title: Vitor Belfort

text: On 9 January 2004, Belfort's sister, Priscila, disappeared and the relatives received no information about her. In August 2007, a woman identified as Elaine Paiva confessed that she participated in her kidnapping and killing, and that she was kidnapped to pay off a four thousand dollar debt Paiva had with drug dealers. Paiva was arrested along with three others alleged to be involved in the kidnapping. The group allegedly buried her body in the woods in Rio de Janeiro where police conducted searches, but her remains have never been found. Her family however does not accept this version of events, and believes that Priscila is still alive somewhere. Belfort still maintains a missing page on the Brazilian version of his website.


title: Vitor Belfort

text: Belfort speaks Portuguese, English, and Spanish. He is a devout Christian. Belfort believes the most important key to his success and longevity in the sport is that he is happy with what he does. "I just thank God every day. I’m happy. I’m healthy. Bottom line is it's just the way you treat life and life will treat you back. Make sure you’re happy with whatever is going on in your life. I think the key of life is just be happy with what's in front of you and the decision of my life is under God and God knows what's best for me." Belfort also appeared in a testimonial video on I Am Second, in which he shares his story of his faith in Jesus Christ.


title: Vitor Belfort

text: Belfort's autobiography "Vitor Belfort: Lições de garra, fé e sucesso" was published by Thomas Nelson Brazil in 2012.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Scandinavian Airlines, more commonly known and styled as SAS, is the flag carrier of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. "SAS" is an abbreviation of the company's full name, Scandinavian Airlines System or legally Scandinavian Airlines System Denmark-Norway-Sweden. Part of the SAS Group and headquartered at the SAS Frösundavik Office Building in Solna, Sweden, the airline operates 180 aircraft to 90 destinations (as of December 2019). The airline's main hub is at Copenhagen-Kastrup Airport, with connections to 109 destinations around the world. Stockholm Arlanda Airport (with 106 destinations) is the second largest hub, with Oslo Airport, Gardermoen being the third major hub of SAS. Minor hubs also exist at Bergen Airport, Flesland, Göteborg Landvetter Airport, Stavanger Airport, Sola, and Trondheim Airport, Værnes. SAS Cargo is an independent, wholly owned subsidiary of Scandinavian Airlines and its main office is at Copenhagen Airport.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 2017, SAS carried 28.6 million passengers, achieving revenues of 40 billion Swedish kronor. This makes it the eighth-largest airline in Europe and the largest in Denmark and Sweden. The SAS fleet is composed of 180 aircraft consisting of Airbus A319, Airbus A320, Airbus A320neo, Airbus A321, Airbus A330, Airbus A350, and Boeing 737 Next Generation aircraft. SAS also wet leases Airbus A320neo, ATR 72, and Bombardier CRJ900 aircraft.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The airline was founded in 1946 as a consortium to pool the transatlantic operations of Swedish airline Svensk Interkontinental Lufttrafik, Norway's Det Norske Luftfartselskap and Det Danske Luftfartselskab of Denmark. The consortium was extended to cover European and domestic cooperation two years later. In 1951, all the airlines were merged to create SAS. SAS has been described as "an icon of Norwegian–Swedish–Danish cooperation". On 27 June 2018, the Norwegian government announced that it had sold all its shares in SAS.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The airline was founded on 1 August 1946, when Svensk Interkontinental Lufttrafik AB (an airline owned by the Swedish Wallenberg family), Det Danske Luftfartselskab A/S, and Det Norske Luftfartselskap AS (the flag carriers of Denmark and Norway) formed a partnership to handle the combined air traffic of these three Scandinavian countries. The first president of SAS was Per A. Norlin. On 17 September 1946, operations started under the new entity and the first international service was conducted between Stockholm and New York. Within a half-year, SAS set a new record for carrying the heaviest single piece of air cargo across the Atlantic on a scheduled passenger airliner, by shipping a 1,400-pound electrical panel from New York to the Sandvik company in Sweden.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 1948, the Swedish flag carrier AB Aerotransport joined SAS and quickly coordinated its European operations between both carriers. Three years later, the companies formally merged to form the SAS Consortium. When established, ownership of the airline was divided between SAS Danmark (28.6%), SAS Norge (28.6%), and SAS Sverige (42.8%), all of which were owned 50% by private investors and 50% by their governments.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: During 1954, SAS became the first airline to commence scheduled flights on a polar route, flying Douglas DC-6Bs from Copenhagen to Los Angeles with stops in Søndre Strømfjord (now Kangerlussuaq) in Greenland and Winnipeg in Canada. By summer 1956, traffic on the route had justified the frequency to be increased to three flights per week. The service proved relatively popular with Hollywood celebrities and members of the film industry, and the route turned out to be a publicity coup for SAS. Thanks to a tariff structure that allowed free transit to other European destinations via Copenhagen, this trans-polar route gained increasing popularity with American tourists throughout the 1950s.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 1957, SAS was the first airline to offer around-the-world service over the North Pole via a second polar route served by Douglas DC-7Cs flying from Copenhagen to Tokyo via Anchorage International Airport in Alaska. The flight via Alaska was a compromise solution since the Soviet Union would not allow SAS, among other air carriers, to fly across Siberia between Europe and Japan, and Chinese airspace was also closed.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 1959, SAS entered the jet age, having procured a number of French-built Sud Aviation Caravelles as the company's first jetliner. During the following year, another jetliner, the Douglas DC-8, was also inducted into the fleet.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In addition to modern airliners, SAS also adopted innovative operating practices and systems to improve the customer experience. In 1965, it was the first airline to introduce an electronic reservation system. During 1971, SAS introduced its first Boeing 747 jumbo jet into service. In 1982, SAS was recognised as the most punctual airline operating in Europe at that time.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: During its first decades, the airline built two large hotels in central Copenhagen, "SAS Royal Hotel" (5 stars) and the even larger "SAS Hotel Scandinavia" (4 stars, with a casino on the 26th floor). In 1980, SAS opened its first hotel outside of Scandinavia, the "SAS Kuwait Hotel". By 1989, SAS's hotel division owned a 40 percent share in the Intercontinental Hotels Group. Following the deregulation of commercial aviation in Europe and the competitive pressures from new rivals, SAS experienced economic difficulties (as did many incumbent flag carrier airlines) this heavily contributed to the airline's decision to sell its hotel chain to the Radisson Hotel Group during 1992.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 1981, Jan Carlzon was appointed as the CEO of SAS; during his tenure, the company underwent a successful financial turnaround of the company starting in 1981 and who envisioned SAS ownership of multiple airlines worldwide. SAS gradually acquired control of the domestic markets in all three countries; this was achieved by acquiring full or partial control of various competing local airlines, including Braathens and Widerøe in Norway; Linjeflyg and Skyways Express in Sweden; and Cimber Air in Denmark. During 1989, SAS acquired 18.4% of the Texas Air Corporation, the parent company of Continental Airlines, in a bid to form a global alliance. However, this did not come about and the stake in the Texas Air Corporation was subsequently sold on. During the 1990s, SAS also acquired a 20 percent stake in British Midland, as well as purchasing 95 percent of Spanair, the second-largest airline in Spain, in addition to Air Greenland.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: During the early 1990s, SAS unsuccessfully tried to merge itself with the Dutch airline KLM, along with Austrian Airlines and Swissair, in a proposed combined entity commonly called Alcazar. However, months of negotiations towards this ambitious merger ultimately collapsed due to multiple unsettled issues; this strategic failure heavily contributed to the departure of Carlzon that same year and his replacement by Jan Reinås. The airline marked its 50th year of operation on 1 August 1996 with the harmonization and name of SAS's parent company to "SAS Danmark A/S, SAS Norge ASA" and "SAS Sverige AB". During May 1997, SAS became a founding member of the global Star Alliance network, joining with airlines such as Air Canada, Lufthansa, Thai Airways International, and United Airlines.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In June 2001, the ownership structure of SAS was changed, with a holding company being created in which the holdings of the governments changed to Sweden (21.4%), Norway (14.3%), and Denmark (14.3%), while the remaining 50 percent of shares were publicly held and traded on the stock market. During 2004, SAS was again restructured, being divided into four separate companies: "SAS Scandinavian Airlines Sverige AB, SAS Scandinavian Airlines Danmark A/S, SAS Braathens AS," and "SAS Scandinavian International AS". "SAS Braathens" was re-branded "SAS Scandinavian Airlines Norge AS" in 2007. However, during October 2009, the four companies were once again united into one company, named "SAS Scandinavian System AB".


