dash air-conditioning unit and discontinued the vinyl with cloth insert seat option, offered only in early 1965 models. One option designed strictly for fun was the Rally-Pac. Introduced in 1963 after Ford's success at that year's Monte Carlo Rally and available on other Ford and Mercury compacts and intermediates, the Rally-Pac was a combination clock and tachometer mounted to the steering column. It was available as a factory-ordered option for $69.30. Installed by a dealer, the Rally-Pac was priced at $75.95. A 14-inch wheel option was available for Rally-Pac and GT350R vehicles widening front and rear track to 57.5 inches. A compass, rear seat belts, A/C, and back-up lights were also optional.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Nationwide survey of owners by "Popular Mechanics" included many complaints about leg room. Fuel economy for the base V8 was good for the period, with a test by Popular Mechanics rating the optional 260 cubic inch engine with automatic transmission acheving at a steady .


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1966 Mustang debuted with moderate trim changes including a new grille, side ornamentation, wheel covers, and gas cap. Ford's new C4 "Cruise-O-Matic" three-speed automatic transmission became available for the 225 hp V8. The 289 "HiPo" K-code engine was also offered with C4 transmission, but it had stronger internals and can be identified by the outer casing of the servo which is marked with a 'C'. The long duration solid-lifter camshaft that allowed the high revving 289 to make the horsepower it was known for, was not friendly for a low stall speed automatic torque converter. The "HiPo" could be spotted by the vibration damper, (compared to 1/2 inch on the 225-hp version) and the absence of a vacuum advance unit on the dual point distributor. With the valve covers off, there is a large letter "K" stamped between the valve springs, along with screw-in studs (vs. a pressed-in stud for other 289s) for the adjustable rocker arms. A large number of new paint and interior color options, an AM/eight-track sound system, and one of the first AM/FM mono automobile radios were also offered. It also removed the Falcon instrument cluster; the previously optional features, including the round gauges and padded sun visors, became standard equipment. The Mustang would be the best-selling convertible in 1966, with 72,119 sold, beating the number two Impala by almost 2:1.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1965 and 1966 Mustangs are differentiated by variations in the exterior, despite the similar design. These variations include the emblem on the quarter-panels behind the doors. From August 1964 production, the emblem was a single vertical piece of chrome, while for 1966 models the emblem was smaller in height and had three horizontal bars extending from the design, resembling an "E". The front intake grilles and ornaments were also different. The 1965 front grille used a "honeycomb" pattern, while the 1966 version was a "slotted" style. While both model years used the "Horse and Corral" emblem on the grille, the 1965s had four bars extending from each side of the corral, while these bars were removed for the 1966s. The 1966 model year saw introduction of 'High Country Special' limited edition, 333 of them were sold in Colorado, Wyoming, and Nebraska.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: When Ford wanted to introduce the Mustang in Germany, they discovered that the Krupp company had already registered the name for a truck. The German company offered to sell the rights for US$10,000. Ford refused and removed Mustang badges from exported units, instead, they named the cars T-5 (a pre-production Mustang project name) for the German market until 1979 when Krupp copyrights expired.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: In 1965, Harry Ferguson Research purchased three Mustang hardtops and converted them to 4x4 in an attempt to sell potential clients on their FF AWD system. A similar system was used in the Ferguson P99 Formula One race car, and would go on to be featured in the Jensen FF that is considered the first AWD non all-terrain passenger car. As in the Jensen FF, the AWD Mustangs also featured anti-lock braking that would later be known as ABS. The Dunlop Maxaret system was modified from its original use on airplanes.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Ford Australia organized the importation and conversion of the 1966 Mustang to right-hand-drive (RHD) for the Australian market. This coincided with the launch of the new XR Falcon for 1966, which was marketed as the "Mustang-bred Falcon". To set the official conversion apart from the cottage industry, the RHD Mustangs were called the "Ford Australia Delivered Mustang" and had compliance plates similar to the XR Falcon. About 209 were imported to Australia – 48 units were converted in 1965 and the further 161 were done in 1966.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1967 model year Mustang was the first significant redesign of the original model. Ford's designers began drawing up a larger version even as the original was achieving sales success, and while "Iacocca later complained about the Mustang's growth, he did oversee the redesign for 1967." The major mechanical feature was to allow the installation of a big-block V8 engine. The overall size, interior and cargo space were increased. Exterior trim changes included concave taillights, side scoop (1967 model) and chrome (1968 model) side ornamentation, square rear-view mirrors, and usual yearly wheel and gas cap changes. The high-performance 289 option was placed behind the newer FE engine from the Ford Thunderbird, which was equipped with a four-barrel carburetor. During the mid-1968 model year, a drag racer for the street could be ordered with the optional Cobra Jet engine which was officially rated at all of these Mustangs were issued R codes on their VINs.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1967 Deluxe Interior was revised, discontinuing the embossed running horse motif on the seatbacks (the source for the "pony interior" nickname) in favor of a new deluxe interior package, which included special color options, brushed aluminum (from August 1966 production) or woodgrain dash trim, seat buttons, and special door panels. The hardtop also included upholstered quarter trim panels, a carryover from the 1965–1966 deluxe interior. The 1967 hardtop also had the chrome quarter trim caps, carried over from 1965–1966, but these were painted to match the interior in 1968 models. The 1967 deluxe interior included stainless steel-trimmed seat back shells, similar to those in the Thunderbird. These were dropped at the end of the 1967 model year and were not included in the woodgrain-trimmed 1968 interior. The deluxe steering wheel, which had been included in the deluxe interior for 1965 and 1966, became optional, and could also be ordered with the standard interior. The 1968 models that were produced from January 1968 were also the first model year to incorporate three-point lap and shoulder belts (which had previously been optional, in 1967–1968 models) as opposed to the standard lap belts. The air-conditioning option was fully integrated into the dash, the speakers and stereo were upgraded, and unique center and overhead consoles were options. The fastback model offered the option of a rear fold-down seat, and the convertible was available with folding glass windows. Gone was the Rally-Pac, since the new instrument cluster had provisions for an optional tachometer and clock. Its size and shape also precluded the installation of the accessory atop the steering column. The convenience group with four warning lights for low fuel, seat belt reminder, parking brake not released, and door ajar were added to the instrument panel, or, if one ordered the optional console and A/C, the lights were mounted on the console.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Changes for the 1968 model increased safety with a two-spoke energy-absorbing steering wheel, along with newly introduced shoulder belts. Other changes included front and rear side markers, "FORD" lettering removed from the hood, rearview mirror moved from frame to windshield, a V8 engine was now available, and C-Stripe graphics were added.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The California Special Mustang, or GT/CS, was visually based on the Shelby model and was only sold in Western states. Its sister, the 'High Country Special', was sold in Denver, Colorado. While the GT/CS was only available as a coupe, the 'High Country Special' model was available in fastback and convertible configurations during the 1966 and 1967 model years, and as a coupe for 1968.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1968 Ford Mustang GT Fastback got a popularity boost after it was featured in the 1968 film "Bullitt", starring Steve McQueen. In the film, McQueen drove a modified 1968 Mustang GT 2+2 Fastback chasing a Dodge Charger through the streets of San Francisco.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: On January 10, 2020, the car that was driven by McQueen, later owned by Robert Kiernan, and subsequently by his son Sean, was sold at Mecum Auctions for a record price of $3.7 million, including auction fees.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1969 model year restyle "added more heft to the body" with body length extended by (the wheelbase remaining at 108 inches), width increased by almost half an inch, and the Mustang's "weight went up markedly too." 1969 was the first model to use quad headlamps placed both inside and outside the grille opening. The corralled grille pony was replaced with the pony and tribars logo, set off-center to the driver's side. The car was longer than previous models and sported convex rather than concave side panels. The fastback body version was named SportsRoof in Ford's literature.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1969 model year saw the introduction of the Mach 1, with a variety of powerplants options and many new styling and performance features. Distinctive reflective striping was placed along the body sides, with a pop-open gas cap, dual exhausts, matte-black hood with simulated air scoop and NASCAR-style cable and pin tiedowns. It used steel wheels with white lettered Goodyear Polyglas tires. A functional "shaker" hood scoop – which visibly vibrated by being attached directly to the air cleaner through a hole in the hood – was available, as were tail-mounted wing and chin spoilers and rear window louvered blackout shade. The Mach 1 featured a deluxe interior with simulated wood trim, high-backed seats, extra sound deadening, remote sports mirrors, and other features. The Mach 1 proved popular with buyers as 72,458 cars were sold through 1969.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The Boss 302 was created to meet Trans Am rules and featured distinctive hockey-stick stripes, while the understated Boss 429 was created to homologate the Boss 429 engine (based on the new Ford 385 series engine) for NASCAR use. The two Boss models received fame on the track and street. A total of 1,628 Boss 302's and 859 Boss 429's were sold through 1969 – making these vehicles somewhat rare.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: A new "luxury" model became available starting for 1969, available in only the hardtop body style. The 'Grande' featured a soft ride, of extra sound deadening, as well as a deluxe interior with simulated wood trim. It was popular with buyers with 22,182 units sold through 1969.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Amidst other special editions, the 1969 Mustang E was offered for those desiring high mpg. The 1969 Limited Edition Mustang E was a rare (about 50 produced) fastback special model designed for economy. It came with a six-cylinder engine (), a high stall torque converter for the standard automatic transmission, and a low, 2.33:1 rear axle ratio. Mustang E lettering on the rear quarters identified the special Mustang E. Air conditioning was not available on the 'E' model.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The Mustang GT was discontinued in 1969 due to poor sales versus the success of the new Mach 1 with only 5396 GT models sold that year.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: A new Thriftpower I6 engine with filled the gap between the existing Thriftpower I6 and the V8 engine line-up.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Although 1969 continued with many of the same basic V8 engines available on 1968 models, notably a now revised 302 cu in (4.9 L) small block engine with , the 390 cu in (6.4 L) FE with and the recently launched 428 cu in (7.0 L) Cobra Jet engine (with or without Ram-Air) with an advertised , a variety of revised options and changes were introduced to keep the Mustang fresh and competitive including a new performance V8 available in or tune known as the 351 cu in (5.8 L) Windsor (351W), which was effectively a stretched and revised to achieve the extra stroke.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 428 cu in (7.0 L) Cobra Jet engine continued unchanged in the 1969 and 1970 model years and continued to be advertised at . If an V or W axle was ordered (3.90 or 4.30 locking ratio) on any Cobra Jet Mustang, included were engine improvements to make it more reliable on the strip. Included was an engine oil cooler (making AC not available as an option), stronger crankshaft and conrods, improved engine balancing, and was named the 'Super Cobra Jet'. These improvements were later referred to as 'Drag Pack'.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1969 Shelby Mustang was now under Ford's control and made to look vastly different from regular production Mustangs, despite now being built inhouse by Ford. The custom styling included a fiberglass front end with a combination loop bumper/grille that increased the car's overall length by , as well as five air intakes on the hood. Two models were available, GT-350 (with a 351 cu in (5.8 L) Windsor (351W) producing ) and GT-500 (with the 428 cu in (7.0 L) Cobra Jet engine), in both sportsroof or convertible versions. All 1969–1970 Shelby Mustangs were produced in 1969. Because of dwindling sales, the 789 remaining 1969 cars were given new serial numbers and titled as 1970 models. They had modified front air dam and a blackout paint treatment around the hood scoops.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1970 model year Mustangs were restyled to be less aggressive and therefore returned to single headlamps which were moved to the inside of the grille opening with 'fins' on the outside of the grille sides. The styling of the 1969 model was deemed for a drop in sales and this prompted the headlamp revisions and simplification of other exterior styling aspects for 1970. In the end, however, the 1969 model year sales exceeded those of 1970. The rear fender air scoops were removed and the taillight panel was now flat instead of concave as seen on 1969 models. The interior options remained mostly unchanged.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: 1970 model year saw the previous 351W V8 engine options replaced with a new 351 cu in (5.8 L) Cleveland (351C) V8 in either 2V (2-venturi carburetor) or 4V (4-venturi carburetor) versions; however, some early production 1970 Mustangs had the 351W. The 351C 4V (M code) engine featured 11.0:1 compression and produced 300 bhp (224 kW; 304 PS) at 5400 rpm. This new performance engine incorporated elements learned from the Ford 385 series engine and the Boss 302, particularly the poly-angle combustion chambers with canted valves and the thin-wall casting technology.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Ford made 96 'Mustang Twister Special' cars for Ford's Kansas City District Sales Office in late 1969. The Twister Specials were Grabber Orange Mach 1s with special decals. Ford also made a few 'Sidewinders', which were built in Dearborn, shipped to Omaha, and sold in Iowa and Nebraska. They were available in Grabber Green, Grabber Blue, Calypso Coral, and Yellow. The stripes came in the trunk to be installed by dealers.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Introduced in September 1970, the 1971 Mustang was green-lighted by Ford's new president, Semon "Bunkie" Knudsen, formerly of General Motors. Again, the revised model grew in size, gaining 3 inches in width in order to accommodate Ford's big block V8 without need for an extensive suspension redesign.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: As before there were three body styles offered: Hardtop (available in base or Grande trim), SportsRoof (available in base or Mach 1 trim), and convertible (no specific trim packages available).


