title: Ty Dolla Sign

text: Ty Dolla Sign's sound is a combination of contemporary R&B and hip hop music elements . When asked if he was a rapper, he stated, "People would call it rap, but I really don't feel like I rap. There's so many great rappers, like if we had to battle or some shit, they would just cream me. I don't really consider myself a rapper, I just happen to have bars, or something like that. I still sing man, I'm a singer, ya feel me?"


title: Ty Dolla Sign

text: He cited Nate Dogg and Chris Brown as main influences for his musical style. When asked about his influences, Ty Dolla Sign responded, "2Pac is my favorite artist of all time. I liked Slum Village a lot back then, like J Dilla, he's one of my favorite producers and artists. I'm like a hip-hop head type of dude. Mos Def, Talib Kweli, that whole Rawkus Records scene, that's my type of shit." He continued, "I also like cats like Prince. Just like his production, he's kind of like the same thing as me. He sings, he produces, he plays all types of instruments. That's what I'm after. I wouldn't wear that type of clothes or wear my hair like that. [Laughs.] But as far as artistry, that's the same type of dude I am." In an interview he revealed that Kim Burrell was his absolute favorite vocalist, and that Brandy was right there with her.


title: Ty Dolla Sign

text: Ty Dolla Sign has a daughter named Jailynn Crystal. He was in a relationship with Fifth Harmony member Lauren Jauregui from 2017 to 2019.


title: Ty Dolla Sign

text: On December 10, 2018, it was revealed that Ty Dolla Sign was facing up to fifteen years in jail in relation to cocaine and marijuana possession charges. These charges resulted from a traffic stop in Atlanta, Georgia where in a car with multiple people, Ty Dolla Sign was the only one charged with the drugs due to him being in close proximity to them. Later, all charges were dropped upon completion of a drug prevention program.


title: Ty Dolla Sign

text: In 2020, Ty Dolla Sign formally endorsed the presidential campaign of fellow musician and frequent collaborator Kanye West.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Civil law is a legal system originating in mainland Europe and adopted in much of the world. The civil law system is intellectualized within the framework of Roman law, and with core principles codified into a referable system, which serves as the primary source of law. The civil law system is often contrasted with the common law system, which originated in medieval England. Whereas the civil law takes the form of legal codes, the law in common law systems historically came from uncodified case law that arose as a result of judicial decisions, recognising prior court decisions as legally-binding precedent.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Historically, a civil law is the group of legal ideas and systems ultimately derived from the "Corpus Juris Civilis", but heavily overlain by Napoleonic, Germanic, canonical, feudal, and local practices, as well as doctrinal strains such as natural law, codification, and legal positivism.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Conceptually, civil law proceeds from abstractions, formulates general principles, and distinguishes substantive rules from procedural rules. It holds case law secondary and subordinate to statutory law. Civil law is often paired with the inquisitorial system, but the terms are not synonymous. There are key differences between a statute and a code. The most pronounced features of civil systems are their legal codes, with concise and broadly applicable texts that typically avoid factually specific scenarios. The short articles in a civil law code deal in generalities and stand in contrast with ordinary statutes, which are often very long and very detailed.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Civil law is sometimes referred to as neo-Roman law, Romano-Germanic law or Continental law. The expression "civil law" is a translation of Latin "jus civile", or "citizens' law", which was the late imperial term for its legal system, as opposed to the laws governing conquered peoples ("jus gentium"); hence, the Justinian Code's title "Corpus Juris Civilis". Civil law practitioners, however, traditionally refer to their system in a broad sense as "jus commune." The civil law system is the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in various forms in about 150 countries. It draws heavily from Roman law, arguably the most intricate known legal system before the modern era.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: In civil law legal systems where codes exist, the primary source of law is the law code, a systematic collection of interrelated articles, arranged by subject matter in some pre-specified order. Codes explain the principles of law, rights and entitlements, and how basic legal mechanisms work. The purpose of codification is to provide all citizens with manners and written collection of the laws which apply to them and which judges must follow. Law codes are laws enacted by a legislature, even if they are in general much longer than other laws. Rather than a compendium of statutes or catalog of case law, the code sets out general principles as rules of law. Other major legal systems in the world include common law, Islamic law, Halakha, and canon law.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Unlike common law systems, civil law jurisdictions deal with case law apart from any precedent value. Civil law courts generally decide cases using codal provisions on a case-by-case basis, without reference to other (even superior) judicial decisions. In actual practice, an increasing degree of precedent is creeping into civil law jurisprudence, and is generally seen in many nations' highest courts. While the typical French-speaking supreme court decision is short, concise and devoid of explanation or justification, in Germanic Europe, the supreme courts can and do tend to write more verbose opinions, supported by legal reasoning. A line of similar case decisions, while not precedent "per se", constitute "jurisprudence constante". While civil law jurisdictions place little reliance on court decisions, they tend to generate a phenomenal number of reported legal opinions. However, this tends to be uncontrolled, since there is no statutory requirement that any case be reported or published in a law report, except for the councils of state and constitutional courts. Except for the highest courts, all publication of legal opinions are unofficial or commercial.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: A prominent example of a civil law code is the Napoleonic Code (1804), named after French emperor Napoleon. The Napoleonic code comprises three components:


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Another prominent civil code is the German Civil Code ("Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch" or BGB), which went into effect in the German empire in 1900. The German Civil Code is highly influential, inspiring the civil codes in countries such as Japan, South Korea and Switzerland (1907). It is divided into five parts:


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Civil law takes as its major inspiration classical Roman law ("c". AD 1–250), and in particular Justinian law (6th century AD), and further expanded and developed in the late Middle Ages under the influence of canon law. The Justinian Code's doctrines provided a sophisticated model for contracts, rules of procedure, family law, wills, and a strong monarchical constitutional system. Roman law was received differently in different countries. In some it went into force wholesale by legislative act, i.e., it became positive law, whereas in others it was diffused into society by increasingly influential legal experts and scholars.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Roman law continued without interruption in the Byzantine Empire until its final fall in the 15th century. However, given the multiple incursions and occupations by Western European powers in the late medieval period, its laws became widely implemented in the West. It was first received in the Holy Roman Empire partly because it was considered imperial law, and it spread in Europe mainly because its students were the only trained lawyers. It became the basis of Scots law, though partly rivaled by received feudal Norman law. In England, it was taught academically at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, but underlay only probate and matrimonial law insofar as both were inherited from canon law, and maritime law, adapted from "lex mercatoria" through the Bordeaux trade.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Consequently, neither of the two waves of Roman influence completely dominated in Europe. Roman law was a secondary source that was applied only when local customs and laws were found lacking on a certain subject. However, after a time, even local law came to be interpreted and evaluated primarily on the basis of Roman law, since it was a common European legal tradition of sorts, and thereby in turn influenced the main source of law. Eventually, the work of civilian glossators and commentators led to the development of a common body of law and writing about law, a common legal language, and a common method of teaching and scholarship, all termed the "jus commune", or law common to Europe, which consolidated canon law and Roman law, and to some extent, feudal law.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: An important common characteristic of civil law, aside from its origins in Roman law, is the comprehensive codification of received Roman law, i.e., its inclusion in civil codes. The earliest codification known is the Code of Hammurabi, written in ancient Babylon during the 18th century BC. However, this, and many of the codes that followed, were mainly lists of civil and criminal wrongs and their punishments. The codification typical of modern civilian systems did not first appear until the Justinian Code.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Germanic codes appeared over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate the law in force for Germanic privileged classes versus their Roman subjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law, a number of private custumals were compiled, first under the Norman empire ("Très ancien coutumier", 1200–1245), then elsewhere, to record the manorial—and later regional—customs, court decisions, and the legal principles underpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay judges over manorial courts in order to inform themselves about the court process. The use of custumals from influential towns soon became commonplace over large areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs consolidated their kingdoms by attempting to compile custumals that would serve as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of France in 1454 commissioned an official custumal of Crown law. Two prominent examples include the "Coutume de Paris" (written 1510; revised 1580), which served as the basis for the Napoleonic Code, and the "Sachsenspiegel" (c. 1220) of the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt which was used in northern Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: The concept of codification was further developed during the 17th and 18th centuries AD, as an expression of both natural law and the ideas of the Enlightenment. The political ideals of that era was expressed by the concepts of democracy, protection of property and the rule of law. Those ideals required certainty of law, recorded, uniform law. So, the mix of Roman law and customary and local law gave way to law codification. Also, the notion of a nation-state implied recorded law that would be applicable to that state. There was also a reaction to law codification. The proponents of codification regarded it as conducive to certainty, unity and systematic recording of the law; whereas its opponents claimed that codification would result in the ossification of the law.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: In the end, despite whatever resistance to codification, the codification of Continental European private laws moved forward. Codifications were completed by Denmark (1687), Sweden (1734), Prussia (1794), France (1804), and Austria (1811). The French codes were imported into areas conquered by Napoleon and later adopted with modifications in Poland (Duchy of Warsaw/Congress Poland; Kodeks cywilny 1806/1825), Louisiana (1807), Canton of Vaud (Switzerland; 1819), the Netherlands (1838), Serbia (1844), Italy and Romania (1865), Portugal (1867) and Spain (1888). Germany (1900), and Switzerland (1912) adopted their own codifications. These codifications were in turn imported into colonies at one time or another by most of these countries. The Swiss version was adopted in Brazil (1916) and Turkey (1926).


