title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Cartier Field was the original playing field of the Fighting Irish. In 1930, it was replaced by Notre Dame Stadium, due to the growing popularity of ND football. Notre Dame's practice facility still bears the Cartier Field name. Most ND practices take place on Cartier Field.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Known by fans as "The Gug" (pronounced "goog"), The Guglielmino Athletics Complex is Notre Dame's football headquarters. The Gug houses the offices for all team staff members, an auditorium, a weight room, a training room, the equipment room, the practice locker room, a brand new napping room, and various other spaces for the football team to utilize. The complex was underwritten by Don F. Guglielmino and his family.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: The indoor practice facility has a synthetic turf field and a video board at midfield for replay and graphics. On the second level of the facility, there is a 1,600-square-foot recruiting lounge. In all, the facility totals 111,400 square feet, and the ceiling is 95 feet at its peak.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Notre Dame has rivalries with several universities. Although the Fighting Irish competes as an Independent, they play a national schedule that includes annual or otherwise regularly scheduled rivalry games. USC, Navy, Purdue, Michigan, Michigan State, Stanford, and Pitt are among Notre Dame's rivals.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: USC is Notre Dame's primary rival, and the schools compete annually for the . The rivalry has produced 39 national championships, 14 Heisman Trophy winners, and 184 Consensus All-Americans through the 2021 season. It is considered one of the most prominent rivalries in college football, and has been called the greatest rivalry not dictated by conference affiliation or geography. The teams have played each other annually since 1926, except from 1943 to 1945 and 2020. Notable games in the series include the 1977 "Green Jersey" game and the 2005 "Bush Push" game. Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the all-time series 48–36–5 and the trophy series 33–29–3.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Navy and Notre Dame played 93 games without interruption from 1927 to 2019. Notre Dame had a 43-game win streak during this time frame, the longest streak by one team over another in Division I-A football, which ended in 2007. While the 2020 contest was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the series resumed in 2021. Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the series 80–13–1.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: The first meeting between Notre Dame and Michigan was in 1887, the first official football game in Notre Dame's history. The two schools have met 44 times in total, the latest matchup in 2019. Through the 2021 season, the two schools are both in the top five in all-time Division I winning percentage, with Notre Dame fourth and Michigan fifth. Despite being played continuously since 1978, the series ended after the 2014 season. Shortly before the 2012 game, the Associated Press reported that Notre Dame had exercised a three-year out clause in their series contract. This was due to Notre Dame's arrangement with the Atlantic Coast Conference, under which the Fighting Irish must play five games per season against ACC opponents after the school joined the ACC in all sports except for football and hockey in 2014. In 2016, Michigan announced that the rivalry would resume for a home-and-home series in 2018 and 2019. Through the 2021 season, Michigan leads the series 25–17–1.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Meeting for the first time in 1897, Notre Dame and Michigan State play for the Megaphone Trophy. The two schools played in 64 out of 70 seasons from 1948 to 2017, but have not met since. Their next scheduled game is in 2026. Notable games in the series include the 1966 "Game of the Century". Through the 2021 season, Notre Dame leads the all-time series 48–28–1 and the trophy series 33–27–1.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Notre Dame and the Miami Hurricanes first met during the 1955 college football season. They met three times during the 1960s (1960, 1965, and 1967) and proceeded to play each other annually from 1971 to 1990 (except in 1986). Notre Dame consistently dominated the series in the 1970s, but in the 1980s, Miami began to dominate as the once docile rivalry intensified significantly. Both teams were national contenders in the later part of the decade, and both teams cost each other at least one national championship. Hostilities were fueled when the Hurricanes routed the Fighting Irish in the 1985 season finale 58–7, with Miami widely accused of running up the score in the second half. The rivalry gained national attention and both teams played their most famous games from 1988 to 1990. The game known as Catholics vs. Convicts in South Bend was won by the Fighting Irish 31–30. The following year, Miami ended Notre Dame's 23-game winning streak with a 27–10 victory. The rivalry ended after the Fighting Irish dashed #2 Miami's hopes for a repeat national championship with a 29–20 victory in South Bend. Notre Dame dropped Miami from its schedule due to the intensified rivalry.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: The two teams are next scheduled to meet during a yet to specified date during the 2025 season. They also will play each other in yet to be scheduled dates in the 2031, 2032, 2034, and 2037 seasons.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Due to its long and storied history, Notre Dame football boasts many traditions unique to Notre Dame. Some of these are:


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Since the NFL began drafting players in 1936, 495 Notre Dame football players have been selected by NFL teams. Additionally, Notre Dame has had 65 players selected in the first round of the NFL draft, including five overall number one picks. Of the 46 Super Bowls competed, only 14 teams have won the event without an Irish player on the roster. Looking at both participating team rosters, there have only been five Super Bowls that did not feature at least one former Notre Dame player on either team's roster – Denver vs. Atlanta, 1999; Dallas vs. Buffalo, 1994; Washington vs. Denver, 1988; Dallas vs. Denver, 1978; and Baltimore vs. Dallas, 1971. Eleven former players have won multiple Super Bowls: Mark Bavaro, Rocky Bleier, Nick Buoniconti, Eric Dorsey, Dave Duerson, David Givens, Terry Hanratty, Bob Kuechenberg, Joe Montana, Steve Sylvester and Justin Tuck.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Twelve former Notre Dame players, plus one non-player alumnus, have been inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame, ranking it second to USC's 14 among all college football programs.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki>McNally graduated from St. John's (MN), but started his career at Notre Dame and is listed as a hall of famer under both schools in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: The Fighting Irish are unique among sports teams in the United States, as they are the only team, professional or college, to have all their games broadcast nationally on the radio, as well as the only team to have all of their home games broadcast nationally on television. Notre Dame famously left the College Football Association, a consortium that administered television broadcast rights on behalf of over 64 schools, in 1990, in order to establish its own broadcasting deal with NBC. From 1968 to 2007, Westwood One served as the official radio partner for the Irish, broadcasting their games for 40 consecutive years.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Until the 2006 Air Force game, Notre Dame had a record 169 consecutive games broadcast nationally on either NBC, ABC, ESPN, or CBS. The 2006 ND vs. Air Force game was broadcast on CSTV, a college sports channel owned by CBS who had an exclusive contract with the Mountain West Conference, of which Air Force is a member.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: NBC has been televising Notre Dame Home football games since the 1991 season. In addition to TV broadcasts, NBC also maintains several dedicated websites to ND football and Notre Dame Central, which provides complete coverage, full game replays and commentary of the Notre Dame team. NBC's television contract with Notre Dame was renewed in April 2013 and is set to continue through the 2025 football season. It also aired football games on NBC's streaming service Peacock started in the 2021 season, with the home opener on September 11, 2021 against Toledo aired exclusively on the streaming service. Internationally Sky Sports has been covering Notre Dame Football home games in the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Italy and Germany since 2018 as a result of Comcast's takeover of Sky


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Radio rights to the Fighting Irish are held by Skyview Networks, who began distributing the broadcasts as part of a multi-sport arrangement in 2020.


title: Notre Dame Fighting Irish football

text: Although the Notre Dame football program is not a full member of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC), it has an agreement to play an average of five ACC schools per season. In return Notre Dame has access to the non-College Football Playoff ACC bowl line-up. Notre Dame utilizes a format of six home games in South Bend, five away games, and one major metropolitan area neutral site "Shamrock Series" home game for scheduling. This includes preserving traditional yearly rivalries with USC, Stanford, and Navy, five rotating ACC opponents (two away ACC games will coincide in even years with away games at Navy and three away ACC games will coincide in odd years with home games against Navy), two home and home series (one home game and one away game), one one-time opponent home game, and the traveling "Shamrock Series" home game.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum (), is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the ', or simply the '.


title: Roman Forum

text: For centuries the Forum was the center of day-to-day life in Rome: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated the city's great men. The teeming heart of ancient Rome, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history. Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archaeological excavations attracting 4.5 million or more sightseers yearly.


title: Roman Forum

text: Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The Roman Kingdom's earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient former royal residence, the Regia (8th century BC), and the Temple of Vesta (7th century BC), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins, all of which were rebuilt after the rise of imperial Rome.


title: Roman Forum

text: Other archaic shrines to the northwest, such as the "Umbilicus Urbis" and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic's formal Comitium (assembly area). This is where the Senate—as well as Republican government itself—began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area.


title: Roman Forum

text: Over time the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum and the focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BC). Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia, along with the new Curia Julia, refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever greater numbers.


title: Roman Forum

text: Eventually, much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the "" to the larger and more extravagant structures (Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Ulpia) to the north. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This returned the political center to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later.


title: Roman Forum

text: Unlike the later imperial fora in Rome—which were self-consciously modelled on the ancient Greek "plateia" (πλατεῖα) public plaza or town square—the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically, and piecemeal over many centuries. This is the case despite attempts, with some success, to impose some order there, by Sulla, Julius Caesar, Augustus and others. By the Imperial period, the large public buildings that crowded around the central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters.


title: Roman Forum

text: Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the Capitoline Hill to that of the Velian Hill. The Forum's basilicas during the Imperial period—the Basilica Aemilia on the north and the Basilica Julia on the south—defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square, the buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the "Forum Adjectum") extending southeast as far as the Arch of Titus.


title: Roman Forum

text: Originally, the site of the Forum had been a marshy lake where waters from the surrounding hills drained. This was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima. Because of its location, sediments from both the flooding of the Tiber and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising the level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early Republican times.


