title: Khufu

text: Modern Egyptologists and historians also call for caution about the credibility of the Arabian stories. They point out that medieval Arabs were guided by the strict Islamic belief that only one god exists, and therefore no other gods were allowed to be mentioned. As a consequence, they transferred Egyptian kings and gods into biblical prophets and kings. The Egyptian god Thoth, named "Hermes" by the Greeks, for example, was named after the prophet Henoch. King Khufu, as already mentioned, was named "Saurid", "Salhuk" and/or "Sarjak", and often replaced in other stories by a prophet named "Šaddād bīn 'Âd". Furthermore, scholars point to several contradictions which can be found in Al-Maqrizi's book. For example, in the first chapter of the Hitat, the Copts are said to have denied any intrusion of the Amalekites in Egypt and the pyramids were erected as the tomb of Šaddād bīn 'Âd. But some chapters later, Al-Maqrizi claims that the Copts call Saurid the builder of the pyramids.


title: Khufu

text: Because of his fame, Khufu is the subject of several modern references, similar to kings and queens such as Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Tutankhamen. His historical figure appears in movies, novels and documentaries. In 1827, Jane C. Loudon wrote the novel "The Mummy! A Tale of the 22nd Century". The story describes the citizens of the 22nd century, which became highly advanced technologically, but totally immoral. Only the mummy of Khufu can save them. In 1939, Nagib Mahfuz wrote the novel "Khufu's Wisdom", which is based on the stories of Papyrus Westcar. In 1997, French author Guy Rachet published the novel series "Le roman des pyramides", including five volumes, of which the first two ("Le temple soleil" and "Rêve de pierre") use Khufu and his tomb as a theme. In 2004, spiritualist Page Bryant published the novel "The Second Coming of the Star Gods", which deals with Khufu's alleged celestial origin. The novel "The Legend of The Vampire Khufu", published by Raymond Mayotte in 2010, deals with king Khufu awakening in his pyramid as a vampire.


title: Khufu

text: Films which deal with Khufu, or have the Great Pyramid as a subject, include Howard Hawks' "Land of the Pharaohs" from 1955, a fictional account of the building of the Great Pyramid of Khufu, and Roland Emmerich's "Stargate" from 1994, in which an extraterrestrial device is found near the pyramids.


title: Khufu

text: Khufu and his pyramid are the objects of pseudoscientific theories purporting that Khufu's pyramid was built with the help of extraterrestrials and that Khufu simply seized and re-used the monument, ignoring archaeological evidence or even falsifying it.


title: Khufu

text: Khufu and his pyramid are referenced in several computer games such as "Tomb Raider – The Last Revelation", in which the player must enter Khufu's pyramid and face the god Seth as the final boss. Another example is "Duck Tales 2" for the Game Boy; the player here must guide Uncle Scrooge through a trap-loaded Khufu's pyramid. In the classic action role playing game Titan Quest, the Giza Plateau is a large desert region in Egypt, where the Tomb of Khufu and The Great Sphinx can be found. He was also mentioned in "Assassin's Creed Origins", as to where the player should find his tomb.


title: Mike Vogel

text: Michael James Vogel (born July 17, 1979) is an American actor and former model. Vogel began acting in 2001 and has appeared in several films and series, including "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre", "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants", "Grind", "Poseidon", "Blue Valentine", "The Help", "Bates Motel", "Cloverfield", "Under the Dome" and "The Case for Christ". He starred as the lead in the NBC military drama series "The Brave" for the 2017–18 season.


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel was born in Abington Township, Pennsylvania, a suburb of Philadelphia, to Kathy and Jim Vogel, and was raised in Warminster Township, Pennsylvania. He is of German descent. Both of his grandfathers fought in World War II; one was a tank commander who fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the other was a Seabee in the Navy. Vogel has two younger siblings: a brother, Daniel Aaron, and a sister, Kristin. He attended William Tennent High School, where he was on the freshman wrestling team.


title: Mike Vogel

text: He also attended Cairn University in Langhorne, Pennsylvania in 1998. During the early 2000s, he frequently traveled to New York City in order to audition for acting roles and modeling slots.


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel began modeling jeans for the iconic Levi Strauss & Company. He was subsequently cast in the television series "Grounded for Life", appearing in a recurring role between 2001 and 2004.


title: Mike Vogel

text: His first film role was in the skateboarding-themed "Grind", which was released on August 15, 2003. The film's co-stars included Adam Brody and Jennifer Morrison. Vogel's next role was in the made-for-television remake of "Wuthering Heights", which premiered on MTV in September 2003. In the film, Vogel played Heath opposite Erika Christensen's Kate. Vogel's last 2003 role was in the remake of "The Texas Chainsaw Massacre", which was released in October and had high box office performance.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2005, after "Grounded for Life" was canceled, Vogel appeared in four film roles. First, he played Eric Richman, the romantic interest of Blake Lively's character in "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants", which had a June release. His next role was the lead in the low-budget film, "Supercross", which was theatrically released in August. Vogel filmed his role in "Havoc", a dark, R-rated drama also starring Anne Hathaway, in 2003, but the film was not released until November 2005. It bypassed theaters and was released directly-to-video. Vogel's final 2005 role was in "Rumor Has It...", starring Jennifer Aniston, in which he had a supporting role as the son of Kevin Costner's character.


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel's first 2006 role was in the disaster film "Poseidon", a remake of the 1972 film "The Poseidon Adventure"; he plays the fiancé of Emmy Rossum's character. The film, which had a budget of $160m, opened on May 12 and grossed $181,674,817 at the international box office. Vogel was originally offered the role of Angel in "", but backed out to appear in "Poseidon". The same year, he appeared in "Caffeine", a romantic comedy and signed to appear in a horror movie called "Open Graves", shot in Spain.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2007, Vogel appeared in the film "The Deaths of Ian Stone", part of the horror film festival 8 Films to Die For. In 2009, Vogel starred in the neo-noir film "Across the Hall" and the horror film "Open Graves". He was part of the 2010 romantic comedy film "She's Out of My League", "Blue Valentine", TV series "Miami Medical", and "Heaven's Rain".


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel was part of the 2011 comedy film "What's Your Number?" and plays Johnny Foote in the film adaption "The Help". He most recently played Dean on the short-lived ABC drama "Pan Am" (based on the history of the defunct airline of the same name).


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2013, he participated in Howard Goldberg's comedy "Jake Squared", where he plays against among others, Elias Koteas, Virginia Madsen and Jane Seymour. He also appeared in "McCanick", and the first six episodes of "Bates Motel". This was A&E's contemporary prequel series to the 1959 novel "Psycho".


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel starred as Dale "Barbie" Barbara on the CBS science fiction drama series "Under the Dome", based on the novel of the same name by Stephen King. The show aired as a summer series on CBS; it ran for three seasons on the network, ending in September 2015.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2014, Vogel received a role in the "Hallmark Hall of Fame"'s romantic TV movie "In My Dreams", in which he played opposite, among others, Katharine McPhee and JoBeth Williams. In the same year he played in the drama thriller "The Boy", which tells the story of a 9-year-old sociopath, who was played by Jared Breeze.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2015, Vogel starred in the miniseries "Childhood's End", based on the novel of the same name written by Arthur C. Clarke.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In 2017, Vogel starred in the film adaptation of Lee Strobel's "The Case for Christ", portraying the author and teaming up again with co-star Erika Christensen.


title: Mike Vogel

text: On September 25, 2017, NBC debuted "The Brave", for the 2017–18 season. A small team of hardcore military-intelligence agents from varied branches of the service is selected for special, difficult missions. Among the leads is Vogel's character, Capt. Adam Dalton, the team's communications director and a former Delta Force operative. He reports to the character played by series lead Anne Heche. The series was cancelled after one season.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In December 2018, it was announced that Vogel will star in the Netflix psychological thriller "Secret Obsession". The film was released on July 18, 2019.


title: Mike Vogel

text: In February 2019, Vogel played the lead role of David Roman in the ABC science-fiction pilot "Triangle" which was written by Jon Feldman and Sonny Postiglione. ABC passed on the project in September 2019.


title: Mike Vogel

text: Vogel married Courtney, a former model, in January 2003. They have three children: Cassy Renee (b. 20 February 2007), Charlee Bea (b. 2 June 2009), and Gabriel James (b. 25 September 2013). They reside in Nashville, Tennessee.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Michael S. Vartan (born November 27, 1968) is a French-American actor, known for his role as Michael Vaughn on the ABC television action drama "Alias", his role on the TNT medical drama "Hawthorne", and his role on the "E!" drama "The Arrangement" as Terence Anderson. His film roles include "The Pallbearer", "Never Been Kissed", "The Next Best Thing", "One Hour Photo", "Monster-in-Law", "Rogue", "Colombiana", and "Small Town Crime".


title: Michael Vartan

text: Michael Vartan was born in Boulogne-Billancourt, Hauts-de-Seine, France. He is the son of Edmond "Eddie" Vartan, a musician, and Doris (née Pucher), a painter and artist. His paternal aunt is singer Sylvie Vartan and his stepfather is writer Ian La Frenais. Michael's paternal grandfather was of Armenian and Bulgarian descent, while Michael's paternal grandmother was of Hungarian Jewish background. Michael's mother is a Polish Jewish immigrant to the United States.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan has said about his French background that "The funny thing is I'm actually Polish Jew who happens to be born in France. My mom is Polish and my dad is Bulgarian. I don't have an ounce of French blood. But I work it". He has stated that he tends to be considered a Frenchman in the United States and an American in France.