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: In theory, codes conceptualized in the civil law system should go beyond the compilation of discrete statutes, and instead state the law in a coherent, and comprehensive piece of legislation, sometimes introducing major reforms or starting anew. In this regard, civil law codes are more similar to the Restatements of the Law, the Uniform Commercial Code (which drew from European inspirations), and the Model Penal Code in the United States. In the United States, U.S. states began codification with New York's 1850 Field Code (laying down civil procedure rules and inspired by European and Louisiana codes). Other examples include California's codes (1872), and the federal revised statutes (1874) and the current United States Code (1926), which are closer to compilations of statute than to systematic expositions of law akin to civil law codes.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: For the legal system of Japan, beginning in the Meiji Era, European legal systems—especially the civil law of Germany and France—were the primary models for emulation. In China, the German Civil Code was introduced in the later years of the Qing dynasty, emulating Japan. In addition, it formed the basis of the law of the Republic of China, which remains in force in Taiwan. Furthermore, Korea, Taiwan, and Manchuria, former Japanese colonies, have been strongly influenced by the Japanese legal system.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Some authors consider civil law the foundation for socialist law used in communist countries, which in this view would basically be civil law with the addition of Marxist-Leninist ideals. Even if this is so, civil law was generally the legal system in place before the rise of socialist law, and some Eastern European countries reverted to the pre-socialist civil law following the fall of socialism, while others continued using a socialist legal systems.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: The table below contains essential disparities (and in some cases similarities) between the world's four major legal systems.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Civil law is primarily contrasted with common law, which is the legal system developed first in England, and later among English-speaking peoples of the world. Despite their differences, the two systems are quite similar from a historical point of view. Both evolved in much the same way, though at different paces. The Roman law underlying civil law developed mainly from customary law that was refined with case law and legislation. Canon law further refined court procedure. Similarly, English law developed from Anglo-Saxon customary law, Danelaw and Norman law, further refined by case law and legislation. The differences are


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Codification, however, is by no means a defining characteristic of a civil law system. For example, the statutes that govern the civil law systems of Sweden and other Nordic countries and the Roman-Dutch countries are not grouped into larger, expansive codes like those in French and German law.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: The term "civil law" comes from English legal scholarship and is used in English-speaking countries to lump together all legal systems of the "jus commune" tradition. However, legal comparativists and economists promoting the legal origins theory prefer to subdivide civil law jurisdictions into distinct groups:


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Napoleonic to Germanistic influence: The Italian civil code of 1942 replaced the original one of 1865, introducing German elements as a result of its World War II Axis alliance. This approach has been imitated by other countries, including Portugal (1966), the Netherlands (1992), Brazil (2002) and Argentina (2014). Most of them have innovations introduced by the Italian legislation, including the unification of the civil and commercial codes.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Germanistic to Napoleonic influence: The Swiss civil code is considered mainly influenced by the German civil code and partly influenced by the French civil code. The civil code of the Republic of Turkey is a slightly modified version of the Swiss code, adopted in 1926 during Mustafa Kemal Atatürk's presidency as part of the government's progressive reforms and secularization.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Some systems of civil law do not fit neatly into this typology, however. Polish law developed as a mixture of French and German civil law in the 19th century. After the reunification of Poland in 1918, five legal systems (French Napoleonic Code from the Duchy of Warsaw, German BGB from Western Poland, Austrian ABGB from Southern Poland, Russian law from Eastern Poland, and Hungarian law from Spisz and Orawa) were merged into one. Similarly, Dutch law, while originally codified in the Napoleonic tradition, has been heavily altered under influence from the Dutch native tradition of Roman-Dutch law (still in effect in its former colonies). Scotland's civil law tradition borrowed heavily from Roman-Dutch law. Swiss law is categorized as Germanistic, but it has been heavily influenced by the Napoleonic tradition, with some indigenous elements added in as well.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Louisiana private law is primarily a Napoleonic system. Louisiana is the only U.S. state whose private civil law is based heavily on the French and Spanish codes, as opposed to English common law. In Louisiana, private law was codified into the Louisiana Civil Code. Current Louisiana law has converged considerably with American law, especially in its public law, judicial system, and adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code (except for Article 2) and certain legal devices of American common law. In fact, any innovation, whether private or public, has been decidedly common law in origin. Quebec law, whose private law is also of French civil origin, has developed along the same lines, adapting in the same way as Louisiana to the public law and judicial system of Canadian common law. By contrast, Quebec private law has innovated mainly from civil sources. To a lesser extent, other states formerly part of the Spanish Empire, such as Texas and California, have also retained aspects of Spanish civil law into their legal system, for example community property. The legal system of Puerto Rico exhibits similarities to that of Louisiana: a civil code whose interpretations rely on both the civil and common law systems. Because Puerto Rico's Civil Code is based on the Spanish Civil Code of 1889, available jurisprudence has tended to rely on common law innovations due to the code's age and in many cases, obsolete nature.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Several Islamic countries have civil law systems that contain elements of Islamic law. As an example, the Egyptian Civil Code of 1810 that developed in the early 19th century—which remains in force in Egypt is the basis for the civil law in many countries of the Arab world where the civil law is used— is based on the Napoleonic Code, but its primary author Abd El-Razzak El-Sanhuri attempted to integrate principles and features of Islamic law in deference to the unique circumstances of Egyptian society.


title: Civil law (legal system)

text: Japanese Civil Code is considered a mixture drawing roughly 60% from the German civil code, roughly 30% from the French civil code, 8% from Japanese customary law, and 2% from English law. Regarding the latter, the code borrows the doctrine of ultra vires and the precedent of Hadley v Baxendale from English common law system.


title: Jane Foster

text: Jane Foster is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character was introduced as a love interest of the superhero Thor Odinson until becoming a superhero in her own right. Created by writers Stan Lee and Larry Lieber, and artist Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in "Journey into Mystery" #84 (September 1962).


title: Jane Foster

text: For many years, Foster was a nurse, employed by Dr. Donald Blake, Thor's first mortal host, before becoming a doctor herself. Foster is later revealed to be deemed worthy to wield Thor's hammer Mjolnir when the former is no longer able. During this period, she adopts the mantle of Thor, and joins the Avengers. Foster's stint as Thor ends with the character sacrificing her life and the mantle reverting to the original Thor. After Brunnhilde and the rest of the Valkyrior are killed during "The War of the Realms" storyline, Foster takes up the mantle of Valkyrie. The character has also appeared in various media adaptations of Thor.


title: Jane Foster

text: Jane Foster first appeared in "Journey into Mystery" #84 (September 1962), and was created by plotter Stan Lee, scripter Larry Lieber and penciler Jack Kirby. Named "Jane Nelson" in her first two appearances, she went on to appear as the love interest of Dr. Donald Blake, the secret identity of the Norse god superhero Thor, in nearly every issue through #136 (Jan. 1967) of the title, by then renamed "Thor".


title: Jane Foster

text: In October 2014, the fourth volume of "Thor", writer Jason Aaron and artist Russell Dauterman in the first issue debuted a female character in the role of Thor after the classic hero is no longer able to wield Mjolnir. Aaron stated, "This is not She-Thor. This is not Lady Thor. This is not Thorita. This is Thor. This is the Thor of the Marvel Universe. But it’s unlike any Thor we’ve ever seen before." In 2015, this Thor joined the Avengers in "All-New All-Different Avengers" FCBD (May 2015), which takes place in the aftermath of the "Secret Wars" storyline. In "Thor" vol. 4 #8 (May 2015), the identity of the woman was revealed to be Jane Foster. Aaron said, "It grew out of the idea of the previous Thor becoming unworthy, which was something I was always building toward. I liked the idea of dealing with his worthiness and the idea of what it means for a god to be worthy in the Marvel universe. You know, the god of thunder waking up every morning and looking at the hammer and not knowing if he’s gonna be worthy to lift it. Then, of course, one day he should wake up and not be able to lift it. That opened the door for someone else to pick up the hammer and carry it around in his place. Really, the only character that was discussed was Jane." A second volume of "The Mighty Thor" by Aaron and Dauterman and again starring Jane Foster as Thor debuted as part of the All-New, All-Different Marvel initiative after the conclusion of "Secret Wars". The concept of Jane Foster gaining the powers of Thor had previously been explored in "What If" #10 (August 1978). Foster appeared in the 2015 original graphic novel "Avengers: Rage of Ultron" as a member of the Avengers.


title: Jane Foster

text: Jane Foster reappears in the War of the Realms storyline before taking up the mantle as the new Valkyrie in a new ongoing series titled "Jane Foster: Valkyrie". The series was written by Aaron in collaboration with other authors. One of those authors, Torunn Grønbekk, wrote a new comic in 2022, "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor".


title: Jane Foster

text: Jane Nelson, known by her more common name of Jane Foster, was a nurse for Dr. Donald Blake, eventually developing feelings for him and Thor, not knowing that they were one and the same. The love triangle went on for a while until Thor revealed his secret identity to Foster, which caused Odin to punish him though he was forgiven after saving Asgard, and in return Thor even took her to Asgard with him. There, Foster was briefly granted immortality and the power of gods, until she failed to pass the tests of courage set forth by Odin when she showed fear battling the monstrous Unknown. Odin then strips Foster of her new powers and returns her to Earth, with no memory of Thor or her time in Asgard, where she meets her new love Dr. Keith Kincaid, who resembles Blake. Meanwhile, in Asgard Odin reunites Thor with his childhood love, Sif.


title: Jane Foster

text: Foster and Thor remain separated for some time until Thor learns Foster had been manipulated into attempting suicide by an entity known as Fear and rushes to her hospital bedside. Sif, seeing Thor still has feelings for Foster, saves Foster's life by merging their life-forces. They soon are separated and Foster is exiled to a pocket dimension. Thor and Sif eventually rescue Foster and return her to Earth, where she marries Dr. Keith Kincaid.


title: Jane Foster

text: Foster appears again in the second Thor volume; now a doctor herself, she is in a position of authority over several New York paramedics, including Jake Olsen. Unbeknownst to her, Jake and Thor have become merged, which creates many conflicts. In one instance, Olsen ignores medical orders and utilizes Thor's (Blake's) knowledge to perform a complicated procedure on a critically ill man.


title: Jane Foster

text: Later, Foster becomes involved in a police case against Olsen, who is accused of stealing drugs. She also examines Jack Monroe, who stated that he sought her out due to her familiarity with superhuman patients. She later informed Monroe that he was dying due to the effects of the Super-Soldier Serum he had ingested as a youth.