title: Roman Forum

text: As the ground around buildings rose, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus. Excavations in the 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 meters above sea level. Archaeological finds show human activity at that level with the discovery of carbonized wood.


title: Roman Forum

text: An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as Triumphs. Victorious generals entered the city by the western Triumphal Gate (Porta Triumphalis) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the Velian Hill down the Via Sacra and into the Forum.


title: Roman Forum

text: From here they would mount the Capitoline Rise ("Clivus Capitolinus") up to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum. (In addition to the Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by a number of storied roads and streets, including the Vicus Jugarius, Vicus Tuscus, Argiletum, and Via Nova.)


title: Roman Forum

text: Pottery deposits discovered in the Forum, Palatine and Capitoline demonstrated that humans occupied these areas in the Final Bronze Age (1200–975 BC). In the early Iron Age an area of the future Forum, close to the site of Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, was used as a cemetery (10th century BC), possibly by the communities based on the Palatine and Capitoline hills. Most of the burials were cremations of the same type which is also found in the other sites in Latium. The urn containing the ashes of the deceased was placed inside a large earthenware jar, along with grave goods, and then buried in a cavity cut into the ground and covered with a capstone. There were also a small number of inhumation burials. On current evidence it is likely that burials in the Forum ceased some time in the late 9th century BC and that the Esquiline Necropolis replaced them.


title: Roman Forum

text: In the 8th century BC the first archaeological finds on the sites of the key public buildings points to a transformation of the Forum from cemetery to public site. Part of the Forum was paved over. The earliest finds in the sites of the Comitium and Vulcanal were voting offerings. They indicate that the area was dedicated to a celebration of religious cults.


title: Roman Forum

text: According to Roman historical tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between Romulus, the first king of Rome controlling the Palatine Hill, and his rival, Titus Tatius, who occupied the Capitoline Hill. An alliance formed after combat had been halted by the prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the Comitium. It was here at the Vulcanal that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Forum was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined. The original Forum functioned as an open-air market abutting on the Comitium, but eventually outgrew its day-to-day shopping and marketplace role. As political speeches, civil trials, and other public affairs began to take up more and more space in the Forum, additional fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities around them.


title: Roman Forum

text: Rome's second king, Numa Pompilius (r. 715–673 BC), is said to have begun the cult of Vesta, building its house and temple as well as the Regia as the city's first royal palace. Later Tullus Hostilius (r. 673–642 BC) enclosed the Comitium around the old Etruscan temple where the Senate would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted that temple into the Curia Hostilia close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC Tarquinius Priscus had the area paved for the first time.


title: Roman Forum

text: Originally a low-lying, grassy wetland, the Forum was drained in the 7th century BC with the building of the first structures of Cloaca Maxima, a large covered sewer system that emptied into the Tiber, as more people began to settle between the two hills. Archaeological evidence shows that by the end of the 7th century BC the ground level of the Forum was raised significantly in some places in order to overcome the problems of poor drainage and provide foundation for a pebble-paved area. In the middle of the 7th century BC thatch-and-timber huts were demolished on the route of the Via Sacra and rectangular stone buildings began to replace them.


title: Roman Forum

text: The earliest structures in the Forum were discovered in two separate locations: the site of the Comitium and the group of sanctuaries of Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals and Domus Publica. Around 650–630 BC the area of the Comitium was excavated into a deep triangular depression. The area was paved with a beaten earth pavement and later replaced with a more substantial gravel one. Nearby was located an archaic sanctuary dedicated to Vulcan known as Vulcanal (also "Volcanal"): a small rectangular pit and elliptical basin carved out of an outcrop of tufa. It has been suggested that the earliest ancient materials collected in the area of the Vulcanal are from the second half of the 8th century BC. It appears that the Romans were aware of the sites’ archaic origins: the foundation of the Comitium and Vulcanal were attributed to Romulus himself while the first Curia (senate house), which was located nearby, to Tullus Hostilius.


title: Roman Forum

text: At the western end of the Forum, excavations near the House of the Vestals and the sanctuary of Vesta have revealed an important group of 7th century BC buildings. The archaeologists have identified them as the early phases of the Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals and Domus Publica (official residence of the "pontifex maximus"). There seems to have been something of a surge in development of the Forum in the last quarter of the 7th century BC, as many of the changes date from 625 to 600 BC. Archaeologically, there is substantial evidence for the development of the Forum in the 6th century BC: parts of the paving have been found and a large number of fragments of terracotta decorations from this area suggests that structures around the Forum were becoming more elaborate and highly decorated.


title: Roman Forum

text: During the Republican period the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city. However, in order to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between the Comitium and the Temple of Vesta by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjacent central plaza that was becoming the Forum.


title: Roman Forum

text: The 5th century BC witnessed the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the Temple of Saturn (497 BC) and the Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 BC). The Temple of Concord was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus. A long-held tradition of speaking from the elevated speakers' Rostra—originally facing north towards the Senate House to the assembled politicians and elites—put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum. A tribune known as Caius Licinius (consul in 361 BC) is said to have been the first to turn away from the elite towards the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by Gaius Gracchus.


title: Roman Forum

text: This began the tradition of "locus popularis", in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the "mos maiorum" ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. When Censor in 318 BC, Gaius Maenius provided buildings in the Forum neighborhood with balconies, which were called after him "maeniana", in order that the spectators might better view the games put on within the temporary wooden arenas set up there.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Tribune benches were placed on the Forum Romanum, as well. First, they stood next to the senate house; during the late Roman Republic they were placed in front of the Basilica Porcia.


title: Roman Forum

text: The earliest basilicas (large, aisled halls) were introduced to the Forum in 184 BC by Marcus Porcius Cato, which began the process of "monumentalizing" the site. The Basilica Fulvia was dedicated on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. (It was rebuilt and renamed several times, as Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, Basilica Paulli, Basilica Aemilia). Nine years later, the Basilica Sempronia was dedicated on the south side.


title: Roman Forum

text: Many of the traditions from the Comitium, such as the popular assemblies, funerals nobles and games, were transferred to the Forum as it developed. Especially notable was the move of the "comitia tributa", then the focus of popular politics, in 145 BC. Particularly important and unprecedented political events took place in 133 BC when, in the midst of riots in and around the Forum, the Tribune Tiberius Gracchus was lynched there by a group of senators.


title: Roman Forum

text: In the 80s BC, during the dictatorship of Sulla, major work was done on the Forum including the raising of the plaza level by almost a meter and the laying of permanent marble paving stones. (Remarkably, this level of the paving was maintained more or less intact for over a millennium: at least until the sack of Rome by Robert Guiscard and his Normans in 1084, when neglect finally allowed debris to begin to accumulate unabated.)


title: Roman Forum

text: In 78 BC, the immense Tabularium (Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus. In 63 BC, Cicero delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator Catiline at the Forum (in the Temple of Concord, whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were led to their deaths at the Tullianum, the nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans.


title: Roman Forum

text: Over time, the Comitium was lost to the ever-growing Curia and to Julius Caesar's rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC. That year, two supremely dramatic events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: Marc Antony's funeral oration for Caesar (immortalized in Shakespeare's famous play) was delivered from the partially completed speaker's platform known as the New Rostra and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the Temple to the Deified Caesar was subsequently built by his great-nephew Octavius (Augustus). Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy Cicero there.


title: Roman Forum

text: After Julius Caesar's death and the end of the subsequent civil war, Augustus finished his great-uncle's work, giving the Forum its final form. This included the southeastern end of the plaza where he constructed the Temple of Caesar and the Arch of Augustus there (both in 29 BC). The Temple of Caesar was placed between Caesar's funeral pyre and the Regia. The Temple's location and reconstruction of adjacent structures resulted in greater organization akin to the Forum of Caesar. The Forum was also witness to the assassination of a Roman Emperor in 69 AD: Galba had set out from the palace to meet rebels but was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter. He was immediately met by a troop of his rival Otho's cavalry near the "Lacus Curtius" in the Forum, where he was killed.


title: Roman Forum

text: During these early Imperial times, much economic and judicial business transferred away from the Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of Trajan's Forum (110 AD), these activities transferred to the Basilica Ulpia.


title: Roman Forum

text: The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus was added at the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons against Pescennius Niger, and is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The arch closed the Forum's central area. Besides the Arch of Augustus, which was also constructed following a Roman victory against the Parthians, it is the only triumphal arch in the Forum. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honorific memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew the Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vesta and the Curia Julia. The latter represents the best-preserved tetrarchic building in Rome. He also reconstructed the rostra at each end of the Forum and added columns.


title: Roman Forum

text: The reign of Constantine the Great saw the completion of the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last significant expansion of the Forum complex. This restored much of the political focus to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later.


title: Roman Forum

text: After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, and the resulting Gothic Wars between the Byzantine / Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths over Italia, much of the city of Rome fell into ruin, from famine, warfare, and lack of authority. The population of Rome was reduced from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands, as the populated areas contracted to the river, largely abandoning the forum. Strenuous efforts were made to keep the Forum (and the Palatine structures) intact, not without some success. In the 6th century some of the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. On 1 August 608, the Column of Phocas, a Roman monumental column, was erected before the Rostra and dedicated or rededicated in honour of the Eastern Roman Emperor Phocas. This proved to be the last monumental addition made to the Forum. The emperor Constans II, who visited the city in 663 AD, stripped the lead roofs of the monumental buildings, exposing the structures to the weather and hastening their deterioration. By the 8th century the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of the abandoned and ruined temples.