title: Michael Vartan

text: His parents divorced when he was five and he moved to the United States with his mother. He moved back to France to be with his father until his high school years, and grew up a "farm kid" in a "simple environment" in Fleury, Manche, a small town in Normandy. At age eighteen, Vartan moved back with his mother in Los Angeles, telling her that he wanted to be an artist, because he did not wish to fulfill the mandatory military service required in France. In Los Angeles, he attended an acting school after he was told he possessed acting talent. He had also attended the prestigious Lycée Français de Los Angeles. Vartan now considers himself to be American and stated on the talk show "Rove" that he would like Australia to be his second home. He is bilingual, being fluent in French and English.


title: Michael Vartan

text: After starring roles in European films, including an acclaimed performance in the Taviani Brothers' Fiorile, and several smaller film roles, Vartan had noticeable supporting roles in major Hollywood movies, including "Never Been Kissed" (1999), "One Hour Photo" (2002) and "Monster-in-Law" (2005). In 2007, he appeared in the Australian horror film "Rogue", and starred in the film "Jolene" in 2008.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan's most notable role to date has been as Michael Vaughn in the American television series "Alias" (2001–2006). He played the role of Lancelot in TNT's production of Marion Zimmer Bradley's "The Mists of Avalon" (2001). Vartan has also had guest appearances on "Friends" (as Dr. Tim Burke, Tom Selleck's character's son) and "Ally McBeal" (as Jonathan Basset). He also appeared on the show "Kitchen Confidential", which starred his former "Alias" co-star Bradley Cooper, as a French chef who was Cooper's rival. In September 2007, Vartan played James Walker, a main role in the ABC drama "Big Shots". However, the show was canceled after one season.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan co-starred opposite Jada Pinkett Smith in TNT's series "Hawthorne". Vartan replaced Jeffrey Nordling, who played the role in the pilot. TNT canceled the series after its third season.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan co-hosts a weekly live sports program called "Advanced Shouting" with friends Dan Petriw and Noel Fogelman. The first episode was uploaded to YouTube in June 2020. The broadcast is also available via Facebook.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan began dating his "Alias" co-star Jennifer Garner in mid-2003. After several months of rumors, their break-up was confirmed in August 2004.


title: Michael Vartan

text: In March 2010, Vartan announced his engagement to Lauren Skaar, whom he met in a Whole Foods Market parking lot in Los Angeles in 2009. The couple married on April 2, 2011, at the Pelican Hill Resort in Newport Beach, California. Skaar filed for divorce in July 2014, citing irreconcilable differences.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan has a dog named Millie, with whom he appeared in a PETA video about good canine care and to whom he wrote a "love letter" for an anthology. He is a keen supporter of Australian rules football, having watched the game on numerous visits to Australia, in particular Melbourne. He is good friends with Brendan Fevola and supports Carlton. After the completion of the film "Rogue", Vartan got a Southern Cross tattoo on his right arm to show his love for Australia.


title: Michael Vartan

text: Vartan is also a fan of ice hockey, a trait incorporated into his character, Michael Vaughn, on "Alias".


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: The Purge: Anarchy is a 2014 American dystopian action horror film written and directed by James DeMonaco. A sequel to 2013's "The Purge" and the second installment in the "Purge" franchise, the film stars Frank Grillo, Carmen Ejogo, Zach Gilford, Kiele Sanchez, and Michael K. Williams. Edwin Hodge reprised his role from the first film. It was released worldwide on July 18, 2014.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: The film grossed over $111 million and received mixed reviews from critics, who praised it as an improvement over its predecessor, but criticized its clichéd formula and screenplay. While the first film was set largely in one house, "Anarchy" takes place around the Greater Los Angeles area and shows more of what happens to the surroundings during the event. A third film in the series, "", was released on July 1, 2016.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: In a dystopian United States ruled by a totalitarian government known as the New Founding Fathers, the annual Purge, a 12-hour event that legalizes all crimes without authorities intervening, is credited as having saved the country's collapsing economy. While everyone across the United States prepares for the carnage, the nation's impoverished population is no longer seen as people, but as living garbage, whom the wealthy denounce as only living to serve their needs. However, before the sixth annual Purge begins on March 21, 2023, a successful anti-Purge resistance group led by Carmelo Johns and his partner, the Stranger from the first film, hijack government feeds to denounce the New Founding Fathers and their actions.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: In Los Angeles, working-class waitress Eva Sanchez returns home to her 17-year-old daughter Cali and terminally ill father Rico, who also despise the New Founding Fathers. As Eva and Cali prepare to barricade themselves into their apartment, Rico retires to his room to be alone as the Purge starts. As the Purge alarm sounds, Rico slips out to a waiting limousine, leaving a note for his family revealing that he has sold himself as a Purge offering to a rich family in exchange for $100,000 to be paid to Eva and Cali after the Purge. Eva and Cali are distraught by this situation.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: Estranged married couple Shane and Liz visit a grocery store, only to be harassed by a masked gang of bikers. As they drive away to avoid them, their car breaks down; the biker gang had cut their fuel line. Meanwhile, an off-duty Los Angeles Police Department sergeant, Leo Barnes, plots to kill Warren Grass. Grass had inadvertently run down and killed Barnes's son, Nicholas, while driving drunk the day before the previous year's Purge; Grass was acquitted of the crime on a legal technicality due to Nicholas having died of his injuries on Purge night. Despite pleas from his ex-wife Janice to abandon his plans, Barnes drives out into the streets with an armored car and several weapons, posing as a vigilante.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: As Shane and Liz try to find a safe hiding place, the Purge commences. Eva and Cali notice NFFoA paramilitary amassing in the street below, and they hear a bang, and Eva asks are they in the apartment and chided by Cali that they havent entered the building, it turns out to be intruding superintendent Diego, who's enraged by Eva and now intends to assault her. Diego is gunned down by a paramilitary platoon, which captures the women to offer them to their leader, Big Daddy, for his own personal purge. Leo passes by the scene and rescues Eva and Cali after killing the troops and wounding Big Daddy. They find Shane and Liz hiding in Leo's car. The group flees just as Big Daddy fires at them, damaging the vehicle. After Leo's car breaks down, the group flees on foot, and Eva promises Leo a new car from her co-worker, Tanya, in exchange for Leo’s protection.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: As the group navigates the hostile streets, they find evidence that the anti-Purge group has been gaining the upper hand against the Purgers, discovering a paramilitary van surrounded by soldiers who were shot to death by the resistance fighters. After freeing Shane from a trap and taking guns from the abandoned truck, they head to the subways. Chaos ensues when a pyrotechnic Purging gang invades the subways and sets the tunnel ablaze. Shane is wounded, but the group manages to escape after he and Liz destroy the gang's all-terrain vehicle and its propane tank with the salvaged submachine guns, killing the entire gang.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: The group returns to the streets, but as they near Tanya's apartment building, Eva unknowingly signals a traffic camera to identify them to the paramilitary troops who pick up the apartment's location. They reach Tanya's house, where Eva confesses she lied to Leo about the car, as her co-worker does not have one. Tanya's family takes them in, offering dinner and medicine. However, Tanya's sister Lorraine proceeds to murder her sister for sleeping with her husband. The group leaves the family to their fate, only to be captured by the masked gang who ambushed Shane and Liz earlier. This gang reveals that they had no intention to kill the group and are selling them off to an auction, taking them to a theater where upper-class Purgers bid on them for human hunting. After the group is forced into the arena, Leo subdues and kills a Purger, taking his weapon and night-vision glasses, using the devices to overpower and kill several other attackers, and providing their arms to Shane and the others before the head Purger calls in security to suppress the uprising. Shane is shot and killed by security forces. As Liz mourns Shane’s death, the anti-Purge group attacks the compound, killing the security forces and remaining Purgers; Liz chooses to stay with the resistance fighters to retaliate against Shane's murderers, while Leo, Eva and Cali leave. Leo carjacks the auctioneer, holding her at gunpoint and threatening her before leaving in her car.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: Leo, Eva, and Cali drive up to a suburban neighborhood and stop at the home of Warren Grass at 6:55 A.M, five minutes before the end of the purge. After telling the story of his son's death, he ventures into the house despite Eva and Cali's pleas, threatening Warren and his wife. Later, Leo exits the house covered in blood, only to be shot by Big Daddy, who reveals that the New Founding Fathers have secretly dispatched death squads to increase the body count because the purge eliminates too few of the lower class, due to most of the Purgers murdering those they have personal grudges against and not just random people, which was the NFFA's original intentions when the Purge was conceived. Just as Big Daddy is about to kill Leo, Warren appears and kills Big Daddy with a single shot from a handgun, revealing that Leo chose to forgive and spare him. As Big Daddy's death squad appears while Eva, Cali, and Warren prepare to defend themselves, sirens blare to signal the end of the purge (making Big Daddy's death legal and sparing Leo). Warren drives Eva, Cali, and Leo to the hospital as news and police helicopters fly over the city.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: At the end of the film, it is shown that it is 7:09 on the morning of March 22 and that there are 364 days until the next purge.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: Tyler Osterkamp and Nathan Clarkson reprise their roles as Freak Purgers from "The Purge" in an uncredited capacity, while archive footage of Ethan Hawke, Rhys Wakefield, and Alicia Vela-Bailey as James Sandin, Polite Leader and the Blonde Female Freak Purger from "The Purge" is also shown over the end credits.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: On June 10, 2013, Universal Pictures and Jason Blum announced the development of the sequel, after the success of "The Purge". Initially a release date was set for June 20, 2014, although this was later pushed back to July 18. Principal photography was underway in Los Angeles when Blumhouse Productions released their countdown promo art on January 1, 2014. Filming wrapped on February 10, 2014.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: "The Purge: Anarchy" was released on Blu-ray, DVD, and Digital on October 21, 2014. The film was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on June 12, 2018.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: "The Purge: Anarchy" grossed $72 million in America and $40 million in other countries for a total gross of $111.9 million, against a budget of $9 million.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: The film was released in North America in 3,303 theaters, and earned $2.6 million in its first night. In its opening weekend, the film grossed $29.8 million, finishing in second place behind the continued run of "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes". This was about $4 million less than the opening of the original film ($34 million).