title: Jane Foster

text: During the 2006 "Civil War" storyline Foster takes Captain America's side against the registration act and joins his resistance group, the Secret Avengers. She operates from SHIELD safe-house number 23. She is also seen in issue 4, helping to assist a beaten Spider-Man.


title: Jane Foster

text: Shortly after divorcing her husband and subsequently losing custody of her child, Jimmy Kincaid, Foster hears rumors of the return of Dr. Donald Blake and Thor. Blake soon visits Foster at her work in a New York City hospital in search of Sif, whose spirit Blake mistakenly thought had been reborn in Foster since their spirits had been merged once before. Foster and Blake go on a date after an initially turbulent reunion. Foster discovers that Sif's spirit had actually been reborn in the body of a dying elderly cancer patient that was under her care. She alerts Blake and Thor manages to restore Sif just before the patient dies. Foster then travels to Broxton, Oklahoma, the site of the resurrected Asgard, and opens a medical practice with Donald Blake.


title: Jane Foster

text: Following the deaths of her ex-husband and son in a car accident, Foster is diagnosed with breast cancer, and accepts an invitation from Thor to represent Midgard in the Congress of the Worlds on Asgard. She undergoes therapy but refuses all magical treatments.


title: Jane Foster

text: During the 2014 "Original Sin" storyline, Nick Fury whispers an, at the time, unrevealed secret to Thor that causes him to lose the ability to wield Mjolnir. Soon afterwards, an unidentified woman picks up the hammer, taking possession of Thor's power as the new Goddess of Thunder, and fights Malekith the Accursed, Dario Agger (the new Minotaur), and the Absorbing Man. Although Thor initially attempts to reclaim the hammer, he – referring to himself as 'Odinson' – relinquishes the name and role of Thor after witnessing her wield its power. Odinson suspects Foster as a possible candidate for his successor, but he soon dismisses her due to her weakened condition from chemotherapy.


title: Jane Foster

text: Angered that someone else is wielding Mjolnir, Odin and his brother Cul, the God of Fear, send the Destroyer after the new Thor to retrieve the hammer, but Odinson and Freyja assemble an army of female superheroes to aid her. When the battle is over, Odinson asks Thor to reveal her face, but is interrupted by S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Roz Solomon, Odinson's last 'viable' suspect as the new Thor after all other possible candidates came to assist in the battle. Unbeknownst to Odinson, Mjolnir has given Jane the strength to fight as Thor while it is in her possession. However, Jane's use of Mjolnir has perpetuated her cancer as a result of the transformation process purging all toxins from her body, including the chemotherapy being used for her treatment, each time she transforms.


title: Jane Foster

text: During the 2015 "Secret Wars" storyline, Foster was a participant in the final battle between Earth-616 and Earth-1610 during its collision during the incursion event. She is one of the few survivors of the end of the extant Marvel Universe, boarding Reed Richards's "life raft". She and the other survivors are awakened eight years later, having been trapped in suspended animation. In the interim, Doctor Doom created a new universe, Battleworld, from the fragments of dead universes. Knowing the survivors represent the only hope of defeating Doom, Doctor Strange scatters Foster and the others to different parts of Battleworld. For this, Doom kills Strange and begins hunting the survivors. Foster infiltrated the Thor Corps, Doom's police force, and convinced a majority of them to revolt against Doom.


title: Jane Foster

text: In the 2015–18 All-New All-Different Marvel branding, Foster remains in Asgardia as a representative of Midgard (Earth) in the Congress of Worlds, and as Thor, she remains a fugitive pursued by Cul. Odinson is considered missing. She became involved in the war between Svartalfheim, the realm of the Dark Elves, and Alfheim, the realm of the Light Elves and encountered several incarnations of Loki. After the elf races struck a deal by wedding their respective monarchs, Thor returned to Asgard to confront the power-mad Odin, who had Freyja on trial. Loki and Thor arrived at the point when The All-Mother was about to be placed on a verdict by Odin. The rebellious Asgardian warriors also made their way into the hall fighting Cul Borson's thunderguard. Thor and Odin got into a crunching battle that wandered across Saturn's moons while it was revealed that Loki was a spy for Freyja. Loki then stabs Freyja halting the battles at hand. Meanwhile, in a different location entirely, Odinson is held captive telepathically feeling the death of his mother. Later, after returning to Earth, Jane is taken into custody by two S.H.I.E.L.D. agents who suspected of her double life as Thor until she's bailed out by Agent Solomon. She goes to Switzerland where she meets Agent Solomon and accompanies her to the Southern Ocean to find a hidden station that belongs to Roxxon. They find the station underwater where Thor encounters Shingen Harada, the second Silver Samurai, who had invaded the station. After being defeated, Shingen escapes from the station, leaving Thor and Agent Solomon to drown. Thor manages to lift the station to the surface while Solomon interrogated the employees about the location of Dario Agger and his contingency plan known as the Agger Imperative. Upon entering Roxxon Corporation HQ, Thor battles the Mindless Ones and the B.E.R.S.E.R.K.E.R.S., a group of Hulk-like superhumans, while Solomon looked for Dario. During the fight, Thor is approached by S.H.I.E.L.D. who order her to surrender, apparently discovering her civilian identity. Upon holding off the S.H.I.E.L.D. squad, Thor finds Solomon wounded from her fight with Exterminatrix and attacks her and Minotaur with her lightning. When Exterminatrix was about to shoot at Dario with a golden bullet, Thor caught it in mid-air, only for her to get affected by the bullet's gold turning effect. When S.H.I.E.L.D. was about to arrest them, a portal appeared revealing Jane Foster coming to help Thor. While Jane removes the gold bullet from Thor, the Agger Imperative is activated causing the island where the building is to fall from the sky. While S.H.I.E.L.D. evacuates the building, Thor defeats Silver Samurai and Exterminatrix and destroys the island. While the villains are arrested, the two agents who tried to arrest Jane apologize to her and Thor. Thor then reveals to Solomon that the other Jane is an illusion created by Mjolnir and her secret identity as well. After promising to keep the secret safe, Solomon asks Jane about the hammer until Jane disappears when she grabs Mjolnir and gets struck by lightning.


title: Jane Foster

text: Thor is also once again a member of the Avengers and appears in "All-New All-Different Avengers". She appeared by chance in their encounter with Warbringer and subsequently agrees to help form a new official Avengers group. Her identity is unknown to her teammates until she is separated from the hammer when she is transferred a few days into the future by Kang the Conqueror, and Sam Wilson, the new Captain America, witnesses her as she reverts to Jane. He agrees to keep it secret, and offers her moral support during chemotherapy treatments.


title: Jane Foster

text: While treating mystical tumors in his former patients created by Misery, a manifestation of his own darkness, Doctor Strange calls on Thor for assistance; fully aware of her true identity as Jane Foster, Strange guides Thor in performing the necessary operations to remove the tumors from his patients after they had defeated the manifestation of Misery itself.


title: Jane Foster

text: Eventually, Jane's cancer reaches a point where she must confess her identity to Odinson and others, who force her to stay in a hospital under observation by Doctor Strange despite the threat of Mangog attacking Asgard, as Strange determines that one more transformation into Thor will kill Jane as the cancer spreads too far. When Mangog proves too powerful, Jane transforms into Thor and confronts him, sacrificing Mjolnir – and thus her life – by binding Mangog and Mjolnir together with Gleipnir, the chain used to trap Fenris the wolf, and hurling both into the Sun. Knowing that she will die once the enchantment that turns her into Thor wears off, Jane kisses Odinson for a final time before expiring. Consumed by grief of Jane's loss, Odinson works to revive her as she hesitates at the gates of Valhalla. Upon Jane gaining his respect, Odin channels the powers of the God Tempest and assists Odinson into resurrecting Jane. In the aftermath of Mangog's defeat, Mjolnir is destroyed, but it is discovered after Foster hands Odinson an uru shard that he is now capable of wielding the metal again. Jane convinces Odinson to reclaim his name and continue in the War Between the Realms as the true Thor while she resolves to focus on her chemotherapy.


title: Jane Foster

text: When the "War of the Realms" comes to Earth, Jane assists in getting refugees to safety, with her chemotherapy successfully concluded and her hair now growing back. During the invasion she meets Valkyrie and Frigga, confirming that she was the Thor who defeated Mangog. When a new assault requires Odin and Frigga to retreat to Asgard with various Earth heroes, Frigga appoints Jane to act as All-Mother while she and Odin help to prepare the counter-attack to protect Earth. As the war continues, Brunnhilde and the rest of the Valkyrior are massacred by Malekith and his forces. Jane Foster later takes the broken hammer of the Earth-1610 Thor in order to help fight Malekith's forces. Acting as a Thor one last time, she joins Thor Odinson, young Thor, and future King Thor to rescue Odin and Frigga from Malekith. Jane Foster notices that the Earth-1610 Mjolnir is about to shatter from the battle, and she hurls it one last time at Laufey. Jane Foster bids farewell to the Earth-1610 Mjolnir as it returns to her, crumbling; however, its shards combine and merge into a golden bracelet that forms on her arm. Jane learns that this bracelet can now be anything that she needs. As she sees the sorrow in Thor mourning the Valkrior and his faith in Valhalla, Jane knows she needs to become a Valkyrie. Jane becomes the first in a new generation of Valkyries, armed with Undrajarn the All-Weapon, named so by the spirit of Brunnhilde as she and the Valkrior spirits rise from their bodies to find Valhalla. On her first major outing as the Valkyrie, Jane loses Dragonfang in a battle with the Fast Five when the sword is stolen by Bullseye. After Bullseye fatally wounds Heimdall, Jane accepts the need to move on from the past, sacrificing Dragonfang to defeat the assassin and then agreeing to take Heimdall somewhere other than Valhalla to give him a genuinely new experience.


title: Jane Foster

text: When wielding Mjolnir, Foster gains all the powers of Thor, including the base Asgardian traits of superhuman strength, speed, stamina, and durability, as well as Thor's flight and control over lightning; though only a tiny portion of those powers.