title: Roman Forum

text: An anonymous eighth-century Einsiedeln Itinerary reports that the Forum was already falling apart at that time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the "" persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the ""Campo Vaccino"" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum.


title: Roman Forum

text: After the eighth century the structures of the Forum were dismantled, rearranged and used to build towers and castles within the local area. In the 13th century these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level.


title: Roman Forum

text: The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as a quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Forum Romanum suffered some of its worst depredations during the Italian Renaissance, particularly in the decade between 1540 and 1550, when Pope Paul III exploited it intensively for material to build the new Saint Peter's Basilica. Just a few years before, in 1536, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V held a triumph in Rome on his return from conquering Tunis in North Africa. To prepare the Forum for the procession intended to imitate the pageantry of the ancient Roman triumph, the papal authorities undertook sweeping demolitions of the many medieval structures on the site, to reveal and better display the ancient monuments. This required the clearance of some 200 houses and several churches, the excavation of a new "Via Sacra" to pass under the arches of Titus and Septimius Severus, and the excavation of the more prominent monuments to reveal their foundations.


title: Roman Forum

text: In 1425, Pope Martin V issued a papal bull inaugurating a campaign of civic improvement and rebuilding in the city, which was depopulated and dominated by ruins. The demand for building materials consequently increased significantly, making the Forum a convenient quarry for stone and marble.


title: Roman Forum

text: Since the 12th century, when Rome's civic government was formed, responsibility for protecting the ruins of the forum fell to the "maestri di strade" under the authority of the Conservatori, Rome's senior magistrates. Historically, the "maestri" and the "Conservatori" saw themselves as guardians of Rome's ancient legacy and zealously protected the ruins in the Forum from further destruction, but in the 15th century the Papacy gradually encroached upon these prerogatives. The Bull of 1425 strengthened the powers of the "maestri" in protecting the ruins, but in conferring papal authority the Vatican essentially brought the "maestri" under its control and away from the independence of the Conservators.


title: Roman Forum

text: In the 15th century, the Vatican escalated the issuance of excavation licenses, which gave broad permission to individuals to mine specific sites or structures for stone. In 1452, the ability of the "maestri" to issue their own excavation licenses was revoked by the Bull of Pope Nicholas V, which absorbed that power into the Vatican. From then on only two authorities in Rome had the power to issue such licenses: the Vatican and the Conservators. This dual, overlapping authority was recognized in 1462 by a Bull of Pope Pius II.


title: Roman Forum

text: Within the context of these disputes over jurisdiction, ruins in the forum were increasingly exploited and stripped. In 1426, a papal license authorized the destruction of the foundations of a structure called the "Templum Canapare" for burning into lime, provided that half the stone quarried be shared with the Apostolic Camera (the Papal treasury). This structure was identified by Rodolfo Lanciani as the Basilica Julia, but the name could have applied to any structure in the western section of the Forum, often called the "Canapare" or "Cannapara". Between 1431 and 1462 the huge travertine wall between the Senate House and the Forum of Caesar adjoining the Forum Romanum was demolished by grant of Pope Eugene IV, followed by the demolition of the "Templum Sacrae Urbis" (1461-2), the Temple of Venus and Roma (1450), and the House of the Vestals (1499), all by papal license. The worst destruction in the forum occurred under Paul III, who in 1540 revoked previous excavation licenses and brought the forum exclusively under the control of the Deputies of the Fabric of the new Saint Peter's Basilica, who exploited the site for stone and marble. Monuments which fell victim to dismantling and the subsequent burning of their materials for lime included the remains of the Arch of Augustus, the Temple of Caesar, parts of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the Temple of Vesta, the steps and foundation of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and the Regia. The Conservators protested vehemently against the ruination of their heritage, as they perceived it, and on one occasion applied fruitlessly to Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) to revoke all licenses for foraging materials, including the one granted to the "fabbrica" of Saint Peter's in the forum.


title: Roman Forum

text: The excavation by Carlo Fea, who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803 marked the beginning of clearing the Forum. Excavations were officially begun in 1898 by the Italian government under the Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Baccelli. The 1898, restoration had three main objectives: restore fragmented pieces of columns, bases, and cornices to their original locations in the Forum, reach the lowest possible level of the Forum without damaging existing structures, and to identify already half-excavated structures, along with the Senate house and Basilica Aemilia. These state-funded excavations were led by Dr. Giacomo Boni until he died in 1925, stopping briefly during World War I.


title: Roman Forum

text: In 2008, heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding the "Black Stone" marble together over the Lapis Niger in Rome. Excavations in the Forum continue, with new discoveries by archaeologists working in the Forum since 2009 leading to questions about Rome's exact age. One of these recent discoveries includes a tufa wall near the Lapis Niger used to channel water from nearby aquifers. Around the wall, pottery remains and food scraps allowed archaeologists to date the likely construction of the wall to the 8th or 9th century BC, over a century before the traditional date of Rome's founding.


title: Roman Forum

text: In 2020, Italian archaeologists discovered a sarcophagus and a circular altar dating to the 6th century BC. Experts disagree whether it is a memorial tomb dedicated to Rome's legendary founder, Romulus.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Temple of Saturn was one of the more significant buildings located in the Roman Forum. Little is known about when the temple was built, as the original temple is believed to have been burnt down by the Gauls early in the fourth century. However, it is understood that it was also rebuilt by Munatius Plancus in 42 BC. The eight remaining columns are all that is left of the illustrious temple. Though its exact date of completion is not known, it stands as one of the oldest buildings in the Forum. The temple originally was to be built to the god Jupiter but was replaced with Saturn; historians are unsure why. The building was not used solely for religious practice; the temple also functioned as a bank for Roman society.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Temple stood in the forum along with four other temples, the temples of Concord, Vesta, Castor and Pollox. At each temple, animal sacrifices and rituals were done in front of the religious sites. These acts were meant to provide good fortune to those entering and using the temple. Since the Temple of Saturn also functioned as a bank, and since Saturn was the god of the Golden Age, the sacrifices were made in hope of financial success.


title: Roman Forum

text: Inside the Temple there were multiple vaults for the public and private ones for individuals. There were also sections of the Temple for public speaking events and feasts which often followed the sacrifices.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Roman Forum was a site for many artists and architects studying in Rome to sketch during the 17th through the 19th century. The focus of many of these works produced by visiting Northern artists was on current state of the Roman Forum, known locally as the "Campo Vaccino", or "cow field", due to the livestock who grazed on the largely ignored section of the city. Claude Lorrain's 1636 "Campo Vaccino" shows the extent to which the building in the Forum were buried under sediment. Renowned British artist J.M.W. Turner painted "Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino" in 1839, following his final trip to the city.


title: Roman Forum

text: The Roman Forum has been a source of inspiration for visual artists for centuries. Especially notable is Giovanni Battista Piranesi, who created a set of 135 etchings, the "Vedute di Roma" ("Views of Rome"), in which the Forum figured significantly. (Many of the features documented in Piranesi's views have now vanished.)


title: Roman Forum

text: Other notable artists of the Forum include Canaletto, Maerten van Heemskerck, Pirro Ligorio, Giovanni Paolo Panini, and Hubert Robert.


title: Roman Forum

text: Other fora existed in other areas of the city; remains of most of them, sometimes substantial, still exist. The most important of these are a number of large imperial fora forming a complex with the Forum Romanum: the "Forum Iulium", "Forum Augustum", the "Forum Transitorium" (also: "Forum Nerva"), and Trajan's Forum. The planners of the Mussolini era removed most of the Medieval and Baroque strata and built the "Via dei Fori Imperiali" road between the Imperial Fora and the Forum. There are also:


title: Roman Forum

text: Other markets were known but remain unidentifiable due to a lack of precise information on each site's function.


title: Badr Hari

text: Badr Hari (born 8 December 1984) is a Moroccan-Dutch kickboxer. He is a former K-1 Heavyweight World Champion (2007–2008), It's Showtime Heavyweight World Champion (2009–2010) and "K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 and 2009" finalist. Born and raised in the Netherlands, Hari fights under the Moroccan flag.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari has been officially praised by the King of Morocco, Mohammed VI, since 2009 for his outstanding accomplishments in the sport.


title: Badr Hari

text: Badr Hari, born and raised in Amsterdam in the Netherlands, is of Moroccan Berber descent. His parents are Moroccans from the Houara tribe of the Sous region who moved to the Netherlands. Hari began practicing kickboxing at the age of seven, under the guidance of former World Champion Mousid Akamrane. As a teenager he trained at the Sitan Gym of Mohammed Aït Hassou. When the Sitan Gym moved to Rotterdam, he joined the famous Chakuriki Gym ran by Thom Harinck. Hari was fighting under the Dutch flag until a loss against Stefan Leko in 2005. It was the first time his parents attended one of his fights so he asked to address the Dutch audience. Hari could not be understood as the audience proceeded to boo him, after which Hari was quoted saying "I thought to myself, I have never witnessed such ungratefulness". From then on Hari has represented Morocco and stopped working with Thom Harinck. Mike Passenier became his new coach.