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The new 1971 hardtop featured a prominent "tunnelback" rear window design with flowing rear pillars, a completion of the styling exercise of the outgoing model. Hardtops with 'Grande' trim gained a vinyl roof and Grande badges on the C-pillars.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: An additional edition, the Spring Special, was available between March and May 1971, which added Mach 1 styling cues (side stripes, tu-tone paint, urethane bumper, honeycomb grill with sportlamps) to the hardtop.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: SportsRoof models were available in base configurations in addition to the Mach 1 and Boss 351 sport/performance options.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The Mach 1s were available with two-tone paint schemes, optional hockey-stick stripes, NACA (NASA) hood scoops (functional on 999 ordered with Ram Air), color-keyed side mirrors, and additional sports/performance options. All Mach 1 models came stock with urethane front bumpers and an alternate grille equipped with amber sportlights. Though the Mach 1 is often associated with the NACA hood (a no-cost option) and other styling cues, base Mach 1s could be had with the standard hood and the 302 2V engine.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Boss 351 models were similar in appearance to the Mach 1, and included a larger black-out hood than Mach 1's, front and rear spoilers, dual exhaust with no rear valance cutouts, and chrome bumpers paired with the sportlamp grille.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Convertibles were equipped with a power top and a glass rear window. The 1973 models were the last Mustangs available as a convertible until the 1983 model year. Convertibles featured no unique exterior visual package of their own during their first year of introduction.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Due to tightening emissions regulations, the Boss 351 edition and optional 429 big block were dropped after 1971, leaving the variants as the largest available engines for 1972 (and 1973).