title: Jane Foster

text: Foster, however, demonstrates a form of control over Mjolnir that her predecessors lacked, such as changing its trajectory and velocity in mid-throw, and spinning it around her enemies to trap them, abilities neither Beta Ray Bill nor any of those aside from Jane had ever displayed.


title: Jane Foster

text: As Valkyrie, Jane Foster wields Undrajarn the All-Weapon, a weapon that can change its shape into any weapon of her will. These include a sword, an extendable mace, or even wings to fly. Jane Foster possesses various superhuman attributes due to her Asgardian physiology, grating her superhuman strength, speed, stamina, and durability, alongside new powers common among valkyries, such as mystical teleportation and death perception.


title: Jane Foster

text: Chase Magnett of "Comicbook.com" called Jane Foster a "key hero in The Avengers and for Asgard," writing, "She has recreated the story of Dr. Donald Blake from the original comics and updated it for the modern day. The morals have remained the same though, focused on how an ordinary human can be empowered by their own virtue and accomplish incredible tasks. Jane Foster did just that and inspired fictional Marvel heroes as well as very real readers along the way." Thomas Bacon of "Screen Rant" described Jane Foster as "Marvel's best Thor to date," stating, "Right now, Jane Foster's death obscures the future of the Thor brand over in the comics. She has had a powerful impact, and has come to be loved by fans. [...] It's ironic; the death was always going to happen. But it was executed with so much style that it has had an impact Marvel could never have expected. Jane Foster has become their best Thor; it's just such a tragedy that it will be the death of her." Mayra Garcia of "CBR.com" referred to Jane Foster as one of Marvel's "strongest female gods," saying, "Even though her time as Thor was cut short due to her cancer, Jane showed great prowess in battle and also, an undeniable heroic streak. She showed her mighty power up until the moment she sacrificed herself to defeat Mangog, but even after death, Jane returned as a Valkyrie, proving that heroism goes beyond superpowers. Many fans are very excited to see her in "Thor: Love And Thunder."""" Oliver Sava of "The A.V. Club" stated, "Jane Foster’s time as Thor is coming to an end, but she’s going out in a blaze of glory fit for a legendary superhero run. Writer Jason Aaron, artist Russell Dauterman, and colorist Matthew Wilson gave the Marvel Universe a thrilling, tragic hero in Foster, who has been battling cancer while fighting for the Nine Realms in a devastating war that has only intensified with each day. The effects of Jane’s chemotherapy are negated every time she transforms into Thor, and her human body is on the verge of death when the rest of the realms need her most. Jane’s journey as the god of thunder has been a highlight of superhero comics for the last few years, and this creative team made this heroine a major part of the Marvel’s line-up by consistently raising the stakes for both Jane and Thor."


title: Jane Foster

text: Brian Truitt of "USA Today" asserted, "In "Thor" No. 8, out Wednesday and illustrated by Russell Dauterman, Dr. Jane Foster is revealed as the mysterious masked woman who has been swinging Mjolnir as Thor since the Dude Formerly Known as Thor — now just called the Odinson — was deemed unworthy. It's a big step in the evolution of the female character, according to "Thor" series writer Jason Aaron, but Jane's place as Marvel Comics' resident thunder goddess is just part of the current tale. [...] The response to the new female Thor, even when people didn't know who was under her mask, has been admittedly "overwhelming" for Aaron since she was announced on ABC's "The View" last July. But, he says he never thought it would be that big a deal in the first place." Rosie Knight of "Nerdist" asserted, "Thor has long been a staple of the House of Ideas. Though many have wielded the mystical hammer Mjolnir, it requires a lot to truly take on the mantle of Thor. In 2014’s Thor comic series, the “Goddess of Thunder” story arc by Jason Aaron, Russell Dauterman, and Matt Wilson introduced the world to an entirely new incarnation of the iconic character. Recasting Jane Foster as Thor was as stroke of genius, and brought a legion of new fans to the title." Eric Nierstedt of "ComicsVerse" wrote, "Escapism or not, comics have shown us the horrible truth of how much sickness and disease can affect even the strongest person. THOR is the best example of this in comics right now. Since Jane Foster (who was fighting cancer) picked up Mjolnir, we as readers have been treated to the classic godly and otherworldly thrills that only THOR can provide. We’ve also seen a sickly, dying woman sitting in a chair, having poison pumped into her body to kill the poison that’s already there. Worse, we see that same woman be a hero, only to learn that doing so is actually killing her faster." D.R. Medlen of "The Mary Sue" said, "Jane Foster is the one who Thor can’t ever seem to quit. Their relationship started back when Thor was also Dr. Blake. Foster was his nurse, but eventually became more than that. Through the years the two would be together and then break up, but they remained very close. To her credit, she also became much more than a love interest. She became a doctor in her own right before taking Thor’s title and hammer from him. It is understandable that Thor seems to always be in her orbit. Her kindness, dedication to others, and unstoppable spirit make her unforgettable."


title: Jane Foster

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Thor" #1 was the 3rd best selling comic book in October 2014. "Thor" #1 was the 6th best selling comic book in 2014. "Thor" #5 was the 11th best selling comic book in February 2015. The first five issues of "Thor" have sold over 100 000 more copies than the previous 2012's "Thor: God of Thunder" series in March 2015.


title: Jane Foster

text: Jesse Schedeen of "IGN" gave "Thor" #1 a grade of 7.8 out of 10, asserting, "The new volume of Thor faces an uphill battle as it works to escape the shadow of God of Thunder. This first issue doesn't entirely replicate the sense of awesome grandeur of Aaron and Ribic's work and its three-pronged focus on Thor. It's different stylistically, but very much a continuation thematically. Hopefully as the series unfolds, Aaron and Dauterman mesh as storytellers, and we see more of the new female protagonist, this volume of Thor will grow to reach the heights of its predecessor." Chase Magnett of "ComicBook.com" gave "Thor" #1 a grade of B+, writing, "The constant in this transition is Jason Aaron. His scripting is as compelling as ever. The first issue of "Thor: God of Thunder" ended with a very big moment and here he concludes the second issue with two, both of which should leave fans' jaws hanging. There is a hefty amount of exposition to be covered in the beginning of the issue, carrying over from both "Original Sin" and "Thor: God of Thunder". Aaron summarizes the big points with as much grace as possible and focuses on the story at hand. "Thor" #1 continues Aaron's central themes from the previous series, primarily focusing on the concept of worthiness. It is in the title of the issue itself: "If He Be Worthy". Throughout the early exposition, various figures ponder the fate of Mjolnir and question why no one is able to lift the hammer. These questions form the central conflict of the story. The monstrous antagonists of the first few pages are not nearly as great of a challenge to Thor as his inability to list Mjolnir is. Where Aaron and his collaborators go from here will prove interesting. They have crafted a conflict that has the potential to reflect upon gender politics, redemption, and self-worth. Thor has a long way to go in providing answers and a thesis for these ideas. Together, Dauterman, Wilson, and Aaron have crafted a first issue that ought to compel fans of Thor: God of Thunder to stick around and encourage others to try the new series. "Thor" #1 is a beautiful debut that contains all of the thunder and power of Marvel's mightiest hero."


title: Jane Foster

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "The Mighty Thor" #1 was the 12th best selling comic book in November 2015.


title: Jane Foster

text: Marykate Jasper of "CBR.com" called "The Mighty Thor" #1 a "fine first issue," writing, "Speaking of motive, the clever conceit of "The Mighty Thor" #1 -- that Jane must endanger her mortal body in order to assume her godly one -- also creates a very strong character moment that speaks to what makes this Thor unique. To Jane, her power as an individual, mortal doctor is obviously equal to that of a goddess of Thunder. Unfortunately, Aaron also utilizes the more regressive politics of traditional fantasy: democracy is impotent, words are nothing next to force and every character's evil or good intentions can be easily inferred from their world of origin. With so many wonderful, interesting shakeups in this issue, I'd have loved to see a little shift in worldview to go with it. Still, as a whole, "The Mighty Thor" #1 is a wonderful opener. I'm always happy to see Aaron on an Asgard book; he has a great sense of Thor's world and what makes it work, and Dauterman and Wilson's art shows that same understanding of what's so cool about the Ten Realms. "Mighty Thor" is off to an excellent start." Jesse Schedeen of "IGN" gave "The Mighty Thor" #1 a grade of 9 out of 10, saying, "As with much of Aaron's work, there's a fair amount of humor to balance out the more dramatic elements. In this case the humor is of the darker variety, mostly centering around how terrible Roxxon and its master are. Roxxon is basically an indictment of greedy energy corporations, crooked politicians and vapid, fear-mongering newscasters all rolled into one. It adds a fun element of satire to the book that, again, helps keep things grounded ever so slightly amid all the spectacle and grandeur. Not that the book doesn't deliver plenty when it comes to spectacle and grandeur. Russell Dauterman proves once again why he's one of Marvel's best acquisitions in recent years. With his graceful line-work and sweeping, epic shots, it's easy to fool yourself into thinking that Olivier Coipel has started drawing Thor again. Dauterman brings his own brand of charm to the book, though. His style is perfectly suited to the dual nature of the book. He captures all the scope and majesty of Asgardia and its inhabitants, but his work is equally great at subtle emotion. The reader can't help but feel the intense pain and suffering Jane experiences as she undergoes her chemotherapy - it's written on every line and crease of her face. Dauterman has already grown significantly since his early Thor issues, so it'll be fun to see just how much his style continues to evolve as this new series gets underway. Thor is the last character that need sprucing up for the All-New, All-Different Marvel relaunch, so it's nice to see that Marvel didn't attempt to fix what wasn't broken. This issue offers an easy gateway into Aaron's ongoing saga, but it also dives right into the myriad conflicts that were left dangling prior to Secret Wars. Even in this first issue, this is a series that captures both the epic scope and intimate drama that make a good Thor comic."


title: Jane Foster

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Valkyrie: Jane Foster" #1 was the 39th best selling comic book in July 2019.