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 57% based on 143 reviews, with an average rating of 5.40/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "Gritty, grisly, and uncommonly ambitious, "The Purge: Anarchy" represents a slight improvement over its predecessor, but it's still never as smart or resonant as it tries to be." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score 50 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Purge: Anarchy

text: The film was the theme for a scare zone in the 2014 edition of Halloween Horror Nights at two of the Universal Parks & Resorts. It was also a house at Halloween Horror Nights the following year in Orlando while Hollywood received a scare zone and being the main theme of Terror Tram.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong (, Jawi: ), also known as the Supreme Head of the Federation, the Paramount Ruler or simply as the Agong, and unofficially as the King of Malaysia, is the constitutional monarch and head of state of Malaysia. The office was established in 1957, when the Federation of Malaya (now Malaysia) gained independence from the United Kingdom. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers, comprising the nine rulers of the Malay states, with the office de facto rotated between them, making Malaysia one of the world's few elective monarchies.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The 16th and current Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Sultan Abdullah of Pahang, replacing Muhammad V of Kelantan, who abdicated on 6 January 2019. Abdullah was elected on 24 January 2019, at a special meeting of the Conference of Rulers; he took the oath of office and was sworn in at the Istana Negara on 31 January 2019.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's queen consort is known as the Raja Permaisuri Agong, currently Tunku Azizah Aminah Maimunah Iskandariah. The royal couple are styled in English as "His Majesty" and "Her Majesty".


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong's role is that of a constitutional monarch. The Federal Constitution of Malaysia and Acts of Parliament made in accordance with it define the extent of his powers as the head of state. These are divided into two categories: powers exercised on the advice of the Cabinet or of a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet, the Conference of Rulers, or some other officer or institution, and discretionary powers.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Constitution vests the executive power of the federal government in the monarch. However, with few exceptions, he is bound to exercise this power on the advice of the Cabinet or a minister acting under the Cabinet's general authority. Thus, in practice, most of the actual day-to-day work of governing is performed by the Cabinet.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The discretionary powers of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong pertain chiefly to appointing the Prime Minister, withholding consent to dissolve Parliament, and calling meetings with the Conference of Rulers "concerned solely with the privileges, position, honours and dignities of Their Royal Highnesses". Under the Westminster system, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is expected to appoint a Prime Minister who will command the confidence of a majority of the "Dewan Rakyat", the elected lower house of Parliament. Should the Prime Minister be or become unacceptable, he may be forced out by a vote of no confidence, which would require the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to appoint someone else as Prime Minister or dissolve Parliament for an election. Conventionally, the Prime Minister is the head of the party with a majority in Parliament. This was the "Barisan Nasional" coalition from independence in 1957 until 2018, when the "Pakatan Harapan" coalition took office. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong renews the appointment of a Prime Minister after every general election until the minister decides to step down.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong has discretionary powers to choose who he wants as the prime minister if no party has won a majority vote and is not bound by the decision of the outgoing prime minister (Article 40). It, however, does not afford him the right and authority to dismiss the prime minister. He also can dismiss or withhold consent to a request for the dissolution of parliament (Article 40). He may discontinue or dissolve parliament (Article 55) but he can only dissolve parliament at the request of the prime minister (Article 43). He can reject any new laws or amendments to existing laws but if he still withholds permission, it will automatically become law after 30 days from the initial submission to him (Article 66).


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints numerous high-ranking office holders in the Federation under the terms of the Constitution and various Acts passed by Parliament. The constitution established procedures for such appointments.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the "Yang di-Pertua Negeri" (Governors), of the states of Penang, Malacca, Sabah and Sarawak, at his discretion, after considering the advice of the state's Chief Minister.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In addition, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the Head of Islam in the four states ruled by appointed Governors, in the three Federal Territories, as well as in his own state. In this role, he is advised by the State Islamic Affairs Council in each of the States.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the chairman and members of each council. He also appoints the State Mufti in each of these states. There is a single Islamic Affairs Council with jurisdiction for the three Federal Territories. This council is also appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In accordance with Article 41 of the Constitution, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is Commander-in-Chief of the Malaysian Armed Forces. As such, he is the highest-ranking officer in the military chain of command.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: As the Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints the Chief of Defence Forces, on the advice of the Armed Forces Council. He also appoints the service heads of each of the three branches of the military forces.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: On 31 August 1957, having rejected the suggested title of "Yang di-Pertuan Besar" in favour of "Yang di-Pertuan Agong", the Conference of Rulers elected the first occupant of the throne. By seniority, the 84-year-old major general Ibrahim of Johor, Sultan of Johor since 1895, was first in line, but he declined due to old age. The next in line, Abu Bakar of Pahang, Sultan of Pahang since 1932, was rejected five times by his fellow electors, and did not secure the necessary votes, in part because the rulers considered his various marriages to celebrities and cabaret dancers to be unbecoming of royalty. Abdul Rahman of Negeri Sembilan, having been elected to his state throne (Yamtuan Besar) in 1933, was elected by eight votes to one.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is formally elected to a five-year term by and from the nine rulers of the Malay states (nine of the thirteen states of Malaysia that have hereditary royal rulers), who form the Conference of Rulers. After a ruler has served as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he may not stand for election until all rulers of the other states have also stood for election.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In the event of a vacancy of the office (by death, resignation, or deposition by a majority vote of the rulers), the Conference of Rulers elects a new Yang di-Pertuan Agong as if the previous term had expired. The new Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected for a full five-year term. After his term expires, the Conference holds a new election, in which the incumbent would not be re-elected.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The position "de facto" rotates among the nine rulers. The selection of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong initially followed an order based on the seniority (calculated by length of reign) of each ruler in 1957, at the Federation of Malaya's independence from the United Kingdom. The Conference of Rulers, which has the power to disqualify a candidate, has sometimes varied the original seniority order, as noted above. Since then, the states have followed a "de facto" established rotation order. Minors are automatically disqualified from office.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Conference of Rulers has met regularly since 1985. The four governors ("Yang di-Pertua Negeri"; the heads of states without hereditary rulers) also attend the Conference, but only Rulers are allowed to vote and stand for election as "Yang di-Pertuan Agong".


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The election is carried out by a secret ballot. The ballot papers used are not numbered, but marked with the same pen and ink, and are inserted into a ballot box. Only the Rulers participate in the election.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: A ruler may appoint another Ruler as his proxy to vote on his behalf if he is unable to attend the Election Meeting.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: During the election process, the Keeper of the Rulers' Seal distributes the ballot with only one candidate. Each ruler is requested to indicate whether the candidate is suitable or not to be elected as Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The most junior ruler, who is not listed as nominee for the office of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, or the outgoing Yang di-Pertuan Agong is appointed to count the ballot papers together with the Keeper of the Rulers' Seal.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The nominee must have obtained five votes before the ruler presiding over the Election Meeting offers him the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. If the successful nominee declines the offer or the nominated ruler fails to secure the required majority votes, the voting process is repeated with the nomination of the second most senior ruler based on the list of Seniority of States. Rulers are named and stand for election in turn.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The process is completed only after a ruler has accepted the offer of the office of Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Conference declares the ruler as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to hold office for a term of five years. The ballot papers are destroyed in the presence of the rulers as soon as the result of the election is announced.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: On taking office as Yang di-Pertuan Agong, he appoints a regent for the duration of his five-year term for the state which he rules. Usually, but not always, the regent is a close relative. The regent acts as head of state in that state for every purpose except for the role of head of Islam, which is retained by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: Since the first cycle of nine "Yang di-Pertuan Agong" (1957–1994), the order among the eligible state rulers has followed the order established by that cycle, namely:


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: With the rejection of Brunei of its admission to Malaysia in 1963, only the rulers of the nine royal states of Peninsular Malaysia have been made eligible for election for the throne. Had it been accepted as a royal state the Sultan of Brunei would have been granted the right to stand for election as Yang di-Pertuan Agong by the Conference.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: This cycle was originally established based on seniority. However, the current Rulers are named (and stand as a candidate) according to the cycle, irrespective of whether they are currently the most senior. Since independence from British Colonial Rule, this has been the order of elected "Yang di-Pertuan Agong". However, the order is not a precedent and the election to the position of "Yang di-Pertuan Agong" is at the pleasure of the Conference of Rulers. As an elective monarchy, there is no line of succession to the throne of Malaysia.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: Four of the members of the Federation of Malaysia currently have no hereditary royal rulers. These are the states of Penang and Malacca in Peninsular Malaysia, and the countries of Sarawak and Sabah on the island of Borneo in East Malaysia. Sarawak previously had a hereditary ruler until it became a Crown Colony of the British Empire in 1946. These four member territories, along with Malaysia's three Federal Territories, do not supply the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In 1993, amendments to the Malaysian constitution removed the legal immunity of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the rulers in their personal capacity, due to public outrage over their behaviour. A Special Court ("Makhamah Khas Raja-raja") is established where civil and criminal proceedings can be made against a ruler with the approval of the Attorney General. The right to sue a ruler is limited to Malaysian citizens following a precedent. The Special Court also have jurisdiction where a ruler initiates legal actions against any party.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: When a ruler is charged with an offence in the Special Court, he is required to stop exercising the functions of a ruler. In the event of a ruler being sentenced to imprisonment for more than one day, he will cease to be a ruler unless a free pardon is granted.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong or any ruler cannot pardon himself or his immediate family. In such case, they may request clemency from the Conference of Rulers.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Yang di-Pertuan Agong cannot be sued in court for his actions while carrying out his official duties. Any claims can be made against the federal government.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The official residence of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is "Istana Negara" (the National Palace) located in Jalan Duta in the federal capital Kuala Lumpur. It was completed in 2011. It replaced the old Istana Negara in Jalan Istana which had been turned into The Royal Museum in 2013. Other residences include the royal retreat, "Istana Melawati" in the federal administrative capital Putrajaya. It is also the venue of meetings of the Conference of Rulers.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: Common English terms used in the media and by the general public include "Paramount Ruler", "Head of State", "Head of the Federation" and "Head of State of the Federation". The very common term "King" has also been conveniently used by the media and the public, although incorrectly as it is not an official or legal title of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In Malaysian passports before 2010, the title "The Supreme Head of Malaysia" was used in the English version of the passport note. Since the issuance of ICAO-compliant e-passports in 2010, the untranslated title "His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia" is used.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In formal English correspondence, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is referred to as "His Majesty The Yang di-Pertuan Agong".


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: Formal address to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is taken seriously in Malaysia. There are two ways of addressing the Yang di-Pertuan Agong:


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Royal Standard of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is royal yellow with the Coat of arms of Malaysia in the centre, surrounded by a rice paddy wreath. The same goes for the Royal Standards of the Raja Permaisuri Agong and the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong, but the designs are different. The Raja Permaisuri Agong's standard is green in colour, with the coat of arms at the centre surrounded by the paddy wreath. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong's standard is bicolored, yellow at the top and light blue at the bottom, with the coat of arms at the centre (without the paddy) and below that is the office bearer's title.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the same process immediately after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The office is usually (but not always) held by the ruler next in line after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong exercises the functions of the head of state during the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's absence, or inability to exercise his functions due to illness or infirmity (similar to a regent in other countries).


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong does not automatically succeed as Yang di-Pertuan Agong when a vacancy occurs in that office. The Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong acts as head of state before the election of the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong and Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The first Saturday of June, until 2015, was mandated by law as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's official birthday. It is marked with various activities all over the nation and the celebrations in Kuala Lumpur are the highlights of the national festivities, with the celebrations of it from 2013 onwards lasting a whole week between two weekends.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: After the installation of Sultan Muhammad V as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong in 2017, the date for the official birthday was amended twice, first to the last Saturday of July, and then to September 9. This amendment was originally planned to take effect under the reign of Sultan Muhammad V until 2021, before his announcement to abdicate. In March 2020, it was announced that Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Birthday would be changed from the customary first Saturday of June (6 June) to the following Monday (8 June). From 2021, subsequent iterations of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong's birthday throughout Al-Sultan Abdullah's reign will fall on the first Monday of June instead.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The Istana Negara in Kuala Lumpur serves as the venue for the annual Yang di-Pertuan Agong's Birthday Honours List and Address to the Nation ceremony attended by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and the Raja Permaisuri Agong, members of the Federal Government and Parliament, the state diplomatic corps, honoured guests and the Honours List members for the year, in the order of precedence of state medals. The event honours the year's national achievers and heroes with the awarding of state orders, medals and decorations and their accompanying titles. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong addresses the whole nation via radio and television on this day from the Throne Room of the palace complex. It is followed later by the traditional holiday high tea gathering at the palace grounds in the afternoon.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: Trooping the Colour in Malaysia, although inherited from the British, has transformed into a grander and more Malaysian celebration on the first Saturday of June annually live on Kuala Lumpur's Independence Square, which is both open to invited guests and the general public. As the Supreme Commander of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong takes the salute on this day together with the commanders of the three services of the Malaysian Armed Forces, the Joint Forces Command, Malaysia and the members of the Malaysian Armed Forces Council, of which he is the chairman, plus military personnel and veterans in attendance. He wears the No.1 dress uniform on that day, and as each of the 8 state monarchs are Colonel-in-Chief of selected Malaysian Army regiments as well as of the Royal Malaysian Air Force and the Sultan of Selangor serves as Commodore-in-Chief of the Royal Malaysian Navy, he wears that regiment's coloured sash as part of his ceremonial uniform (for the Army), or the RMAF blue or RMN white No. 1 dress uniform. The 2013 edition was held on the second Saturday of June for the first time in its history, while the 2016 parade was held on the fourth Friday of July (22 July) for the first time in Putrajaya, the national seat of government.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: In November 2006, the 10th Yang di-Pertuan Agong awarded, for the first time, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong Scholarship to ten outstanding students to pursue postgraduate studies at high-ranking world universities. The award of scholarships was held at the Istana Negara in conjunction with the Independence Day celebrations and the Conference of Rulers.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The most recently deceased former Yang di-Pertuan Agong was Sultan Ahmad Shah of Pahang, who died on , the 7th (1979–1984) Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: The following Rulers have served as the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong (lit. "Deputy Yang di-Pertuan Agong)":


title: Yang di-Pertuan Agong

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Denotes those who became the new Yang di-Pertuan Agong immediately following the end of their tenure as Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong


title: Adele discography

text: English singer-songwriter Adele has released four studio albums, one video album, two extended plays, 16 singles and nine music videos. Adele has sold over 70 million in pure album sales and over 100 million in album equivalent units worldwide over four studio albums and one video album as of December 2021. She has also sold over 100 million in single sales making her one of the best selling artists of all time and also became the best selling female artist of 21st century in the UK. Her album "21" became the best selling album of 2010s decade and best selling album of 21st century. "30" also became the best selling album of 2020s decade so far.


title: Adele discography

text: Adele signed a record deal with XL in 2006, and released her debut album "19" in 2008 which sold over 8 million in pure album sales worldwide as of 2022. The album reached number one on the UK Albums Chart, and her single, "Chasing Pavements", reached number two on the UK Singles Chart. Another single, "Make You Feel My Love", reached number one in the Netherlands.


title: Adele discography

text: "21", Adele's second studio album, was released on 24 January 2011. The album was immediately certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry while debuting at number one. "21" spent 24 weeks atop the "Billboard" 200 since its US release and has sold over 31 million in pure album sales worldwide to become the best selling album of 21st century. The album's first single, "Rolling in the Deep", also reached number two in the UK and became her first number one on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The second single, "Someone like You", was released in February 2011 and peaked at number one in the UK and Ireland, her first in her home country. It also became her second number one in the US. "Set Fire to the Rain" was released as the third single off the album in the rest of Europe and became her third number one in the US. In 2012, it was confirmed Adele would record and release the new "James Bond" theme. In October that same year, she released "Skyfall", which peaked at number two in the UK and number eight in the US, as well as reaching the top position in Germany, France, Ireland, the Netherlands and Switzerland. She also won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Skyfall".


title: Adele discography

text: "25", Adele's third studio album, was released on 20 November 2015. It became the best-selling album of 2015 with 17.4 million copies sold within the year and sold over 23 million in pure album sales worldwide as of 2022. "Hello" was released as the lead single from the album on 23 October 2015 and peaked atop the charts in United Kingdom, where it became her second UK number-one single. In the United States the song debuted at number one on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Adele's fourth number-one single in the US and breaking several records, including becoming the first song with over a million digital sales in a week. As of March 2016, Adele had sold over 10 million albums in the UK; meanwhile, in the US, the singer has sold 31 million albums as of January 2022.