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: With the growth of budget airlines and decreasing fares in Scandinavia, the business experienced financial hardship. By 2009, competitive pressures had compelled the airline to launch a cost-cutting initiative. In the first step of which, the business sold its stakes in other companies, such as British Midland International, Spanair, and airBaltic, and began to restructure its operations. During January 2009, an agreement to divest more than 80 percent of the holdings in Spanair was signed with a Catalan group of investors led by Consorci de Turisme de Barcelona and Catalana d'Inciatives. These changes reportedly reduced the airliner's expenses by around 23 per cent between 2008 and 2011.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In November 2012, the company came under heavy pressure from its owners and banks to implement even heavier cost-cutting measures as a condition for continued financial support. Negotiations with the respective trade unions took place for more than a week and exceeded the original deadline; in the end, an agreement was reached between SAS and the trade unions that would increase the work time, cutting employee's salaries by between 12 and 20 percent, along with reductions to the pension and retirement plans; these measures were aimed at keeping the airline as an operating concern. SAS criticized how it handled the negotiations, having reportedly denied facilities to the union delegations.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: During 2017, SAS announced that it was forming a new airline, Scandinavian Airlines Ireland, operating out of Heathrow Airport and Málaga Airport to fly European routes on its parent's behalf using nine Airbus A320neos. SAS sought to replace its own aircraft with cheaper ones crewed and based outside Scandinavia to compete better with other airlines. The Swedish Pilots Union expressed its dissatisfaction with the operational structure of the new airline, suggesting it violated the current labour-agreements. The Swedish Cabin Crew Union also condemned the new venture and stated that SAS established the airline to "not pay decent salaries" to cabin crew.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In 2018, SAS announced that it had placed an order for 50 Airbus A320neo narrow-body jetliners to facilitate the creation of a single-type fleet. That same year, the Norwegian government divested its stake in the airline. As part of an environmental initiative launched by San Francisco International Airport (SFO), SAS flights operating out of SFO since December 2018 have been supplied with sustainable aviation fuel from Shell and SkyNRG.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In July 2021, the European Commission has approved a Swedish and Danish aid measure of approximately US$356 million to support SAS. In September 2021, SAS announced that it would establish two operating subsidiaries; SAS Connect and SAS Link, with its existing SAS Ireland subsidiary to be rebranded as the new SAS Connect, while SAS Link would initially operate the airline's Emrbaer E195 aircraft, and the operations of both companies to begin by early 2022.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Following little progress with SAS's restructuring plan, SAS Forward, the Swedish government announced on 7 June 2022 that Sweden, which owns 21.8% of the company, would not inject new capital into SAS and that it did "not aim to be a long-term shareholder in the company". The airline filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States on 5 July 2022.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In September 2022, SAS announced it was returning at least ten aircraft to lessors, including five long-haul aircraft - amongst them two barely two year old Airbus A350s. This measure is a result of the closure of Russian airspace for flights to Asia which caused a severe drop in demand and efficiency. As of November 2022, SAS announced it was searching for a buyer for one of their Airbus A350 aircraft.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The key trends for Scandinavian Airlines Group (which includes SAS Cargo, SAS Ground Handling, and SAS Tech), are shown below (since 2012, for years ending 31 October):


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Scandinavian Airlines' head office is located in the SAS Frösundavik Office Building in , Solna Municipality, Sweden, near Stockholm. Between 2011 and 2013, the head office was located at Stockholm Arlanda Airport (ARN) in Sigtuna Municipality, Sweden. The SAS Cargo Group A/S head office is in Kastrup, Tårnby Municipality, Denmark.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The SAS Frösundavik Office Building, was designed by Niels Torp Architects and built between 1985 and 1987. The move from Solna to Arlanda was completed in 2010. A previous SAS head office was located on the grounds of Bromma Airport in Stockholm. In 2013 SAS announced that it once again would relocate to Frösundavik.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In contrast to most other businesses and private individuals in Sweden, airlines are exempt from the Swedish carbon tax. Had SAS paid the Swedish carbon tax level of SEK1180 (EUR114) per tonne () for all of its emissions, it would have had significant impact on recent profit levels. Since 2012 airlines are included in the EU ETS. In January 2013 the price for extra emission rights on top of the granted were approximately EUR 6.3 per tonne. In May 2017 the price was EUR 4.9 per tonne.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: , Scandinavian Airlines also has the following aircraft operated by its subsidiaries and other carriers under wetlease agreements:


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On 20 June 2011, SAS announced an order for 30 new A320neo aircraft as part of its fleet harmonization plan. SAS' stated goal is to have an all-Airbus fleet at its bases in Stockholm and Copenhagen by 2019, with a mixed A320neo and A320ceo fleet operation at both bases. The base in Oslo will then operate mostly Boeing 737-800 aircraft, with a few 737-700s also being retained. The older, smaller 737-600s are disposed of in 2019. The first order of A320neos was delivered in October 2016. In April 2018, SAS announced an order of 50 more A320neos to replace all 737NGs and older A320ceos in service as part of its goal to have an all-Airbus fleet by 2023.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On 25 June 2013, SAS and Airbus signed a Memorandum of Understanding stating that SAS intends to buy twelve new-generation aircraft, including six options. The agreement consists of eight A350-900s with six options and four A330-300Es. The first new long-haul aircraft to enter service will be the A330-300E, which was originally planned to replace the aging A340-300s in 2015 as leasing agreements on these aircraft expire. Instead, SAS renewed the leasing agreements to be able to expand its long-haul fleet and used the new A330-300Es to add more long-haul destinations to its network.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The first 6 of 8 Airbus A350-900s for SAS were delivered to the airline in 2019 and were to be to operate long-haul routes from 2020. The A350 will first fly on the Copenhagen and Chicago route, with the airline planning Beijing, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai, Hong Kong and San Francisco when more A350 are delivered.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: In September 2019, SAS unveiled an all-new livery, which will initially be showcased on a new A350 and an A320neo, before gradually being rolled out to the whole fleet. SAS expects the whole fleet to be repainted by 2024. The fuselage is kept in a light beige with the "SAS" logotype in silver displayed prominently across the height of the front section. The vertical stabilizer and adjacent parts of the fuselage are blue, with the SAS logo in white shown on the stabilizer. The blue area on the rear fuselage extends towards the front in a curved line. The horizontal stabilizers are beige (except for the ATR-72 aircraft, where they are blue). Winglets are blue as well. The engine casings are beige with a vertical blue stripe at the front and bear the word "Scandinavian" in blue. "Scandinavian" in large blue letters is also displayed on the underbelly of the aircraft.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: The previous livery was introduced in 1998 and was designed by SthlmLab (Stockholm Design Lab). SAS aircraft look predominantly white; however, the fuselage is in a very light beige (Pantone Warm Gray 2/Pantone 9083C) with "Scandinavian" above the windows in silver lettering (Pantone 877) and "Airlines" below the windows in white. The typeface used is Rotis Semi Serif. The vertical stabilizer (and winglets) are painted blue (Pantone 2738C) with the classic white SAS logo on it. It is a variant of the traditional SAS logotype, slimmed slightly and stylized by the design company Stockholm Design Lab as part of the SAS livery change. The engine casing is painted in scarlet (Pantone Warm Red/Pantone 179C) with the word Scandinavian in white, the thrust reversers in the color of the fuselage. All other text is painted in Pantone Warm Gray 9. The design also features stylized versions of the Scandinavian flags. All aircraft are named, traditionally after Vikings.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Apart from the standard livery, SAS also operates an Airbus A319-100 in retro livery and two Boeing 737s in Star Alliance livery.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On long-haul flights business class, called "SAS Business", is offered and features wide sleeper seats. On the A330s and A350s seating is 1-2-1 on seats that convert into flat beds, with power sockets and a entertainment screen. On the A321LRs business class has alternating 2-2 and 1-1 seating, all convertible to flat beds.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Plus is SAS' premium economy class. On the A330s seating is 2-3-2, 2-4-2 on the A350s and on the A321LR it is 2-2. The seats offered on SAS Plus are wider than those in the SAS Go section.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On European flights, SAS Plus tickets are refundable and include a meal, a double checked-in baggage allowance, and access to lounges and fast track security at the airport. The SAS Plus passengers are seated at the front of the aircraft and passengers can choose their seat at booking for free, but the seats there are otherwise the same as the SAS Go seats. The two-class system was introduced in June 2013, when business class was eliminated from intra-European flights.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: SAS Go, or economy, offers 3-3 seating on intracontinental flights, 2-4-2 on the A330s and 3-3-3 on the A350s.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: SAS offers free coffee and tea to GO passengers on short-haul services, except very short flights like Bergen-Stavanger or Stockholm-Visby. Meals are served to all passengers on long-haul flights.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: SAS Go Light is a variant of SAS Go with no checked luggage included. Tickets are sold in the same booking class as SAS Go and are otherwise identical. As of 14 December 2017, SAS Go Light is available on both European and long-haul flights. It is not available on flights within the Nordic countries. SAS Go Light is aimed at competing with low-cost carriers for those who travel with hand luggage only. Extra luggage allowance for EuroBonus Silver, Gold, and Diamond members does not apply on SAS Go Light tickets and is only valid for EuroBonus Pandion members.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: SAS's frequent-flyer program is called EuroBonus. Members earn points on all SAS and Widerøe flights as well as on Star Alliance flights. Around 50 percent of SAS' total revenues are generated by EuroBonus members. By August 2015, the EuroBonus program had in excess of four million members.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: During May 2018, SAS launched a new high-speed Wi‑Fi Internet access system supplied by Viasat. The service is being rolled out on both the short- and medium-haul fleets, it is expected to take two years to complete. The new system is much faster than previously available and will enable passengers to stream movies on board. Before this, SAS only offered Internet access on board on its long haul aircraft and a small number of Boeing 737s. Wi‑Fi Internet access is free for Eurobonus Gold and Diamond members as well as for those travelling in SAS Plus or Business. Otherwise, it can be purchased with EuroBonus points or for a small fee.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On 10 February 2020, SAS released 2 minutes and 45 seconds long commercial on YouTube titled "What is truly Scandinavian?" which tells a story about company's values and highlighting the ideas and inventions that globalism brought to Scandinavia, which caused an outrage in various groups due to SAS choosing a different advertising message than usual. The original video received more than 136,000 dislikes and 16,000 likes. On 12 February 2020, SAS Group, a parent company of SAS, released a statement that they will continue with the advertising campaign despite the outrage.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: On 13 February 2020, 3 days after commercial was published, SAS offices in Adelgade, Copenhagen and advertising agency &Co which produced the commercial received bomb threats. Later, a shorter 45 second version of the same commercial was republished on Facebook by SAS and official version on YouTube made private.


title: Scandinavian Airlines

text: Norwegian Air quickly reacted to the controversy by publishing the message "Fortunately, nobody can take away the cheese slicer from us" () and an image on Facebook of a cheese slicer, which Norwegians claim to have invented.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Ahura Mazda (; ; ), also known as Oromasdes, Ohrmazd, Ahuramazda, Hoormazd, Hormazd, Hormaz and Hurmuz, is the creator deity in Zoroastrianism. He is the first and most frequently invoked spirit in the "Yasna". The literal meaning of the word "" is "lord", and that of "" is "wisdom".