title: Jane Foster

text: Karen O'brien of "CBR.com" described "Valkyrie: Jane Foster" #1 as "the culmination of writer Jason Aaron’s multi-year reimagination of the plucky doctor as a hero," asserting, ""Valkyrie: Jane Foster" #1 is a worthy successor to Jane Foster’s tenure as the god of thunder. The inventive creative team has set into motion multiple complex conflicts that will test her new abilities and responsibilities both as a Valkyrie and as a doctor. While an enjoyable debut for longtime fans of Aaron’s work with the character, it’s also a great jumping-on point for new readers." Kate Kosturski of "WomenWriteAboutComics" stated, ""Valkyrie: Jane Foster" #1 presumes you read the "War of the Realms" event. You can certainly jump on with this series without having that knowledge, but reading (or re-reading) the event will provide a second layer of context to Jane’s existential struggle between her two worlds. I do wish this title had the touch of a female writer to lend a feminine perspective. But we do have Jason Aaron, a man who knows Jane Foster (The Mighty Thor) inside and out. Our Jane is in good hands." Cass Clarke of "SlashFilm" included the "Valkyrie: Jane Foster" comic book series in their "14 Best Marvel Comics That "Love & Thunder" Fans Will Want To Read" list, saying, "What works best about this new direction for Jane Foster is how the creative team seamlessly blends her medical knowledge with her cosmic duties. Whether or not she's serving as a Valkyrie, Jane always acts with compassion, providing the best care she can. Her journey to accept that some deaths are unpreventable is compelling to watch, especially as she adjusts to her new job of being a ferryman for departed souls."


title: Jane Foster

text: According to Diamond Comic Distributors, "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor" #1 was the 7th best selling comic book in June 2022.


title: Jane Foster

text: Caitlin Chappell of "CBR.com" called "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor" #1 a "promising future for fans of Valkyrie," writing, "For the most part, Sabino stylistically distinguishes the characters' inner monologues, but there are a couple of moments where the reader may wonder who's talking. However, when an Asgardian, or Jane, in one of her heroic personas, talks, Sabino makes a subtle but appreciated font change to make it look more ancient, helping to give credence to the almost Shakespearean way many of the Asgardians speak. It's a clever way to establish an accent without spelling things out phonetically or distracting from the proceedings. This exposition-heavy issue doesn't give either of the Thors many opportunities to leap into action, but that will likely change in Issue #2, as a team-up between Jane and Thor seems to be on the horizon. It will also be exciting to see more of Dowling's art in action, as the close-up facial expressions of characters are realistic yet soft, giving many characters a regal feel to them. On top of that, Aburtov's colors play with lightning and shadow to give these characters a glow about them, especially toward the second half of the issue. Overall, readers will have to wait for the meat of "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor," but if they can get through the dense exposition in this first issue, they're sure to enjoy the epic team-up that's on its way." Jim Dandeneau of "Den of Geek" included the "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor" comic book series in their "Best Thor Comics to Grab For Love & Thunder" list. Cass Clarke of "SlashFilm" included the "Jane Foster & The Mighty Thor" comic book series in their "14 Best Marvel Comics That "Love & Thunder" Fans Will Want To Read" list.


title: Jane Foster

text: In "Marvel 1985" #6 (2008), Jane Foster is the attending nurse present when Jerry Goodman wakes from his coma. He asks her on a date, and she accepts. Jerry has had a crush on Jane since reading "Thor" comics as a child.


title: Jane Foster

text: In the "Secret Wars: Thors" miniseries, after various alternate Earths are merged into Battleworld, the various alternate Thors are recruited to police the resulting zones. During their activities, they find themselves investigating the strange deaths of at least six women from different zones, all killed in such a manner as to make identification impossible. With his last act, after being murdered by an unknown assailant, Beta Ray Bill identifies the victims as Jane Foster. The Thors' subsequent investigation- including analysing samples taken from a Jane who died of cancer a few months before the other murders- confirm that the victims are all Janes, but they are unable to track down any living version of her, apart from learning that 'Thor the Unworthy' - the Earth-616 Thor who lost possession of Mjolnir - is interfering in attempts to find her. After interrogating Loki as a witness, the Ultimate Thor learns that the Janes are being murdered by Rune Thor and Destroyer Thor because they looked the Janes in the eyes and saw how far they had fallen from what they could be. The Thors are subsequently rallied to oppose Doom by the Jane Foster of Earth-616 - currently Thor and one of the few survivors of the Incursions - while Rune Thor is rendered unworthy as Jane forces him to acknowledge the truth about his actions.


title: Jane Foster

text: In this all-ages "non-continuity" comic published in 2010 and 2011, Jane Foster is the newly promoted head of the department of Nordic Antiquities at the Bergen War Memorial Museum in Bergen, Oklahoma. She first encounters Thor when he attempts to smash one of the museum's exhibit cases (which is later revealed to contain an urn inside which Thor's hammer is concealed). Over the course of the title's eight issues Jane and Thor (who has been exiled from Asgard by Odin and is staying at Jane's apartment) become romantically involved and have a variety of adventures together.


title: Jane Foster

text: Jane briefly appears in the Ultimate Marvel imprint during the first series of Ultimates, where she was a member of an anarchist cult who believed Thorlief Golmen was the genuine god of thunder. She was also described as a nurse from San Francisco. In later events, it seems she and Thor live in a flat together.


title: Jane Foster

text: In "What If?" #10 (Aug. 1978) titled "What If Jane Foster Had Found the Hammer of Thor", Jane assumes Donald Blake's place in finding Mjolnir and is imbued with Thor's powers. Calling herself Thordis, she used her powers to rescue Donald Blake from danger. Upon saving Asgard from Ragnarok, Odin forces her to relinquish the hammer to Donald Blake so he can become the new Thor. This resulted in Jane losing her powers, but she was allowed to remain on Asgard and keep her goddess status since she later falls in love with and marries Thor.


title: Jane Foster

text: In "What If?" #25 (Feb. 1980), titled "What If Thor Fought Odin over Jane Foster" (also known as "What If Thor Fought the Asgardian Gods"), Thor is banished from Asgard along with Jane when Thor refused to accept Odin's judgment following Jane's failure to ascend to godhood. Thor subsequently leads the Avengers against the forces of Asgard, leaving Iron Man and Loki (who once again attempted to seize rulership of Asgard during the conflict) dead and forcing Thor himself into self-imposed banishment for almost destroying Asgard in his selfishness.


title: Jane Foster

text: In King Thor's future timeline, Thor with the help of his three granddaughters recreated the Human race with the two first human beings named Steve and Jane. Unlike the ancient humans, they possessed longevity. However, when the time had come for Jane, King Thor offered Jane eternal life, but she refused, because she wanted to be reunited with her love, Steve, in the afterlife.


title: Jane Foster

text: Natalie Portman portrays Jane Foster in media set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). She makes her first appearance in the live-action film "Thor" (2011) before making subsequent appearances in the live-action films "" (2013) and "" (2022), in which she becomes the Mighty Thor. Additionally, alternate timeline versions of Foster appear in the live-action film "" (2019) and the animated Disney+ series "What If...?" (2021).


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The 2000 UEFA European Football Championship, also known as Euro 2000, was the 11th UEFA European Championship, a football tournament held every four years and organised by UEFA, the sport's governing body in Europe.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The finals tournament was played between 10 June and 2 July 2000, and co-hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands, the first time the tournament had been held in more than one nation. Spain and Austria also bid to host the event. The finals tournament was contested by 16 nations; with the exception of the hosts, Belgium and the Netherlands, the finalists had to go through a qualifying tournament to reach the final stage. France won the tournament by defeating Italy 2–1 in the final, via a golden goal.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The finals saw the first major UEFA competition contested in the King Baudouin Stadium (formerly the Heysel Stadium) since the events of the 1985 European Cup Final and the Heysel Stadium disaster, with the opening game being played in the rebuilt stadium.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: A high-scoring tournament with many exciting matches and a very high standard of play, Euro 2000 is often named by football writers as one of the greatest international tournaments ever.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Belgium and the Netherlands were selected as co-hosts on 14 July 1995 by the UEFA Executive Committee at a meeting in Geneva, Switzerland.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Football hooliganism was a significant problem in the Netherlands in the 1990s, especially the fierce rivalry between Ajax and Feyenoord. There were concerns that hooliganism would overshadow the finals. Many instances of violence occurred, including several football riots in Rotterdam between 1995 and 1999, which would host the Euro 2000 final. One of the most infamous incidents was the Battle of Beverwijk in 1997. Although the violence is normally associated with domestic clubs, there were concerns that it could attach to the Dutch national team.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Violence did eventually occur during the Euro 2000 finals, albeit not involving the Dutch team. On 17 June 174 England fans were arrested in Brussels, Belgium, following violence with Germans ahead of an England v Germany match.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: One of the biggest surprises of the tournament was Portugal, winning Group A with three wins, including a 3–0 win against Germany, with Sérgio Conceição scoring a hat-trick, and a 3–2 win over England, in which they came back from 2–0 down. Romania was the other qualifier from the group, beating England with a late penalty in their last group game.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Belgium had a surprise exit in the group stage, winning the tournament's first game against Sweden, but losing to Turkey and Italy. They finished third in Group B, behind Italy and Turkey. The other co-host and favourite, the Netherlands, progressed as expected from Group D, along with World Cup winners France. The Netherlands won the group, by beating France in their last group match. Also in Group D, Denmark's three losses with eight goals conceded and none scored set a new record for the worst team performance in the group stages of a Euros. Group C was memorable for the match between FR Yugoslavia and Spain. Spain needed a win to ensure progression, but found themselves trailing 3–2 after Slobodan Komljenović scored in the 75th minute. The Spanish side rescued their tournament by scoring twice in injury time to record a 4–3 victory. FR Yugoslavia managed to go through as well, despite losing because Norway and Slovenia played to a draw.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Italy and Portugal maintained their perfect records in the quarter-finals, beating Romania and Turkey, respectively, and the Netherlands started a goal-avalanche against FR Yugoslavia, winning 6–1. Spain fell 2–1 to France; Raúl missed a late penalty that ended Spanish hopes.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Italy eliminated the Netherlands in the semi-finals, despite going down to ten men and facing two penalty kicks. Italian goalkeeper Francesco Toldo, who had been drafted into the starting XI as Gianluigi Buffon missed the tournament through injury, made two saves in the penalty shootout (in addition to his penalty save in normal time) to carry the Italians to the final.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: In the other semi-final, Portugal lost in extra time to France after Zinedine Zidane converted a controversial penalty kick. Several Portuguese players challenged the awarding of the penalty for a handball and were given lengthy suspensions for shoving the referee. France won the tournament, defeating Italy 2–1 in the final with a golden goal by David Trezeguet after equalising with a last-minute goal, and became the first team to win the European championship while being world champion.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: In Britain, "Match of the Day" named Stefano Fiore's goal against Belgium the Goal of the Tournament, ahead of Patrick Kluivert's against France and Zinedine Zidane's against Spain.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Qualification for the tournament took place throughout 1998 and 1999. Forty-nine teams were divided into nine groups and each played the others in their group, on a home-and-away basis. The winner of each group and the best runner-up qualified automatically for the final tournament. The eight other runners-up played an additional set of play-off matches to determine the last four qualifiers. Belgium and the Netherlands automatically qualified for the tournament as co-hosts.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: As of 2020, this was the last time Serbia (then FR Yugoslavia) qualified for the European Championship finals, the only time that Norway and Slovenia qualified, as well as the last time that Croatia and Russia failed to qualify.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The finals draw took place 15:00 CET on 12 December 1999, at the Brussels Expo in Belgium; and was streamed live on UEFA's official website.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The composition of pots 1 to 4 was based on the teams' UEFA national team coefficient ranking at the end of 1999, with the exception of pot 1 automatically top seeding Germany as holders along with co-hosts Belgium and Netherlands.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Prior to the draw, the seeded teams in Pot 1 were assigned positions: Germany (defending champion) to A1, Belgium (co-host) to B1, Spain (highest coefficient) to C1, and the Netherlands (co-host) to D1. Teams were drawn consecutively from Pots 2 to 4 into a group, with each team then being assigned a specific position (for the purposes of determining the match schedules in each group).