title: Adele discography

text: "30", Adele's fourth studio album, was released on 19 November 2021. It was an international success, topping the official charts in 34 countries. It became the best-selling album worldwide for 2021 with 5.5 million copies sold within the year. It became the best-selling album of the 2020s decade in the world and in the UK. It also became the best-selling album of 2021 and 2022 in the US. "Easy on Me" was released as the lead single on 15 October 2021 to international success, peaking atop charts in over 25 countries, including the UK Official Singles Chart and the US "Billboard" Hot 100. It became Adele's longest running number one single in the UK, topping the chart for 8 weeks. In addition, after "30" release, Adele's total weeks at number one rose to 42 weeks at number one on the UK Official Albums Chart, more than any other female singer. After "30" spent six consecutive weeks at number one on the "Billboard" 200, Adele became the British soloist with the most weeks at number one in chart's history with 40 weeks.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Beast is a 2022 American survival action horror film directed by Baltasar Kormákur from a screenplay by Ryan Engle, based on a story by Jaime Primak Sullivan. The film stars Idris Elba, Iyana Halley, Leah Sava Jeffries, and Sharlto Copley. It follows a widowed father and his two teenage daughters who visit a South African game reserve but must fight to survive when they are stalked and attacked by a ferocious, rogue, man-killing lion.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: "Beast" was released in the United States on August 19, 2022, by Universal Pictures. Even though the film grossed $59 million worldwide on a $36 million budget and received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics, it became a underperformed release at the box office.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Recently widowed Dr. Nate Samuels and his daughters, Meredith and Norah, arrive at the Mopani Reserve in South Africa for a vacation. Nate reunites with his old friend, Martin Battles, a biologist and Mopani manager, who introduced Nate and his wife. Martin takes Nate and the girls to the village where Nate's wife grew up. Nate confides to Martin his guilt over being distant following his and his wife's separation, after which she developed terminal cancer. The trip is to reconnect with his daughters.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: The next day, Martin and the family tour the reserve's restricted areas. Martin shows them a local lion pride and notices that one is injured. At a nearby Tsonga community, Martin discovers most of the population is dead. Suspecting a rogue, man-killing lion is responsible, Martin rushes back to report the finding. Nate encounters an injured Tsonga man on the road but is unable to save him. Martin is mauled as he tracks the lion. It then ambushes Nate, who takes cover in the car. Meredith speeds away but crashes into a tree, stranding them.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Martin radios Nate on a walkie-talkie, warning him to stay away, saying the lion is using Martin as bait to lure the others out. As the radio is out of range to contact help, Nate assembles a tranquilizer rifle. He confronts the lion, hoping to subdue it long enough to recover Martin and trek back to civilization. The lion attacks, and Meredith takes advantage of the distraction to save Martin. Norah stabs the lion with a tranquilizer dart after it knocks the gun from Nate's hands, causing the lion to retreat. Meredith brings Martin back to the car, and Nate treats his wound.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: As night falls, the now-recovering Martin speculates the lion went rogue after poachers killed its pride. Soon after, the poachers arrive and initially agree to transport the group to the village in exchange for payment. Tensions rise after the poachers spot Martin, an avid anti-poacher, inside the car. The lion attacks and scatters the poachers, killing most of them. Nate maneuvers his way past the lion and finds the poachers' truck keys. Back at the car, Martin holds the lion off long enough to allow the sisters to escape, though Meredith sustains a deep laceration to her side. The car falls into a ravine and Martin sacrifices himself by setting off an explosion from the leaking gasoline, severely burning the lion. Nate starts the truck and races away with Meredith and Norah but has to stop the car before they run out of fuel. They leave the car and walk to an abandoned schoolhouse nearby.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: At the abandoned schoolhouse, which the poachers used as their base, Nate treats Meredith's wound and forages for water. The lion appears and stalks the girls, but Nate returns and scares it off. Locking his daughters inside a room, Nate promises to return after subduing the lion. After provoking the lion into chasing him, Nate lures it to the local lion pride which Martin helped raise. The rogue lion overtakes and mauls Nate, nearly killing him, until the pride patriarchs intervene and kill the rogue. A Mopani worker arrives and saves Nate as he falls unconscious.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Awakening in a hospital, a recovering Nate tells his daughters he loves them. Sometime later, the three return to the preserve, this time as a united family, and recreate the photo Nate's late wife took of herself next to her favorite tree.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: In September 2020, it was announced that Idris Elba would star in a new Universal Pictures film titled "Beast", based on an original idea by Jaime Primak-Sullivan and directed by Baltasar Kormákur. In June 2021, Sharlto Copley, Iyana Halley, and Leah Sava Jeffries joined the cast.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Filming commenced on June 1, 2021, in South Africa and lasted for 10 weeks. Shooting occurred in the rural provinces of Limpopo and Northern Cape, as well as in Cape Town.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: The film was released on VOD on September 8, 2022, followed by a Blu-ray and DVD release on October 11, 2022. The movie was released on Peacock on October 7, 2022.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: "Beast" grossed $31.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $27.3 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $59.1 million, against a production budget of $36 million.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: In North America, "Beast" was released alongside "" and was projected to gross around $10 million from 3,743 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $4.3 million on its first day, including $925,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut at $11.6 million, finishing second behind "Super Hero". The largest demographic was African-American at 34%, followed by 26% Caucasian, 23% Hispanic, and 10% Asian. Nearly half the opening weekend audience was over 35 years old, and a third was over 45. In its second weekend, the film made $4.9 million, finishing third.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, 68% of 202 reviews are positive, with an average rating of 6/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Want to watch Idris Elba fight a lion? The admirably lean yet ultimately disposable "Beast" is just the movie you're looking for." Metacritic gave the film a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak gave the film a 65% overall positive score, with 46% saying they would definitely recommend it.


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Several critics singled praise for cinematographer Philippe Rousselot. Wenlei Ma writing for news.com.au commended the film's focus: "it's a chase film and what you get is a suspenseful chase. Job done." Critic Dwight Brown wrote: "The success of this film's eye-catching, ear-grabbing hocus pocus can be traced back to smart direction, near seamless visual/sound effects, tight editing and the supremely talented Idris Elba."


title: Beast (2022 American film)

text: Odie Henderson of "RogerEbert.com", gave it 2.5 out of 4 and compared the film to its contemporary, "Prey" (2022): "both have messages about hunters ravaging the animal kingdom and paying dearly for it [...]. The climactic showdown in both films boils down to the hero using what they know about their location and their foe, though this film requires a lot more suspension of disbelief." Richard Roeper called it "intermittently exciting but also quite dumb and ridiculous".


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: "" 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or "Nippon Kaigun", 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) was formed between 1952–1954 after the dissolution of the IJN.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States Navy (USN). It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for aircraft and airstrike operation from the fleet. It was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the Pacific War.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy go back to early interactions with nations on the Asian continent, beginning in the early medieval period and reaching a peak of activity during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers during the Age of Discovery. After two centuries of stagnation during the country's ensuing seclusion policy under the "shōgun" of the Edo period, Japan's navy was comparatively backward when the country was forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually led to the Meiji Restoration. Accompanying the re-ascendance of the Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization. The navy had several successes, sometimes against much more powerful enemies such as in the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, before being largely destroyed in World War II.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan has a long history of naval interaction with the Asian continent, involving transportation of troops between Korea and Japan, starting at least with the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japanese "wakō" became very active in plundering the coast of China. In response to threats of Chinese invasion of Japan, in 1405 the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu capitulated to Chinese demands and sent twenty captured Japanese pirates to China, where they were boiled in a cauldron in Ningbo.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period when feudal rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have developed one of the first ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga, a "daimyō", had six iron-covered Oatakebune made in 1576. In 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued a ban on Wakō piracy; the pirates then became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592–1598).