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Exterior differences were virtually unchanged, though all 1972 models were revised with "Fasten Seat Belt" warning lamps on the right side dash panel. The "Decor Group" exterior trim package was also revised, allowing coupe and convertible owners to option their car with two-tone lower body paint, plus the honeycomb sportlamp grille from the Mach 1/Boss 351 and the Mach 1's urethane bumper.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: A commemorative Olympic Sprint Edition (also available on the Pinto and Maverick) was released between March and June of this year. Sprint editions were available in Hardtop and Sportsroof variants, and featured white paint schemes with light blue accents and USA shield decals on the rear quarter panels. An additional 50 Sprint convertibles were produced exclusively for the 1972 National Cherry Blossom Parade in Washington D.C.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: 1972 saw the end of the special Ford muscle car performance engine era. At mid-year, Ford offered a slightly detuned Boss 351 engine, which could be ordered with any model. A total of 398 Mustangs were built with the drag race-oriented R code engine and were designated as the 351 HO. Mandatory options were the top loader 4-speed, competition N case rear end (427, 428, 429, Boss 351, 351HO), and air conditioning delete. Vacuum-operated Ram Air was not available. However, the HO came with the first full-time cold air induction system in a Mustang, routing cold air via a two-piece plastic duct under the battery tray to the air cleaner snorkel. All 351 HO cars were manufactured in Dearborn, MI.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: 1973 brought some mild restyling. The urethane front bumper became standard and was enlarged in accordance with new NHTSA standards. All Mustang models had their sportlamps replaced with vertical turn signals, as the new bumper covered the previous turn signal locations in the front valance. Both a Mach 1 and base grille were offered, with differing insert patterns.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Mach 1 decals were also revised in 1972 for 1973 models, and the previous hockey stick side stripes of 1971–1972 models became an option on hardtops and convertibles with the addition of the 'Exterior Decor Group'. Magnum 500 wheels, previously optional, were superseded by forged aluminum 5-hole wheels.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: The 1973 model year Mustang was the final version of the original pony car, as the model name migrated to the economy, Ford Pinto-based Mustang II the next year.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: A small number of Mexican-produced cars were manufactured with the 'GT-351' trim package, under license by Shelby de Mexico. Additionally, 14 Shelby Europa vehicles were modified and decaled by Belgian Shelby dealer Claude Dubois for European clientele.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Automakers in the U.S. switched from gross to net power and torque ratings in 1972 (coinciding with the introduction of low-compression engines); thus, it is difficult to compare power and torque ratings between 1971 and 1972.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: In 1964, Mustang sales started with 22,000 orders taken on the first day at the World's Fair and around the country. In the first two years of production, three Ford Motor Company plants in Milpitas, California; Dearborn, Michigan; and Metuchen, New Jersey produced almost 1.3 million Mustangs.


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: From 1965, the Mustang was also made at the La Villa plant in Mexico. Initially, only the hardtop with a V8 engine (initially the 289, the 351 was added in 1970). The Mach 1 fastback was added in 1973..


title: Ford Mustang (first generation)

text: Even though Chrysler had introduced the Plymouth Barracuda a few weeks before the "clean sheet" Mustang, it rapidly overcame the slightly redesigned Plymouth Valiant to not only dominate the emerging car sector—the pony car—but literally define it. It left the Barracuda in its tracks, and caught GM flat-footed. Unprepared General Motors executives thought the rear-engined Chevrolet Corvair Monza would compete against the Mustang, but it also sold poorly by comparison. The Monza performed well for a sporty car, even as a sports car, but lacked a V8 engine and its reputation was tarnished by Ralph Nader in his book, "Unsafe at Any Speed". It took GM until the 1967 model year to counter with the Chevrolet Camaro and Pontiac Firebird. Lincoln-Mercury joined the competition in 1966 with the Mercury Cougar, an "upmarket Mustang" and subsequent "Motor Trend" Car of the Year. In mid-year 1967, American Motors (AMC) introduced the Javelin, an image-changing "standout," for the 1968 model year. For the 1970 model year the Dodge Challenger, a version of the Plymouth Barracuda platform, was last to join the pony car race.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism is an economic policy that is designed to maximize the exports and minimize the imports for an economy. It promotes imperialism, colonialism, tariffs and subsidies on traded goods to achieve that goal. The policy aims to reduce a possible current account deficit or reach a current account surplus, and it includes measures aimed at accumulating monetary reserves by a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Historically, such policies frequently led to war and motivated colonial expansion. Mercantilist theory varies in sophistication from one writer to another and has evolved over time.


title: Mercantilism

text: It promotes government regulation of a nation's economy for the purpose of augmenting state power at the expense of rival national powers. High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, were almost universally a feature of mercantilist policy. Before it fell into decline, mercantilism was dominant in modernized parts of Europe and some areas in Africa from the 16th to the 19th centuries, a period of proto-industrialization. Some commentators argue that it is still practised in the economies of industrializing countries, in the form of economic interventionism.


title: Mercantilism

text: With the efforts of supranational organizations such as the World Trade Organization to reduce tariffs globally, non-tariff barriers to trade have assumed a greater importance in neomercantilism.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism became the dominant school of economic thought in Europe throughout the late Renaissance and the early-modern period (from the 15th to the 18th centuries). Evidence of mercantilistic practices appeared in early-modern Venice, Genoa, and Pisa regarding control of the Mediterranean trade in bullion. However, the empiricism of the Renaissance, which first began to quantify large-scale trade accurately, marked mercantilism's birth as a codified school of economic theories. The Italian economist and mercantilist Antonio Serra is considered to have written one of the first treatises on political economy with his 1613 work, "A Short Treatise on the Wealth and Poverty of Nations".


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism in its simplest form is bullionism, yet mercantilist writers emphasize the circulation of money and reject hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money-supply. Fiat money and floating exchange rates have since rendered specie concerns irrelevant. In time, industrial policy supplanted the heavy emphasis on money, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for "infant" industries or the promotion of the mutual growth of countries through national industrial specialization.


title: Mercantilism

text: England began the first large-scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era (1558–1603). An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in "Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England", 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them." The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of Queen Elizabeth (r. 1558–1603) to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the Trade and Navigation Acts in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping.


title: Mercantilism

text: Authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include Gerard de Malynes ( 1585–1641) and Thomas Mun (1571–1641), who first articulated the Elizabethan system ("England's Treasure by Foreign Trade or the Balance of Foreign Trade is the Rule of Our Treasure"), which Josiah Child (–1699) then developed further. Numerous French authors helped cement French policy around mercantilism in the 17th century. Jean-Baptiste Colbert (Intendant général, 1661–1665; Contrôleur général des finances, 1661–1683) best articulated this French mercantilism. French economic policy liberalized greatly under Napoleon (in power from 1799 to 1814/1815)


title: Mercantilism

text: Many nations applied the theory, notably France. King Louis XIV (reigned 1643–1715) followed the guidance of Jean Baptiste Colbert, his Controller-General of Finances from 1665 to 1683. It was determined that the state should rule in the economic realm as it did in the diplomatic, and that the interests of the state as identified by the king were superior to those of merchants and of everyone else. Mercantilist economic policies aimed to build up the state, especially in an age of incessant warfare, and theorists charged the state with looking for ways to strengthen the economy and to weaken foreign adversaries.


title: Mercantilism

text: In Europe, academic belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late-18th century after the East India Company annexed the Mughal Bengal, a major trading nation, and the establishment of the British India through the activities of the East India Company, in light of the arguments of Adam Smith (1723–1790) and of the classical economists.


title: Mercantilism

text: The British Parliament's repeal of the Corn Laws under Robert Peel in 1846 symbolized the emergence of free trade as an alternative system.


title: Mercantilism

text: Most of the European economists who wrote between 1500 and 1750 are today generally considered mercantilists; this term was initially used solely by critics, such as Mirabeau and Smith, but historians proved quick to adopt it. Originally the standard English term was "mercantile system". The word "mercantilism" came into English from German in the early-19th century.


title: Mercantilism

text: The bulk of what is commonly called "mercantilist literature" appeared in the 1620s in Great Britain. Smith saw the English merchant Thomas Mun (1571–1641) as a major creator of the mercantile system, especially in his posthumously published "Treasure by Foreign Trade" (1664), which Smith considered the archetype or manifesto of the movement. Perhaps the last major mercantilist work was James Steuart's "Principles of Political Economy", published in 1767.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilist literature also extended beyond England. Italy and France produced noted writers of mercantilist themes, including Italy's Giovanni Botero (1544–1617) and Antonio Serra (1580–?) and, in France, Jean Bodin and Colbert. Themes also existed in writers from the German historical school from List, as well as followers of the American and British systems of free-trade, thus stretching the system into the 19th century. However, many British writers, including Mun and Misselden, were merchants, while many of the writers from other countries were public officials. Beyond mercantilism as a way of understanding the wealth and power of nations, Mun and Misselden are noted for their viewpoints on a wide range of economic matters.