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The first notable invocation of Ahura Mazda occurred during the Achaemenid period () with the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great. Until the reign of Artaxerxes II (), Ahura Mazda was worshipped and invoked alone in all extant royal inscriptions. With Artaxerxes II, Ahura Mazda was gathered in a triad with Mithra and Anahita. In the Achaemenid period, there are no known representations of Ahura Mazda at the royal court other than the custom for every emperor to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses to invite Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. Images of Ahura Mazda, however, were present from the 5th century BC but were stopped and replaced with stone-carved figures in the Sassanid period and later removed altogether through an iconoclastic movement supported by the Sassanid dynasty.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: 'Ahura' is cognate with the Vedic word 'asura', both meaning 'lord'. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola traces the etymological root of Asura to *asera- of Uralic languages, where it means 'lord, prince'.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: 'Mazda', or rather the Avestan stem-form "Mazdā-", nominative "Mazdå", reflects Proto-Iranian "*mazdáH" (a feminine noun). It is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Vedic cognate "medhā́", means "intelligence" or "wisdom". Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian "*mazdʰáH", from Proto-Indo-European "", literally meaning "placing () one's mind ()", hence "wise".


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The name was rendered as "Ahuramazda" (Old Persian) during the Achaemenid era, "Hormazd" during the Parthian era, and "Ohrmazd" was used during the Sassanian era.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The name may be attested on cuneiform tablets of Assyrian Assurbanipal, in the form "Assara Mazaš", though this interpretation is very controversial.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Even though it is speculated that Ahura Mazda was a spirit in the Indo-Iranian religion, he had not yet been given the title of "uncreated spirit". This title was given by Zoroaster, who proclaimed Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit, wholly wise, benevolent, and sound, as well as the creator and upholder of Asha.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: According to Zoroastrian tradition, at the age of 30, Zoroaster received a revelation: while fetching water at dawn for a sacred ritual, he saw the shining figure of the Amesha Spenta, Vohu Manah, who led Zoroaster to the presence of Ahura Mazda, where he was taught the cardinal principles of the "Good Religion" later known as Zoroastrianism. As a result of this vision, Zoroaster felt that he was chosen to spread and preach the religion. He stated that this source of all goodness was the Ahura, worthy of the highest worship. He further stated that Ahura Mazda created spirits known as "yazata"s to aid him. Zoroaster proclaimed that some Iranian gods were "daevas" who deserved no worship. These "bad" deities were created by Angra Mainyu, the destructive spirit. Angra Mainyu was the source of all sin and misery in the universe. Zoroaster claimed that Ahura Mazda used the aid of humans in the cosmic struggle against Angra Mainyu. Nonetheless, Ahura Mazda is Angra Mainyu's superior, not his equal. Angra Mainyu and his "daevas", which attempt to attract humans away from the Path of Asha, would eventually be defeated.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: According to Plutarch, Zoroaster named "Areimanios" as one of the two rivals who were the artificers of good and evil. In terms of sense perception, Oromazes was to be compared to light, and Areimanios to darkness and ignorance; between these was Mithras the Mediator. Areimanios received offerings that pertained to warding off evil and mourning.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: In describing a ritual to Areimanios, Plutarch says the god was invoked as Hades gives the identification as Pluto, the name of the Greek ruler of the underworld used most commonly in texts and inscriptions pertaining to the mystery religions, and in Greek dramatists and philosophers of Athens in the Classical period. Turcan notes that Plutarch makes of Areimanios "a sort of tenebrous Pluto". Plutarch, however, names the Greek god as "Hades", not the name "Plouton" used in the Eleusinian tradition ("The Hidden One") and darkness.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The Areimanios ritual required an otherwise-unknown plant that Plutarch calls ""omomi"" (Haoma or Soma), which was to be pounded in a mortar and mixed with the blood of a sacrificed wolf. The substance was then carried to a place ""where the sun never shines"" and cast therein. He adds that "water-rats" belong to this god, and therefore proficient rat-killers are fortunate men.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Oromazes, born from the purest light, and Areimanius, born from darkness, are constantly at war with each other; and Oromazes created six gods, the first of Good Thought, the second of Truth, the third of Order, and, of the rest, one of Wisdom, one of Wealth, and one the Artificer of Pleasure in what is Honourable. But Areimanius created rivals, as it were, equal to these in number. Then Oromazes enlarged himself to thrice his former size, and removed himself as far distant from the Sun as the Sun is distant from the Earth, and adorned the heavens with stars. One star he set there before all others as a guardian and watchman, the Dog-star. Twenty-four other gods he created and placed in an egg. But those created by Areimanius, who were equal in number to the others, pierced through the egg and made their way inside; hence evils are now combined with good. But a destined time shall come when it is decreed that Areimanius, engaged in bringing on pestilence and famine, shall by these be utterly annihilated and shall disappear; and then shall the earth become a level plain, and there shall be one manner of life and one form of government for a blessed people who shall all speak one tongue. — Plutarch


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Scholar Mary Boyce asserted that the passage shows a "fairly accurate" knowledge of basic Zoroastrianism.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: In his "Life of Themistocles", Plutarch has the Persian king invoke Areimanios by name, asking the god to cause the king's enemies to behave in such a way as to drive away their own best men; de Jong (1997) doubted that a Persian king would pray to his own national religion’s god of evil, particularly in public.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: According to Plutarch, the king then made a sacrifice and got drunk – essentially a running gag on Persian kings in Plutarch’s writing, and thus dubious evidence for actual behavior.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Whether the Achaemenids were Zoroastrians is a matter of much debate. However, it is known that the Achaemenids were worshipers of Ahura Mazda. The representation and invocation of Ahura Mazda can be seen on royal inscriptions written by Achaemenid kings. The most notable of all the inscriptions is the Behistun Inscription written by Darius I which contains many references to Ahura Mazda. An inscription written in Greek was found in a late Achaemenid temple at Persepolis, which invoked Ahura Mazda and two other deities, Mithra and Anahita.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Amongst the earliest surviving inscription, on the Elamite Persepolis Fortification Tablet 377, Ahura Mazda is invoked along with Mithra and Apam Napat, Vedic Varuna ("moon-god"). Artaxerxes III makes this invocation to the three deities again in his reign. In Vedic texts which predate these inscriptions by thousands of years, the Vedic gods Mithra and Varuna are frequently mentioned together. In the earliest layer of the "Rigveda", Varuna is the guardian of moral law, the ruler over Asuras, one who punishes those who sin without remorse, and who forgives those who err with remorse. He is the Guardian deity of the West, meaning regions west of India. He is mentioned in many Rigvedic hymns, such as 7.86–88, 1.25, 2.27–30, 8.8, 9.73 and others. His relationship with waters, rivers and oceans is mentioned in the Vedas. Vedic poets describe him as an aspect and one of the plural perspectives of the Agni, one of the Primary deities. Further, both have wrathful-gracious aspects in Indian mythology.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The early Achaemenid period contained no representation of Ahura Mazda. The winged symbol with a male figure formerly regarded by European scholars as Ahura Mazda has been now speculated to represent the royal "xvarənah", the personification of divine power and regal glory. However, it was customary for every emperor from Cyrus until Darius III to have an empty chariot drawn by white horses as a place for Ahura Mazda to accompany the Persian army on battles. The use of images of Ahura Mazda began in the western satraps of the Achaemenid Empire in the late 5th century BC. Under Artaxerxes II, the first literary reference, as well as a statue of Ahura Mazda, was built by a Persian governor of Lydia in 365 BC.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: It is known that the reverence for Ahura Mazda, as well as Anahita and Mithra, continued with the same traditions during this period. The worship of Ahura Mazda with symbolic images is noticed, but it stopped within the Sassanid period. Zoroastrian iconoclasm, which can be traced to the end of the Parthian period and the beginning of the Sassanid, eventually put an end to the use of all images of Ahura Mazda in worship. However, Ahura Mazda remained symbolized by a dignified male figure, standing or on horseback, which is found in Sassanian investiture.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: During the Sassanid Empire, a heretical and divergent form of Zoroastrianism, termed Zurvanism, emerged. It gained adherents throughout the Sassanid Empire, most notably the royal lineage of Sassanian emperors. Under the reign of Shapur I, Zurvanism spread and became a widespread cult. Zurvanism revokes Zoroaster's original message of Ahura Mazda as the uncreated spirit and the "uncreated creator" of all and reduces him to a created spirit, one of two twin sons of Zurvan, their father and the primary spirit. Zurvanism also makes Ahura Mazda and Angra Mainyu of equal strength and only contrasting spirits.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Besides Zurvanism, the Sassanian kings demonstrated their devotion to Ahura Mazda in different fashions. Five kings took the name Hormizd and Bahram II created the title of "Ohrmazd-mowbad" which was continued after the fall of the Sassanid Empire and through the Islamic times. All devotional acts in Zoroastrianism originating from the Sassanian period begin with homage to Ahura Mazda. The five "Gāhs" start with the declaration in Middle Persian that "Ohrmazd is Lord" and incorporate the Gathic verse "Whom, Mazda hast thou appointed my protector". Zoroastrian prayers are to be said in the presence of light, either in the form of fire or the sun. In the Iranian dialects of Yidḡa and Munǰī, the sun is still called ""ormozd"".