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan built her first large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the Western nations during the Nanban trade period. In 1613, the "daimyō" of Sendai, in agreement with the Tokugawa Bakufu, built "Date Maru", a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported the Japanese embassy of Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to Europe. From 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies, mainly for Southeast Asian trade.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: For more than 200 years, beginning in the 1640s, the Japanese policy of seclusion (""sakoku"") forbade contacts with the outside world and prohibited the construction of ocean-going ships on pain of death. Contacts were maintained, however, with the Dutch through the port of Nagasaki, the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. The study of Western sciences, called ""rangaku"" through the Dutch enclave of Dejima in Nagasaki led to the transfer of knowledge related to the Western technological and scientific revolution which allowed Japan to remain aware of naval sciences, such as cartography, optics and mechanical sciences. Seclusion, however, led to the loss of any naval and maritime traditions the nation possessed.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Apart from Dutch trade ships, no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japanese ports. A notable exception was during the Napoleonic wars when neutral ships flew the Dutch flag. Frictions with the foreign ships, however, started from the beginning of the 19th century. The Nagasaki Harbour Incident involving in 1808, and other subsequent incidents in the following decades, led the shogunate to enact an Edict to Repel Foreign Vessels. Western ships, which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling and the trade with China, began to challenge the seclusion policy.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Morrison Incident in 1837 and news of China's defeat during the Opium War led the shogunate to repeal the law to execute foreigners, and instead to adopt the Order for the Provision of Firewood and Water. The shogunate also began to strengthen the nation's coastal defenses. Many Japanese realized that traditional ways would not be sufficient to repel further intrusions, and western knowledge was utilized through the Dutch at Dejima to reinforce Japan's capability to repel the foreigners; field guns, mortars, and firearms were obtained, and coastal defenses reinforced. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure, in part to Japanese resistance, until the early 1850s.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: During 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry, entered Edo Bay and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion, the 1854 Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and interaction. This was soon followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: As soon as Japan opened up to foreign influences, the Tokugawa shogunate recognized the vulnerability of the country from the sea and initiated an active policy of assimilation and adoption of Western naval technologies. In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the shogunate acquired its first steam warship, , and began using it for training, establishing a Naval Training Center at Nagasaki.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Samurai such as the future Admiral Enomoto Takeaki (1836–1908) was sent by the shogunate to study in the Netherlands for several years. In 1859 the Naval Training Center relocated to Tsukiji in Tokyo. In 1857 the shogunate acquired its first screw-driven steam warship and used it as an escort for the 1860 Japanese delegation to the United States. In 1865 the French naval engineer Léonce Verny was hired to build Japan's first modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and to develop naval fleets, Satsuma, especially, had petitioned the shogunate to build modern naval vessels. A naval center had been set up by the Satsuma domain in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired. The domains of Chōshū, Hizen, Tosa and Kaga joined Satsuma in acquiring ships. These naval elements proved insufficient during the Royal Navy's Bombardment of Kagoshima in 1863 and the Allied bombardments of Shimonoseki in 1863–64.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: By the mid-1860s the shogunate had a fleet of eight warships and thirty-six auxiliaries. Satsuma (which had the largest domain fleet) had nine steamships, Choshu had five ships plus numerous auxiliary craft, Kaga had ten ships and Chikuzen eight. Numerous smaller domains also had acquired a number of ships. However, these fleets resembled maritime organizations rather than actual navies with ships functioning as transports as well as combat vessels; they were also manned by personnel who lacked experienced seamanship except for coastal sailing and who had virtually no combat training.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Meiji Restoration in 1868 led to the overthrow of the shogunate. From 1868, the newly formed Meiji government continued with reforms to centralize and modernize Japan.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Although the Meiji reformers had overthrown the Tokugawa shogunate, tensions between the former ruler and the restoration leaders led to the Boshin War (January 1868 to June 1869). The early part of the conflict largely involved land battles, with naval forces playing a minimal role transporting troops from western to eastern Japan. Only the Battle of Awa (28 January 1868) was significant; this also proved one of the few Tokugawa successes in the war. Tokugawa Yoshinobu eventually surrendered after the fall of Edo in July 1868, and as a result most of Japan accepted the emperor's rule, however resistance continued in the North.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: On 26 March 1868 the first naval review in Japan took place in Osaka Bay, with six ships from the private domain navies of Saga, Chōshū, Satsuma, Kurume, Kumamoto and Hiroshima participating. The total tonnage of these ships was 2,252 tons, which was far smaller than the tonnage of the single foreign vessel (from the French Navy) that also participated. The following year, in July 1869, the Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established, two months after the last combat of the Boshin War.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Enomoto Takeaki, the admiral of the "shōgun"s navy, refused to surrender all his ships, remitting just four vessels, and escaped to northern Honshū with the remnants of the "shōgun"s navy: eight steam warships and 2,000 men. Following the defeat of pro-shogunate resistance on Honshū, Admiral Enomoto Takeaki fled to Hokkaidō, where he established the breakaway Republic of Ezo (27 January 1869). The new Meiji government dispatched a military force to defeat the rebels, culminating with the Naval Battle of Hakodate in May 1869. The Imperial side took delivery (February 1869) of the French-built ironclad "Kotetsu" (originally ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate) and used it decisively towards the end of the conflict.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In February 1868 the Imperial government had placed all captured shogunate naval vessels under the Navy Army affairs section. In the following months, military forces of the government came under the control of several organizations which were established and then disbanded until the establishment of the Ministry of War and of the Ministry of the Navy of Japan in 1872. For the first two years (1868–1870) of the Meiji state no national, centrally controlled navy existed, – the Meiji government only administered those Tokugawa vessels captured in the early phase of the Boshin War of 1868–1869. All other naval vessels remained under the control of the various domains which had been acquired during the Bakumatsu period. The naval forces mirrored the political environment of Japan at the time: the domains retained their political as well as military independence from the Imperial government. Katsu Kaishū a former Tokugawa navy leader, was brought into the government as Vice Minister of the Navy in 1872, and became the first Minister of the Navy from 1873 until 1878 because of his naval experience and his ability to control Tokugawa personnel who retained positions in the government naval forces. Upon assuming office Katsu Kaishu recommended the rapid centralization of all naval forces – government and domain – under one agency. The nascent Meiji government in its first years did not have the necessary political and military force to implement such a policy and so, like much of the government, the naval forces retained a decentralized structure in most of 1869 through 1870.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The incident involving Enomoto Takeaki's refusal to surrender and his escape to Hokkaidō with a large part of the former Tokugawa Navy's best warships embarrassed the Meiji government politically. The imperial side had to rely on considerable naval assistance from the most powerful domains as the government did not have enough naval power to put down the rebellion on its own. Although the rebel forces in Hokkaidō surrendered, the government's response to the rebellion demonstrated the need for a strong centralized naval force. Even before the rebellion the restoration leaders had realized the need for greater political, economic and military centralization and by August 1869 most of the domains had returned their lands and population registers to the government. In 1871 the domains were abolished altogether and as with the political context the centralization of the navy began with the domains donating their forces to the central government. As a result, in 1871 Japan could finally boast a centrally controlled navy, this was also the institutional beginning of the Imperial Japanese Navy.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In February 1872, the Ministry of War was replaced by a separate Army Ministry and Navy Ministry. In October 1873, Katsu Kaishū became Navy Minister.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: After the consolidation of the government the new Meiji state set about to build up national strength. The Meiji government honored the treaties with the Western powers signed during the Bakumatsu period with the ultimate goal of revising them, leading to a subsided threat from the sea. This however led to conflict with those disgruntled samurai who wanted to expel the westerners and with groups which opposed the Meiji reforms. Internal dissent – including peasant uprisings – become a greater concern for the government, which curtailed plans for naval expansion as a result. In the immediate period from 1868 many members of the Meiji coalition advocated giving preference to maritime forces over the army and saw naval strength as paramount. In 1870 the new government drafted an ambitious plan to develop a navy with 200 ships organized into ten fleets. The plan was abandoned within a year due to lack of resources. Financial considerations were a major factor restricting the growth of the navy during the 1870s. Japan at the time was not a wealthy state. Soon, however, domestic rebellions, the Saga Rebellion (1874) and especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877), forced the government to focus on land warfare, and the army gained prominence.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Naval policy, as expressed by the slogan "Shusei Kokubō" (literally: "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses, on a standing army (established with the assistance of the second French Military Mission to Japan), and a coastal navy that could act in a supportive role to drive an invading enemy from the coast. The resulting military organization followed the "Rikushu Kaijū" (Army first, Navy second) principle. This meant a defense designed to repel an enemy from Japanese territory, and the chief responsibility for that mission rested upon Japan's army; consequently, the army gained the bulk of the military expenditures. During the 1870s and 1880s, the Imperial Japanese Navy remained an essentially coastal-defense force, although the Meiji government continued to modernize it. "Jo Sho Maru" (soon renamed "Ryūjō Maru") commissioned by Thomas Glover was launched at Aberdeen, Scotland on 27 March 1869.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In 1870 an Imperial decree determined that Britain's Royal Navy should serve as the model for development, instead of the Netherlands navy. In 1873 a thirty-four-man British naval mission, headed by Lt. Comdr. Archibald Douglas, arrived in Japan. Douglas directed instruction at the Naval Academy at Tsukiji for several years, the mission remained in Japan until 1879, substantially advancing the development of the navy and firmly establishing British traditions within the Japanese navy from matters of seamanship to the style of its uniforms and the attitudes of its officers.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: From September 1870, the English Lieutenant Horse, a former gunnery instructor for the Saga fief during the Bakumatsu period, was put in charge of gunnery practice on board the "Ryūjō". In 1871, the ministry resolved to send 16 trainees abroad for training in naval sciences (14 to Great Britain, two to the United States), among which was Heihachirō Tōgō. Later, Commander L.P. Willan was hired in 1879 to train naval cadets.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Ships such as the , and were built in British shipyards, and they were the first warships built abroad specifically for the Imperial Japanese Navy. Private construction companies such as Ishikawajima and Kawasaki also emerged around this time.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: During 1873, a plan to invade the Korean Peninsula, the "Seikanron" proposal made by Saigō Takamori, was narrowly abandoned by decision of the central government in Tokyo. In 1874, the Taiwan expedition was the first foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and Army after the Mudan Incident of 1871, however the navy served largely as a transport force.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Various interventions in the Korean Peninsula continued in 1875–1876, starting with the Ganghwa Island incident provoked by the Japanese gunboat , leading to the dispatch of a large force of the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result, the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 was signed, marking the official opening of Korea to foreign trade, and Japan's first example of Western-style interventionism and adoption of "unequal treaties" tactics.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: After the Imo Incident in July 1882, Iwakura Tomomi submitted a document to the "daijō-kan" titled "Opinions Regarding Naval Expansion" asserting that a strong navy was essential to maintaining the security of Japan. In furthering his argument, Iwakura suggested that domestic rebellions were no longer Japan's primary military concern and that naval affairs should take precedence over army concerns; a strong navy was more important than a sizable army to preserve the Japanese state. Furthermore, he justified that a large, modern navy, would have the added potential benefit of instilling Japan with greater international prestige and recognition, as navies were internationally recognized hallmarks of power and status. Iwakura also suggested that the Meiji government could support naval growth by increasing taxes on tobacco, sake, and soy.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: After lengthy discussions, Iwakura eventually convinced the ruling coalition to support Japan's first multi-year naval expansion plan in history. In May 1883, the government approved a plan that, when completed, would add 32 warships over eight years at a cost of just over ¥26 million. This development was very significant for the navy, as the amount allocated virtually equaled the navy's entire budget between 1873 and 1882. The 1882 naval expansion plan succeeded in a large part because of Satsuma power, influence, and patronage. Between 19 August and 23 November 1882, Satsuma forces with Iwakura's leadership, worked tirelessly to secure support for the Navy's expansion plan. After uniting the other Satsuma members of the Dajokan, Iwakura approached the emperor the Meiji emperor arguing persuasively just as he did with the Dajokan, that naval expansion was critical to Japan's security and that the standing army of forty thousand men was more than sufficient for domestic purposes. While the government should direct the lion's share of future military appropriations toward naval matters, a powerful navy would legitimize an increase in tax revenue. On November 24, the emperor assembled select ministers of the "daijō-kan" together with military officers, and announced the need for increased tax revenues to provide adequate funding for military expansion, this was followed by an imperial re-script. The following month, in December, an annual ¥7.5-million tax increase on sake, soy, and tobacco was fully approved, in the hopes that it would provide ¥3.5 million annually for warship construction and ¥2.5 million for warship maintenance. In February 1883, the government directed further revenues from other ministries to support an increase in the navy's warship construction and purchasing budget. By March 1883, the navy secured the ¥6.5 million required annually to support an eight-year expansion plan, this was the largest that the Imperial Japanese Navy had secured in its young existence.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: However, naval expansion remained a highly contentious issue for both the government and the navy throughout much of the 1880s. Overseas advances in naval technology increased the costs of purchasing large components of a modern fleet, so that by 1885 cost overruns had jeopardized the entire 1883 plan. Furthermore, increased costs coupled with decreased domestic tax revenues, heightened concern and political tension in Japan regarding funding naval expansion.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The and were 3,650 ton ships. They were capable of speeds up to and were armed with deck armor and two Krupp guns. The naval architect Sasō Sachū designed these on the line of the Elswick class of protected cruisers but with superior specifications. An arms race was taking place with China however, who equipped herself with two 7,335 ton German-built battleships ("Ting Yüan" and "Chen-Yüan"). Unable to confront the Chinese fleet with only two modern cruisers, Japan resorted to French assistance to build a large, modern fleet which could prevail in the upcoming conflict.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: During the 1880s, France took the lead in influence, due to its "Jeune École" ("young school") doctrine, favoring small, fast warships, especially cruisers and torpedo boats, against bigger units. The choice of France may also have been influenced by the Minister of the Navy, who happened to be Enomoto Takeaki at that time (Navy Minister 1880–1885), a former ally of the French during the Boshin War. Also, Japan was uneasy with being dependent on Great Britain, at a time when Great Britain was very close to China.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The "Meiji" government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882, requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be torpedo boats. The naval successes of the French Navy against China in the Sino-French War of 1883–85 seemed to validate the potential of torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited resources of Japan. In 1885, the new Navy slogan became "Kaikoku Nippon" (Jp:海国日本, "Maritime Japan").