title: Mercantilism

text: The Austrian lawyer and scholar Philipp Wilhelm von Hornick, one of the pioneers of Cameralism, detailed a nine-point program of what he deemed effective national economy in his "Austria Over All, If She Only Will" of 1684, which comprehensively sums up the tenets of mercantilism:


title: Mercantilism

text: Other than Von Hornick, there were no mercantilist writers presenting an overarching scheme for the ideal economy, as Adam Smith would later do for classical economics. Rather, each mercantilist writer tended to focus on a single area of the economy. Only later did non-mercantilist scholars integrate these "diverse" ideas into what they called mercantilism. Some scholars thus reject the idea of mercantilism completely, arguing that it gives "a false unity to disparate events". Smith saw the mercantile system as an enormous conspiracy by manufacturers and merchants against consumers, a view that has led some authors, especially Robert E. Ekelund and Robert D. Tollison, to call mercantilism "a rent-seeking society". To a certain extent, mercantilist doctrine itself made a general theory of economics impossible. Mercantilists viewed the economic system as a zero-sum game, in which any gain by one party required a loss by another. Thus, any system of policies that benefited one group would by definition harm the other, and there was no possibility of economics being used to maximize the commonwealth, or common good. Mercantilists' writings were also generally created to rationalize particular practices rather than as investigations into the best policies.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilist domestic policy was more fragmented than its trade policy. While Adam Smith portrayed mercantilism as supportive of strict controls over the economy, many mercantilists disagreed. The early modern era was one of letters patent and government-imposed monopolies; some mercantilists supported these, but others acknowledged the corruption and inefficiency of such systems. Many mercantilists also realized that the inevitable results of quotas and price ceilings were black markets. One notion that mercantilists widely agreed upon was the need for economic oppression of the working population; laborers and farmers were to live at the "margins of subsistence". The goal was to maximize production, with no concern for consumption. Extra money, free time, and education for the lower classes were seen to inevitably lead to vice and laziness, and would result in harm to the economy.


title: Mercantilism

text: The mercantilists saw a large population as a form of wealth that made possible the development of bigger markets and armies. Opposite to mercantilism was the doctrine of physiocracy, which predicted that mankind would outgrow its resources. The idea of mercantilism was to protect the markets as well as maintain agriculture and those who were dependent upon it.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilist ideas were the dominant economic ideology of all of Europe in the early modern period, and most states embraced it to a certain degree. Mercantilism was centred on England and France, and it was in these states that mercantilist policies were most often enacted.


title: Mercantilism

text: Pochteca (singular pochtecatl) were professional, long-distance traveling merchants in the Aztec Empire. The trade or commerce was referred to as pochtecayotl. Within the empire, the pochteca performed three primary duties: market management, international trade, and acting as market intermediaries domestically. They were a small but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders, and were often employed as spies due to their extensive travel and knowledge of the empire. The pochteca are the subject of Book 9 of the Florentine Codex (1576), compiled by Bernardino de Sahagún.


title: Mercantilism

text: Pochteca occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. They were responsible for providing the materials that the Aztec nobility used to display their wealth, which were often obtained from foreign sources. The pochteca also acted as agents for the nobility, selling the surplus tribute that had been bestowed on the noble and warrior elite and also sourcing rare goods or luxury items. The pochteca traded the excess tribute (food, garments, feathers and slaves) in the marketplace or carried it to other areas to exchange for trade goods.


title: Mercantilism

text: Due to the success of the pochteca, many of these merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. Trading expeditions often left their districts late in the evening, and their wealth was only revealed within their private guildhalls. Although politically and economically powerful, the pochteca strove to avoid undue attention. The merchants followed their own laws in their own calpulli, and venerating their god, Yacatecuhtli, "The Lord Who Guides" and Lord of the Vanguard an aspect of Quetzalcoatl. Eventually the merchants were elevated to the rank of the warriors of the military orders.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism arose in France in the early 16th century soon after the monarchy had become the dominant force in French politics. In 1539, an important decree banned the import of woolen goods from Spain and some parts of Flanders. The next year, a number of restrictions were imposed on the export of bullion.


title: Mercantilism

text: Over the rest of the 16th century, further protectionist measures were introduced. The height of French mercantilism is closely associated with Jean-Baptiste Colbert, finance minister for 22 years in the 17th century, to the extent that French mercantilism is sometimes called Colbertism. Under Colbert, the French government became deeply involved in the economy in order to increase exports. Protectionist policies were enacted that limited imports and favored exports. Industries were organized into guilds and monopolies, and production was regulated by the state through a series of more than one thousand directives outlining how different products should be produced.


title: Mercantilism

text: To encourage industry, foreign artisans and craftsmen were imported. Colbert also worked to decrease internal barriers to trade, reducing internal tariffs and building an extensive network of roads and canals. Colbert's policies were quite successful, and France's industrial output and the economy grew considerably during this period, as France became the dominant European power. He was less successful in turning France into a major trading power, and Britain and the Dutch Republic remained supreme in this field.


title: Mercantilism

text: France imposed its mercantilist philosophy on its colonies in North America, especially New France. It sought to derive the maximum material benefit from the colony, for the homeland, with a minimum of colonial investment in the colony itself. The ideology was embodied in New France through the establishment under Royal Charter of a number of corporate trading monopolies including La Compagnie des Marchands, which operated from 1613 to 1621, and the Compagnie de Montmorency, from that date until 1627. It was in turn replaced by La Compagnie des Cent-Associés, created in 1627 by King Louis XIII, and the Communauté des habitants in 1643. These were the first corporations to operate in what is now Canada.


title: Mercantilism

text: In England, mercantilism reached its peak during the Long Parliament government (1640–60). Mercantilist policies were also embraced throughout much of the Tudor and Stuart periods, with Robert Walpole being another major proponent. In Britain, government control over the domestic economy was far less extensive than on the Continent, limited by common law and the steadily increasing power of Parliament. Government-controlled monopolies were common, especially before the English Civil War, but were often controversial.


title: Mercantilism

text: With respect to its colonies, British mercantilism meant that the government and the merchants became partners with the goal of increasing political power and private wealth, to the exclusion of other European powers. The government protected its merchants—and kept foreign ones out—through trade barriers, regulations, and subsidies to domestic industries in order to maximize exports from and minimize imports to the realm. The government had to fight smuggling, which became a favourite American technique in the 18th century to circumvent the restrictions on trading with the French, Spanish, or Dutch. The goal of mercantilism was to run trade surpluses to benefit the government. The government took its share through duties and taxes, with the remainder going to merchants in Britain. The government spent much of its revenue on the Royal Navy, which both protected the colonies of Britain but was vital in capturing the colonies of other European powers.


title: Mercantilism

text: British mercantilist writers were themselves divided on whether domestic controls were necessary. British mercantilism thus mainly took the form of efforts to control trade. A wide array of regulations were put in place to encourage exports and discourage imports. Tariffs were placed on imports and bounties given for exports, and the export of some raw materials was banned completely. The Navigation Acts removed foreign merchants from being involved England's domestic trade. British policies in their American colonies led to friction with the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, and mercantilist policies (such as forbidding trade with other European powers and enforcing bans on smuggling) were a major irritant leading to the American Revolution.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism taught that trade was a zero-sum game, with one country's gain equivalent to a loss sustained by the trading partner. Overall, however, mercantilist policies had a positive impact on Britain, helping to transform the nation into the world's dominant trading power and a global hegemon. One domestic policy that had a lasting impact was the conversion of "wastelands" to agricultural use. Mercantilists believed that to maximize a nation's power, all land and resources had to be used to their highest and best use, and this era thus saw projects like the draining of The Fens.


title: Mercantilism

text: The other nations of Europe also embraced mercantilism to varying degrees. The Netherlands, which had become the financial centre of Europe by being its most efficient trader, had little interest in seeing trade restricted and adopted few mercantilist policies. Mercantilism became prominent in Central Europe and Scandinavia after the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), with Christina of Sweden, Jacob Kettler of Courland, and Christian IV of Denmark being notable proponents.


title: Mercantilism

text: The Habsburg Holy Roman Emperors had long been interested in mercantilist policies, but the vast and decentralized nature of their empire made implementing such notions difficult. Some constituent states of the empire did embrace Mercantilism, most notably Prussia, which under Frederick the Great had perhaps the most rigidly controlled economy in Europe.