title: Ahura Mazda

text: In 1884, Martin Haug proposed a new interpretation of "Yasna" 30.3 that subsequently influenced Zoroastrian doctrine significantly. According to Haug's interpretation, the "twin spirits" of 30.3 were Angra Mainyu and Spenta Mainyu, the former being literally the "Destructive Spirit" and the latter being the "Bounteous Spirit" (of Ahura Mazda). Further, in Haug's scheme, Angra Mainyu was now not Ahura Mazda's binary opposite, but—like Spenta Mainyu—an emanation of Him. Haug also interpreted the concept of a free will of "Yasna" 45.9 as an accommodation to explain where Angra Mainyu came from since Ahura Mazda created only good. The free will made it possible for Angra Mainyu to "choose" to be evil. Although these latter conclusions were not substantiated by Zoroastrian tradition, at the time, Haug's interpretation was gratefully accepted by the Parsis of Bombay since it provided a defense against Christian missionary rhetoric, particularly the attacks on the Zoroastrian idea of an uncreated Evil that was as uncreated as God was. Following Haug, the Bombay Parsis began to defend themselves in the English-language press. The argument was that Angra Mainyu was not Mazda's binary opposite but his subordinate, who—as in Zurvanism also—"chose" to be evil. Consequently, Haug's theories were disseminated as a Parsi interpretation in the West, where they appeared to be corroborating Haug. Reinforcing themselves, Haug's ideas came to be iterated so often that they are today almost universally accepted as doctrine.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: Some scholars (Kuiper. IIJ I, 1957; Zimmer. Münchner Studien 1984:187–215) believe that Ahura Mazda originates from *vouruna-mitra, or Vedic Varuna (and Mitra). According to William W Malandra both Varuna (in Vedic period) and Ahura Mazda (in old Iranian religion) represented same Indo-Iranian concept of a supreme "wise, all-knowing lord".


title: Ahura Mazda

text: In Manichaeism, the name "Ohrmazd Bay" ("god Ahura Mazda") was used for the primal figure Nāšā Qaḏmāyā, the "original man" and emanation of the Father of Greatness (in Manicheism called Zurvan) through whom after he sacrificed himself to defend the world of light was consumed by the forces of darkness. Although Ormuzd is freed from the world of darkness his "sons", often called his garments or weapons, remain. After a series of events, his sons, later known as the World Soul, will, for the most part, escape from matter and return to the world of light where they came from. Manicheans often identified many of Mani's cosmological figures with Zoroastrian ones. This may partly be because Mani was born in the greatly Zoroastrian Parthian Empire.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: In Sogdian Buddhism, "Xwrmztʼ" (Sogdian was written without a consistent representation of vowels) was the name used in place of Ahura Mazda. Via contacts with Turkic peoples like the Uyghurs, this Sogdian name came to the Mongols, who still name this deity "Qormusta Tengri" (also "Qormusta" or "Qormusda") is now a popular enough deity to appear in many contexts that are not explicitly Buddhist.


title: Ahura Mazda

text: The pre-Christian Armenians had Aramazd as an important deity in their pantheon of gods. He is thought to be a syncretic deity, a combination of the autochthonous Armenian figures Aram and his son Ara and the Iranian Ahura Mazda. In modern-day Armenia, Aramazd is a male first name.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jungian archetypes are a concept from psychology that refers to a universal, inherited idea, pattern of thought, or image that is present in the collective unconscious of all human beings. The psychic counterpart of instinct, archetypes are thought to be the basis of many of the common themes and symbols that appear in stories, myths, and dreams across different cultures and societies. Some examples of archetypes include such as the mother, the child, the trickster, and the flood, among others. The concept of archetypes and the collective unconscious was first proposed by Carl Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and psychoanalyst.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: According to Jung, archetypes are innate patterns of thought and behavior that strive for realization within an individual's environment. This process of actualization influences the degree of individuation, or the development of the individual's unique identity. For instance, the presence of a maternal figure who closely matches the child's idealized concept of a mother can evoke innate expectations and activate the mother archetype in the child's mind. This archetype is incorporated into the child's personal unconscious as a "mother complex," which is a functional unit of the personal unconscious that is analogous to an archetype in the collective unconscious.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Critics have accused Jung of metaphysical essentialism. His psychology, particularly his thoughts on spirit, lacked necessary scientific basis, making it mystical and based on foundational truth. Furthermore, they assert that his concept of archetypes are too vague to be studied systemically. Feminist critiques have focused on aspects that are seen as being reductionisticand provide a stereotyped view of both femininity and masculinity. Other critics respond that archetypes do nothing more than to solidify the cultural prejudices of the interpreter. Despite these criticisms, Jung's ideas on archetypes have gained traction in literary and metaphysical circles. Archetypal literary criticism has influenced many works of fiction, and some spiritual individuals view the archetypes as representing universal, cross-cultural metaphysical truths. However, the concept of archetypes has not been widely adopted in the field of psychiatry.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Carl Jung rejected the "tabula rasa" theory of human psychological development, which suggests that people are born as a "blank slate" and their experiences shape their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. Instead, Jung believed that there are universal experiences that are inherent to the human experience, such as belonging, love, death, and fear. These experiences, which he called the "collective unconscious," are expressed in what he called "archetypes." Jung believed that these archetypes are influenced by evolutionary pressures and manifest in the behaviors and experiences of individuals. He first introduced the concept of primordial images, which he later referred to as archetypes, to explain this idea.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: According to Jungian psychology, archetypes are innate potentials that are expressed in human behavior and experiences. They are hidden forms that are activated when they enter consciousness and are shaped by individual and cultural experiences. The concept of archetypes is a key aspect of Jung's theory of the collective unconscious, which suggests that there are universal experiences that are inherent to the human experience. The existence of archetypes can be inferred from various cultural phenomena, such as stories, art, myths, religions, and dreams.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung's concept of archetypes was influenced by the theories of Immanuel Kant, Plato, and Arthur Schopenhauer. Jung's idea of archetypes differs from Plato's concept of Ideas in that they are dynamic and constantly seeking expression in an individual's personality and behavior. He believed that these archetypes are activated and given form in the encounter with empirical experiences.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: For Jung, "the archetype is the introspectively recognizable form of "a priori" psychic orderedness". "These images must be thought of as lacking in solid content, hence as unconscious. They only acquire solidity, influence, and eventual consciousness in the encounter with empirical facts."


title: Jungian archetypes

text: According to Jungian psychology, archetypes form a common foundation for the experiences of all humans. Each individual builds their own experiences on top of this foundation, influenced by their unique culture, personality, and life events. While there are a relatively small number of innate and amorphous archetypes, they can give rise to a vast array of images, symbols, and behaviors. While the resulting images and forms are consciously recognized, the underlying archetypes are unconscious and cannot be directly perceived.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung believed that the form of the archetype was similar to the axial system of a crystal, which determines the structure of the crystal without having a physical existence of its own. The archetype is empty and purely formal, and the specific way in which it is expressed depends on the circumstances in which it is activated. The representations of the archetype are not inherited, only the forms, and they correspond to the instincts. The existence of the instincts and the archetypes cannot be proven unless they manifest themselves concretely.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: A study published in the journal "Psychological Perspective" in 2017 examined the ways in which Jungian representations are expressed in human experiences. The article summarized the findings of the study,


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung's intuition that there was more to psyche than individual experience may have originated in his childhood. He had dreams that seemed to come from a source outside himself, and one of earliest memories was of a dream about an underground phallid god. Later in life, Jung's research in Burghölzli Hospital on psychotic patients and his own self-analysis supported his belief in the existence of universal psychic structures that underlie all human experience and behavior. He discovered that the dreams of his patients followed certain patterns and had elements of myths, legends, and fairy tales. Jung initially referred to these as "primordial images" – a term he borrowed from Jacob Burckhardt. , later referring to them as "dominants of the collective unconscious" in 1917.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung first coined the term "archetypes" in his 1919 essay "Instinct and the Unconscious". The word is derived from Greek, with the first element, "arche," meaning "beginning, origin, cause, primal source principle," as well as "position of a leader, supreme rule, and government." The second element, "type," means "blow and what is produced by a blow, the imprint of a coin, form, image, prototype, model, order, and norm." In modern usage, the term signifies "pattern underlying form, primordial form."