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: Capacity figures are those for matches at UEFA Euro 2000 and are not necessarily the total capacity that the stadium is capable of holding.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: On 15 February 2000, UEFA appointed 12 referees, 16 assistant referees and four fourth officials for the competition, including a referee and an assistant referee from the Confederation of African Football. The event saw assistant referees being allowed to intervene an ongoing game, in particular to help the match official apply the 10-metre rule when deciding free-kicks – as well as warn the referee instantly if he had booked or ejected the wrong player, something that was not possible in previous tournaments. Also, fourth officials were given a larger role in assisting to take command of the match if any decisions are gone unnoticed by the referee or an assistant referee.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The teams finishing in the top two positions in each of the four groups progress to the quarter-finals, while the bottom two teams in each group were eliminated.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: If two or more teams finished level on points after completion of the group matches, the following tie-breakers were used to determine the final ranking:


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The knockout stage was a single-elimination tournament with each round eliminating the losers. Any game that was undecided by the end of the regular 90 minutes, was followed by up to thirty minutes of extra time. For the second time the golden goal system was applied, whereby the first team to score during the extra time would become the winner. If no goal was scored there would be a penalty shoot-out to determine the winner. For the second time the final was won by a golden goal.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: A sum of CHF120 million was awarded to the 16 qualified teams in the competition. France, the winners of the tournament, received a total prize money of CHF14.4 million. Below is a complete list of the allocations:


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: On 9 July 2000, UEFA refused to hand FR Yugoslavia their prize money of CHF7.8 million, because of alleged ties between the Football Association of FR Yugoslavia and Slobodan Milošević's government. However, no connections were found and the Football Association of FR Yugoslavia later received their money with an additional bonus.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The slogan of the competition was "Football without frontiers". "Campione 2000" by E-Type was the official anthem of the event.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The Adidas Terrestra Silverstream was unveiled as the official match ball of the competition on 13 December 1999 at Constant Vanden Stock Stadium, Anderlecht's home arena by Alessandro Del Piero, Edwin van der Sar, Zinedine Zidane and Luc Nilis.


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: The official mascot for the tournament was "Benelucky" (a pun on Benelux), a lion-devil hybrid with its mane having the flag colours of both host nations. The lion is the national football emblem of the Netherlands and a devil is the emblem of Belgium (the team being nicknamed "the Red Devils").


title: UEFA Euro 2000

text: UEFA distinguishes between global sponsors and national sponsors. Global Euro sponsors can come from any country and have exclusive worldwide sponsorship rights for a UEFA Euro championship. National (event) sponsors come from a host country and only have sponsorship rights within that country.


title: Moral Orel

text: Moral Orel is an American adult stop-motion animated sitcom created by Dino Stamatopoulos which originally aired on Adult Swim from December 13, 2005 to December 18, 2008. The series has been described as ""Davey and Goliath" meets "South Park"". However, Stamatopoulos is wary of the comparison with "Davey and Goliath", telling "The New York Times" that "Moral Orel" grew out of a concept for a send-up of a "Leave It to Beaver"-style 1950s sitcom that would star Iggy Pop. The series is a satire of the archetypes of Middle American suburban life, modern-day WASP culture, alcoholism, and religious fundamentalism.


title: Moral Orel

text: At the 2008 San Diego Comic-Con, Stamatopoulos announced that the show would not be renewed for a fourth season. The final season was aired interspersed with repeats from the first two seasons, as many of the episodes took place in parallel with events of past episodes. The event, which was called "44 Nights of Orel", was hosted by Stamatopoulos and others and started on October 6, 2008, running through December 18, when the series finale premiered. A special entitled "Beforel Orel" later aired on November 19, 2012.


title: Moral Orel

text: "Moral Orel" takes place in the fictional capital city of Moralton in the fictional Bible Belt state of Statesota. According to the globe shown in the opening credits, Moralton is in the exact center of the United States, with the town's church at the exact center of the town. The protagonist is 12-year-old Orel Puppington, a student at Alfred G. Diorama Elementary School, who tries to live by the fundamentalist Protestant Christian moral code as articulated in church or by his abusive father, Clay Puppington. Orel naïvely follows this code to disastrous extremes.


title: Moral Orel

text: Initially starting off as a satirical black comedy, criticizing religious fundamentalism, the show begins to break down on the subplots established in previous seasons, slowly becoming a dark psychological drama through the final two episodes of the second season ("Nature" and "Nature Part 2"), and then the whole part of the third and final season that touches on the emotionally distressing consequences of the dysfunction caused by the residents of Moralton.


title: Moral Orel

text: In Canada, "Moral Orel" previously aired on Teletoon's Teletoon at Night block and currently airs on the Canadian version of Adult Swim.


title: Moral Orel

text: The first season of the show follows a standard formula, in which Orel hears a sermon given by Rev. Rod Putty in church on Sunday, and then proceeds to have a misadventure based on his attempts to live by his (usually warped) interpretation of the sermon and its lesson. At the end of each episode, his father would sternly put a halt to the situation and "correct" Orel, by means of corporal punishment, only to offer an even more warped interpretation (in the first season, typically one of Clay's "Lost Commandments") of the church sermon. A running gag of the show was that before the ending credits ran, Clay's pants would fall down when he stood from his chair, as he had earlier removed his belt to punish Orel. Throughout the season, the series' primary characters are introduced and various subplots are established, such as Orel's father being a closeted bisexual in love with Orel's gym teacher, and Orel's mother being an unhappily married housewife feeling trapped in her marriage.


title: Moral Orel

text: The format of the second season of the show breaks that of the first season and begins to build upon subplots introduced in the first season, making them the primary focus of the show. While still the protagonist and primary character, Orel becomes less a catalyst for each episode's events than an unwitting bystander often left confused and dejected at the end, finding himself unable to reconcile his optimistic nature and faith with the corruption and cynicism of the adults around him, particularly his father. The season culminates in a two-part episode dealing with a camping trip during which Orel lost all faith and trust in his father. The season finale—"Nature (Part 1)" and "Nature (Part 2)"—marks a far darker turn in the series' tone, de-emphasizing the cynical parody of the previous episodes in favor of exploring more disturbing themes.


title: Moral Orel

text: The third and final season of the show is structured as a interconnecting 13-part story dealing with the events leading up to and during the camping trip, and their far-reaching implications. It is revealed that during the trip, Clay gets drunk and shoots Orel in the leg, afterward showing a complete lack of remorse or sense of responsibility. The series culminates in the ultimate dissolution of Clay's relationship with Orel's coach, and the revelation that Orel will one day be able to put his traumatic childhood behind him to raise a better family than the one in which he grew up.


title: Moral Orel

text: Originally, before being cut down to a 13-episode third season and later cancelled, the show was intended to have two more seasons and evolve into a show titled "Moralton" that would revolve around the life of the residents of Moralton as a whole.


title: Moral Orel

text: The series was troubled throughout its run. Against the wishes of creator Stamatopoulos, the Christmas-themed first-season finale, "The Best Christmas Ever", was aired as the series premiere. Adult Swim wanted to debut the show in December as part of a holiday-themed programming block. The episode featured the culmination of numerous story arcs developed throughout the first season and ended with a cliffhanger, confusing viewers and prompting questions on Adult Swim's message boards as to whether or not the episode was a one-off practical joke. When the series eventually premiered, three episodes of the first season were held back from airing because the network's Standards & Practices Department found them to be too dark and sexually explicit. All were eventually approved; two aired in May 2006 and the third aired on July 31, 2006. The series was ultimately canceled with seven scripts left unproduced, cutting the third season down from the intended twenty episodes to thirteen.


title: Moral Orel

text: After the 2011 Halloween mini-marathon for "Mary Shelley's Frankenhole", Orel himself announced the upcoming "Moral Orel" special and its release "sometime in the near future". "Beforel Orel" was officially announced on Dino's official Twitter page. The special was described in a press release by Adult Swim as "[a] "Moral Orel" special that sheds light on the origin of Orel's religious nature and the birth of his brother, Shapey". It premiered on Monday, November 19, 2012.


title: Moral Orel

text: On April 24, 2007, "Volume One: The Unholy Edition" was released, which included the first 15 episodes and which covered all of the first season and the first five episodes of the second season. This has been the only release in the US, which was later included as part of the "Adult Swim in a Box" set in 2009. In October 2007, Madman Entertainment released a similar volume one set in Australia. Starting in 2010, Madman continued releasing the series, starting with a second volume which included the rest of the second season, and then a third volume which included all of the third season. Then, they released the "Complete Lessons Collection", which compiled the discs from the previously released volumes.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Siddhartha: An Indian novel (; ) is a 1922 novel by Hermann Hesse that deals with the spiritual journey of self-discovery of a man named Siddhartha during the time of the Gautama Buddha. The book, Hesse's 9th novel, was written in German, in a simple, lyrical style. It was published in the U.S. in 1951 and became influential during the 1960s. Hesse dedicated the first part of it to Romain Rolland and the second part to Wilhelm Gundert, his cousin.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: The word "Siddhartha" is made up of two words in Sanskrit language, "siddha" (achieved) + "artha" (what was searched for), which together means "he who has found meaning (of existence)" or "he who has attained his goals". In fact, the Buddha's own name, before his renunciation, was Siddhartha Gautama, prince of Kapilavastu. In this book, the Buddha is referred to as "Gotama".