title: Mercantilism

text: Spain benefited from mercantilism early on as it brought a large amount of precious metals such as gold and silver into their treasury by way of the new world. In the long run, Spain's economy collapsed as it was unable to adjust to the inflation that came with the large influx of bullion. Heavy intervention from the crown put crippling laws for the protection of Spanish goods and services. Mercantilist protectionist policy in Spain caused the long-run failure of the Castilian textile industry as the efficiency severely dropped off with each passing year due to the production being held at a specific level. Spain's heavily protected industries led to famines as much of its agricultural land was required to be used for sheep instead of grain. Much of their grain was imported from the Baltic region of Europe which caused a shortage of food in the inner regions of Spain. Spain limiting the trade of their colonies is one of the causes that lead to the separation of the Dutch from the Spanish Empire. The culmination of all of these policies lead to Spain defaulting in 1557, 1575, and 1596.


title: Mercantilism

text: During the economic collapse of the 17th century, Spain had little coherent economic policy, but French mercantilist policies were imported by Philip V with some success. Russia under Peter I (Peter the Great) attempted to pursue mercantilism, but had little success because of Russia's lack of a large merchant class or an industrial base.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism was the economic version of warfare using economics as a tool for warfare by other means backed up by the state apparatus and was well suited to an era of military warfare. Since the level of world trade was viewed as fixed, it followed that the only way to increase a nation's trade was to take it from another. A number of wars, most notably the Anglo-Dutch Wars and the Franco-Dutch Wars, can be linked directly to mercantilist theories. Most wars had other causes but they reinforced mercantilism by clearly defining the enemy, and justified damage to the enemy's economy.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism fueled the imperialism of this era, as many nations expended significant effort to conquer new colonies that would be sources of gold (as in Mexico) or sugar (as in the West Indies), as well as becoming exclusive markets. European power spread around the globe, often under the aegis of companies with government-guaranteed monopolies in certain defined geographical regions, such as the Dutch East India Company or the Hudson's Bay Company (operating in present-day Canada).


title: Mercantilism

text: With the establishment of overseas colonies by European powers early in the 17th century, mercantile theory gained a new and wider significance, in which its aim and ideal became both national and imperialistic.


title: Mercantilism

text: The connection between communism and mercantilism has been explored by Marxist economist and sociologist Giovanni Arrighi, who analyzed mercantilism as having three components: "settler colonialism, capitalist slavery, and economic nationalism," and further noted that slavery was "partly a condition and partly a result of the success of settler colonialism."


title: Mercantilism

text: In France, the triangular trade method was integral in the continuation of mercantilism throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. In order to maximize exports and minimize imports, France worked on a strict Atlantic route: France, to Africa, to the Americas and then back to France. By bringing African slaves to labor in the New World, their labor value increased, and France capitalized upon the market resources produced by slave labor.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism as a weapon has continued to be used by nations through the 21st century by way of modern tariffs as it puts smaller economies in a position to conform to the larger economies goals or risk economic ruin due to an imbalance in trade. Trade wars are often dependent on such tariffs and restrictions hurting the opposing economy.


title: Mercantilism

text: The term "mercantile system" was used by its foremost critic, Adam Smith, but Mirabeau (1715–1789) had used "mercantilism" earlier.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism functioned as the economic counterpart of the older version of political power: divine right of kings and absolute monarchy.


title: Mercantilism

text: Scholars debate over why mercantilism dominated economic ideology for 250 years. One group, represented by Jacob Viner, sees mercantilism as simply a straightforward, common-sense system whose logical fallacies remained opaque to people at the time, as they simply lacked the required analytical tools.


title: Mercantilism

text: The second school, supported by scholars such as Robert B. Ekelund, portrays mercantilism not as a mistake, but rather as the best possible system for those who developed it. This school argues that rent-seeking merchants and governments developed and enforced mercantilist policies. Merchants benefited greatly from the enforced monopolies, bans on foreign competition, and poverty of the workers. Governments benefited from the high tariffs and payments from the merchants. Whereas later economic ideas were often developed by academics and philosophers, almost all mercantilist writers were merchants or government officials.


title: Mercantilism

text: Monetarism offers a third explanation for mercantilism. European trade exported bullion to pay for goods from Asia, thus reducing the money supply and putting downward pressure on prices and economic activity. The evidence for this hypothesis is the lack of inflation in the British economy until the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when paper money came into vogue.


title: Mercantilism

text: A fourth explanation lies in the increasing professionalisation and technification of the wars of the era, which turned the maintenance of adequate reserve funds (in the prospect of war) into a more and more expensive and eventually competitive business.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilism developed at a time of transition for the European economy. Isolated feudal estates were being replaced by centralized nation-states as the focus of power. Technological changes in shipping and the growth of urban centers led to a rapid increase in international trade. Mercantilism focused on how this trade could best aid the states. Another important change was the introduction of double-entry bookkeeping and modern accounting. This accounting made extremely clear the inflow and outflow of trade, contributing to the close scrutiny given to the balance of trade. Of course, the impact of the discovery of America cannot be ignored. New markets and new mines propelled foreign trade to previously inconceivable volumes, resulting in "the great upward movement in prices" and an increase in "the volume of merchant activity itself".


title: Mercantilism

text: Prior to mercantilism, the most important economic work done in Europe was by the medieval scholastic theorists. The goal of these thinkers was to find an economic system compatible with Christian doctrines of piety and justice. They focused mainly on microeconomics and on local exchanges between individuals. Mercantilism was closely aligned with the other theories and ideas that began to replace the medieval worldview. This period saw the adoption of the very Machiavellian realpolitik and the primacy of the "raison d'état" in international relations. The mercantilist idea of all trade as a zero-sum game, in which each side was trying to best the other in a ruthless competition, was integrated into the works of Thomas Hobbes. This dark view of human nature also fit well with the Puritan view of the world, and some of the most stridently mercantilist legislation, such as the Navigation Ordinance of 1651, was enacted by the government of Oliver Cromwell.


title: Mercantilism

text: Jean-Baptiste Colbert's work in 17th-century France came to exemplify classical mercantilism. In the English-speaking world, its ideas were criticized by Adam Smith with the publication of "The Wealth of Nations" in 1776 and later by David Ricardo with his explanation of comparative advantage. Mercantilism was rejected by Britain and France by the mid-19th century. The British Empire embraced free trade and used its power as the financial center of the world to promote the same. The Guyanese historian Walter Rodney describes mercantilism as the period of the worldwide development of European commerce, which began in the 15th century with the voyages of Portuguese and Spanish explorers to Africa, Asia, and the New World.


title: Mercantilism

text: Adam Smith, David Hume, Edward Gibbon, Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were the founding fathers of anti-mercantilist thought. A number of scholars found important flaws with mercantilism long before Smith developed an ideology that could fully replace it. Critics like Hume, Dudley North and John Locke undermined much of mercantilism and it steadily lost favor during the 18th century.


title: Mercantilism

text: In 1690, Locke argued that prices vary in proportion to the quantity of money. Locke's "Second Treatise" also points towards the heart of the anti-mercantilist critique: that the wealth of the world is not fixed, but is created by human labor (represented embryonically by Locke's labor theory of value). Mercantilists failed to understand the notions of absolute advantage and comparative advantage (although this idea was only fully fleshed out in 1817 by David Ricardo) and the benefits of trade.


title: Mercantilism

text: Hume famously noted the impossibility of the mercantilists' goal of a constant positive balance of trade. As bullion flowed into one country, the supply would increase, and the value of bullion in that state would steadily decline relative to other goods. Conversely, in the state exporting bullion, its value would slowly rise. Eventually, it would no longer be cost-effective to export goods from the high-price country to the low-price country, and the balance of trade would reverse. Mercantilists fundamentally misunderstood this, long arguing that an increase in the money supply simply meant that everyone gets richer.


title: Mercantilism

text: The importance placed on bullion was also a central target, even if many mercantilists had themselves begun to de-emphasize the importance of gold and silver. Adam Smith noted that at the core of the mercantile system was the "popular folly of confusing wealth with money", that bullion was just the same as any other commodity, and that there was no reason to give it special treatment. More recently, scholars have discounted the accuracy of this critique. They believe Mun and Misselden were not making this mistake in the 1620s, and point to their followers Josiah Child and Charles Davenant, who in 1699 wrote, "Gold and Silver are indeed the Measures of Trade, but that the Spring and Original of it, in all nations is the Natural or Artificial Product of the Country; that is to say, what this Land or what this Labour and Industry Produces." The critique that mercantilism was a form of rent seeking has also seen criticism, as scholars such as Jacob Viner in the 1930s pointed out that merchant mercantilists such as Mun understood that they would not gain by higher prices for English wares abroad.


title: Mercantilism

text: The first school to completely reject mercantilism was the physiocrats, who developed their theories in France. Their theories also had several important problems, and the replacement of mercantilism did not come until Adam Smith published "The Wealth of Nations" in 1776. This book outlines the basics of what is today known as classical economics. Smith spent a considerable portion of the book rebutting the arguments of the mercantilists, though often these are simplified or exaggerated versions of mercantilist thought.


title: Mercantilism

text: Scholars are also divided over the cause of mercantilism's end. Those who believe the theory was simply an error hold that its replacement was inevitable as soon as Smith's more accurate ideas were unveiled. Those who feel that mercantilism amounted to rent-seeking hold that it ended only when major power shifts occurred. In Britain, mercantilism faded as the Parliament gained the monarch's power to grant monopolies. While the wealthy capitalists who controlled the House of Commons benefited from these monopolies, Parliament found it difficult to implement them because of the high cost of group decision making.


title: Mercantilism

text: Mercantilist regulations were steadily removed over the course of the 18th century in Britain, and during the 19th century, the British government fully embraced free trade and Smith's laissez-faire economics. On the continent, the process was somewhat different. In France, economic control remained in the hands of the royal family, and mercantilism continued until the French Revolution. In Germany, mercantilism remained an important ideology in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when the historical school of economics was paramount.


title: Mercantilism

text: Adam Smith criticized the mercantile doctrine that majored on the production in the economy, he maintained that consumption was of prime significance to consumption. Additionally, the mercantile system was well liked by the traders as it was now what is referred to as rent seeking. John Maynard Keynes affirmed that motivating the production process was as significant as encouraging the consumption, which benefited the new mercantilism. Keynes also affirmed that in the post-classical period the primary focus on gold and silver supplies (bullion) was rational. During the era, before the paper money, an increase in gold and silver was one of the mercantilism way of increasing an economy's reserve or the supply of money. Keynes reiterated that the doctrines advocated for by mercantilism aided the improvement of both the domestic and foreign outlay—domestic because the policies lowered the domestic rate of interest, and investment by foreigners by tending to create a favorable balance of trade. Keynes and other economists of the 20th century also realized that the balance of payments is an important concern. Keynes also supported government intervention in the economy as necessity, as did mercantilism.


title: Mercantilism

text: , the word "mercantilism" remains a pejorative term, often used to attack various forms of protectionism. The similarities between Keynesianism (and its successor ideas) and mercantilism have sometimes led critics to call them neomercantilism.


title: Mercantilism

text: Paul Samuelson, writing within a Keynesian framework, wrote of mercantilism, "With employment less than full and Net National Product suboptimal, all the debunked mercantilist arguments turn out to be valid."


title: Mercantilism

text: Some other systems that copy several mercantilist policies, such as Japan's economic system, are also sometimes called neo-mercantilist. In an essay appearing in the May 14, 2007 issue of "Newsweek", business columnist Robert J. Samuelson wrote that China was pursuing an essentially neo-mercantilist trade policy that threatened to undermine the post–World War II international economic structure.


title: Mercantilism

text: In specific instances, protectionist mercantilist policies also had an important and positive impact on the state that enacted them. Adam Smith, for instance, praised the Navigation Acts, as they greatly expanded the British merchant fleet and played a central role in turning Britain into the world's naval and economic superpower from the 18th century onward. Some economists thus feel that protecting infant industries, while causing short-term harm, can be beneficial in the long term.


title: Grace Hightower

text: Grace Hightower De Niro is an American philanthropist, socialite, actress, and singer. She married Robert De Niro in 1997, and they separated in 2018.


title: Grace Hightower

text: As a philanthropist, Hightower launched Grace Hightower & Coffees of Rwanda in 2013 with the mission of improving Rwandan livelihoods by marketing their products internationally. She is a board member of the New York Women's Foundation and the New York Fund for Public Schools as well as a member of Ronald Perelman's Women's Heart Health Advisory Council and the International Women's Coffee Alliance. Hightower has been honored for her work by numerous institutions including the American Cancer Society of New York City.


title: Grace Hightower

text: As a socialite, Hightower's gala 55th birthday party was covered in "Vogue" magazine by André Leon Talley. In 2010, she presented the Pratt Institute's Creative Spirit Award to director Lee Daniels.


title: Grace Hightower

text: As an actress, Hightower has had minor roles in various movies including "Precious" (2009) and "The Paperboy" (2012). Additionally, she had a minor part in the ABC TV series, "NYPD Blue", in the 1994 Season One episode entitled "Zeppo Marks Brothers".


title: Grace Hightower

text: As a singer, she performed the lead vocals for the track, "Somethin's Comin' My Way", written by Dan Manjovi for the 2009 "Precious" movie soundtrack.


title: Grace Hightower

text: Hightower is of African-American descent and was raised in Kilmichael, Mississippi. She grew up in poverty, and worked various odd jobs to help support her family. Hightower became a flight attendant for Trans World Airlines, attracted by the possibility of traveling and expanding her horizons. Settling in Paris and later London, she worked variously as a mutual fund trader and restaurant worker. In 1987, while working at Mr. Chow, an upscale London Chinese restaurant and celebrity hangout, she met and began dating Robert De Niro.


title: Grace Hightower

text: Hightower and De Niro married in 1997. In 1998, she gave birth to the couple's first child. De Niro filed for divorce in 1999 and sued Hightower for custody of their son in 2001. However, the two resolved their differences, and by 2004 the divorce was dropped and they renewed their vows. In 2011 the couple had their second child, via surrogate. The couple separated in November 2018.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On Apple devices running iOS and iOS-based operating systems, jailbreaking is the use of a privilege escalation exploit to remove software restrictions imposed by the manufacturer. Typically it is done through a series of kernel patches. A jailbroken device permits root access within the operating system and provides the right to install software unavailable through the App Store. Different devices and versions are exploited with a variety of tools. Apple views jailbreaking as a violation of the end-user license agreement and strongly cautions device owners not to try to achieve root access through the exploitation of vulnerabilities.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: While sometimes compared to rooting an Android device, jailbreaking bypasses several types of Apple prohibitions for the end-user. Since it includes modifying the operating system (enforced by a "locked bootloader"), installing non-officially approved (not available on the App Store) applications via sideloading, and granting the user elevated administration-level privileges (rooting), the concepts of iOS jailbreaking are therefore technically different from Android device rooting.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: One of the reasons for jailbreaking is to expand the feature set limited by Apple and its App Store. Apple checks apps for compliance with its iOS Developer Program License Agreement before accepting them for distribution in the App Store. However, their reasons for banning apps are not limited to safety and security and may be regarded as arbitrary and capricious. In one case, Apple mistakenly banned an app by a Pulitzer-Winning cartoonist because it violated its developer license agreement, which specifically bans apps that "contain content that ridicules public figures." To access banned apps, users rely on jailbreaking to circumvent Apple's censorship of content and features. Jailbreaking permits the downloading of programs not approved by Apple, such as user interface customization and tweaks.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Since software programs available through APT and or Installer.app (legacy) are not required to adhere to App Store guidelines, many of them are not typical self-contained apps but instead are extensions and customization options for iOS and its features and other apps (commonly called tweaks). Users install these programs for purposes including personalization and customization of the interface by tweaks developed by developers and designers, adding desired features such as access to the root file system and fixing annoyances, and making development work on the device easier by providing access to the file system and command-line tools. Many Chinese iOS device owners also jailbreak their phones to install third-party Chinese character input systems because they are easier to use than Apple's.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In some cases, jailbreak features are adopted by Apple and used as inspiration for features that are incorporated into iOS and iPadOS.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Jailbreaking also opens the possibility for using software to unofficially unlock carrier-locked iPhones so they can be used with other carriers. Software-based unlocks have been available since September 2007, with each tool applying to a specific iPhone model and baseband version (or multiple models and versions). This includes the iPhone 4S, iPhone 4, iPhone 3GS, and iPhone 3G models. An example of unlocking an iPhone through a Jailbreak utility would be Redsn0w. Through this software, iPhone users will be able to create a custom IPSW and unlock their device. Moreover, during the unlocking process, there are options to install Cydia the iPad baseband.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Computer criminals may jailbreak an iPhone to install malware or target jailbroken iPhones on which malware can be installed more easily. The Italian cybersecurity company Hacking Team, which sells hacking software to law enforcement agencies, advised police to jailbreak iPhones to allow tracking software to be installed on them.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On iOS devices, the installation of consumer software is generally restricted to installation through the App Store. Jailbreaking, therefore, allows the installation of pirated applications. It has been suggested that a major motivation for Apple to prevent jailbreaking is to protect the income of its App Store, including third-party developers and allow the buildup of a sustainable market for third-party software. However, the installation of pirated applications is also possible without jailbreaking, taking advantage of enterprise certificates to facilitate the distribution of modified or pirated releases of popular applications.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: A package manager or package-management system is a collection of software tools that automates the process of installing, upgrading, configuring, and removing computer programs. For jailbreaks, this is essential for the installation of third-party content. There are a few package managers specifically for jailbroken iOS devices, of which the most popular are Cydia, Sileo, Zebra and Installer 5.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Upon jailbreaking the device, a lot of the built-in security is lost due to the vast amount of kernel patches that go into building the tool. Security structures like Apple Mobile File Integrity, Sandbox, Read-Only Root File system, and trusted apps get disabled or otherwise tampered with, to achieve the goals of the jailbreaking tool. This, in turn, creates potential security issues for the jailbreak user.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Jailbreak users are also often forced to stay on an inferior iOS version that is no longer supported by Apple because newer versions usually cannot be jailbroken right away. This has the potential to introduce security issues because for these older versions there are known security vulnerabilities, exploits, and exploit proof of concepts published.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In March 2021, jailbreak developer GeoSn0w has released a tweak called iSecureOS which could alert the users of security issues found on their devices. The application works akin to antivirus software, in that it scans the files on the user device and check them against a database of known malware or unsafe repos.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In June 2021, ESET Research confirmed that malware did exist on one of the piracy repositories in the jailbreak community. The malware actively targeted iSecureOS to try to bypass the detection, but updates to the security app were quickly released and have mitigated the malware.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Jailbreaking of iOS devices has sometimes been compared to "rooting" of Android devices. Although both concepts involve privilege escalation, they do differ in scope.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Where Android rooting and Jailbreaking are similar is that both are used to grant the owner of the device superuser system-level privileges, which may be transferred to one or more apps. However, unlike iOS phones and tablets, nearly all Android devices already offer an option to allow the user to sideload 3rd-party apps onto the device without having to install from an official source such as the Google Play store. Many Android devices also provide owners the capability to modify or even replace the full operating system after unlocking the bootloader, however doing this requires a factory reset.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In contrast, iOS devices are engineered with restrictions including a "locked bootloader" which can not be unlocked by the owner to modify the operating system without violating Apple's end-user license agreement. And on iOS, until 2015, while corporations could install private applications onto corporate phones, sideloading unsanctioned, 3rd-party apps onto iOS devices from sources other than the App Store was prohibited for most individual users without a purchased developer membership. After 2015, the ability to install 3rd-party apps became free for all users; however, doing so requires a basic understanding of Xcode and compiling iOS apps.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Jailbreaking an iOS device to defeat all these security restrictions presents a significant technical challenge. Similar to Android, alternative iOS app stores utilizing enterprise certificates are available, offering modified or pirated releases of popular applications and video games, some of which were either previously released through Cydia or are unavailable on the App Store due to these apps not complying with Apple developer guidelines.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Many different types of jailbreaks have come out over the years, differing in how and when the exploit is applied.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: When a jailbroken device is booting, it loads Apple's own initially. The device is then exploited and the kernel is patched every time it is turned on. An untethered jailbreak is a jailbreak that does not require any assistance when it reboots up. The kernel will be patched without the help of a computer or an application. These jailbreaks are uncommon and take a significant amount of reverse engineering to create. For this reason, untethered jailbreaks have become much less popular, and Fugu14 is currently the only jailbreak that supports recent iOS versions.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: A tethered jailbreak is the opposite of an untethered jailbreak, in the sense that a computer is required to boot. Without a computer running the jailbreaking software, the iOS device will not be able to boot at all. While using a tethered jailbreak, the user will still be able to restart/kill the device's SpringBoard process without needing to reboot. Many early jailbreaks were offered initially as tethered jailbreaks.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: This type of jailbreak allows a user to reboot their phone normally, but upon doing so, the jailbreak and any modified code will be effectively disabled, as it will have an unpatched kernel. Any functionality independent of the jailbreak will still run as normal, such as making a phone call, texting, or using App Store applications. To be able to have a patched kernel and run modified code again, the device must be booted using a computer.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: This type of jailbreak is like a semi-tethered jailbreak in which when the device reboots, it no longer has a patched kernel, but the key difference is that the kernel can be patched without using a computer. The kernel is usually patched using an application installed on the device without patches. This type of jailbreak has become increasingly popular, with most recent jailbreaks classified as semi-untethered.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: A few days after the original iPhone became available in July 2007, developers released the first jailbreaking tool for it, and soon a jailbreak-only game app became available. In October 2007, JailbreakMe 1.0 (also called "AppSnapp") allowed people to jailbreak iPhone OS 1.1.1 on both the iPhone and iPod Touch, and it included Installer.app as a way to get software for the jailbroken device.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In February 2008, Zibri released ZiPhone, a tool for jailbreaking iPhone OS 1.1.3 and iPhone OS 1.1.4.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: The iPhone Dev Team, which is not affiliated with Apple, has released a series of free desktop-based jailbreaking tools. In July 2008 it released a version of PwnageTool to jailbreak the then new iPhone 3G on iPhone OS 2.0 as well as the iPod Touch, newly including Cydia as the primary third-party installer for jailbroken software. PwnageTool continues to be updated for untethered jailbreaks of newer iOS versions.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In November 2008 the iPhone Dev Team released QuickPwn to jailbreak iPhone OS 2.2 on iPhone and iPod Touch, with options to enable past functionality that Apple had disabled on certain devices.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: After Apple released iPhone OS 3.0 in June 2009, the Dev Team published redsn0w as a simple jailbreaking tool for Mac and Windows, and also updated PwnageTool primarily intended for expert users making custom firmware, and only for Mac. It continues to maintain redsn0w for jailbreaking most versions of iOS 4 and iOS 5 on most devices.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: George Hotz developed the first iPhone unlock. In 2009, he released a jailbreaking tool for the iPhone 3GS on iPhone OS 3.0 called purplera1n, and blackra1n for iPhone OS version 3.1.2 on the 3rd generation iPod Touch and other devices.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In October 2010, George Hotz released limera1n, a low-level boot ROM exploit that permanently works to jailbreak the iPhone 4 and is used as a part of tools including redsn0w.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Nicholas Allegra (better known as "comex") released a program called Spirit in May 2010. Spirit jailbreaks devices including iPhones running iPhone OS 3.1.2, 3.1.3, and iPad running iPhone OS 3.2. In August 2010, comex released JailbreakMe 2.0, the first web-based tool to jailbreak the iPhone 4 (on iOS 4.0.1).