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In later years, Jung revised and broadened the concept of archetype, conceiving them as psycho-physical patterns existing in the universe, given specific expression by human consciousness and culture. This was part of his attempt to link depth psychology to the larger scientific program of the twentieth century.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung proposed the archetype contained a dual nature, existing both in the psyche of an individual and the world at large. The non-psychic element, or "psychoid" archetype, is a synthesis of instinct and spirit and is not accessible to consciousness. Jung developed this concept with the collaboration of Austrian quantum physicist Wolfgang Paul, who believed that the psychoid archetype was crucial to understanding the principles of the universe. Jung also saw the psychoid archetype as a continuum that includes what he previously referred to as "archtypal tendency", or the innate pattern of action.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The archetype is not just a psychic entity, but is more fundamentally a bridge to matter in general. Jung used the term "unus mundus" to describe the unitary reality that he believed underlies all manifest phenomena, observable or perceivable things that exist in the physical world. He conceived of archetypes as the mediators of the "unus mundus", organizing not only ideas in the psyche, but also the fundamental principles of matter and energy in the physical world. The psychoid aspect of the archetype impressed Nobel laureate physicist Wolfgang Pauli, who embraced Jung's concept and believed that the archetype provided a link between physical events and the mind of the scientist studying them. This echoed the position adopted by German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Thus, the archetypes that order our perceptions and ideas are themselves the product of an objective order that transcends both the human mind and the external world.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Ken Wilber developed a theory called "Spectrum of Consciousness" that expanded on Jung's archetypes. He said that Jung's archetypes were not used in the same way as the ancient mystics (e.g. Plato and Augustine). Wilber also drew from mystical philosophy to describe a fundamental state of reality from which all subsequent and lower forms emerge. For Wilber, these forms are actual or real archetypes and emerged from the Emptiness or the fundamental state of reality. In "Eye to Eye: The Quest for the New Paradigm", Wilber clarified that the lower structures are not the archetypes themselves, but are instead given collectively and archetypically. He also explained that levels of forms are a part of psychological development, in which a higher order emerges through the differentiation of a preceding level.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung's analogy of the psyche to the electromagnetic spectrum is a useful way to visualize the different components of the psyche. In this analogy, the visible light spectrum represents consciousness, with the center of the spectrum (corresponding to the color yellow) representing the conscious mind. The red and blue ends of the spectrum represent unconsciousness, with red representing unconscious urges and the invisible light at the infra-red end of the spectrum corresponding to instincts that are influenced by physical and chemical conditions. For example, the red light in the spectrum might represent the influence of primal instincts and emotional impulses on our behavior, such as the desire for food, shelter, and reproduction. Blue, on the other hand, represents spiritual ideas, and the invisible light at the ultra-violet end of the spectrum represents the influence of archetypes on both living and non-living matter. For example, the blue light in the spectrum might represent the influence of spiritual beliefs and values on our behavior, such as the belief in a higher power or a moral code. The ultra-violet light at the end of the spectrum might represent the influence of universal archetypes, such as the hero, the wise elder, or the trickster, on our thoughts, feelings, and actions. These archetypes are thought to exist beyond the visible spectrum, and can exert their influence on both living and non-living things.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In Jung's analogy, the color violet represents a distinct aspect of the psyche, rather than a combination of other colors or light wavelengths. This color might represent the influence of psychological factors that are not easily explained or understood, such as synchronicities, dreams, and other phenomena that defy rational explanation. Jung suggested that these archetypal structures not only govern the behavior of living organisms, but also have an influence on the behavior of inorganic matter. For instance, the hero archetype might inspire a person to bravely confront a dangerous situation, while the wise elder archetype might guide a person to make wise and compassionate decisions. Similarly, the influence of archetypes might be seen in the natural world, such as the way that rivers and mountains seem to embody certain qualities or energies.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung identified various archetypes in human psychology. These include events such as birth, death, and marriage; figures such as the mother, father, and child; and motifs such as the apocalypse and the deluge. Although the number of archetypes is limitless, there are a few particularly notable, recurring archetypal images, "the chief among them being" (according to Jung) "the "shadow", the "wise old man", the "child", the "mother" ... and her counterpart, the "maiden", and lastly the "anima" in man and the "animus" in woman". Alternatively he would speak of "the emergence of certain definite archetypes ... the shadow, the animal, the wise old man, the anima, the animus, the mother, the child". The persona, anima and animus, the shadow, and the self are four of the archetypes that fall under the separate systems of the personality.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The mother represents the nurturing and protective aspect of the female figure. It is often associated with the qualities of love, compassion, and caring. The mother archetype can manifest itself in a variety of forms, such as a biological mother, a maternal figure in a person's life, or even a motherly aspect within one's own personality.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The self designates the whole range of psychic phenomena in people. It expresses the unity of the personality as a whole. According to Jung, this archetype manifests during middle age - the stage when all systems of the personality had developed and the individual is already concerned with his wholeness and self-fulfilment.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The shadow is a representation of the personal unconscious as a whole and usually embodies the compensating values to those held by the conscious personality. Thus, the shadow often represents one's dark side, those aspects of oneself that exist, but which one does not acknowledge or with which one does not identify. This is also described as the animalistic and sinister aspects of all people.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The anima archetype appears in men and is his primordial image of woman. It represents the man's sexual expectation of women but also is a symbol of a man's feminine possibilities, his contrasexual tendencies. The animus archetype is the analogous image of the masculine qualities that exist within women. In addition, it can also refer to the conscious sense of masculine qualities among males.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Any attempt to give an exhaustive list of the archetypes would be a futile exercise since they tend to combine with each other and interchange qualities, making it difficult to decide where one archetype ends and another begins. For example, qualities of the shadow archetype may be prominent in an archetypal image of the anima or animus. One archetype may also appear in various distinct forms, thus raising the question of whether four or five distinct archetypes should be said to be present or merely four or five forms of a single archetype.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypes seek actualization as the individual lives out their life cycle within the context of their environment. According to Jung, this process is called individuation, which he described as "an expression of that biological process - simple or complicated as the case may be - by which every living thing becomes what it was destined to become from the beginning". It is considered a creative process that activates the unconscious and primordial images through exposure to unexplored potentials of the mind. Archetypes guide the individuation process towards self-realization.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung also used the terms "evocation" and "constellation" to explain the process of actualization. Thus for example, the mother archetype is actualized in the mind of the child by the evoking of innate anticipations of the maternal archetype when the child is in the proximity of a maternal figure who corresponds closely enough to its archetypal template. This mother archetype is built into the personal unconscious of the child as a mother "complex". Complexes are functional units of the personal unconscious, in the same way that archetypes are units for the collective unconscious.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypes are innate universal pre-conscious psychic dispositions, allowing humans to react in a human manner as they form the substrate from which the basic themes of human life emerge. The archetypes are components of the collective unconscious and serve to organize, direct and inform human thought and behaviour. Archetypes hold control of the human life cycle.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: As we mature the archetypal plan unfolds through a programmed sequence which Jung called the stages of life. Each stage of life is mediated through a new set of archetypal imperatives which seek fulfillment in action. These may include being parented, initiation, courtship, marriage and preparation for death.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: "The archetype is a tendency to form such representations of a motif – representations that can vary a great deal in detail without losing their basic pattern ... They are indeed an instinctive "trend"". Thus, "the archetype of initiation is strongly activated to provide a meaningful transition ... with a 'rite of passage' from one stage of life to the next": Such stages may include being parented, initiation, courtship, marriage and preparation for death.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In his book, "Jung and the Post-Jungians", Andrew Samuels points out some important developments that relate to the concept of Jungian archetypes. Claude Lévi-Strauss was an advocate of structuralism in anthropology and, similar to Jung, was interested in better understanding the nature of collective phenomena. As he worked to understand the structure and meaning of myth, Levi-Strauss came to the conclusion that present phenomena are transformations of earlier structures or infrastructures, going so far as to state that "the structure of primitive thoughts is present in our minds".


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Samuels further points out that, in Noam Chomsky's study of psycholinguistics, there is a pattern of language acquisition in children, or a universal grammar. Chomsky labeled this pattern as the language acquisition device. He also refers to a concept of 'universals' and makes a distinction between the 'formal' universals and the 'substantive' universals, similar to the difference between archetype as such (structure) and archetypal image.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jean Piaget writes of 'schemata' which are innate and lay a foundation for perceptuo-motor activity and aid in the acquisition of knowledge. Samuels makes the claim that schemata are comparable to archetypes through their innateness, activity, and need for environmental correspondence.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Anthony Stevens argues that the concept of social instincts, which was proposed by Charles Darwin, the faculties of Henri Bergson, as well as the isomorphs of Wolfgang Kohler are all related to archetypes. All of these concepts relate to the studies of Strauss, who believed that "all forms of social life [are] a projection of universal laws responsible for regulating the unconscious activities of the psyche."


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In "Biological theory and the concept of archetypes", Michael Fordham considered that innate release mechanisms in animals may be applicable to humans, especially in infancy. The stimuli which produce instinctive behaviour are selected from a wide field by an innate perceptual system and the behaviour is 'released'. Fordham drew a parallel between some of Lorenz's ethological observations on the hierarchical behaviour of wolves and the functioning of archetypes in infancy.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Anthony Stevens suggests that ethology and analytical psychology are both disciplines trying to comprehend universal phenomena. Ethology shows us that each species is equipped with unique behavioural capacities that are adapted to its environment, and humans are no exception. Stevens claims that archetypes are the "neuropsychic centres responsible for co-ordinating the behavioural and psychic repertoire of our species."