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: The story takes place in the ancient Nepalese kingdom of Kapilavastu. Siddhartha decides to leave his home in the hope of gaining spiritual illumination by becoming an ascetic wandering beggar of the Śamaṇa. Joined by his best friend Govinda, Siddhartha fasts, becomes homeless, renounces all personal possessions, and intensely meditates, eventually seeking and personally speaking with Gautama, the famous Buddha, or Enlightened One. Afterward, both Siddhartha and Govinda acknowledge the elegance of the Buddha's teachings. Although Govinda hastily joins the Buddha's order, Siddhartha does not follow, claiming that the Buddha's philosophy, though supremely wise, does not account for the necessarily distinct experiences of each person. He argues that the individual seeks an absolutely unique, personal meaning that cannot be presented to him by a teacher. He thus resolves to carry on his quest alone.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Siddhartha crosses a river and the generous ferryman, whom Siddhartha is unable to pay, merrily predicts that Siddhartha will return to the river later to compensate him in some way. Venturing onward toward city life, Siddhartha discovers Kamala, the most beautiful woman he has yet seen. Kamala, a courtesan, notes Siddhartha's handsome appearance and fast wit, telling him that he must become wealthy to win her affections so that she may teach him the art of love. Although Siddhartha despised materialistic pursuits as a Śamaṇa, he agrees now to Kamala's suggestions. She directs him to the employ of Kamaswami, a local businessman, and insists that he have Kamaswami treat him as an equal rather than an underling. Siddhartha easily succeeds, providing a voice of patience and tranquility, which Siddhartha learned from his days as an ascetic, against Kamaswami's fits of passion. Thus Siddhartha becomes a rich man and Kamala's lover, though in his middle years he realizes that the luxurious lifestyle he has chosen is merely a game that lacks spiritual fulfillment. Leaving the fast-paced bustle of the city, Siddhartha returns to the river fed up with life and disillusioned, contemplating suicide before falling into a meditative sleep, and is saved only by an internal experience of the holy word, Om. The very next morning, Siddhartha briefly reconnects with Govinda, who is passing through the area as a wandering Buddhist.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Siddhartha decides to live the rest of his life in the presence of the spiritually inspirational river. Siddhartha thus reunites with the ferryman, named Vasudeva, with whom he begins a humbler way of life. Although Vasudeva is a simple man, he understands and relates that the river has many voices and significant messages to divulge to any who might listen.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Some years later, Kamala, now a Buddhist convert, is traveling to see the Buddha at his deathbed, accompanied by her reluctant young son, when she is bitten by a venomous snake near Siddhartha's river. Siddhartha recognizes her and realizes that the boy is his own son. After Kamala's death, Siddhartha attempts to console and raise the furiously resistant boy, until one day the child flees altogether. Although Siddhartha is desperate to find his runaway son, Vasudeva urges him to let the boy find his own path, much like Siddhartha did himself in his youth. Listening to the river with Vasudeva, Siddhartha realizes that time is an illusion and that all of his feelings and experiences, even those of suffering, are part of a great and ultimately jubilant fellowship of all things connected in the cyclical unity of nature. After Siddhartha's moment of illumination, Vasudeva claims that his work is done and he must depart into the woods, leaving Siddhartha peacefully fulfilled and alone once more.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Toward the end of his life, Govinda hears about an enlightened ferryman and travels to Siddhartha, not initially recognizing him as his old childhood friend. Govinda asks the now-elderly Siddhartha to relate his wisdom and Siddhartha replies that for every true statement there is an opposite one that is also true; that language and the confines of time lead people to adhere to one fixed belief that does not account for the fullness of the truth. Because nature works in a self-sustaining cycle, every entity carries in it the potential for its opposite and so the world must always be considered complete. Siddhartha simply urges people to identify and love the world in its completeness. Siddhartha then requests that Govinda kiss his forehead and, when he does, Govinda experiences the visions of timelessness that Siddhartha himself saw with Vasudeva by the river. Govinda bows to his wise friend and Siddhartha smiles radiantly, having found enlightenment. Thus he experiences a whole circle of life. He realizes his father's importance and love when he himself becomes a father and his own son leaves him to explore the outside world.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: In Hesse's novel, experience, the totality of conscious events of a human life, is shown as the best way to approach understanding of reality and attain enlightenment—Hesse's crafting of Siddhartha's journey shows that understanding is attained not through intellectual methods, nor through immersing oneself in the carnal pleasures of the world and the accompanying pain of samsara; rather, it is the completeness of these experiences that allows Siddhartha to attain understanding.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Thus, individual events are meaningless when considered by themselves—Siddhartha's stay with the Shramanas and his immersion in the worlds of love and business do not "ipso facto" lead to nirvana, yet they cannot be considered distractions, for every action and event gives Siddhartha experience, which in turn leads to understanding.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: A major preoccupation of Hesse in writing "Siddhartha" was to cure his "sickness with life" ("Lebenskrankheit") by immersing himself in Indian philosophy such as that expounded in the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita. The reason the second half of the book took so long to write was that Hesse "had not experienced that transcendental state of unity to which Siddhartha aspires. In an attempt to do so, Hesse lived as a virtual semi-recluse and became totally immersed in the sacred teachings of both Hindu and Buddhist scriptures. His intention was to attain to that 'completeness' which, in the novel, is the Buddha's badge of distinction." The novel is structured on three of the traditional stages of life for Hindu males (student ("brahmacharin"), householder ("grihastha") and recluse/renunciate ("vanaprastha")) as well as the Buddha's Four Noble Truths (Part One) and Eightfold Path (Part Two) which form twelve chapters, the number in the novel. Ralph Freedman mentions how Hesse commented in a letter "[my] Siddhartha does not, in the end, learn true wisdom from any teacher, but from a river that roars in a funny way and from a kindly old fool who always smiles and is secretly a saint." In a lecture about Siddhartha, Hesse claimed "Buddha's way to salvation has often been criticized and doubted, because it is thought to be wholly grounded in cognition. True, but it's not just intellectual cognition, not just learning and knowing, but spiritual experience that can be earned only through strict discipline in a selfless life". Freedman also points out how "Siddhartha" described Hesse's interior dialectic: "All of the contrasting poles of his life were sharply etched: the restless departures and the search for stillness at home; the diversity of experience and the harmony of a unifying spirit; the security of religious dogma and the anxiety of freedom." Eberhard Ostermann has shown how Hesse, while mixing the religious genre of the legend with that of the modern novel, seeks to reconcile with the double-edged effects of modernization such as individualization, pluralism or self-disciplining.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: The character Siddhartha honors the character Gotama (Gautama Buddha) by not following him in person, but by following Gotama's example. This is an example of the Theravada tradition evolving later, but modeled by the Buddha's philosophy and values. This tradition holds that the path to enlightenment is a solitary one and that no person can lead another person to enlightenment. The codification of the Buddha's philosophy such as the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path and the Pali canon are helpful guides. The path of each person is unknowable, and it's up to each person to discover the way. The irony is that the fictional character Siddhartha, who seemingly disrespects the Gotama, is the only follower of Gotama that achieves enlightenment because he does not worship him like a god, which is the Theravada tradition.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: A film version entitled "Siddhartha" was released in 1972. It stars Shashi Kapoor and was directed by Conrad Rooks.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: In 1971, a surrealistic adaptation as a musical Western was released as "Zachariah". John Rubinstein starred in the title role and George Englund was the director. Don Johnson played Matthew, the equivalent of Govinda.