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In 1885, the leading French Navy engineer Émile Bertin was hired for four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy and to direct the construction of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo. He developed the "Sankeikan" class of cruisers; three units featuring a single powerful main gun, the Canet gun. Altogether, Bertin supervised the building of more than 20 units. They helped establish the first true modern naval force of Japan. It allowed Japan to achieve mastery in the building of large units, since some of the ships were imported, and some others were built domestically at the arsenal of Yokosuka:


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: This period also allowed Japan "to embrace the revolutionary new technologies embodied in torpedoes, torpedo-boats and mines, of which the French at the time were probably the world's best exponents". Japan acquired its first torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: These ships, ordered during the fiscal years 1885 and 1886, were the last major orders placed with France. The unexplained sinking of "en route" from France to Japan in December 1886, created embarrassment however.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan turned again to Britain, with the order of a revolutionary torpedo boat, , which was considered the first effective design of a destroyer, in 1887 and with the purchase of , built at the Armstrong works in Elswick, Newcastle upon Tyne, the fastest cruiser in the world at the time of her launch in 1892. In 1889, she ordered the Clyde-built , which defined the type for armored cruisers.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Between 1882 and 1918, ending with the visit of the French Military Mission to Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy stopped relying on foreign instructors altogether. In 1886, she manufactured her own prismatic powder, and in 1892 one of her officers invented a powerful explosive, the Shimose powder.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially as China was also building a powerful modern fleet with foreign, especially German, assistance, and as a result tensions were building between the two countries over Korea.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Japanese naval leadership on the eve of hostilities, was generally cautious and even apprehensive as the navy had not yet received the warships ordered in February 1893, particularly the battleships and and the cruiser . Hence, initiating hostilities at the time was not ideal, and the navy was far less confident than the Japanese army about the outcome of a war with China.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan's main strategy was to gain command of the sea as this was critical to the operations on land. An early victory over the Beiyang fleet would allow Japan to transport troops and material to the Korean Peninsula, however any prolongation of the war would increase the risk of intervention by the European powers with interests in East Asia. The army's Fifth Division would land at Chemulpo on the western coast of Korea, both to engage and push Chinese forces northwest up the peninsula and to draw the Beiyang Fleet into the Yellow Sea, where it would be engaged in decisive battle. Depending upon the outcome of this engagement, Japan would make one of three choices; If the Combined Fleet were to win decisively, the larger part of the Japanese army would undertake immediate landings on the coast between Shanhaiguan and Tianjin in order to defeat the Chinese army and bring the war to a swift conclusion. If the engagement were to be a draw and neither side gained control of the sea, the army would concentrate on the occupation of Korea. Lastly, if the Combined Fleet was defeated and consequently lost command of the sea, the bulk of the army would remain in Japan and prepare to repel a Chinese invasion, while the Fifth Division in Korea would be ordered to hang on and fight a rearguard action.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: A Japanese squadron intercepted and defeated a Chinese force near Korean island of Pungdo; damaging a cruiser, sinking a loaded transport, capturing one gunboat and destroying another. The battle occurred before the war was officially declared on 1 August 1894. On August 10, the Japanese ventured into the Yellow Sea to seek out the Beiyang Fleet and bombarded both Weihaiwei and Port Arthur. Finding only small vessels in either harbor, the Combined Fleet returned to Korea to support further landings off the Chinese coast. The Beiyang Fleet under the command of Admiral Ding was initially ordered to stay close to the Chinese coast while reinforcements were sent to Korea by land. But as Japanese troops had very quickly advanced northward from Seoul to Pyongyang the Chinese decided to rush troops to Korea by sea under a naval escort, in mid-September.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Concurrently, because there had been no decisive encounter at sea, the Japanese decided to send more troops to Korea. Early in September, the navy was directed to support further landings and to support the army on Korea's western coast. As Japanese ground forces then moved north to attack Pyongyang, Admiral Ito correctly guessed that the Chinese would attempt to reinforce their army in Korea by sea. On 14 September, the Combined Fleet went north to search the Korean and Chinese coasts and to bring the Beiyang Fleet to battle. On 17 September 1894, the Japanese encountered them off the mouth of the Yalu River. The Combined Fleet then devastated the Beiyang Fleet during the battle, in which the Chinese fleet lost eight out of 12 warships. The Chinese subsequently retreated behind the Weihaiwei fortifications. However, they were then surprised by Japanese troops, who outflanked the harbour's defenses in coordination with the navy. The remnants of the Beiyang Fleet were destroyed at Weihaiwei. Although Japan turned out victorious, the two large German-made Chinese ironclad battleships ("Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan") remained almost impervious to Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The next step of the Imperial Japanese Navy's expansion would thus involve a combination of heavily armed large warships, with smaller and innovative offensive units permitting aggressive tactics.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: As a result of the conflict, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17, 1895), Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands were transferred to Japan. The Imperial Japanese Navy took possession of the island and quelled opposition movements between March to October 1895. Japan also obtained the Liaodong Peninsula, although she was forced by Russia, Germany and France to return it to China (Triple Intervention), only to see Russia take possession of it soon after.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900 by participating, together with Western Powers, in the suppression of the Chinese Boxer Rebellion. The Navy supplied the largest number of warships (18 out of a total of 50) and delivered the largest contingent of troops among the intervening nations (20,840 Imperial Japanese Army and Navy soldiers, out of a total of 54,000).