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The confusion about the essential quality of archetypes can partly be attributed to Jung's own evolving ideas about them in his writings and his interchangeable use of the term "archetype" and "primordial image." Jung was also intent on retaining the raw and vital quality of archetypes as spontaneous outpourings of the unconscious and not to give their specific individual and cultural expressions a dry, rigorous, intellectually formulated meaning. Programmed behaviour is taking place in the psychological relationship between mother and newborn. The baby's helplessness, its immense repertoire of sign stimuli and approach behaviour, triggers a maternal response. And the smell, sound and shape of mother, for instance, will trigger a feeding response.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Stevens suggests that DNA itself can be inspected for the location and transmission of archetypes. As they are co-terminous with natural life they should be expected wherever life is found. He suggests that DNA is the replicable archetype of the species.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Stein points out that all the various terms used to delineate the messengers – 'templates, genes, enzymes, hormones, catalysts, pheromones, social hormones' – are concepts similar to archetypes. He mentions archetypal figures which represent messengers such as Hermes, Prometheus or Christ. Continuing to base his arguments on a consideration of biological defence systems he says that it must operate in a whole range of specific circumstances, its agents must be able to go everywhere, the distribution of the agents must not upset the somatic status quo, and, in predisposed persons, the agents will attack the self.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Melanie Klein: Melanie Klein's idea of unconscious phantasy is closely related to Jung's archetype, as both are composed of image and affect and are "a priori" patternings of psyche whose contents are built from experience.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jacques Lacan: Lacan went beyond the proposition that the unconscious is a structure that lies beneath the conscious world; the unconscious itself is structured, like a language. This would suggest parallels with Jung. Further, Lacan's Symbolic and Imaginary orders may be aligned with Jung's archetypal theory and personal unconscious respectively. The Symbolic order patterns the contents of the Imaginary in the same way that archetypal structures predispose humans towards certain sorts of experience. If we take the example of parents, archetypal structures and the Symbolic order predispose our recognition of, and relation to them. Lacan's concept of the Real approaches Jung's elaboration of the psychoid unconscious, which may be seen as true but cannot be directly known. Lacan posited that the unconscious is organised in an intricate network governed by association, above all 'metaphoric associations'. The existence of the network is shown by analysis of the unconscious products: dreams, symptoms, and so on.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Wilfred Bion: According to Bion, thoughts precede a thinking capacity. Thoughts in a small infant are indistinguishable from sensory data or unorganised emotion. Bion uses the term proto-thoughts for these early phenomena. Because of their connection to sensory data, proto-thoughts are concrete and self-contained (thoughts-in-themselves), not yet capable of symbolic representations or object relations. The thoughts then function as preconceptions – predisposing psychosomatic entities similar to archetypes. Support for this connection comes from the Kleinian analyst Money-Kyrle's observation that Bion's notion of preconceptions is the direct descendant of Plato's Ideas.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Sigmund Freud: In the Introductory "Lectures on Psychoanalysis" (1916-1917) Freud wrote: "There can be no doubt that the source [of the fantasies] lie in the instincts; but it still has to be explained why the same fantasies with the same content are created on every occasion. I am prepared with an answer that I know will seem daring to you. I believe that...primal fantasies, and no doubt a few others as well, are a phylogenetic endowment". His suggestion that primal fantasies are a residue of specific memories of prehistoric experiences have been construed as being aligned with the idea of archetypes. Laplanehe and Pontalis point out that all the so-called primal fantasies relate to the origins and that "like collective myths they claim to provide a representation of and a 'solution' to whatever constitutes an enigma for the child".


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Robert Langs: More recently, adaptive psychotherapist and psychoanalyst Robert Langs has used archetypal theory as a way of understanding the functioning of what he calls the "deep unconscious system". Langs' use of archetypes particularly pertains to issues associated with death anxiety, which Langs takes to be the root of psychic conflict. Like Jung, Langs thinks of archetypes as species-wide, deep unconscious factors.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Rossi (1977) suggests that the function and characteristic between left and right cerebral hemispheres may enable us to locate the archetypes in the right cerebral hemisphere. He cites research indicating that left hemispherical functioning is primarily verbal and associational, and that of the right primarily visuospatial and apperceptive. Thus the left hemisphere is equipped as a critical, analytical, information processor while the right hemisphere operates in a 'gestalt' mode. This means that the right hemisphere is better at getting a picture of a whole from a fragment, is better at working with confused material, is more irrational than the left, and is more closely connected to bodily processes. Once expressed in the form of words, concepts and language of the ego's left hemispheric realm, however, they become only representations that 'take their colour' from the individual consciousness. Inner figures such as shadow, anima and animus would be archetypal processes having source in the right hemisphere.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Henry (1977) alluded to Maclean's model of the tripartite brain suggesting that the reptilian brain is an older part of the brain and may contain not only drives but archetypal structures as well. The suggestion is that there was a time when emotional behaviour and cognition were less developed and the older brain predominated. There is an obvious parallel with Jung's idea of the archetypes 'crystallising out' over time.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypal literary criticism argues that archetypes determine the form and function of literary works, and therefore, that a text's meaning is shaped by cultural and psychological myths. Archetypes are the unknowable basic forms personified or concretized in recurring images, symbols, or patterns which may include motifs such as the quest or the heavenly ascent, recognizable character types such as the trickster or the hero, symbols such as the apple or snake, or images such as crucifixion (as in King Kong, or Bride of Frankenstein) are all already laden with meaning when employed in a particular work.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypal psychology was developed by James Hillman in the second half of the 20th century. Hillman trained at the Jung Institute and was its Director after graduation. Archetypal psychology is in the Jungian tradition and most directly related to analytical psychology and psychodynamic theory, yet departs radically. Archetypal psychology relativizes and deliteralizes the ego and focuses on the psyche (or soul) itself and the "archai", the deepest patterns of psychic functioning, the "fundamental fantasies that animate all of life". Archetypal psychology is a polytheistic psychology, in that it attempts to recognize the myriad fantasies and myths, gods, goddesses, demigods, mortals and animals – that shape and are shaped by our psychological lives. According to Hillman, the ego is just one psychological fantasy that exists within a multitude of other fantasies.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The main influence on the development of archetypal psychology is Jung's analytical psychology. It is strongly influenced by Classical Greek, Renaissance, and Romantic ideas and thought. Influential artists, poets, philosophers, alchemists, and psychologists include: Nietzsche, Henry Corbin, Keats, Shelley, Petrarch, and Paracelsus. Though all different in their theories and psychologies, they appear to be unified by their common concern for the psyche – the soul.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Many archetypes have been used in treatment of psychological illnesses. Jung's first research was done with people with schizophrenia.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypal pedagogy was developed by Clifford Mayes. Mayes' work also aims at promoting what he calls archetypal reflectivity in teachers; this is a means of encouraging teachers to examine and work with psychodynamic issues, images, and assumptions as those factors affect their pedagogical practices. More recently the Pearson-Marr Archetype Indicator (PMAI), based on Jung's theories of both archetypes and personality types, has been used for pedagogical applications (not unlike the Myers–Briggs Type Indicator).


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypes have been cited by multiple scholars as key figures within both ancient Greek and ancient Roman culture. Characters embodying Jungian traits have additionally been observed in various works after classical antiquity in societies such as the various nations of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire as well as the Celtic cultures of the British Isles.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Examples out of ancient history include the epic works "Iliad" and "Odyssey". Specifically, scholar Robert Eisner has argued that the "anima" concept within Jungian thought exists in prototype form within the goddess characters in said stories. He has particularly cited Athena, for instance, as a major influence.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In the context of the medieval period, British writer Geoffrey Chaucer's work "The Canterbury Tales" has been cited as an instance of the prominent use of Jungian archetypes. "The Wife of Bath's Tale" in particular within the larger collection of stories features an exploration of the "bad mother" and "good mother" concepts. The given tale's plot additionally contains broader Jungian themes around the practice of magic, the use of riddles, and the nature of radical transformation.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In British intellectual and poet John Milton's epic work "Paradise Lost", the character of Lucifer features some of the attributes of an archetypal "hero", including courage and force of will, yet comes to embody the "shadow" concept in his corruption of Adam and Eve. Like the two first humans, Lucifer is portrayed as a created being meant to serve the purposes of heaven. However, his rebellion and assertions of pride sets him up philosophically as a dark mirror of Adam and Eve's initial moral obedience. As well, the first two people function as each other's "anima" and "animus", their romantic love serving to make each other psychologically complete.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Archetypes abound in contemporary artistic expression such as films, literature, music, and video games as they have in creative works of the past. These projections of the collective unconscious serve to embody central societal and developmental struggles in media that entertains as well as instructs. Works made both during and after Jung's lifetime have frequently been subject to academic analysis in terms of their psychological aspects. Studies have evaluated material both in the narrow sense of looking at given character developments and plots as well as in the broader sense of how cultures as integrated wholes proliferate their shared beliefs.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: The very act of watching movies has important psychological meaning not just on an individual level but also in terms of sharing mass social attitudes through common experience. Films function as a contemporary form of myth-making. They reflect individuals' responses to themselves as well as the broader mysteries and wonders of human existence. Jung himself felt fascinated by the dynamics of the medium. Film criticism has long applied Jungian thought to different types of analysis, with archetypes being seen as an important aspects of storytelling on the silver screen.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: A study conducted by scholars Michael A. Faber and John D. Mayer in 2009 found that certain archetypes in richly detailed media sources can be reliably identified by individuals. They stated as well that people's life experiences and personality appeared to give them a kind of psychological resonance with particular creations. Jungian archetypes have additionally been cited as inflecting notions of what appears "cool", particularly in terms of youth culture. Actors such as James Dean and Steve McQueen in particular have been identified as rebellious outcasts embodying a particular sort of Jungian archetype in terms of masculinity.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Contemporary cinema is a rich source of archetypal images, most commonly evidenced for instance in the hero archetype: the one who saves the day and is young and inexperienced, like Luke Skywalker in "Star Wars", or older and cynical, like Rick Blaine in "Casablanca". The mentor archetype is a common character in all types of films. They can appear and disappear as needed, usually helping the hero in the beginning, and then letting them do the hard part on their own. The mentor helps train, prepare, encourage and guide the hero. They are obvious in some films: Mr. Miyagi in "The Karate Kid", Gandalf in "The Lord of the Rings", Jiminy Cricket in "Pinocchio", Obi-Wan Kenobi, and later Yoda in the original "Star Wars" trilogy.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Atticus Finch of "To Kill a Mockingbird", named the greatest movie hero of all time by the American Film Institute, fulfills in terms of archetypes three roles: the "father", the "hero", and the "idealist". In terms of the former, he's been described "the purest archetypal father in the movies" in terms of his close relationship to his children, providing them with instincts such as hope. Other prominent characters on the silver screen and elsewhere have additionally embodied multiple archetypes.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: A classic example of Jungian archetypes can be found in the story of "Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde". The shadow, ego, and persona are exemplified through Jekyll's internal struggle with the other facet of his personality, Mr. Hyde. In the original Star Wars Trilogy the characters Luke Skywalker and Darth Vader represent the archetypes of hero and the shadow, respectively. The shapeshifter is the person who misleads the hero, or who changes frequently and can be depicted quite literally, e.g. The T-1000 robot in "". The Trickster creates disruptions of the status quo, may be childlike, and helps us see the absurdity in situations, provides comic relief, etc. (e.g. Yoda in "The Empire Strikes Back", Q in "Star Trek", Bugs Bunny and Brer Rabbit). The Child, often innocent, could be someone childlike who needs protecting but may be imbued with special powers (e.g. E.T.). The Bad Father is often seen as a dictator type, or evil and cruel, e.g. Darth Vader in "Star Wars". The Bad Mother (e.g. "Mommie Dearest") is symbolized by evil stepmothers and wicked witches. The Bad Child is exemplified in "The Bad Seed" and "The Omen".