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In July 2011, he released JailbreakMe 3.0, a web-based tool for jailbreaking all devices on certain versions of iOS 4.3, including the iPad 2 for the first time (on iOS 4.3.3). It used a flaw in PDF file rendering in mobile Safari.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Chronic Dev Team initially released Greenpois0n in October 2010, a desktop-based tool for untethered jailbreaking iOS 4.1 and later iOS 4.2.1 on most devices including the Apple TV, as well as iOS 4.2.6 on CDMA (Verizon) iPhones.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: As of December 2011, redsn0w included the "Corona" untether by pod2g for iOS 5.0.1 for iPhone 3GS, iPhone 4, iPad (1st generation), and iPod Touch (3rd and 4th generation). As of June 2012, redsn0w also includes the "Rocky Racoon" untether by pod2g for iOS 5.1.1 on all iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch models that support iOS 5.1.1.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: The iPhone Dev Team, Chronic Dev Team, and pod2g collaborated to release Absinthe in January 2012, a desktop-based tool to jailbreak the iPhone 4S for the first time and the iPad 2 for the second time, on iOS 5.0.1 for both devices and also iOS 5.0 for iPhone 4S. In May 2012 it released Absinthe 2.0, which can jailbreak iOS 5.1.1 untethered on all iPhone, iPad, and iPod Touch models that support iOS 5.1.1, including jailbreaking the third-generation iPad for the first time.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: An iOS 6.X untethered jailbreak tool called "evasi0n" was released for Linux, OS X, and Windows on February 4, 2013. Due to the high volume of interest in downloading the jailbreak utility, the site initially gave anticipating users download errors. When Apple upgraded its software to iOS 6.1.3 it permanently patched out the evasi0n jailbreak.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: In April 2013, the latest versions of Sn0wbreeze was released, which added the support for tethered jailbreaking on A4 devices (i.e. devices "not" newer than the iPhone 4, iPad (1st generation), or iPod Touch (4th generation)).


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On November 29, 2014, TaiG team released their untethered jailbreak tool called "TaiG" for devices running iOS 8.0–8.1.1. On December 10, 2014, the app was updated to include support for iOS 8.1.2. On July 3, 2015, TaiG 2.3.0 was released, which includes support for iOS 8.0–8.4.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On October 14, 2015, Pangu Team released Pangu9, their untethered jailbreak tool for iOS 9.0 through 9.0.2. On March 11, 2016, Pangu Team updated their tool to support iOS 9.1 for 64-bit devices.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On July 17, 2016, Pangu Team released Pangu93, a semi-untethered jailbreak tool for iOS 9.2–9.3.3. It was the first semi-untethered jailbreak and at the same time made within a sideloaded app, and included support only for 64bit devices.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On mid-March 2017, jk9357 (aka @REALKJCMEMBER), part of the KJC (Kim Jong Cracks) hacking team, released the first semi-untethered jailbreak for 32-bit devices on 9.1–9.3.4, known as Home Depot. This jailbreak is based on the open source Trident exploit released on GitHub by Benjamin Randazzo. The exploit makes use of some of the Pegasus vulnerabilities.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On December 21, 2016, a beta semi-untethered jailbreak tool for iOS 10.1 known as yalu+mach_portal was released for select 64-bit iOS devices. The jailbreak made use of Ian Beer's, of Google Project Zero, mach_portal exploit. This version is extremely unstable and was only meant for developers. On January 26, 2017, with help from Marco Grassi, a more stable version for iOS 10.2 was released, eventually supporting all 64-bit iOS devices except for the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus, which is only supported by the older, more unstable version for 10.1.1. This jailbreak made use of Ian Beer's, of Project Zero, extra_recipe exploit. Both jailbreaks are installed through a computer application known as Cydia Impactor, which allows signing of apps not in the App Store. Todesco said that the newer version would be eventually updated to support the iPhone 7 and 7 Plus up to iOS 10.1.1, however, he left the jailbreaking scene on March 28, abandoning both jailbreaks before it was released.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On February 26, 2018, a public version of the Electra jailbreak was released for iOS devices on 11.0–11.1.2. This jailbreak uses a KPPless exploit. As Cydia Substrate had not been updated for iOS 11, Electra uses a Substrate alternative known as Substitute.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On June 6, 2018, Abraham Masri released an update to Houdini, the first semi-jailbreak. The tool has been updated to beta 3 revision 1, adding the compatibility with iOS 11 up to 11.3.1.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On July 6, 2018, developer CoolStar updated the Electra jailbreak for iOS devices on 11.0–11.3.1 (it previously only supported up to 11.1.2). It continued to use a KPPless exploit and Substitute in place of Cydia Substrate.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On February 1, 2019, a proof of concept for a jailbreak Osiris Jailbreak / OsirisJailbreak12 was released compatible with iOS 12.0 to iOS 12.1.2.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On December 9, 2019, A public update to the unc0ver jailbreak was released to add support for iOS 12.4.1. This version of unc0ver used the AppleAVE2Driver exploit, developed by 08Tc3wBB, who submitted/sold the exploit to ZecOps for the Task-For-Pwn 0 Bounty.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On December 29, 2021, A public update to the unc0ver jailbreak was released to add support for IOS 14.6-14.8 for A12-A13 iPhones (XS-11 Pro Max) only, with no iPad support, using an as-yet-unnamed exploit developed by security researcher pattern_f_.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: Apple has released various updates to iOS that patch exploits used by jailbreak utilities; this includes a patch released in iOS 6.1.3 to software exploits used by the original evasi0n iOS 6–6.1.2 jailbreak, in iOS 7.1 patching the Evasi0n 7 jailbreak for iOS 7–7.0.6-7.1 beta 3. Boot ROM exploits (exploits found in the hardware of the device) cannot be patched by Apple system updates but can be fixed in hardware revisions such as new chips or new hardware in its entirety, as occurred with the iPhone 3GS in 2009.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On July 15, 2011, Apple released a new iOS version that closed the exploit used in JailbreakMe 3.0. The German Federal Office for Information Security had reported that JailbreakMe uncovered the "critical weakness" that information could be stolen or malware unwillingly downloaded by iOS users clicking on maliciously crafted PDF files.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On August 13, 2015, Apple updated iOS to 8.4.1, patching the TaiG exploit. Pangu and Taig teams both said they were working on exploiting iOS 8.4.1, and Pangu demonstrated these chances at the WWDC 2015.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On September 16, 2015, iOS 9 was announced and made available; it was released with a new "Rootless" security system, dubbed a "heavy blow" to the jailbreaking community.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On October 21, 2015, seven days after the Pangu iOS 9.0–9.0.2 Jailbreak release, Apple pushed the iOS 9.1 update, which contained a patch that rendered it nonfunctional.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On January 23, 2017, Apple released iOS 10.2.1 to patch jailbreak exploits released by Google for the Yalu iOS 10 jailbreak created by Luca Todesco.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On December 10, 2019, Apple used DMCA takedown requests to remove posts from Twitter. The tweet contained an encryption key that could potentially be used to reverse engineer the iPhone's Secure Enclave. Apple later retracted the claim, and the tweet was reinstated.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On June 1, 2020, Apple released the 13.5.1 update, patching the 0 day exploit used by the Unc0ver jailbreak.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: On September 20, 2021, Apple released iOS/iPadOS 15, which introduced signed system volume security to iOS/iPadOS, meaning that any changes to the root file system will make the device unbootable. As a result, no jailbreaking tool was ever released before iOS 16 was launched.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: The legal status of jailbreaking is affected by laws regarding circumvention of digital locks, such as laws protecting digital rights management (DRM) mechanisms. Many countries do not have such laws, and some countries have laws including exceptions for jailbreaking.


title: IOS jailbreaking

text: International treaties have influenced the development of laws affecting jailbreaking. The 1996 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Copyright Treaty requires nations party to the treaties to enact laws against DRM circumvention. The American implementation is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA), which includes a process for establishing exemptions for non-copyright-infringing purposes such as jailbreaking. The 2001 European Copyright Directive implemented the treaty in Europe, requiring member states of the European Union to implement legal protections for technological protection measures. The Copyright Directive includes exceptions to allow breaking those measures for non-copyright-infringing purposes, such as jailbreaking to run alternative software, but member states vary on the implementation of the directive.