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The conflict allowed Japan to enter combat together with Western nations and to acquire first-hand understanding of their fighting methods.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Following the war against China, the Triple Intervention under Russian leadership, pressured Japan to renounce its claim to the Liaodong Peninsula. The Japanese were well aware of the naval power the three countries possessed in East Asian waters, particularly Russia. Faced with little choice the Japanese retroceded the territory back to China for an additional 30 million taels (roughly ¥45 million). With the humiliation of the forced return of the Liaodong Peninsula, Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation for future confrontations. The political capital and public support for the navy gained as a result of the recent conflict with China, also encouraged popular and legislative support for naval expansion.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In 1895, Yamamoto Gombei was assigned to compose a study of Japan's future naval needs. He believed that Japan should have sufficient naval strength to not only to deal with a single hypothetical enemy separately, but to also confront any fleet from two combined powers that might be dispatched against Japan from overseas waters. He assumed that with their conflicting global interests, it was highly unlikely that the British and Russians would ever join together in a war against Japan, considering it more likely that a major power like Russia in alliance with a lesser naval power, would dispatch a portion of their fleet against Japan. Yamamoto therefore calculated that four battleships would be the main battle force that a major power could divert from their other naval commitments to use against Japan and he also added two more battleships that might be contributed to such a naval expedition by a lesser hostile power. In order to achieve victory Japan should have a force of six of the largest battleships supplemented by four armored cruisers of at least 7,000 tons. The centerpiece of this expansion was to be the acquisition of four new battleships in addition to the two which were already being completed in Britain being part of an earlier construction program. Yamamoto was also advocating the construction of a balanced fleet. Battleships would be supplemented by lesser warships of various types, including cruisers that could seek out and pursue the enemy and a sufficient number of destroyers and torpedo boats capable of striking the enemy in home ports. As a result, the program also included the construction of twenty-three destroyers, sixty-three torpedo boats, and an expansion of Japanese shipyards and repair and training facilities. In 1897, because of fears that the size of the Russian fleet assigned to East Asian waters could be larger than previously believed, the plan was revised. Although budgetary limitations simply could not permit the construction of another battleship squadron, the new Harvey and KC armor plates could resist all but the largest AP shells. Japan could now acquire armored cruisers that could take the place in the battle line. Hence, with new armor and lighter but more powerful quick-firing guns, this new cruiser type was superior to many older battleships still afloat. Subsequently, the revisions to the ten-year plan led to the four protected cruisers were replaced by additional two armored cruisers. As a consequence the ""Six-Six Fleet"" was born, with six battleships and six armored cruisers.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The program for a 260,000-ton navy to be completed over a ten-year period in two stages of construction, with the total cost being ¥280 million, was approved by the cabinet in late 1895 and funded by the Diet in early 1896. Of the total warship acquisitions accounted for just over ¥200 million. The first stage would begin in 1896 and be completed by 1902; the second would run from 1897 to 1905. The program was financed significantly from the Chinese indemnity secured after the First Sino-Japanese War. This was used to fund the bulk of the naval expansion, roughly ¥139 million, with public loans and existing government revenue providing the rest of the financing required over the ten years of the program. Japan's industrial resources at the time were inadequate for the construction of a fleet of armored warships domestically, as the country was still in the process of developing and acquiring the industrial infrastructure for the construction of major naval vessels. Consequently, the overwhelming majority was built in British shipyards. With the completion of the fleet, Japan would become the fourth strongest naval power in the world in a single decade. In 1902, Japan formed an alliance with Britain, the terms of which stated that if Japan went to war in the Far East and that a third power entered the fight against Japan, then Britain would come to the aid of the Japanese. This was a check to prevent any third power from intervening militarily in any future war with Russia.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: One of these battleships, , which was among the most powerful warships afloat when completed, was ordered from the Vickers shipyard in the United Kingdom at the end of 1898, for delivery to Japan in 1902. Commercial shipbuilding in Japan was exhibited by construction of the twin screw steamer "Aki-Maru", built for Nippon Yusen Kaisha by the Mitsubishi Dockyard & Engine Works, Nagasaki. The Imperial Japanese cruiser was built at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco, California.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: These dispositions culminated with the Russo-Japanese War. At the Battle of Tsushima, Admiral Togo (flag in "Mikasa") led the Japanese Grand Fleet into the decisive engagement of the war. The Russian fleet was almost completely annihilated: out of 38 Russian ships, 21 were sunk, seven captured, six disarmed, 4,545 Russian servicemen died and 6,106 were taken prisoner. On the other hand, the Japanese only lost 116 men and three torpedo boats. These victories broke Russian strength in East Asia, and triggered waves of mutinies in the Russian Navy at Sevastopol, Vladivostok and Kronstadt, peaking in June with the "Potemkin" uprising, thereby contributing to the Russian Revolution of 1905. The victory at Tsushima elevated the stature of the navy.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The Imperial Japanese Navy acquired its first submarines in 1905 from Electric Boat Company, barely four years after the U.S. Navy had commissioned its own first submarine, . The ships were Holland designs and were developed under the supervision of Electric Boat's representative, Arthur L. Busch. These five submarines (known as Holland Type VII's) were shipped in kit form to Japan (October 1904) and then assembled at the Yokosuka, Kanagawa Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, to become hulls "No.1" through "5", and became operational at the end of 1905.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan continued in its efforts to build up a strong national naval industry. Following a strategy of "copy, improve, innovate", foreign ships of various designs were usually analysed in depth, their specifications often improved on, and then were purchased in pairs so as to organize comparative testing and improvements. Over the years, the importation of whole classes of ships was progressively substituted by local assembly, and then complete local production, starting with the smallest ships, such as torpedo boats and cruisers in the 1880s, to finish with whole battleships in the early 20th century. The last major purchase was in 1913 when the battlecruiser was purchased from the Vickers shipyard. By 1918, there was no aspect of shipbuilding technology where Japanese capabilities fell significantly below world standards.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: The period immediately after Tsushima also saw the IJN, under the influence of the navalist theoretician Satō Tetsutarō, adopt an explicit policy of building for a potential future conflict against the United States Navy. Satō called for a battlefleet at least 70% as strong as that of the US. In 1907, the official policy of the Navy became an 'eight-eight fleet' of eight modern battleships and eight battlecruisers. However, financial constraints prevented this ideal ever becoming a reality.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: By 1920, the Imperial Japanese Navy was the world's third largest navy and a leader in naval development:


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Japan entered World War I on the side of the Entente, against Germany and Austria-Hungary, as a consequence of the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance. In the Siege of Tsingtao, the Imperial Japanese Navy helped seize the German colony of Tsingtao. During the siege, beginning on 5 September 1914, conducted the world's first successful sea-launched air strikes. On 6 September 1914, in the very first air-sea battle in history, a Farman aircraft launched by "Wakamiya" attacked the Austro-Hungarian cruiser and the German gunboat "Jaguar" off Tsingtao. from Jiaozhou Bay. Four Maurice Farman seaplanes bombarded German land targets like communication and command centers, and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao peninsula from September to 6 November 1914 when the Germans surrendered.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: A battle group was also sent to the central Pacific in August and September to pursue the German East Asiatic squadron, which then moved into the Southern Atlantic, where it encountered British naval forces and was destroyed at the Falkland Islands. Japan also seized German possessions in northern Micronesia, which remained Japanese colonies until the end of World War II, under the League of Nations' South Seas Mandate. Hard pressed in Europe, where she had only a narrow margin of superiority against Germany, Britain had requested, but was denied, the loan of Japan's four newly built "Kongō"-class battlecruisers (, , , and ), some of the first ships in the world to be equipped with guns, and the most formidable battlecruisers in the world at the time.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: Following a further request by the British and the initiation of unrestricted submarine warfare by Germany, in March 1917, the Japanese sent a special force to the Mediterranean. This force, consisted of one protected cruiser, as flotilla leader and eight of the Navy's newest Kaba-class destroyers (, , , , , , , and ), under Admiral Satō Kōzō, was based in Malta and efficiently protected allied shipping between Marseille, Taranto, and ports in Egypt until the end of the War. In June, "Akashi" was replaced by , and four more destroyers were added ("Kashi", "Hinoki", "Momo", and "Yanagi"). They were later joined by the cruiser . By the end of the war, the Japanese had escorted 788 allied transports. One destroyer, "Sakaki", was torpedoed on 11 June 1917 by a German submarine with the loss of 59 officers and men. A memorial at the Kalkara Naval Cemetery in Malta was dedicated to the 72 Japanese sailors who died in action during the Mediterranean convoy patrols.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In 1917, Japan exported 12 Arabe-class destroyers to France. In 1918, ships such as were assigned to convoy escort in the Indian Ocean between Singapore and the Suez Canal as part of Japan's contribution to the war effort under the Anglo-Japanese alliance. After the conflict, the Japanese Navy received seven German submarines as spoils of war, which were brought to Japan and analysed, contributing greatly to the development of the Japanese submarine industry.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: By 1921, Japan's naval expenditure reached nearly 32% of the national government budget. In 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy possessed 10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 38 cruisers (heavy and light), 112 destroyers, 65 submarines, and various auxiliary ships.


title: Imperial Japanese Navy

text: In the years following after the end of First World War the naval construction programs of the three greatest naval powers Britain, Japan and the United States had threatened to set off a new potentially dangerous and expensive naval arms race. The subsequent Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 became one of history's most effective arms reduction programs, setting up a system of ratios between the five signatory powers. The United States and Britain were each allocated 525,000 tons of capital ships, Japan 315,000, and France and Italy to 175,000, ratios of 5:3:1.75. Also agreed to was a ten-year moratorium on battleship construction, though replacement of battleships reaching 20 years of service was permitted. Maximum limits of 35,000 tons and 16-inch guns were also set. Carriers were restricted with the same 5:5:3 ratio, with Japan allotted 81,000 tons.