title: Jungian archetypes

text: In marketing, an archetype is a genre to a brand, based upon symbolism. The idea behind using brand archetypes in marketing is to anchor the brand against an icon already embedded within the conscience and subconscious of humanity. In the minds of both the brand owner and the public, aligning with a brand archetype makes the brand easier to identify. Twelve archetypes have been proposed for use with branding: Sage, Innocent, Explorer, Ruler, Creator, Caregiver, Magician, Hero, Outlaw, Lover, Jester, and Regular Person.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Societies often look to their leaders in an archetypal light. Important and powerful leaders can serve as a hero for their people to look to for guidance and hope, someone who embodies characteristics that a group of people can identify with. For example, American leader Franklin D. Roosevelt has been described as an archetypal father figure for his nation in the context of World War II and specifically in terms of his reassuring comments to the U.S. after events at Pearl Harbor. He can also be seen as the shapeshifter for engineering a U.S. debt default in 1933.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Jung's staunchest critics have accused him of either mystical or metaphysical essentialism. Since archetypes are defined so vaguely and since archetypal images have been observed by many Jungians in a wide and essentially infinite variety of everyday phenomena, they are neither generalizable nor specific in a way that may be researched or demarcated with any kind of rigor. Hence they elude systematic study. Jung and his supporters defended the impossibility of providing rigorous operationalised definitions as a problem peculiar not only to archetypal psychology alone, but also other domains of knowledge that seek to understand complex systems in an integrated manner.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Feminist critiques have focused on aspects of archetypal theory that are seen as being reductionistic and providing a stereotyped view of femininity and masculinity.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Another criticism of archetypes is that seeing myths as universals tends to abstract them from the history of their actual creation, and their cultural context. Some modern critics state that archetypes reduce cultural expressions to generic decontextualized concepts, stripped bare of their unique cultural context, reducing a complex reality into something "simple and easy to grasp". Other critics respond that archetypes do nothing more than to solidify the cultural prejudices of the myths interpreter – namely modern Westerners. Modern scholarship with its emphasis on power and politics have seen archetypes as a colonial device to level the specifics of individual cultures and their stories in the service of grand abstraction. This is demonstrated in the conceptualization of the "Other", which can only be represented by limited ego fiction despite its "fundamental unfathomability".


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Others have accused him of a romanticised and prejudicial promotion of 'primitivism' through the medium of archetypal theory. Archetypal theory has been posited as being scientifically unfalsifiable and even questioned as to being a suitable domain of psychological and scientific inquiry. Jung mentions the demarcation between experimental and descriptive psychological study, seeing archetypal psychology as rooted by necessity in the latter camp, grounded as it was (to a degree) in clinical case-work.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Because Jung's viewpoint was essentially subjectivist, he displayed a somewhat Neo-Kantian perspective of a skepticism for knowing things in themselves and a preference of inner experience over empirical data. This skepticism opened Jung up to the charge of countering materialism with another kind of reductionism, one that reduces everything to subjective psychological explanation and woolly quasi-mystical assertions.


title: Jungian archetypes

text: Post-Jungian criticism seeks to contextualise, expand and modify Jung's original discourse on archetypes. Michael Fordham is critical of tendencies to relate imagery produced by patients to historical parallels only, e.g. from alchemy, mythology or folklore. A patient who produces archetypal material with striking alchemical parallels runs the risk of becoming more divorced than before from his setting in contemporary life.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: Anthoine Hubert (; 22 September 1996 – 31 August 2019) was a French professional racing driver. He was the 2018 GP3 Series champion and a member of the Renault Sport Academy. He died at the age of 22, following an accident during the feature race of the 2019 Spa-Francorchamps Formula 2 round at the Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: Born in Lyon, Hubert began his karting career in 2004 at age eight. In 2010 he finished as runner-up in the CIK-FIA Karting Academy Trophy. In the 2011 and 2012 CIK-FIA "U18" World Karting Championships, he finished third.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In 2013, Hubert moved up to single-seater racing, joining the French F4 Championship. He went on to win the series on his first attempt, finishing the season with eleven wins and two further podium finishes.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In 2014, he graduated to competing in the Eurocup Formula Renault 2.0 with Tech 1 Racing. He finished fifteenth overall, with six point-scoring finishes throughout the season. He also participated in Formula Renault 2.0 Alps as guest driver.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: For the 2015 season Hubert remained in the Eurocup and with Tech 1. He finished fifth in the championship with wins at Silverstone and Le Mans and another five podiums to his name. He also contested selected events in the Alps series, where he won four of the six races that he started, and finished second in other two races.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In February 2016, it was confirmed that Hubert would make his debut in the European Formula 3 Championship, racing with Van Amersfoort Racing. He took his first Formula 3 win in the second race at Norisring. Hubert ended up eighth in the standings, three positions behind teammate Callum Ilott, but a long way ahead of his other two partners Harrison Newey and Pedro Piquet.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In November 2016, Hubert participated in F3 post-season testing with ART Grand Prix. In February 2017, he was recruited by ART to compete in the 2017 championship. He remained with them for the 2018 season. Despite only scoring two victories, two less than teammate Nikita Mazepin, the Frenchman won the title through his consistency, showcased by him finishing on the podium in eleven out of the 18 races. This led to him gaining reputation with Formula 1 teams such as Renault.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In November 2018, Hubert participated in the F2 post-season test at Abu Dhabi with MP Motorsport. In January 2019, Hubert joined F2 full-time racing with BWT Arden, partnering fellow GP3 graduate Tatiana Calderón. He took two wins in the first half of his debut season, at Monte Carlo and at his home race in France. Hubert's first F2 win, in Monaco, was just 0.059 seconds ahead of the second placed driver Louis Delétraz. The second and final win was in his home country, a race he started from pole position and finished ahead of Juan Manuel Correa. He scored points in seven further races that season and was seventh in the standings before the round at Spa-Francorchamps.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In May 2018, Hubert became an affiliated driver with the Renault Sport Academy. In 2019, Hubert received full backing from the Academy.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: On 31 August 2019, Hubert was critically injured when he was involved in a serious crash on the second lap of the feature race of the 2019 Spa-Francorchamps FIA Formula 2 round. As the second lap began, Trident driver Giuliano Alesi lost control of his car as he climbed the Raidillon curve, due to a puncture he had received earlier. This caused his car to spin and hit the left wall of the circuit, tearing off his rear wing and spreading debris onto the track. When another Trident driver, Ralph Boschung, reached the crest of Raidillon, he slowed down and moved towards the run-off area to avoid Alesi's damaged car and the field of debris. Hubert, who was closely following Boschung, could not see where Boschung was, and the speed difference between their two cars. Hubert moved right as well, clipping Boschung's right rear wheel with his front wing. He lost control of his car, crashed into the tyre barrier on the right side of the track at an acute angle, and was deflected sideways into the path of Charouz driver Juan Manuel Correa, who struck the left side of Hubert's car. Correa had lost control of his car due to hitting debris from Alesi's car, and was travelling at when he impacted Hubert's near-stationary car. Hubert's car experienced as a result, while Correa was exposed to . Both cars were torn apart by the force of the accident. Hubert and Correa were transported to the circuit's medical centre following the accident, where Hubert died from his injuries. Hubert was pronounced dead approximately 90 minutes after the accident took place.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: Correa was airlifted to Liège where he underwent surgery for fractures in both his legs and a minor spinal injury and was reported to be in a stable condition, having never lost consciousness after the impact, but one week later was placed in an induced coma. Alesi, the third driver in the accident, was unhurt. As a result of the accident, the feature race was not completed and the sprint race was cancelled out of respect.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: Following his death, many drivers and teams in the motorsport world paid tribute to Hubert. On 1 September, a minute's silence was observed before the Formula 3 and Formula 1 races at Spa. Former F3 rival and Ferrari Formula One driver Charles Leclerc, who won his first career race that afternoon, dedicated his win to Hubert. A standing ovation took place on the 19th lap of the race, corresponding to the number 19 of his Formula 2 car. Before the start of the race, all racing safety vehicles, safety car, medical car, track inspection car, ambulance, car recovery vehicles, etc. made a lap of Circuit de Spa Francorchamps as a tribute to Hubert. All F1 cars had Hubert's car number inside a star and the words "Racing for Anthoine".