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Several American publishers have commissioned new translations of the novel since it left US copyright in 1998. In addition to these newer translations, Hilda Rosner's original 1951 translation is still being sold in a number of reprint editions put out by various publishers. The newest translations include:


title: Siddhartha (novel)

text: Have you also learned that secret from the river; that there is no such thing as time? That the river is everywhere at the same time, at the source and at the mouth, at the waterfall, at the ferry, at the current, in the ocean and in the mountains, everywhere and that the present only exists for it, not the shadow of the past nor the shadow of the future.


title: Telepathy

text: Telepathy () is the purported vicarious transmission of information from one person's mind to another's without using any known human sensory channels or physical interaction. The term was first coined in 1882 by the classical scholar Frederic W. H. Myers, a founder of the Society for Psychical Research (SPR), and has remained more popular than the earlier expression "thought-transference".


title: Telepathy

text: Telepathy experiments have historically been criticized for a lack of proper controls and repeatability. There is no good evidence that telepathy exists, and the topic is generally considered by the scientific community to be pseudoscience.


title: Telepathy

text: According to historians such as Roger Luckhurst and Janet Oppenheim the origin of the concept of telepathy in Western civilization can be traced to the late 19th century and the formation of the Society for Psychical Research. As the physical sciences made significant advances, scientific concepts were applied to mental phenomena (e.g., animal magnetism), with the hope that this would help to understand paranormal phenomena. The modern concept of telepathy emerged in this context.


title: Telepathy

text: Psychical researcher Eric Dingwall criticized SPR founding members Frederic W. H. Myers and William F. Barrett for trying to "prove" telepathy rather than objectively analyze whether or not it existed.


title: Telepathy

text: In the late 19th century, the magician and mentalist, Washington Irving Bishop would perform "thought reading" demonstrations. Bishop claimed no supernatural powers and ascribed his powers to muscular sensitivity (reading thoughts from unconscious bodily cues). Bishop was investigated by a group of scientists including the editor of the "British Medical Journal" and the psychologist Francis Galton. Bishop performed several feats successfully such as correctly identifying a selected spot on a table and locating a hidden object. During the experiment, Bishop required physical contact with a subject who knew the correct answer. He would hold the hand or wrist of the helper. The scientists concluded that Bishop was not a genuine telepath but using a highly trained skill to detect ideomotor movements.


title: Telepathy

text: Another famous thought reader was the magician Stuart Cumberland. He was famous for performing blindfolded feats such as identifying a hidden object in a room that a person had picked out or asking someone to imagine a murder scene and then attempt to read the subject's thoughts and identify the victim and reenact the crime. Cumberland claimed to possess no genuine psychic ability and his thought-reading performances could only be demonstrated by holding the hand of his subject to read their muscular movements. He came into dispute with psychical researchers associated with the Society for Psychical Research who were searching for genuine cases of telepathy. Cumberland argued that both telepathy and communication with the dead were impossible and that the mind of man cannot be read through telepathy, but only by muscle reading.


title: Telepathy

text: In the late 19th century the Creery Sisters (Mary, Alice, Maud, Kathleen, and Emily) were tested by the Society for Psychical Research and believed to have genuine psychic ability. However, during a later experiment they were caught utilizing signal codes and they confessed to fraud. George Albert Smith and Douglas Blackburn were claimed to be genuine psychics by the Society for Psychical Research but Blackburn confessed to fraud:


title: Telepathy

text: For nearly thirty years the telepathic experiments conducted by Mr. G. A. Smith and myself have been accepted and cited as the basic evidence of the truth of thought transference...


title: Telepathy

text: ...the whole of those alleged experiments were bogus, and originated in the honest desire of two youths to show how easily men of scientific mind and training could be deceived when seeking for evidence in support of a theory they were wishful to establish.


title: Telepathy

text: Between 1916 and 1924, Gilbert Murray conducted 236 experiments into telepathy and reported 36% as successful. However, it was suggested that the results could be explained by hyperaesthesia as he could hear what was being said by the sender. Psychologist Leonard T. Troland had carried out experiments in telepathy at Harvard University which were reported in 1917. The subjects produced below chance expectations.


title: Telepathy

text: Arthur Conan Doyle and W. T. Stead were duped into believing Julius and Agnes Zancig had genuine psychic powers. Both Doyle and Stead wrote that Zancigs performed telepathy. In 1924, Julius and Agnes Zancig confessed that their mind reading act was a trick and published the secret code and all the details of the trick method they had used under the title of "Our Secrets!!" in a London newspaper.


title: Telepathy

text: In 1924, Robert H. Gault of Northwestern University with Gardner Murphy conducted the first American radio test for telepathy. The results were entirely negative. One of their experiments involved the attempted thought transmission of a chosen number between one and one-thousand. Out of 2,010 replies, none was correct. This is below the theoretical chance figure of two correct replies in such a situation.


title: Telepathy

text: In February 1927, with the co-operation of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), V. J. Woolley who was at the time the Research Officer for the SPR, arranged a telepathy experiment in which radio listeners were asked to take part. The experiment involved 'agents' thinking about five selected objects in an office at Tavistock Square, whilst listeners on the radio were asked to identify the objects from the BBC studio at Savoy Hill. 24,659 answers were received. The results revealed no evidence of telepathy.


title: Telepathy

text: A famous experiment in telepathy was recorded by the American author Upton Sinclair in his book "Mental Radio" which documents Sinclair's test of psychic abilities of Mary Craig Sinclair, his second wife. She attempted to duplicate 290 pictures which were drawn by her husband. Sinclair claimed Mary successfully duplicated 65 of them, with 155 "partial successes" and 70 failures. However, these experiments were not conducted in a controlled scientific laboratory environment. Science writer Martin Gardner suggested that the possibility of sensory leakage during the experiment had not been ruled out:


title: Telepathy

text: The Turner-Ownbey long distance telepathy experiment was discovered to contain flaws. May Frances Turner positioned herself in the Duke Parapsychology Laboratory whilst Sara Ownbey claimed to receive transmissions 250 miles away. For the experiment Turner would think of a symbol and write it down whilst Ownbey would write her guesses. The scores were highly successful and both records were supposed to be sent to J. B. Rhine; however, Ownbey sent them to Turner. Critics pointed out this invalidated the results as she could have simply written her own record to agree with the other. When the experiment was repeated and the records were sent to Rhine the scores dropped to average.


title: Telepathy

text: Another example is the experiment carried out by the author Harold Sherman with the explorer Hubert Wilkins who carried out their own experiment in telepathy for five and a half months starting in October 1937. This took place when Sherman was in New York and Wilkins was in the Arctic. The experiment consisted of Sherman and Wilkins at the end of each day to relax and visualise a mental image or "thought impression" of the events or thoughts they had experienced in the day and then to record those images and thoughts on paper in a diary. The results at the end when comparing Sherman's and Wilkins' diaries were claimed to be more than 60 percent.


title: Telepathy

text: The full results of the experiments were published in 1942 in a book by Sherman and Wilkins titled "Thoughts Through Space". In the book, both Sherman and Wilkins had written they believed they had demonstrated that it was possible to send and receive thought impressions from the mind of one person to another. The magician John Booth wrote that the experiment was not an example of telepathy as a high percentage of misses had occurred. Booth wrote it was more likely that the "hits" were the result of "coincidence, law of averages, subconscious expectancy, logical inference or a plain lucky guess". A review of their book in the "American Journal of Orthopsychiatry" cast doubt on their experiment, noting "the study was published five years after it was conducted, arouses suspicion on the validity of the conclusions.


title: Telepathy

text: In 1948, on the BBC radio Maurice Fogel made the claim that he could demonstrate telepathy. This intrigued the journalist Arthur Helliwell who wanted to discover his methods. He found that Fogel's mind reading acts were all based on trickery as he relied on information about members of his audience before the show started. Helliwell exposed Fogel's methods in a newspaper article. Although Fogel managed to fool some people into believing he could perform genuine telepathy, the majority of his audience knew he was a showman.


title: Telepathy

text: In a series of experiments Samuel Soal and his assistant K. M. Goldney examined 160 subjects over 128,000 trials and obtained no evidence for the existence of telepathy. Soal tested Basil Shackleton and Gloria Stewart between 1941 and 1943 in over five hundred sittings and over twenty thousand guesses. Shackleton scored 2890 compared with a chance expectation of 2308 and Gloria scored 9410 compared with a chance level of 7420. It was later discovered the results had been tampered with. Gretl Albert who was present during many of the experiments said she had witnessed Soal altering the records during the sessions. Betty Marwick discovered Soal had not used the method of random selection of numbers as he had claimed. Marwick showed that there had been manipulation of the score sheets and all experiments reported by Soal had thereby become discredited.


title: Telepathy

text: In 1979 the physicists John G. Taylor and Eduardo Balanovski wrote the only scientifically feasible explanation for telepathy could be electromagnetism (EM) involving EM fields. In a series of experiments the EM levels were many orders of magnitude lower than calculated and no paranormal effects were observed. Both Taylor and Balanovski wrote their results were a strong argument against the validity of telepathy.


title: Telepathy

text: Research in anomalistic psychology has discovered that in some cases telepathy can be explained by a covariation bias. In an experiment (Schienle "et al". 1996) 22 believers and 20 skeptics were asked to judge the covariation between transmitted symbols and the corresponding feedback given by a receiver. According to the results the believers overestimated the number of successful transmissions whilst the skeptics made accurate hit judgments. The results from another telepathy experiment involving 48 undergraduate college students (Rudski, 2002) were explained by hindsight and confirmation biases.


title: Telepathy

text: Within parapsychology, telepathy, often along with precognition and clairvoyance, is described as an aspect of extrasensory perception (ESP) or "anomalous cognition" that parapsychologists believe is transferred through a hypothetical psychic mechanism they call "psi". Parapsychologists have reported experiments they use to test for telepathic abilities. Among the most well known are the use of Zener cards and the Ganzfeld experiment.


title: Telepathy

text: Zener cards are marked with five distinctive symbols. When using them, one individual is designated the "sender" and another the "receiver". The sender selects a random card and visualizes the symbol on it, while the receiver attempts to determine that symbol telepathically. Statistically, the receiver has a 20% chance of randomly guessing the correct symbol, so to demonstrate telepathy, they must repeatedly score a success rate that is significantly higher than 20%. If not conducted properly, this method is vulnerable to sensory leakage and card counting.


title: Telepathy

text: J. B. Rhine's experiments with Zener cards were discredited due to the discovery that sensory leakage or cheating could account for all his results such as the subject being able to read the symbols from the back of the cards and being able to see and hear the experimenter to note subtle clues. Once Rhine took precautions in response to criticisms of his methods, he was unable to find any high-scoring subjects. Due to the methodological problems, parapsychologists no longer utilize card-guessing studies.


title: Telepathy

text: Parapsychological studies into dream telepathy were carried out at the Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York led by Stanley Krippner and Montague Ullman. They concluded the results from some of their experiments supported dream telepathy. However, the results have not been independently replicated. The psychologist James Alcock has written the dream telepathy experiments at Maimonides have failed to provide evidence for telepathy and "lack of replication is rampant."