title: Badr Hari

text: At the age of seven, Hari was sent by his father to the kickboxing gym to learn how to defend himself from bullies in the neighborhood. People quickly realized he was a natural talent and from the age of 11 he was fighting regularly as a junior. In his teenage years he worked with the legendary trainer Thom Harinck at Chakuriki Gym and it was at this time he started to become well known on the Amsterdam scene.


title: Badr Hari

text: At the age of 18 he had 50 amateur fights on his record and was ready to fight at a professional level. A year later he was fighting in front of an audience of thousands at the Johan Cruijf Arena, the biggest soccer stadium in the Netherlands. His opponent was Alexey Ignashov. Hari took the fight on short notice and lost, but won respect from the crowd and from Ignashov for his display of heart.


title: Badr Hari

text: In January 2005, Hari left the Chakuriki Gym and joined Simon Rutz's It's Showtime team. After a few months' training at the Mejiro Gym he returned to Harinck's, but left again a couple of weeks later. Since then he has been coached by Mike Passenier, who has also trained Joerie Mes, Bjorn Bregy and Melvin Manhoef.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari's road to fame began with a pair of matches against Stefan Leko in 2005. The first took place at an "It's Showtime 2005" event in June 2005. Hari had started trash talk between him and his opponent before the fight but Hari's unusually long ring entrance ended up being longer than the fight itself, where Hari was knocked out by Leko's trademark spinning back kick.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari got his opportunity for revenge in November 2005 when he entered the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2005" tournament as a reserve fighter against Leko, making his K-1 World GP debut at the age of 20. Hari knocked out Leko by a spinning back high kick to the jaw at 1:30 in the second round. After the bad blood between both fighters, Hari helped his opponent up and escorted the dazed German to the corner.


title: Badr Hari

text: In 2006 Badr Hari was scheduled to participate in the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Amsterdam" on 13 May 2006, but fought in the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Auckland", in New Zealand, instead as a last minute replacement. His opponent in the first round was Australian Peter "The Chief" Graham. Hari once again showed his bad boy reputation by abusing Graham and starting a street fight at the press conference. In the actual fight Hari was knocked out by Graham's trademark "Rolling Thunder". The heel hit Hari hard on the head and knocked him out cold. Graham's kick broke Hari's jaw in multiple places and sidelined Hari for twelve months.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari returned to the ring at the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2006 Final Elimination" in Osaka, Japan against Ruslan Karaev. Karaev hurt Badr with a straight right that left Hari slouching over in the corner, then Karaev delivered a kick to Hari's face: Hari was counted out by the referee but immediately he and his corner protested, claiming the kick was a foul. When the referee did not respond, Hari and his corner men caused a commotion and refused to leave the ring until they were escorted out by K-1 officials. Hari left in anger and trashed his changing room. Six months later, Hari would get a rematch.


title: Badr Hari

text: Despite being knocked out, Hari was once again picked as a reserve fighter in the "K-1 Grand Prix 2006 Finals" against Paul Slowinski. He won the fight by unanimous decision. Hari then fought the Danish Nicholas Pettas at the "K-1 Premium 2006 Dynamite!!" event and broke Pettas's left shoulder in the second round with a right high kick.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari got his revenge against Karaev at the "K-1 World GP 2007 in Yokohama". Karaev and Hari's matchup was one of two bouts to qualify for the first K-1 heavyweight title match, scheduled on 28 April 2007 in Hawaii. Hari was knocked down in the second round and was just able to make it back to his feet when Karaev intended to finish the fight with a swinging punch which Hari ducked, and landed a right cross to score a KO.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 28 April, at "K-1 World GP 2007 in Hawaii", Badr Hari and Yusuke Fujimoto fought for the newly introduced Heavyweight belt. Hari won the fight in 56 seconds with a kick to the chin. With the knockout Hari became the first ever K-1 Heavyweight champion.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari got his chance for revenge against Peter Graham, whose turning kick had broken his jaw in 2006, in Hong Kong at the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2007 in Hong Kong". He dropped Graham with a body punch and won by unanimous decision. After the bout, Hari and Graham seemed to bury the hatchet, hugging each other, although the two started taunting each other again at the post-fight press conference.


title: Badr Hari

text: In September 2007 at the "K-1 World GP 2007 Final Elimination", Badr Hari beat the "K-1 World GP 2007 in Las Vegas" tournament champion, Doug Viney, by a second-round KO and qualified for his first K-1 World GP Final, held on 8 December in Yokohama, Japan. His winning streak came to an end with a decision loss to Remy Bonjasky, in the quarter finals.


title: Badr Hari

text: All of Hari's wins in 2008 were by knockouts, by beating Ray Sefo in Yokohama, Glaube Feitosa (whom he defended his heavyweight title) in Fukuoka and Domagoj Ostojic in Hawaii. On his next fight in Seoul he qualified for the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2008 Final" by TKO win over the Korean Hong Man Choi.


title: Badr Hari

text: In the quarterfinals on 6 December, Hari defeated three time K-1 World champion Peter Aerts by TKO in the second round. In the semi final he knocked out Errol Zimmerman and advanced to his first K-1 Final against Remy Bonjasky. After suffering a knockdown in the first, Hari was disqualified in the second round for unsportsmanlike conduct by having stomped and punched an already downed Bonjasky. First the referee Nobuaki Kakuda issued a yellow card and one point deduction. Meanwhile, Hari proceeded to Bonjasky's corner shouting, and quarreled with his opponent's trainer Ivan Hippolyte who then also approached Hari aggressively, but the officials prevented any further physical contact between them. After the five-minute recovery time elapsed, the doctor reported Bonjasky was seeing double and could not continue. Hari was issued a red card and Bonjasky was declared the K-1 World GP 2008 champion.


title: Badr Hari

text: In later interviews Hari claimed Bonjasky was acting, and that "Remy's corner was screaming at him to stay down". At a press conference before the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 in Yokohama", where Alistair Overeem attended along with Bonjasky, Overeem handed Bonjasky a statue which looked exactly like the statue of Oscar, implying Bonjasky was acting.


title: Badr Hari

text: Although numerous Japanese media sources assumed that K-1 would suspend Hari indefinitely, he was not suspended, but he received the most severe punishment in the history of K-1. K-1 stripped him of his heavyweight title, his runner-up title in the tournament, his prize money from the tournament and the full amount of his fee for participation in the tournament.


title: Badr Hari

text: While there were many rumours of his and his opponent's participation, it was finally announced that Hari would face MMA Heavyweight Alistair Overeem in a K-1 rules match on K-1's New Year's Eve extravaganza "Dynamite!! 2008". Hari lost the fight by a left hook KO at 2:02 in the first round. After the match, Hari commented that this would be the last time he would participate in the "Dynamite!!" series, and that he would stick to stand-up fighting so he would never have an MMA rules match with Overeem.


title: Badr Hari

text: In May 2009 at the "It's Showtime 2009 Amsterdam", Hari fought Semmy Schilt in a bout for the newly introduced It's Showtime World Heavyweight title. Hari came out very aggressively and knocked Schilt down twice in the first round. The fight was stopped after the second knockdown and Hari took the heavyweight title in 45 seconds. Simon Rutz, the president of It's Showtime, has referred to this as one of his favorite bouts in the history of It's Showtime.


title: Badr Hari

text: In September 2009 at the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 Final 16", Hari again used his right body shot to score a first-round knockout over Zabit Samedov.


title: Badr Hari

text: At the selection for the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2009 Final" Hari chose to fight Ruslan Karaev for the third time. He made quick work of his first 2 opponents in the tournament with first-round knockouts over Ruslan Karaev and Alistair Overeem. Then in the final of the World Grand Prix Hari lost in a rematch against Semmy Schilt by KO after being knocked down 3 times in the first round.


title: Badr Hari

text: His first fight in 2010 was at the "It's Showtime 2010 Prague" in the Czech Republic, where Hari defended his Showtime heavyweight title with a second-round knockout over Mourad Bouzidi. In April Hari defeated Alexey Ignashov in the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2010 in Yokohama". The fight went to decision, Hari's first non-knockout win in 3 years.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari's Showtime title was again on the line against his former Chakuriki fellow Hesdy Gerges in Amsterdam in May.


title: Badr Hari

text: Before the match, he claimed in a press interview that his opponent at the event was originally planned to be Remy Bonjasky but Bonjasky refused to fight Hari, stating Bonjasky was afraid to lose.


title: Badr Hari

text: The "It's Showtime 2010 Amsterdam" event took place at the Amsterdam Arena in May 2010. Hari dominated most of the first round, hitting Gerges many times and having him on the ropes. Hesdy surprised everyone on the night for taking the punishment. In the second round, Hari knocked down Gerges, and when Gerges was standing up, Badr Hari kicked him in the face. Badr was again disqualified and did not speak in the ring after Gerges was announced the winner. Instead, training partner Melvin Manhoef apologized to the fans on Badr's behalf but was booed by the crowd. Gerges became the new "Its Showtime" Heavyweight champion.


title: Badr Hari

text: After the Gerges fight, Hari took a year off from kickboxing. He stated that it was his own choice. He made his return to the ring at It's Showtime 2011 Lyon against French Kickboxer, Gregory Tony. Rather than using the catwalks for his entrance he decided to walk through the crowd. The fight was actually delayed because of Hari being unable to get to the ring without security keeping the crowd away. What was expected to be a warm up fight for Hari, it turned out to be one-sided as Hari won by TKO in round one with 3 quick knockdowns.


title: Badr Hari

text: Though the biggest interest was for Badr to rematch Hesdy Gerges for the Showtime heavyweight title it was announced that he would fight Romanian Daniel Ghita in September. Ghita had been ranked as one of the best 5 kickboxers in the world. Ghita had lost a decision against Gerges earlier in the year, but many felt he had been robbed and viewed him as a tough opponent for Hari.


title: Badr Hari

text: The fight never materialised. Hari stated that he will compete in the 2011 K-1 World Grand Prix in October and December, and then face Gökhan Saki in the Netherlands on 28 January 2012 as his final match. However the K-1 World Grand Prix was cancelled due to financial difficulties.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari faced Gökhan Saki at "It's Showtime 2012 in Leeuwarden" on 28 January 2012 in a kickboxing match. He defeated Saki by scoring three knockdowns in the first round before the referee stopped the fight, which earned him a TKO victory. He dropped Saki for the first time with a right uppercut. The second knockdown came from a right hook. Finally, he landed a right uppercut which dropped Saki and ended the fight.


title: Badr Hari

text: In April 2012 new K-1 Global President Mike Kim announced that Hari would make his comeback under the organization's banner. Hari's first fight was on 27 May 2012 in Madrid, Spain against Anderson "Braddock" Silva. Hari won the bout via unanimous decision. Badr Hari was scheduled to participate in K-1's final qualifications in October in Asia and the K-1 World Grand Prix Final in New York in December however he was unable to participate due to uncertainty over his availability following allegations of two separate incidents of serious assault.


title: Badr Hari

text: Having been released from detention, Hari was given the chance to fight in the "K-1 World Grand Prix 2012 Final" in Zagreb, Croatia on 15 March 2013 when Ben Edwards withdrew. He rematched Zabit Samedov in the quarter-finals. Hari scored a knockdown early in round one and forced a standing eight count in three, after which he simply jogged away from Samedov for the rest of the fight while the Azerbaijani taunted him. He won by unanimous decision but injured his foot in the bout and was forced to bow out of the tournament.


title: Badr Hari

text: A third fight with Zabit Samedov took place at the "Legend Fighting Show" in Moscow, Russia on 25 May 2013. After being dropped late in round one, he was sent to the canvas again with a left hook in the second. Although he seemed lucid, he stayed on his knees and did not beat the count.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari had his rubber match with Alexey Ignashov at "Legend Fighting Show 2" in Moscow on 9 November 2013, taking a unanimous decision win in a rather lackluster fight.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari was expected to fight Ismael Londt at the "A1 World Combat Cup" in Eindhoven, Netherlands on 17 May 2014 but the match was cancelled when the promoters had issues acquiring a license to promote the event. Hari won a four-man (Tammam Majzoub was supposed to be in this fight but cancelled due to busy schedule) tournament at GFC Series 1 in Dubai, United Arab Emirates on 29 May 2014, having his rubber match with two former foes; he knocked out Stefan Leko in the semi-finals and scored a TKO over Peter Graham in the final. He reportedly earned 1,000,000 Emirati dirham in prize money for the tournament win.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 6 July 2014, Hari announced via social media his intention to take an indefinite leave from kickboxing in order to find himself. The following day, however, he denied ever making such a statement and disavowed his "official" Facebook account.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari was expected to fight Patrice Quarteron at GFC Series 2 in Dubai, UAE on 16 October 2014. Eventually, he refused the fight, and fought a Lithuanian fighter instead, saying Quarteron did not behave sportingly.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari made his Glory debut against the reigning Heavyweight Champion Rico Verhoeven at on October 12, 2016. Hari appeared to have won the first round, opening a cut on Verhoeven's nose. Verhoeven was more aggressive in the second round and landed knee in the clinch which broke Hari's arm. As Hari was unable to continue fighting, Verhoeven was awarded the technical knockout victory.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 3 March 2018, Hari fought Gerges. Hari won the fight by unanimous decision, but a year after the fight it was revealed that both fighters had used sports supplements that contained prohibited substances; as a result, both fighters were suspended. Hari failed a drug test prior to , and was issued with a 19-month suspension after tests on samples provided indicated a violation of Netherlands rules regarding prohibited substances for competitive athletes. Gerges, who faced Hari at the event, was also issued with an official reprimand.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari challenged Rico Verhoeven for the Glory Heavyweight Championship in his first post-suspension fight. The bout took place at on 21 December 2019. In the sold-out GelreDome, in front of 30 000 fans, Verhoeven won the fight by a third-round technical knockout. Hari once again found early success, knocking Verhoeven down in both the first and third rounds. Early on in the third round however, Hari suffered a broken ankle from a missed kick, once again rendering him unable to continue competing.


title: Badr Hari

text: Aside from selling out the arena, the rematch also drew 3.5 million viewers, an estimated 53% of the live television audience in the Netherlands, which was the second highest viewership of a live sports broadcast, in Dutch television history.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 19 December 2020, Hari fought the #2 ranked Glory heavyweight contender, Benjamin Adegbuyi in a Glory Heavyweight Championship Eliminator at . The fight was originally planned to take place on 20 June, but was postponed multiple times due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On 13 September, Glory announced the event would take place on 7 November, only for it be postponed again to 19 December 2020, when Hari announced that he tested positive for COVID-19 on 19 October. At the fight, Hari lost the fight by KO in the third round after being kicked by Adegbuyi. Glory vice-chairman Scott Rudmann revealed the following day that Hari suffered a double break in his nose on knockout.


title: Badr Hari

text: It was announced on 31 May 2021, that Hari would face the #8 ranked Glory heavyweight contender Arkadiusz Wrzosek. The bout was scheduled as the main event of , held on 4 September 2021. Hari had a great start to the bout and managed to knock Wrzosek down three times with body shots before the midway point of the fight. Halfway through the second round however, Wrzosek landed a head kick which knocked Hari out, extending his winless streak to five fights.


title: Badr Hari

text: The two of them were scheduled to face each other in an immediate rematch at Glory 80 on March 19, 2022. The fight was declared a no contest, as the bout had to be stopped after the second round due to rioiting.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari is scheduled to face Alistair Overeem October 8, 2022 at . Hari failed in winning against Alistair Overeem and stated that this was his last match and officially retired from kickboxing.


title: Badr Hari

text: In 2007, Hari released a hip-hop song with Dutch-Moroccan rapper Appa entitled "Stap Maar In De Ring" ("Just Step Into The Ring").


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari has been the subject of a number of police investigations for charges of assault and has gained a reputation for violent behavior. A psychologist who spoke to Hari in relation to one of his trials concluded that his success as an athlete and celebrity status, combined with a lack of personal guidance, has resulted in narcissistic personality traits. About his violent eruptions, Hari has said: "I am able to explode at any moment. [...] When my brakes are off, it's just one big clump of explosion, chaos and noise, and I become blind to it all. [...] A storm, a hurricane, a disaster. [...] There just is a certain aggression inside of me, of which I don't know what to do with and neither where it comes from." At his conviction on 21 February 2014, the district attorney described Hari as an individual who is very short-tempered, indulges in vulgar power display, and demonstrates aggressive and intimidating behavior which is characterized by a high "do-you-even-know-who-I-am caliber".


title: Badr Hari

text: Late October 2012, an indictment was handed to Hari in his holding cell, which contained nine criminal charges against Hari: eight crimes of violence and one moving violation. The moving violation relates to an incident in March 2010, where a pedestrian sustained injuries. The eight crimes of violence were: attempted manslaughter of Koen Everink (who was later murdered in 2016, however without link to Badr Hari), two assaults in night club Club Air, the assault of the brother of an ex-partner in bar Cooldown, an assault in club Jimmy Woo, an assault of two people including a woman in July 2011, and the assault of a doorman in 2010. An investigation is on going. If convicted he could face up to four years in prison.


title: Badr Hari

text: In July 2012 Hari handed himself into police as he feared "being arrested by a SWAT team". Having come forth to deny his involvement in an alleged assault on businessman Koen Everink, who claimed Hari was responsible for inflicting his face and leg injuries including a broken ankle, further allegations of assault were made by an Amsterdam nightclub owner. The latter alleged that he had also been attacked by Hari, saying that he 'suffered a broken jaw and lost teeth after being kicked in the head' during an altercation at his nightclub and that in light of Everink's seeking to press charges, he would also seek to press charges.


title: Badr Hari

text: As is procedure in the Netherlands for crimes that carry a statutory minimum four-year prison sentence or more, Hari was detained in prison whilst awaiting trial. On 9 November 2012 a court in Amsterdam decided to allow Hari to return home until his trial on the condition that he not visit any 'horeca' establishments (hotels, restaurants and café establishments), or contact witnesses, with the exception of his girlfriend . The day following his release he was spotted violating this condition by eating out at a deli with his girlfriend . He also made contact with two witnesses of the incident. As a result, three days after being released Hari was arrested again by police in Amsterdam and was sentenced to be detained once more, this time for three months, with his eventual release coming in January 2013.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 21 January 2013 a court in Amsterdam determined that Hari should again be released from his pre-trial detention, this time with the condition that he could not visit catering establishments between the hours of 8:00 PM and 8:00 AM. By this point the main witnesses in the case had been heard; consequently the court deemed it unnecessary to further detain Hari. Following Hari's release he resumed training with the intention of returning to the ring. His trial was reportedly set to take place in March 2013; he faced nine charges including aggravated assault and attempted manslaughter.


title: Badr Hari

text: On 21 February 2014 the district court in Amsterdam sentenced him to prison for 1½ years. His legal team filed an immediate appeal, as did the prosecution. However, the Court of Appeal found him guilty of aggravated assault, noting in particular that each of his assaults was preceded by a relatively mild quarrel and that to his victims his violent behaviour came as a complete surprise, leaving them no chance to defend themselves. He was sentenced to two years in prison, of which ten months suspended. Since he had already spent eight months in pre-arrest, he still had to serve half a year in prison. In addition, he has to pay his victims compensation of €45,000 in total. This judgement was upheld by the Supreme Court of the Netherlands in 2017.


title: Badr Hari

text: Hari was reportedly arrested in Dubai following his tournament win at "Global FC 3" on 29 May 2014, and he was detained and questioned by police over an alleged incident from late 2011/early 2012 before being released, according to his lawyer. Hari himself refuted the reports.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: Boris Yevdokimovich Shcherbina (, ; 5 October 1919 – 22 August 1990) was a Ukrainian Soviet politician who served as a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union from 1984 to 1989. During this period he supervised Soviet crisis management of two major catastrophes: the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and the 1988 Armenian earthquake.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: Shcherbina was born in Debaltsevo, Ukrainian SSR (now Debaltseve, Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine) on October 5, 1919 to the family of a Ukrainian railroad worker. He joined the CPSU in 1939 and volunteered for army service during the Winter War with Finland. He was married to Raisa Pavlovna and the two had one son, Yuri Borisovich.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: Shcherbina is credited with co-founding the oil and gas industry in Western Siberia while serving as the CPSU first secretary in Tyumen Oblast and later as the Minister of Construction of Oil and Gas Industries (1973–1984). In 1976, Shcherbina had become a member of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and kept the position until his death.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: In 1984, he became a Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers and as such was in charge of dealing with the Chernobyl disaster outcome in 1986. Shcherbina served in a similar role after the catastrophic 1988 Armenian earthquake. He proposed inviting international rescuers – from Austria and Czechoslovakia – who had thermal imagers and specially trained dogs at their disposal to search for living people.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: In 1990, he opposed the election of Boris Yeltsin to the chairmanship of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, describing him as "a man of low moral qualities", whose election would "pave the way for the darkest period in our country's history".


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: Shcherbina died in Moscow in 1990, aged 70. It is unclear if his death was related to radiation as a 1988 decree, drafted by himself, prevented Soviet doctors from citing radiation as a cause of death or illness.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: In his position of Minister of Oil and Gas, he was awarded the honorific title of Hero of Socialist Labour for major contributions to the development of the country's oil and gas industry, which was the highest award for achievements within the national economy. During his life, he was also awarded four Orders of Lenin, the Order of the October Revolution and two Orders of the Red Banner of Labour.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: In Gyumri, Armenia, a street was named after him in his honour. On 10 November 2004, a bust of Shcherbina was erected in Nikolai Nemtsov Square in Tyumen, Tyumen Oblast.


title: Boris Shcherbina

text: Shcherbina is portrayed by Vernon Dobtcheff in the BBC docudrama "Surviving Disaster" (2006) and by Stellan Skarsgård in the Sky/HBO miniseries "Chernobyl" (2019).


title: Rema (musician)

text: Divine Ikubor (born 1 May 2000) professionally known by his stage name Rema, is a Nigerian singer, musician and rapper. He rose to stardom with the release of the song "Dumebi". In 2019, he later signed a record deal with Jonzing World, a subsidiary of Mavin Records.


title: Rema (musician)

text: Divine Ikubor was born into a Christian family in Benin City. He grew up singing and rapping while he was in secondary school. He attended his primary and secondary school education at Ighile Group of Schools, Edo State. He lost his father and elder brother but still takes good care of his mother.


title: Rema (musician)

text: He started his music career in churches .In 2018, Rema, posted a viral freestyle on Instagram to D'Prince's track "Gucci Gang". The post caught the attention of D'Prince who flew him to Lagos to offer a record deal to the young talent. Rema signed a record deal with D'Prince's Jonzing World, a subsidiary of Mavin Records owned by record producer Don Jazzy, in 2019. He went on to release his self-titled debut EP ""Rema"" in 2019, which peaked at number 1 on Apple Music Nigeria. On 21 May 2019, Jonzing World, and Mavins released the music video of "Dumebi", a major breakout song from his self-titled EP, featuring a cameo appearance from Diana Eneje. The video was directed by Ademola Falomo and currently has 60 million views on YouTube. Later that summer, In 2019, one of his other most popular songs from the EP gained more popularity when it was placed on former president of the United States of America, Barack Obama's summer playlist.


title: Rema (musician)

text: In May 2021, Rema announced he will be calling his sound "Afrorave", a subgenre of Afrobeats with influences of Arabian and Indian music which has led to him having one of the strongest fanbase in the country known as Ravers.


title: Rema (musician)

text: In September 2021, Rema was unveiled as a brand ambassador for the popular soft drink Pepsi alongside his label mate Ayra Starr.


title: Rema (musician)

text: In 7 September 2022, Rema received on stage an award during his London concert as his songs achieved 1 billon streamings worldwide.


title: Rema (musician)

text: After Rema signed a record deal with Jonzing World in 2019, he released his debut EP "Rema". After two more EPs, he released his debut album "Rave & Roses" on 25 March 2022. The album includes 16 tracks and features from 6lack, Chris Brown, AJ Tracey, and Yseult. The album charted 10 songs on the US "Billboard" Afrobeats Chart following its debut week. His single "Calm Down", including a sample from fellow Nigerian artist Crayon's track "So Fine", then began charting five months after its official release. On August 26, 2022, he released a remix of his song "Calm Down" with Selena Gomezwhich debuted at number 91 on Billboard Hot 100.


title: Rema (musician)

text: On 19 October 2019, Rema won Next Rated and was nominated for Viewer's Choice at the 13th edition of The Headies. On 12 January 2020, he received the Soundcity MVP Awards for best new artist. On 15 June 2020, Rema was nominated as Best Viewers Choice: International Act on the 2020 BET Awards. He was nominated on the awards alongside Burna Boy and Wizkid, they were the only Nigerian Artistes nominated for the awards edition of 2020. Rema's track "Woman" reached number fifteen on World Digital Song Sales


title: Rema (musician)

text: Rema is a supporter of football club Manchester United F.C.. He also made it known to Twitter that he has gained admission to the university of Lagos to fulfil his mothers dream to get a degree.


title: Rema (musician)

text: On 28 September 2020, Rema tweeted accusations against the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) over the death of his father Justice Ikubor, who was a former chieftain of the party.


title: Soaking (sexual practice)

text: Soaking, also known as "marinating" or "floating", is a sexual practice of inserting the penis into the vagina but not subsequently thrusting, reportedly used by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) as a purported loophole in the church's ban on premarital intercourse. In 2021, a video about soaking went viral on TikTok. The practice is said to sometimes be accompanied by "jump humping", which involves enlisting the help of a third person to bounce on the bed on which a couple is laying while they are engaged in soaking, thus generating the missing element of motion without allegedly making the couple responsible for the presence of the motion (or to use some other method of causing rhythmic bed motion, such as lying under the bed and pushing up from that position). The third person has been termed the "bed jumper" or "Provo pusher".


title: Soaking (sexual practice)

text: Some Mormons have said that soaking is an urban legend and not an actual practice by members of the church. Others have stated that they knew people who had participated in the action.


title: Meteora

text: The Meteora (; , ) is a rock formation in central Greece hosting one of the largest and most precipitously built complexes of Eastern Orthodox monasteries, second in importance only to Mount Athos. The six (of an original twenty-four) monasteries are built on immense natural pillars and hill-like rounded boulders that dominate the local area. Between the 13th and 14th centuries, the twenty-four monasteries were established atop the rocks. Meteora is located near the town of Kalabaka at the northwestern edge of the Plain of Thessaly near the Pineios river and Pindus Mountains.


title: Meteora

text: Meteora was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988 because of the outstanding architecture and beauty of the complex, in addition to its religious and artistic significance.


title: Meteora

text: Beside the Pindos Mountains, in the western region of Thessaly, these unique and enormous columns of rock rise precipitously from the ground. But their unusual form is not easy to explain geologically. They are not volcanic plugs of hard igneous rock typical elsewhere, but the rocks are composed of a mixture of sandstone and conglomerate.


title: Meteora

text: The conglomerate was formed of deposits of stone, sand, and mud from streams flowing into a delta at the edge of a lake, over millions of years. About 60 million years ago during the Paleogene period a series of earth movements pushed the seabed upward, creating a high plateau and causing many vertical fault lines in the thick layer of sandstone. The huge rock pillars were then formed by weathering by water, wind, and extremes of temperature on the vertical faults. It is unusual that this conglomerate formation and type of weathering are confined to a relatively localised area within the surrounding mountain formation. The complex is referred to an exhumed continental remnant of Pangean association.


title: Meteora

text: This type of rock formation and weathering process has happened in many other places locally and throughout the world, but what makes Meteora's appearance special is the uniformity of the sedimentary rock constituents deposited over millions of years leaving few signs of vertical layering, and the localised abrupt vertical weathering.


title: Meteora

text: Excavations and research have discovered petrified diatoms, which have contributed to understanding the Palaeo-climate and climate changes. Radiocarbon dating evidences human presence dating back 50,000 years. The cave used to be open to the public, but is currently closed indefinitely, for safety inspections.


title: Meteora

text: Vegetation grows thickly out of the vertical rock walls mainly due to the water that one is able to find in the cracks and crevices that scale the cliff. Over the past several hundred years, the reports that the Meteora was easily accessible by foot have changed because now one must pass through a impenetrable jungle.


title: Meteora

text: Being such massive unpredictable rock pillars, rock falls pose a constant threat to pilgrims and tourists of Meteora. An earthquake of magnitude 7 on the Richter Scale shook the rocks in 1954, miraculously the thin pillars still stand today. In 2005, such a massive rock fell it closed the access road leading up to Meteora for days.


title: Meteora

text: Theopetra Cave is located from Kalambaka. Its uniqueness from an archeological perspective is that a single site contains records of two greatly significant cultural transitions: the replacement of Neanderthals by modern humans and later, the transition from hunting-gathering to farming after the end of the last Ice Age. The cave consists of an immense rectangular chamber at the foot of a limestone hill, which rises to the northeast above the village of Theopetra, with an entrance wide by high. It lies at the foot of the Chasia mountain range, which forms the natural boundary between Thessaly and Macedonia prefectures, while the Lithaios River, a tributary of the Pineios River, flows in front of the cave. The small Lithaios River flowing literally on the doorsteps of the cave meant that cave dwellers always had easy access to fresh, clean water without the need to cover daily long distances to find it.


title: Meteora

text: Caves in the vicinity of Meteora were inhabited continuously between 50,000 and 5,000 years ago. The oldest known example of a built structure, a stone wall that blocked two-thirds of the entrance to the Theopetra cave, was constructed 23,000 years ago, probably as a barrier against cold winds – the Earth was experiencing an ice age at the time – and many Paleolithic and Neolithic artifacts of human occupation have been found within the caves.


title: Meteora

text: Meteora is not mentioned in classical Greek myths nor in Ancient Greek literature. The first people documented to inhabit Meteora after the Neolithic Era were an ascetic group of hermit monks who, in the ninth century AD, moved up to the ancient pinnacles. They lived in hollows and fissures in the rock towers, some as high as 1800 ft (550m) above the plain. This great height, combined with the sheerness of the cliff walls, kept away all but the most determined visitors. Initially, the hermits led a life of solitude, meeting only on Sundays and special days to worship and pray in a chapel built at the foot of a rock known as Dupiani.


title: Meteora

text: As early as the eleventh century, monks occupied the caverns of Meteora. However, monasteries were not built until the fourteenth century, when the monks sought somewhere to hide in the face of an increasing number of Turkish attacks on Greece. At this time, access to the top was via removable ladders or windlass. Currently, getting up there is a lot simpler due to steps being carved into the rock during the 1920s. Of the 24 monasteries, only six (four of men, two of women) are still functioning, with each housing fewer than ten individuals.


title: Meteora

text: The exact date of the establishment of the monasteries is widely believed to be unknown, however there are clues to when each of the monasteries were constructed. By the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries, a rudimentary monastic state had formed called the Skete of Stagoi and was centred around the still-standing church of Theotokos (Mother of God). By the end of the twelfth century, an ascetic community had flocked to Meteora.


title: Meteora

text: In 1344, Athanasios Koinovitis from Mount Athos brought a group of followers to Meteora. From 1356 to 1372, he founded The Great Meteoron Monastery on the Broad Rock, which was perfect for the monks; they were safe from political upheaval and had complete control of the entry to the monastery. The only means of reaching it was by climbing a long ladder, which was drawn up whenever the monks felt threatened.


title: Meteora

text: At the end of the fourteenth century, the Byzantine Empire's reign over northern Greece was being increasingly threatened by Turkish raiders who wanted control over the fertile plain of Thessaly. The hermit monks, seeking a retreat from the expanding Turkish occupation, found the inaccessible rock pillars of Meteora to be an ideal refuge. More than 20 monasteries were built, beginning in the fourteenth century; only six remain today.


title: Meteora

text: In 1517, Theophanes built the monastery of Varlaam, which was reputed to house the finger of St. John and the shoulder blade of St. Andrew.


title: Meteora

text: Access to the monasteries was originally (and deliberately) difficult, requiring either long ladders latched together or large nets used to haul up both goods and people. This required quite a leap of faith – the ropes were replaced, so the story goes, only "when the Lord let them break". In the words of UNESCO, "The net in which intrepid pilgrims were hoisted up vertically alongside the cliff where the Varlaam monastery dominates the valley symbolizes the fragility of a traditional way of life that is threatened with extinction."


title: Meteora

text: Until the seventeenth century, the primary means of conveying goods and people from these eyries was by means of baskets and ropes.


title: Meteora

text: In 1921, Queen Marie of Romania visited Meteora, becoming the first woman ever allowed to enter the Great Meteoron monastery.


title: Meteora

text: In the 1920s there was an improvement in the arrangements. Steps were cut into the rock, making the complex accessible via a bridge from the nearby plateau. During World War II the site was bombed.


title: Meteora

text: There are various rocks of Meteora that surround the village of Kastraki and border the north side of the main town of Kalabaka. The height in metres is also given for various rocks.


title: Meteora

text: The greater Meteora rock formation also extends northwest into the Gavros and Agios Dimitrios areas, although the term "Meteora" is commonly used to refer to only the rocks around Kalabaka and Kastraki.


title: Meteora

text: At their peak in the 16th century, there were 24 monasteries at Meteora in Greece. They were created to serve monks and nuns following the teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Much of the architecture of these buildings is Athonite in origin. Today there are six still functioning, while the remainder are largely in ruin. Perched onto high cliffs, they are now accessible by staircases and pathways cut into the rock formations.


title: Meteora

text: Traditionally, the 24 historic monasteries of Meteora are listed as follows. Coordinates are also given for some sites. The list is primarily sourced from Vlioras (2017), with some additional notes from Provatakis (2006).


title: Meteora

text: The Holy Monastery of Great Meteoron is the oldest and largest of the monasteries of Meteora. The monastery is believed to have been built just before the mid 14th century by a monk from Mount Athos named Saint Athanasios the Meteorite. He began the build with a church in dedication to the Mother of God, the Virgin Mary. He later added small cells so that monks could concentrate and live atop the rock formations. The monastery’s second name is, The Holy Monastery of the Transfiguration, which got its name from the second church St. Meteorites built. The successor of Saint Athanasios was Saint Joasaph, who continued to build more cells, a hospital, and renovated the churches atop the rocks. The Monastery thrived in the 16th century when it received many imperial and royal donations. At the time it had over three hundred monks living and worshipping within its cells. It is still a living monastery as there were three monks in residence as of 2015.


title: Meteora

text: Being the largest among all the monasteries allows it to have a particular layout filled with many buildings. The katholikon is dedicated to the Transfiguration of Jesus and was the first church of the monastery. The hermitage of the first founder of the monastery is a small building carved in rock. The kitchen or what is commonly referred to as the hestia is a domed shaped building near the refectory. There is also a hospital, with its famous roof of the ground floor made of brick and supported on four columns. The three old churches or chapels include: The Chapel of Saint John the Baptist which lies next to the katholikon sanctuary, The Saints Constantine and Helen Chapel which is an aisle-less church with large vault, and finally the chapel of Virgin Mary situated in the cave.


title: Meteora

text: The Monastery of Varlaam is the second largest monastery of Meteora. The name Varlaam comes from a monk named Varlaam who scaled the rocks in 1350 and began construction on the monasteries. Varlaam built three churches by hoisting materials up the face of the cliffs. After Varlaam’s death, the monastery was abandoned for two hundred years until two monk brothers, Theophanes and Nektarios Apsarades, came to the rock in the 16th century and began to rebuild the churches in October 1517. The two brothers from Ioannina spent twenty-two years hoisting materials to the top of the rock formation, however, the building only is reported to take around twenty days. Monks have been present since the 16th century, however, there has been a constant decline in their presence since the 17th century. Today the monastery is accessed through a series of ladders that scale the north side of the rock. The museum is open to travelers and contains a wide array of relics and ecclesiastical treasures. that there are seven monks remaining in Varlaam.


title: Meteora

text: The Monastery of Rousanou is believed to have been constructed, like many of the other monasteries, in the 14th century. The cathedral is believed to have been built in the 16th century and later decorated in 1540. The name Rousanou is believed to come from the first group of monks who settled on the rock from Russia. The monastery sits on the elevation 484 meters. Lying in the middle of the site, visitors can see the other monasteries, as well as the ruins of the Monastery of St. John the Baptist and the Pantokrator.


title: Meteora

text: The Monastery of St. Nicholas Anapausas is located atop a small narrow rock. It is approximately eighty meters high and the first which the pilgrims encounter on their way to the holy Meteora. The Monastery was founded in the late 14th century and today is surrounded by the deserted and ruined monasteries of St. John Prodromos, the Pantocrator, and the chapel of Panagia Doupiani. The monastery served as a resting place for pilgrims and quickly got its name of “Anapausas” referring to word "anapafseos" 'resting'. Being on such a narrow surface, the floors are connected through an interior staircase. St. Nicholas is honored on the second floor where the katholikon is located. On the third floor, there is the Holy Table and the walls are decorated by 14th-century frescoes. The monastery has been restored in the 16th century and again in the 1960s.


title: Meteora

text: The Monastery of the Holy Trinity is believed to have been built in the 14th and 15th century. Even prior to this, ancient Greeks established hermitages at the base of the rock cliffs. In the 14th century, John Uroš moved to the Meteora and endowed and built monasteries on top of the rock cliffs. He offered the sanctuaries as a safe haven during times of political upheaval. In 1438, Dometius was said to be the first monk at the site of Holy Trinity. The actual monastery is believed to have been built between 1475 and 1476. Some do say that the exact construction date of the monastery like many of the other monasteries is unknown. By the end of the 16th century this was one of the last six monasteries still atop the Meteora.


title: Meteora

text: The Monastery of St. Stephen is located on a plateau-like structure. The original monastery was believed to have been built in the 14th century, however, a new katholikon was built in 1798 making it the newest of all the meteorite structures. The monastery is made up of many buildings including new katholikon, the "hestia" (kitchen), an old refectory that has since become a museum, and an assortment of rooms with different purposes. These include workrooms for paintings, embroidery, incense-making, and needlework. The church's interior was decorated with frescoes on the inside for a short period after 1545. However, During the World Wars, the monasteries were bombed heavily and ransacked in the belief that the monks were holding refugees. , the Monastery of St. Stephen is home to 28 nuns after its conversion to a nunnery in 1961.


title: Meteora

text: Meteora is popular with hikers, trail runners, mountain bikers, and rock climbers from around the world, particularly during the summer. The Meteora MTB Race, also known as the Vasilis Efstathiou (Βασίλης Ευσταθίου) MTB Race, is held annually at Meteora.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Oliver Wolf Sacks, (9 July 1933 – 30 August 2015) was a British neurologist, naturalist, historian of science, and writer. Born in Britain, Sacks received his medical degree in 1958 from The Queen's College, Oxford, before moving to the United States, where he spent most of his career. He interned at Mount Zion Hospital in San Francisco and completed his residency in neurology and neuropathology at the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA). After a fellowship at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine, he served as neurologist at Beth Abraham Hospital's chronic-care facility in the Bronx, where he worked with a group of survivors of the 1920s sleeping sickness encephalitis lethargica, who had been unable to move on their own for decades. His treatment of those patients became the basis of his 1973 book "Awakenings", which was adapted into an Academy Award-nominated feature film in 1990, starring Robin Williams and Robert De Niro.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: His numerous other best-selling books were mostly collections of case studies of people, including himself, with neurological disorders. He also published hundreds of articles (both peer-reviewed scientific articles and articles for a general audience), not only about neurological disorders but also insightful book reviews and articles about the history of science, natural history, and nature. His writings have been featured in a wide range of media; "The New York Times" called him a "poet laureate of contemporary medicine", and "one of the great clinical writers of the 20th century". His books include a wealth of narrative detail about his experiences with his patients and his own experiences, and how patients and he coped with their conditions, often illuminating how the normal brain deals with perception, memory, and individuality. In addition to the information content, the beauty of his writing style is especially treasured by many of his readers. He and his book "Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain" were the subject of "Musical Minds", an episode of the PBS series "Nova".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: He once stated that the brain is the "most incredible thing in the universe". He became widely known for writing best-selling case histories about both his patients' and his own disorders and unusual experiences, with some of his books adapted for plays by major playwrights, feature films, animated short films, opera, dance, fine art, and musical works in the classical genre.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Oliver Wolf Sacks was born in Cricklewood, London, England, the youngest of four children born to Jewish parents: Samuel Sacks, a Lithuanian Jewish doctor (died June 1990), and Muriel Elsie Landau, one of the first female surgeons in England (died 1972), who was one of 18 siblings. Sacks had an extremely large extended family of eminent scientists, physicians and other notable individuals, including the director and writer Jonathan Lynn and first cousins, the Israeli statesman Abba Eban the Nobel Laureate Robert Aumann and the former Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom Jonathan Sacks, Baron Sacks.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In December 1939, when Sacks was six years old, he and his older brother Michael were evacuated from London to escape the Blitz, and sent to a boarding school in the English Midlands where he remained until 1943. Unknown to his family, at the school, he and his brother Michael "...subsisted on meager rations of turnips and beetroot and suffered cruel punishments at the hands of a sadistic headmaster." This is detailed in his first autobiography, "". Beginning with his return home at the age of 10, under his Uncle Dave's tutelage, he became an intensely focused amateur chemist. Later, he attended St Paul's School in London, where he developed lifelong friendships with Jonathan Miller and Eric Korn.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: During adolescence he shared an intense interest in biology with these friends, and later came to share his parents' enthusiasm for medicine. He chose to study medicine at university and entered The Queen's College, Oxford in 1951. The first half studying medicine at Oxford is pre-clinical, and he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in physiology and biology in 1956.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Although not required, Sacks chose to stay on for an additional year to undertake research after he had taken a course by Hugh Macdonald Sinclair. Sacks recalls, "I had been seduced by a series of vivid lectures on the history of medicine and nutrition, given by Sinclair... it was the history of physiology, the ideas and personalities of physiologists, which came to life." Sacks then became involved with the school's Laboratory of Human Nutrition under Sinclair. Sacks focused his research on Jamaica ginger, a toxic and commonly abused drug known to cause irreversible nerve damage. After devoting months to research he was disappointed by the lack of help and guidance he received from Sinclair. Sacks wrote up an account of his research findings but stopped working on the subject. As a result he became depressed: "I felt myself sinking into a state of quiet but in some ways agitated despair."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: His tutor at Queen's and his parents, seeing his lowered emotional state, suggested he extricate himself from academic studies for a period. His parents then suggested he spend the summer of 1955 living on Israeli kibbutz Ein HaShofet, where the physical labour would help him. Sacks would later describe his experience on the kibbutz as an "anodyne to the lonely, torturing months in Sinclair's lab". He said he lost from his previously overweight body as a result of the healthy, hard physical labour he performed there. He spent time travelling around the country with time spent scuba diving at the Red Sea port city of Eilat, and began to reconsider his future: "I wondered again, as I had wondered when I first went to Oxford, whether I really wanted to become a doctor. I had become very interested in neurophysiology, but I also loved marine biology;... But I was 'cured' now; it was time to return to medicine, to start clinical work, seeing patients in London."


title: Oliver Sacks

text: In 1956, Sacks began his clinical study of medicine at the University of Oxford and Middlesex Hospital Medical School. For the next two-and-a-half years, he took courses in medicine, surgery, orthopaedics, paediatrics, neurology, psychiatry, dermatology, infectious diseases, obstetrics, and various other disciplines. During his years as a student, he helped home-deliver a number of babies. In 1958, he graduated with Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (BM BCh) degrees, and, as per tradition, his BA was promoted to a Master of Arts (MA Oxon) degree.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Having completed his medical degree, Sacks began his pre-registration house officer rotations at Middlesex Hospital the following month. "My eldest brother, Marcus, had trained at the Middlesex," he said, "and now I was following his footsteps." Before beginning his house officer post, he said he first wanted some hospital experience to gain more confidence, and took a job at a hospital in St Albans where his mother had worked as an emergency surgeon during the war. He then did his first six-month post in Middlesex Hospital's medical unit, followed by another six months in its neurological unit. He completed his pre-registration year in June 1960 but was uncertain about his future.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: Sacks left Britain and flew to Montreal, Canada, on 9 July 1960, his 27th birthday. He visited the Montreal Neurological Institute and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), telling them that he wanted to be a pilot. After some interviews and checking his background, they told him he would be best in medical research. But as he kept making mistakes, like losing data of several months of research, destroying irreplaceable slides and losing biological samples, his supervisors had second thoughts about him. Dr. Taylor, the head medical officer, told him, "You are clearly talented and we would love to have you, but I am not sure about your motives for joining." He was told to travel for a few months and reconsider. He used the next three months to travel across Canada and deep into the Canadian Rockies, which he described in his personal journal, later published as "Canada: Pause, 1960".


title: Oliver Sacks

text: He then made his way to the United States, completing an internship at Mt. Zion Hospital in San Francisco and a residency neurology and neuropathology at UCLA. While there, Sacks became a lifelong close friend of poet Thom Gunn, saying he loved his wild imagination, his strict control, and perfect poetic form. During much of his time at UCLA, he lived in a rented house in Topanga Canyon and experimented with various recreational drugs. He described some of his experiences in a 2012 "New Yorker" article, and in his book "Hallucinations". During his early career in California and New York City he indulged in:


title: Oliver Sacks

text: staggering bouts of pharmacological experimentation, underwent a fierce regimen of bodybuilding at Muscle Beach (for a time he held a California record, after he performed a full squat with 600 pounds across his shoulders), and racked up more than 100,000 leather-clad miles on his motorcycle. And then one day he gave it all up—the drugs, the sex, the motorcycles, the bodybuilding.


title: Oliver Sacks

text: He wrote that after moving to New York City, an amphetamine-facilitated epiphany that came as he read a book by the 19th century migraine doctor Edward Liveing inspired him to chronicle his observations on neurological diseases and oddities; to become the "Liveing of our Time". Though he would remain a resident of the United States for the rest of his life, he never became a citizen. He told "The Guardian" in a 2005 interview, "In 1961, I declared my intention to become a United States citizen, which may have been a genuine intention, but I never got round to it. I think it may go with a slight feeling that this was only an extended visit. I rather like the words 'resident alien'. It's how I feel. I'm a sympathetic, resident, sort of visiting alien."