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: Hubert's funeral was on 10 September at Chartres Cathedral, Eure-et-Loir. It was attended by his family, friends and many people from the motorsport world, including Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile president Jean Todt, Renault F1 advisor and four-time champion Alain Prost, Charles Leclerc, Pierre Gasly, Esteban Ocon, and George Russell. Hubert's car number, 19, was later announced to have been permanently retired from use in Formula 2 with his replacement Artem Markelov running the #22 in place of the #19.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: On the first anniversary of his death, many people in the F1 paddock went to the Raidillon tyre barrier (including close friend Pierre Gasly), where Hubert crashed to pay their respects. The F2 Feature race had a small remembrance graphic for Hubert on the upper right hand side of the broadcast (a half star with Hubert's initials and his number, AH19). Pierre Gasly wore a tribute helmet for the 2020 Belgian Grand Prix. All single seater race cars in Belgium during the F1 weekend had an AH19 remembrance sticker on them.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) launched an investigation into the accident. Findings of the accident investigation were presented to the World Motor Sport Council, together with recommended actions in December 2019. The FIA finished this investigation in February 2020.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: FIA stated that Hubert's cause of death was "non-survivable trauma". FIA gathers extensive medical data on drivers during the course of the race, however, this data is not released to the public due to privacy and ethical reasons. F2 cars are built to the same safety standard as F1 cars; following the accident, Racing Point F1 Team technical boss Andy Green commented: "The energy involved was absolutely huge, and the current chassis design, whether F2 or F1, there's no way a current chassis can survive that sort of impact."


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In May 2020, the FIA Safety Department issued the following safety recommendations which will be implemented in future generations of single seat cars (including F1, F2, F3, F4 and Formula E cars):


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: In October 2020, it was announced that the Raidillon corner would be modified by expanding the run-off area and reintroducing gravel traps. Upgrades were completed in early 2022 but gravel at Radillon de l'Eau Rouge was not part of the package.


title: Anthoine Hubert

text: At the FIA Formula 2 Championship prize-giving ceremony in Monaco in 2019 the "Anthoine Hubert Award" was introduced. It is named after Hubert who was the only rookie in the season to score two wins. The award is given to the highest-placed driver without previous Formula 2 experience. The inaugural recipient of the Anthoine Hubert Award was Guanyu Zhou. Hubert is remembered in the racing game "F1 2020", where he is a selectable driver.


title: Wildfire

text: A wildfire, forest fire, bushfire, wildland fire or rural fire is an unplanned, uncontrolled and unpredictable fire in an area of combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a bushfire(in Australia), desert fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire, prairie fire, vegetation fire, or veld fire. Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire.


title: Wildfire

text: Wildfires are distinct from beneficial human usage of wildland fire, called controlled burning, although controlled burns can turn into wildfires.


title: Wildfire

text: Fossil charcoal indicates that wildfires began soon after the appearance of terrestrial plants approximately 419 million years ago during the Silurian period. Earth's carbon-rich vegetation, seasonally dry climates, atmospheric oxygen, and widespread lightning and volcanic ignitions create favorable conditions for fires. The occurrence of wildfires throughout the history of terrestrial life invites conjecture that fire must have had pronounced evolutionary effects on most ecosystems' flora and fauna.


title: Wildfire

text: Wildfires are often classified by characteristics like cause of ignition, physical properties, combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire. Wildfire behavior and severity result from a combination of factors such as available fuels, physical setting, and weather. Climatic cycles that include wet periods that create substantial fuels and then are followed by drought and heat often proceed severe wildfires. These cycles have intensified by climate change.


title: Wildfire

text: Naturally occurring wildfires may have beneficial effects on native vegetation, animals, and ecosystems that have evolved with fire. Many plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction. Some natural forest are dependent on wildfire. High-severity wildfire may create complex early seral forest habitat (also called "snag forest habitat"), which may have higher species richness and diversity than an unburned old forest.


title: Wildfire

text: Alternatively, wildfires in ecosystems where wildfire is uncommon or where non-native vegetation has encroached may have strongly negative ecological effects.


title: Wildfire

text: Human societies can be severely impacted by fires. Effects include the direct health impacts of smoke and fire, destruction of property(especially in wildland–urban interfaces) economic and ecosystem services losses, and contamination of water and soil. There are also significant indirect or second-order societal impacts from wildfire, such as demands on utilities to prevent power transmission equipment from becoming ignition sources, and the cancelation or nonrenewal of homeowners insurance for residents living in wildfire-prone areas.


title: Wildfire

text: Wildfires are among the most common forms of natural disaster in some regions, including Siberia, California, and Australia. Areas with Mediterranean climates or in the taiga biome are particularly susceptible. At a global level, human practices have made the impacts of wildfire worse, with a doubling in land area burned by wildfires compared to natural levels. Since records started at the beginning of the 20th century, wildfires have steadily declined.


title: Wildfire

text: The increase in severity of fires creates a positive feedback loop by releasing naturally sequestered carbon back into the atmosphere, increasing the atmosphere's greenhouse effect thereby contributing to climate change.


title: Wildfire

text: Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate risk and promote natural forest cycles.


title: Wildfire

text: In middle latitudes, the most common human causes of wildfires are equipment generating sparks (chainsaws, grinders, mowers, etc.), overhead power lines, and arson. In the tropics, farmers often practice the slash-and-burn method of clearing fields during the dry season. When thousands of farmers do this simultaneously, much of a continent can appear from orbit to be one vast blaze.


title: Wildfire

text: Coal seam fires burn in the thousands around the world, such as those in Burning Mountain, New South Wales; Centralia, Pennsylvania; and several coal-sustained fires in China. They can also flare up unexpectedly and ignite nearby flammable material.


title: Wildfire

text: The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present, its vertical arrangement and moisture content, and weather conditions. Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography, as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth. Overall, fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows:


title: Wildfire

text: In monsoonal areas of north Australia, surface fires can spread, including across intended firebreaks, by burning or smoldering pieces of wood or burning tufts of grass carried intentionally by large flying birds accustomed to catch prey flushed out by wildfires. Species involved in this activity are the black kite ("Milvus migrans"), whistling kite ("Haliastur sphenurus"), and brown falcon ("Falco berigora"). Local Aborigines have known of this behavior for a long time, including in their mythology.


title: Wildfire

text: Wildfires occur when all the necessary elements of a fire triforce come together in a susceptible area: an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation that is subjected to enough heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air. A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation, because higher temperatures are needed to evaporate any water in the material and heat the material to its fire point. Dense forests usually provide more shade, resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity, and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires. Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks. Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration, but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil, humidity, or rain. When this balance is not maintained, plants dry out and are therefore more flammable, often as a consequence of droughts.


title: Wildfire

text: A wildfire "front" is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion, where unburned material meets active flames, or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material. As the front approaches, the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation. First, wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of . Next, the pyrolysis of wood at releases flammable gases. Finally, wood can smolder at or, when heated sufficiently, ignite at . Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location, heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to , which pre-heats and dries flammable materials, causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster. High-temperature and long-duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or "torching": the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below.


title: Wildfire

text: The incidence of large, uncontained wildfires in North America has increased in recent years, significantly impacting both urban and agriculturally-focused areas. The physical damage and health pressures left in the wake of uncontrolled fires has especially devastated farm and ranch operators in affected areas, prompting concern from the community of healthcare providers and advocates servicing this specialized occupational population.


title: Wildfire

text: Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect: air rises as it is heated, and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new, cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns. Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds, strong winds, and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than . Rapid rates of spread, prolific crowning or spotting, the presence of fire whirls, and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions.


title: Wildfire

text: The thermal heat from a wildfire can cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders. Heat can rapidly expand a boulder and thermal shock can occur, which may cause an object's structure to fail.


title: Wildfire

text: Heat waves, droughts, climate variability such as El Niño, and regional weather patterns such as high-pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically. Years of precipitation followed by warm periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons. Temperature affects wildfires in the same way, they dry out the load and make them more flammable. Since the mid-1980s, earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season, or the most fire-prone time of the year, in the Western United States. Global warming may increase the intensity and frequency of droughts in many areas, creating more intense and frequent wildfires. A 2019 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California may be attributable to human-induced climate change. A study of alluvial sediment deposits going back over 8,000 years found warmer climate periods experienced severe droughts and stand-replacing fires and concluded climate was such a powerful influence on wildfire that trying to recreate presettlement forest structure is likely impossible in a warmer future.


title: Wildfire

text: Intensity also increases during daytime hours. Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity, increased temperatures, and increased wind speeds. Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill. At night the land cools, creating air currents that travel downhill. Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys. Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12:00 p.m. and 2:00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24-hour "fire day" that begins at 10:00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth.