title: Linda Gray

text: Linda Ann Gray (born September 12, 1940) is an American film, stage and television actress, director, producer and former model, best known for her role as Sue Ellen Ewing, the long-suffering wife of Larry Hagman's character J.R. Ewing on the CBS television drama series "Dallas" (1978–1989, 1991, 2012–2014), for which she was nominated for the 1981 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. The role also earned her two Golden Globe Awards.


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray began her career in the 1960s in television commercials. In the 1970s, she appeared in numerous TV series before landing the role of Sue Ellen Ewing in 1978. After leaving "Dallas" in 1989, she appeared opposite Sylvester Stallone in the 1991 film "Oscar". From 1994 to 1995, she played a leading role in the Fox drama series "Models Inc.", and also starred in TV movies, including "" (1993) and "Accidental Meeting" (1994). She went on to reprise the role of Sue Ellen in "" (1996), "" (1998), and in the TNT series "Dallas" (2012–2014), which continued the original series.


title: Linda Gray

text: On stage, Gray starred as Mrs. Robinson in "The Graduate" in the West End of London in 2001, then on Broadway the following year. In 2007, she starred as Aurora Greenaway in the world premiere production of "Terms of Endearment" at the Theatre Royal, York and stayed with the production when it toured the United Kingdom. After the second "Dallas" was cancelled in 2014, Gray again took to the stage, this time in the role of the Fairy Godmother in a London production of "Cinderella".


title: Linda Gray

text: Linda Gray was born in 1940 in Santa Monica, California. She grew up in Culver City, California, where her father, Leslie, who was a watchmaker, had a shop.


title: Linda Gray

text: Before acting, Gray worked as a model in the 1960s and began her acting career in television commercials, nearly 400 of them—and also made brief appearances in feature films, such as "Under the Yum Yum Tree" and "Palm Springs Weekend" in 1963.


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray began her professional acting career in the 1970s with guest roles on many television series such as "Marcus Welby, M.D.", "McCloud", and "Switch", prior to signing with Universal Studios in 1974. She also appeared in the films "The Big Rip-Off" (1975) and "Dogs" (1976). In 1977, she was cast as fashion model Linda Murkland, the first transgender series regular on American television, in the television series "All That Glitters". The show, a spoof of the soap-opera format, was cancelled after just 13 weeks. Gray was then cast as suspicious wife Carla Cord in the 1977 television movie "Murder in Peyton Place".


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray achieved stardom for her role as Sue Ellen Ewing, J.R.'s long-suffering alcoholic wife, in the CBS drama series "Dallas" (1978–1989, 1991). Initially a recurring guest role for the five-episode first series, Gray became a series regular later in 1978 and remained with the show until 1989. Her character was well received by television critics. "The Biography Channel" stated "Who could ever forget "Dallas" with the vodka-swilling Sue Ellen Ewing, replete with shoulder pads long before "Dynasty", staggering around Southfork Ranch with a permanently tearful expression as she suffered the brunt of J.R. Ewing’s evil ways?" "The Boulevard" stated "It may be 2009 and seventeen years since the primetime drama "Dallas" went off the air, but memories of the Ewing family still linger. Corruption and betrayal, lies, greed, affairs and scandal—all were just part of another day at the Southfork Ranch. At the center of it all was one of our favorite Ewings, the person we couldn't help but root for each week as she drank and slept her way through one ordeal after another. This, of course, was the tortured and (sometimes) villainous Sue Ellen Shepard Ewing, former Texas beauty queen and trophy wife of the womanizing rogue J.R. Ewing, played to perfection by actress Linda Gray." Gray was nominated for two Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama and Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance on "Dallas". She also received numerous international awards including Germany's Bambi Award, Italy's Il Gato and she was named Woman of the Year by the Hollywood Radio & Television Society in 1982.


title: Linda Gray

text: After "Dallas", Gray starred in the 1991 comedy film, "Oscar" with Sylvester Stallone and then made guest appearances in British drama "Lovejoy" (starring her co-star and love interest from her final season on "Dallas", Ian McShane). She also starred in several made-for-TV movies, including 1991's "The Entertainers" (with Bob Newhart), "" (1993), "" (1993), and "Accidental Meeting" (1994).


title: Linda Gray

text: In 1994, she made several guest appearances on the Fox prime time soap opera "Melrose Place", starring as Hillary Michaels, the mother of Amanda Woodward (Heather Locklear). She continued the role in the "Melrose Place" spin-off "Models Inc.", where her character Hillary ran a modelling agency, but the show was cancelled after one season.


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray appeared in the "Dallas" reunion television movies "" (1996) and "" (1998), but in the following years did not appear in movies or on television.


title: Linda Gray

text: In 2001, Gray portrayed Mrs. Robinson in the West End theatre production of Charles Webb's "The Graduate". This brought her full circle, as her legs (not Anne Bancroft's) were the ones in the famous scene in the movie "The Graduate" where Mrs. Robinson's legs are admired by Dustin Hoffman. She also briefly played the role in the Broadway production, when she filled-in for Kathleen Turner in September 2002. Gray made her theater directing debut with the play "Murder in the First", and other stage acting work includes: "Terms of Endearment", "The Vagina Monologues", "Agnes of God" and "Love Letters".


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray returned to television in 2004 as a guest star in five episodes of the daytime soap opera "The Bold and the Beautiful", playing Priscilla Kelly.


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray starred in several independent films, including the award-winning drama "Reflections of a Life" (2006), where she played the best friend of a woman undergoing treatment for breast cancer; "Expecting Mary" (2010); "The Flight of the Swan" (2011); and "Hidden Moon" (2012).


title: Linda Gray

text: In 2008, Gray appeared in The CW series "90210", which, like "Melrose Place" and "Models Inc." before it, is a spin-off from the original "Beverly Hills, 90210". Gray has now appeared in three of the five series in the franchise, though her role in "90210" was not Hillary Michaels, the character she played on "Melrose Place" (1992) and "Models Inc."


title: Linda Gray

text: In 2012, Gray reprised her role as Sue Ellen Ewing in the TNT drama series "Dallas", a continuation of the original series. In 2013, she was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by the "Guardian". In April 2013, she was listed in "People" magazine's annual Most Beautiful Woman list.


title: Linda Gray

text: Over Christmas 2014, she performed in pantomime in London, playing the Fairy Godmother in "Cinderella". In 2015, she starred in the Hallmark Channel film "A Perfect Wedding", and was cast as grandmother in The CW summer comedy series, "Significant Mother". She also appeared as Joanna Winterthorne in the soap opera web series "Winterthorne".


title: Linda Gray

text: On 17 August 2016, it was announced that Gray would join the cast of the British Channel 4 soap opera, "Hollyoaks", as Tabitha Maxwell-Brown, the mother of recently established character Marnie Nightingale, played by Lysette Anthony. Gray made her first appearance as Tabitha on 15 November 2016, and departed on 22 November 2016. It was later announced that Gray had signed a contract with "Hollyoaks" in order for her to appear on the soap opera for a longer period of time. The character of Tabitha returned on 27 February 2017 before departing again on 28 February 2017.


title: Linda Gray

text: In 2017, Gray joined the cast of Amazon Studios drama series, "Hand of God", starring opposite Ron Perlman and Dana Delany.


title: Linda Gray

text: Gray was married from 1962 to 1983 to Ed Thrasher, an art director and photographer who designed many iconic album covers throughout the 1960s and 1970s. The marriage resulted in two children: Jeff Thrasher and Kehly Sloane (a stock actress who appeared on many episodes of the original "Dallas"). Jeff Thrasher died of leukemia in November 2020. Gray also has two grandsons, Ryder and Jack Sloane. Her younger sister, Betty, died from breast cancer in 1989, when she was 43 years old. Gray was also the aunt (by marriage) of actress Lindsay Wagner, best known as "The Bionic Woman". She resides in Los Angeles, California.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: The second season of "The Crown" follows the life and reign of Queen Elizabeth II. It consists of ten episodes and was released by Netflix on 8 December 2017.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Claire Foy stars as Elizabeth, with main cast members Matt Smith, Vanessa Kirby, Jeremy Northam, Greg Wise, Victoria Hamilton, Alex Jennings and Lia Williams reprising their roles from the first season. Anton Lesser and Matthew Goode are added to the main cast. Original main cast members Jared Harris, John Lithgow, and Ben Miles also return in cameo appearances.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: "The Crown" traces the life of Queen Elizabeth II from her wedding in 1947 through to the present day. Season two covers the period between 1956 and 1964.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Claire Foy continues to portray the Queen, and the season covers the Suez Crisis in 1956, the retirement of the Queen's third Prime Minister Harold Macmillan in 1963, following the Profumo affair political scandal, and the births of the Queen’s two youngest children – Prince Andrew in 1960 and Prince Edward in 1964. The season also portrays John F. Kennedy, Jackie Kennedy and Lord Altrincham.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: The second season was released on Netflix worldwide in its entirety on 8 December 2017. Season two was released on DVD and Blu-ray in the United Kingdom on 22 October 2018 and worldwide on 13 November 2018.


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Rotten Tomatoes reported a 89% approval rating for the second season based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 8.30/10. The website's critical consensus read ""The Crown" continues its reign with a self-assured sophomore season that indulges in high drama and sumptuous costumes." On Metacritic, the second season holds a score of 87 out of 100, based on 27 critics, retaining the first season's indication of "universal acclaim".


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Foy and Smith both earned significant praise from critics. Chancellor Agard of "Entertainment Weekly" wrote "As always, Claire Foy turns in an amazingly restrained performance." Reviewing the first episode, Gabriel Tate of "The Daily Telegraph" wrote that Foy and Smith have "seldom been better". Hugo Rifkind of "The Times" said "While ardent monarchists might bristle at the way this is going, for the rest of us it's getting better and better".


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Alison Keene of "Collider" said "each new episode makes its mark and tells its own complete story... It's another exceptionally strong season of television, full of compelling drama and sweeping grandeur". Krutika Malikarjuna of "TV Guide" argued that the public is attracted to the royals' celebrity and star power, and said: "The brilliance of this framing becomes clear as the show evolves into The Real Housewives of Buckingham." Sophie Gilbert wrote for "The Atlantic" that the portrayal of a monarch who "would rather be living any other life" is "riveting", and that it is "gorgeously shot, with flawless re-creations of everything from the Throne Room in Buckingham Palace to a 1950s hospital ward. And it's surprisingly funny."


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: "The Wall Street Journal" critic John Anderson said ""The Crown" attains genuine sexiness without sex. Margaret, à la Ms. Kirby's interpretation, smolders, as does Elizabeth, at least on occasion." Meghan O'Keefe of Decider wrote that the season "continues to romanticize the British royal family, but the romance comes from how they're normal, not divine".


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Less complimentary reviews saw the season criticised for what some regarded as failing to meet the emotional intensity of the first. John Doyle wrote for "Globe and Mail" that despite being "lavishly made" and "breathtaking", it "now leans toward a three-hanky weeper about marriage. It is less than it was, like the monarchy itself, and of interest to monarchy fans only." Alan Sepinwall of Uproxx added "Many of the season's wounds are self-inflicted" and that Philip "still comes across as a whiny man-child". Phil Owen of "The Wrap" described the season as "trashy" and saw dry comedy in Northam's portrayal of Eden: "I'm assuming that creator Peter Morgan meant for it to be comedy. There's really no other explanation for why Jeremy Northam played Prime Minister Anthony Eden like he's having a nervous breakdown in every scene."


title: The Crown (season 2)

text: Claire Foy won the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in the episode "Dear Mrs. Kennedy." Stephen Daldry won the 2018 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series for the episode "Paterfamilias."


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Baroness Maria Augusta von Trapp DHS (; 26 January 1905 – 28 March 1987) was the stepmother and matriarch of the Trapp Family Singers. She wrote "The Story of the Trapp Family Singers", which was published in 1949 and was the inspiration for the 1956 West German film "The Trapp Family", which in turn inspired the 1959 Broadway musical "The Sound of Music" and its 1965 film version.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria was born on 26 January 1905 to Augusta ("née" Rainer) and Karl Kutschera. She was delivered on a train heading from her parents' village in Tyrol to a hospital in Vienna, Austria.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Her mother died of pneumonia when she was two. Her father, grief-stricken, left Maria with his cousin (her foster mother) who had cared for Maria's half-brother after his mother died. Maria's father then traveled the world, although Maria would visit him upon occasion at his apartment in Vienna. When she was nine, her father died. Her foster mother's son-in-law, Uncle Franz, then became her guardian.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Uncle Franz did not treat Maria well and punished her for things she did not do. (He later was found to be mentally ill.) This changed Maria from the shy child she was and, as a teenager, she became the "class cut-up", figuring she may as well have fun if she was going to get in trouble either way. Despite this change, Maria continued to get good grades.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: After graduating from high school at 15, Maria ran away to stay with a friend with the intent to become a tutor for children staying at nearby hotels. As she looked so young, no one took her seriously. Finally, a hotel manager asked her to be the umpire for a tennis tournament. Although she did not know what an umpire was and had never played tennis, she took the job.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: From this job, she saved enough money to enter the State Teachers College for Progressive Education in Vienna, where she also received a scholarship. She graduated from there at age 18, in 1923.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: In 1924, she entered Nonnberg Abbey, a Benedictine monastery in Salzburg, as a postulant intending to become a nun.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria was asked to teach one of the seven children (Maria Franziska) of widowed naval commander Georg von Trapp in 1926, while she was still a schoolteacher at the abbey. His wife, Agathe Whitehead, had died in 1922 from scarlet fever. Eventually, Maria began to look after the other children (Rupert, Agathe, Werner, Hedwig, Johanna and Martina), as well.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Captain von Trapp saw how much she cared about his children and asked her to marry him, although he was 25 years her senior. She was frightened and fled back to Nonnberg Abbey to seek guidance from the mother abbess, Virgilia Lütz, who advised her that it was God's will that she should marry him. She then returned to the family and accepted his proposal. She wrote in her autobiography that she was very angry on her wedding day, both at God and at her new husband, because what she really wanted was to be a nun. "I really and truly was not in love. I liked him but didn't love him. However, I loved the children, so in a way I really married the children. I learned to love him more than I have ever loved before or after." They were married on 26 November 1927 and had three children together: Rosmarie (1929-2022), Eleonore ("Lorli") (1931-2021) and Johannes (born 1939).


title: Maria von Trapp

text: The Von Trapps enjoyed hiking. On one outing, they stayed overnight at a farmer's house. The next morning, they were informed that two of his daughters had scarlet fever. Georg's children, Maria, Johanna, and Martina were infected. Johanna and Martina recovered, but the older Maria developed kidney stones, due to dehydration. Her stepdaughter, Maria, accompanied her to Vienna for a successful surgery, but Maria experienced lifelong kidney problems.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: The family met with financial ruin in 1935. Georg had transferred his savings from a bank in London to an Austrian bank run by a friend named Frau Lammer. Austria was experiencing economic difficulties during a worldwide depression because of the Crash of 1929 and Lammer's bank failed. To survive, the Trapps discharged most of their servants, moved into the top floor of their house, and rented out the other rooms. The Archbishop of Salzburg, Sigismund Waitz, sent Father Franz Wasner to stay with them as their chaplain and this began their singing career.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Soprano Lotte Lehmann heard the family sing, and she suggested they perform at concerts. When the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg heard them over the radio, he invited them to perform in Vienna.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: After performing at a festival in 1935, they became a popular touring act. They experienced life under the Nazis after the annexation of Austria by Germany in March 1938. Life became increasingly difficult as they witnessed hostility toward Jewish children by their classmates, the use of children against their parents, the advocacy of abortion both by Maria's doctor and by her son's school and finally by the induction of Georg into the German Navy. They visited Munich in the summer of 1938 and encountered Hitler at a restaurant. In September, the family left Austria and traveled to Italy, then to England and finally the United States. The Nazis made use of their abandoned home as Heinrich Himmler's headquarters.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Initially calling themselves the "Trapp Family Choir", the von Trapps began to perform in the United States and Canada. They performed in New York City at The Town Hall on 10 December 1938. The "New York Times" wrote:


title: Maria von Trapp

text: There was something unusually lovable and appealing about the modest, serious singers of this little family aggregation as they formed a close semicircle about their self-effacing director for their initial offering, the handsome Mme. von Trapp in simple black, and the youthful sisters garbed in black and white Austrian folk costumes enlivened with red ribbons. It was only natural to expect work of exceeding refinement from them, and one was not disappointed in this.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Charles Wagner was their first booking agent, then they signed on with Frederick Christian Schang. Thinking the name "Trapp Family Choir" too churchy, Schang Americanized their repertoire and, following his suggestion, the group changed its name to the "Trapp Family Singers". The family, which by then included ten children, was soon touring the world giving concert performances. Alix Williamson served as the group's publicist for over two decades. After the war, they founded the Trapp Family Austrian Relief fund, which sent food and clothing to people impoverished in Austria.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: In the 1940s, the family moved to Stowe, Vermont, where they ran a music camp when they were not touring. In 1944, Maria Augusta, Maria Franziska, Johanna, Martina, Hedwig and Agathe applied for U.S. citizenship, whereas Georg never applied to become a citizen. Rupert and Werner became citizens by serving during World War II, while Rosmarie and Eleonore became citizens by virtue of their mother's citizenship. Johannes was born in the United States in Philadelphia on the 17th January 1939 during a concert tour. Georg von Trapp died in 1947 in Vermont after suffering lung cancer.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: The family made a series of 78-rpm records for RCA Victor in the 1950s, some of which were later issued on RCA Camden LPs. There were also a few later recordings released on LPs, including some stereo sessions. In 1957, the Trapp Family Singers disbanded and went their separate ways. Maria and three of her children became missionaries in Papua New Guinea. In 1965, Maria moved back to Vermont to manage the Trapp Family Lodge, which had been named "Cor Unum". She began turning over management of the lodge to her son Johannes, although she was initially reluctant to do so.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria von Trapp died of heart failure on 28 March 1987, aged 82, in Morrisville, Vermont, three days following surgery. She is interred in the family cemetery at the lodge, along with her husband and five of her step-children.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria von Trapp's book, "The Story of the Trapp Family Singers", published in 1949, was a best-seller. It was made into two successful German / Austrian films:


title: Maria von Trapp

text: The book was then adapted into "The Sound of Music", a 1959 Broadway musical by Rodgers and Hammerstein, starring Mary Martin and Theodore Bikel. It was a success, running for more than three years. The musical was adapted in 1965 as a motion picture of the same name, starring Julie Andrews. The film version set US box office records, and Maria von Trapp received about $500,000 ($ today) in royalties.


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria von Trapp made a cameo appearance in the movie version of "The Sound of Music" (1965). For an instant, she, her daughter Rosmarie, and Werner's daughter Barbara can be seen walking past an archway during the song, "I Have Confidence", at the line, "I must stop these doubts, all these worries / If I don't, I just know I'll turn back."


title: Maria von Trapp

text: Maria von Trapp sang "Edelweiss" with Andrews on "The Julie Andrews Hour " in 1973. In 1991, a 40 episode anime series, titled "Trapp Family Story" aired in Japan, her character referred to by her maiden name (Maria Kutschera), voiced by Masako Katsuki. She was portrayed in the 2015 film "" by Yvonne Catterfeld.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: Suspicion is a British thriller television miniseries based on the Israeli series "False Flag". Set in London and New York City, the series premiered on Apple TV+ on 4 February 2022. It received generally mixed reviews from critics.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: Five people – three men and two women – have their lives turned upside down after being identified by London police as suspects in the kidnapping and subsequent disappearance of American media mogul Katherine Newman's son Leonardo.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: In July 2019, Apple announced the development of an English-language version of award-winning Israeli thriller "False Flag", created by Maria Feldman and Amit Cohen, with Keshet International, the distribution and production arm of Keshet Media Group, the same company behind the original Hebrew-language series. In March 2020, Apple ordered an eight-part series to be produced by Keshet's British production arm, Keshet UK, and directed by Chris Long, with Rob Williams serving as showrunner. Both also executive produced along with Howard Burch, Avi Nir, Anna Winger, Maria Feldman, Amit Cohen and Liat Benasuly.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: Along with the series order in March 2020, Uma Thurman was cast to star in "Suspicion", with Kunal Nayyar, Noah Emmerich, Georgina Campbell, Elyes Gabel, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Angel Coulby also joining the cast. In November 2020, it was reported that Tom Rhys Harries had joined the cast.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: As of March 2020, production had reportedly begun in the United Kingdom on "Suspicion", but had to be suspended due the COVID-19 pandemic. In September 2020, Apple was reportedly preparing to restart filming in England, with filming confirmed to have started in November 2020 in Brixham. Filming also occurred in New York City in May 2021, with several cast members being seen on set in Central Park, Washington Square Park, and the Upper East Side. Season one concluded filming on May 18, 2021.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: The eight-part series premiered with two episodes being released on Apple TV+ on Friday, 4 February 2022, with the remaining six episodes airing every Friday thereafter.


title: Suspicion (2022 TV series)

text: "The Hollywood Reporter"s Angie Han writes, ""Suspicion" is broadly competent, in that the dialogue is serviceable, the performances unobjectionable (though those watching for Thurman should be warned she’s barely in it at all), the narrative easy enough to follow." Barbara Ellen of "The Observer" said the drama was "undone by erratic drama and nonsensical themes". "The Wall Street Journal" 's Dorothy Rabinowitz was more complimentary, dubbing it "ambitious".


title: Navel

text: The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, commonly known as the belly button or tummy button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the abdomen at the attachment site of the umbilical cord. All placental mammals have a navel, although it is generally more conspicuous in humans.


title: Navel

text: The umbilicus is a prominent scar on the abdomen, with its position being relatively consistent among humans. The skin around the waist at the level of the umbilicus is supplied by the tenth thoracic spinal nerve (T10 dermatome). The umbilicus itself typically lies at a vertical level corresponding to the junction between the L3 and L4 vertebrae, with a normal variation among people between the L3 and L5 vertebrae.


title: Navel

text: Parts of the adult navel include the "umbilical cord remnant" or "umbilical tip", which is the often protruding scar left by the detachment of the umbilical cord. This is located in the center of the navel, sometimes described as the "belly button". Around the cord remnant, is the "umbilical collar", formed by the dense fibrous umbilical ring. Surrounding the umbilical collar is the periumbilical skin. Directly behind the navel is a thick fibrous cord formed from the umbilical cord, called the urachus, which originates from the bladder.


title: Navel

text: The navel is unique to each individual due to its being a scar, and various general forms have been classified by medical practitioners.


title: Navel

text: Outies are sometimes mistaken for umbilical hernias; however, they are a completely different shape with no health concern, unlike an umbilical hernia. The navel (specifically abdominal wall) would be considered an umbilical hernia if the protrusion were 5 centimeters or more. The diameter of an umbilical hernia is usually 1/2-inch or more. Navels that are concave are nicknamed "innies". While the shape of the human navel may be affected by long term changes to diet and exercise, unexpected change in shape may be the result of ascites.


title: Navel

text: In addition to change in shape being a possible side effect from ascites and umbilical hernias, the navel can be involved in umbilical sinus or fistula, which in rare cases can lead to menstrual or fecal discharge from the navel. Menstrual discharge from the umbilicus is a rare disorder associated with umbilical endometriosis.


title: Navel

text: To minimize scarring, the navel is a recommended site of incision for various surgeries, including transgastric appendicectomy, gall bladder surgery, and the umbilicoplasty procedure itself.


title: Navel

text: The public exposure of the male and female midriff and bare navel was considered taboo at times in the past in Western cultures, being considered immodest or indecent. Female navel exposure was banned in some jurisdictions, but community perceptions have changed to this now being acceptable. The crop top is a shirt that often exposes the belly button and has become more common among young people. Exposure of the male navel has rarely been stigmatised and has become particularly popular in recent years, due to the strong resurgence of the male crop top and male navel piercing. The navel and midriff are often also displayed in bikinis, or when low-rise pants are worn.


title: Navel

text: While the West was relatively resistant to navel-baring clothing until the 1980s, it has long been a fashion with Indian women, often displayed with saris or lehengas.


title: Navel

text: The Japanese have long had a special regard for the navel. During the early Jōmon period in northern Japan, three small balls indicating the breasts and navel were pasted onto flat clay objects to represent the female body. The navel was exaggerated in size, informed by the belief that the navel symbolized the center where life began.


title: Navel

text: In Arabic-Levantine culture, belly dancing is a popular art form that consists of dance movements focused on the torso and navel.


title: Navel

text: Buddhism and Hinduism refer to the chakra of the navel as the manipura. In qigong, the navel is seen as the main energy centre, or dantian. In Hinduism, the Kundalini energy is sometimes described as being located at the navel.


title: Finite element method

text: The finite element method (FEM) is a popular method for numerically solving differential equations arising in engineering and mathematical modeling. Typical problem areas of interest include the traditional fields of structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport, and electromagnetic potential.


title: Finite element method

text: The FEM is a general numerical method for solving partial differential equations in two or three space variables (i.e., some boundary value problems). To solve a problem, the FEM subdivides a large system into smaller, simpler parts that are called finite elements. This is achieved by a particular space discretization in the space dimensions, which is implemented by the construction of a mesh of the object: the numerical domain for the solution, which has a finite number of points.


title: Finite element method

text: The finite element method formulation of a boundary value problem finally results in a system of algebraic equations. The method approximates the unknown function over the domain.


title: Finite element method

text: The simple equations that model these finite elements are then assembled into a larger system of equations that models the entire problem. The FEM then approximates a solution by minimizing an associated error function via the calculus of variations.


title: Finite element method

text: The global system of equations has known solution techniques, and can be calculated from the initial values of the original problem to obtain a numerical answer.


title: Finite element method

text: In the first step above, the element equations are simple equations that locally approximate the original complex equations to be studied, where the original equations are often partial differential equations (PDE). To explain the approximation in this process, the finite element method is commonly introduced as a special case of Galerkin method. The process, in mathematical language, is to construct an integral of the inner product of the residual and the weight functions and set the integral to zero. In simple terms, it is a procedure that minimizes the error of approximation by fitting trial functions into the PDE. The residual is the error caused by the trial functions, and the weight functions are polynomial approximation functions that project the residual. The process eliminates all the spatial derivatives from the PDE, thus approximating the PDE locally with


title: Finite element method

text: These equation sets are the element equations. They are linear if the underlying PDE is linear, and vice versa. Algebraic equation sets that arise in the steady-state problems are solved using numerical linear algebra methods, while ordinary differential equation sets that arise in the transient problems are solved by numerical integration using standard techniques such as Euler's method or the Runge-Kutta method.


title: Finite element method

text: In step (2) above, a global system of equations is generated from the element equations through a transformation of coordinates from the subdomains' local nodes to the domain's global nodes. This spatial transformation includes appropriate orientation adjustments as applied in relation to the reference coordinate system. The process is often carried out by FEM software using coordinate data generated from the subdomains.


title: Finite element method

text: The practical application of FEM is known as "finite element analysis" (FEA). FEA as applied in engineering is a computational tool for performing engineering analysis. It includes the use of mesh generation techniques for dividing a complex problem into small elements, as well as the use of software coded with a FEM algorithm. In applying FEA, the complex problem is usually a physical system with the underlying physics such as the Euler–Bernoulli beam equation, the heat equation, or the Navier-Stokes equations expressed in either PDE or integral equations, while the divided small elements of the complex problem represent different areas in the physical system.


title: Finite element method

text: FEA may be used for analyzing problems over complicated domains (like cars and oil pipelines), when the domain changes (as during a solid-state reaction with a moving boundary), when the desired precision varies over the entire domain, or when the solution lacks smoothness. FEA simulations provide a valuable resource as they remove multiple instances of creation and testing of hard prototypes for various high fidelity situations. For instance, in a frontal crash simulation it is possible to increase prediction accuracy in "important" areas like the front of the car and reduce it in its rear (thus reducing the cost of the simulation). Another example would be in numerical weather prediction, where it is more important to have accurate predictions over developing highly nonlinear phenomena (such as tropical cyclones in the atmosphere, or eddies in the ocean) rather than relatively calm areas.


title: Finite element method

text: A clear, detailed and practical presentation of this approach can be found in "The Finite Element Method for Engineers".


title: Finite element method

text: While it is difficult to quote a date of the invention of the finite element method, the method originated from the need to solve complex elasticity and structural analysis problems in civil and aeronautical engineering. Its development can be traced back to the work by A. Hrennikoff and R. Courant in the early 1940s. Another pioneer was Ioannis Argyris. In the USSR, the introduction of the practical application of the method is usually connected with name of Leonard Oganesyan. It was also independently rediscovered in China by Feng Kang in the later 1950s and early 1960s, based on the computations of dam constructions, where it was called the "finite difference method based on variation principle". Although the approaches used by these pioneers are different, they share one essential characteristic: mesh discretization of a continuous domain into a set of discrete sub-domains, usually called elements.


title: Finite element method

text: Hrennikoff's work discretizes the domain by using a lattice analogy, while Courant's approach divides the domain into finite triangular subregions to solve second order elliptic partial differential equations that arise from the problem of torsion of a cylinder. Courant's contribution was evolutionary, drawing on a large body of earlier results for PDEs developed by Rayleigh, Ritz, and Galerkin.


title: Finite element method

text: The finite element method obtained its real impetus in the 1960s and 1970s by the developments of J. H. Argyris with co-workers at the University of Stuttgart, R. W. Clough with co-workers at UC Berkeley, O. C. Zienkiewicz with co-workers Ernest Hinton, Bruce Irons and others at Swansea University, Philippe G. Ciarlet at the University of Paris 6 and Richard Gallagher with co-workers at Cornell University. Further impetus was provided in these years by available open source finite element programs. NASA sponsored the original version of NASTRAN, and UC Berkeley made the finite element program SAP IV widely available. In Norway the ship classification society Det Norske Veritas (now DNV GL) developed Sesam in 1969 for use in analysis of ships. A rigorous mathematical basis to the finite element method was provided in 1973 with the publication by Strang and Fix. The method has since been generalized for the numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety of engineering disciplines, e.g., electromagnetism, heat transfer, and fluid dynamics.


title: Finite element method

text: A finite element method is characterized by a variational formulation, a discretization strategy, one or more solution algorithms, and post-processing procedures.


title: Finite element method

text: Examples of the variational formulation are the Galerkin method, the discontinuous Galerkin method, mixed methods, etc.


title: Finite element method

text: A discretization strategy is understood to mean a clearly defined set of procedures that cover (a) the creation of finite element meshes, (b) the definition of basis function on reference elements (also called shape functions) and (c) the mapping of reference elements onto the elements of the mesh. Examples of discretization strategies are the h-version, p-version, hp-version, x-FEM, isogeometric analysis, etc. Each discretization strategy has certain advantages and disadvantages. A reasonable criterion in selecting a discretization strategy is to realize nearly optimal performance for the broadest set of mathematical models in a particular model class.


title: Finite element method

text: Various numerical solution algorithms can be classified into two broad categories; direct and iterative solvers. These algorithms are designed to exploit the sparsity of matrices that depend on the choices of variational formulation and discretization strategy.


title: Finite element method

text: Postprocessing procedures are designed for the extraction of the data of interest from a finite element solution. In order to meet the requirements of solution verification, postprocessors need to provide for "a posteriori" error estimation in terms of the quantities of interest. When the errors of approximation are larger than what is considered acceptable then the discretization has to be changed either by an automated adaptive process or by the action of the analyst. There are some very efficient postprocessors that provide for the realization of superconvergence.


title: Finite element method

text: where formula_2 is given, formula_3 is an unknown function of formula_4, and formula_5 is the second derivative of formula_3 with respect to formula_4.


title: Finite element method

text: where formula_9 is a connected open region in the formula_10 plane whose boundary formula_11 is nice (e.g., a smooth manifold or a polygon), and formula_12 and formula_13 denote the second derivatives with respect to formula_4 and formula_15, respectively.


title: Finite element method

text: The problem P1 can be solved directly by computing antiderivatives. However, this method of solving the boundary value problem (BVP) works only when there is one spatial dimension and does not generalize to higher-dimensional problems or problems like formula_16. For this reason, we will develop the finite element method for P1 and outline its generalization to P2.


title: Finite element method

text: Our explanation will proceed in two steps, which mirror two essential steps one must take to solve a boundary value problem (BVP) using the FEM.


title: Finite element method

text: After this second step, we have concrete formulae for a large but finite-dimensional linear problem whose solution will approximately solve the original BVP. This finite-dimensional problem is then implemented on a computer.


title: Finite element method

text: If formula_3 solves P1, then for any smooth function formula_18 that satisfies the displacement boundary conditions, i.e. formula_19 at formula_20 and formula_21, we have


title: Finite element method

text: Conversely, if formula_3 with formula_23 satisfies (1) for every smooth function formula_24 then one may show that this formula_3 will solve P1. The proof is easier for twice continuously differentiable formula_3 (mean value theorem), but may be proved in a distributional sense as well.


title: Finite element method

text: We define a new operator or map formula_27 by using integration by parts on the right-hand-side of (1):


title: Finite element method

text: If we integrate by parts using a form of Green's identities, we see that if formula_3 solves P2, then we may define formula_27 for any formula_18 by


title: Finite element method

text: where formula_33 denotes the gradient and formula_34 denotes the dot product in the two-dimensional plane. Once more formula_35 can be turned into an inner product on a suitable space formula_36 of once differentiable functions of formula_9 that are zero on formula_11. We have also assumed that formula_39 (see Sobolev spaces). Existence and uniqueness of the solution can also be shown.


title: Finite element method

text: We can loosely think of formula_40 to be the absolutely continuous functions of formula_41 that are formula_42 at formula_20 and formula_21 (see Sobolev spaces). Such functions are (weakly) once differentiable and it turns out that the symmetric bilinear map formula_45 then defines an inner product which turns formula_40 into a Hilbert space (a detailed proof is nontrivial). On the other hand, the left-hand-side formula_47 is also an inner product, this time on the Lp space formula_48. An application of the Riesz representation theorem for Hilbert spaces shows that there is a unique formula_3 solving (2) and therefore P1. This solution is a-priori only a member of formula_40, but using elliptic regularity, will be smooth if formula_2 is.


title: Finite element method

text: P1 and P2 are ready to be discretized which leads to a common sub-problem (3). The basic idea is to replace the infinite-dimensional linear problem:


title: Finite element method

text: where formula_54 is a finite-dimensional subspace of formula_55. There are many possible choices for formula_54 (one possibility leads to the spectral method). However, for the finite element method we take formula_54 to be a space of piecewise polynomial functions.


title: Finite element method

text: We take the interval formula_41, choose formula_59 values of formula_4 with formula_61 and we define formula_54 by:


title: Finite element method

text: where we define formula_64 and formula_65. Observe that functions in formula_54 are not differentiable according to the elementary definition of calculus. Indeed, if formula_67 then the derivative is typically not defined at any formula_68, formula_69. However, the derivative exists at every other value of formula_4 and one can use this derivative for the purpose of integration by parts.


title: Finite element method

text: We need formula_54 to be a set of functions of formula_9. In the figure on the right, we have illustrated a triangulation of a 15 sided polygonal region formula_9 in the plane (below), and a piecewise linear function (above, in color) of this polygon which is linear on each triangle of the triangulation; the space formula_54 would consist of functions that are linear on each triangle of the chosen triangulation.


title: Finite element method

text: One hopes that as the underlying triangular mesh becomes finer and finer, the solution of the discrete problem (3) will in some sense converge to the solution of the original boundary value problem P2. To measure this mesh fineness, the triangulation is indexed by a real-valued parameter formula_75 which one takes to be very small. This parameter will be related to the size of the largest or average triangle in the triangulation. As we refine the triangulation, the space of piecewise linear functions formula_54 must also change with formula_77. For this reason, one often reads formula_78 instead of formula_54 in the literature. Since we do not perform such an analysis, we will not use this notation.


title: Finite element method

text: To complete the discretization, we must select a basis of formula_54. In the one-dimensional case, for each control point formula_81 we will choose the piecewise linear function formula_82 in formula_54 whose value is formula_84 at formula_81 and zero at every formula_86, i.e.,


title: Finite element method

text: for formula_88; this basis is a shifted and scaled tent function. For the two-dimensional case, we choose again one basis function formula_82 per vertex formula_81 of the triangulation of the planar region formula_9. The function formula_82 is the unique function of formula_54 whose value is formula_84 at formula_81 and zero at every formula_86.


title: Finite element method

text: Depending on the author, the word "element" in the "finite element method" refers either to the triangles in the domain, the piecewise linear basis function, or both. So for instance, an author interested in curved domains might replace the triangles with curved primitives, and so might describe the elements as being curvilinear. On the other hand, some authors replace "piecewise linear" by "piecewise quadratic" or even "piecewise polynomial". The author might then say "higher order element" instead of "higher degree polynomial". The finite element method is not restricted to triangles (or tetrahedra in 3-d, or higher-order simplexes in multidimensional spaces), but can be defined on quadrilateral subdomains (hexahedra, prisms, or pyramids in 3-d, and so on). Higher-order shapes (curvilinear elements) can be defined with polynomial and even non-polynomial shapes (e.g. ellipse or circle).


title: Finite element method

text: Examples of methods that use higher degree piecewise polynomial basis functions are the hp-FEM and spectral FEM.


title: Finite element method

text: More advanced implementations (adaptive finite element methods) utilize a method to assess the quality of the results (based on error estimation theory) and modify the mesh during the solution aiming to achieve an approximate solution within some bounds from the exact solution of the continuum problem. Mesh adaptivity may utilize various techniques, the most popular are:


title: Finite element method

text: In the one dimensional case, the support of formula_82 is the interval formula_103. Hence, the integrands of formula_100 and "formula_105" are identically zero whenever formula_106.


title: Finite element method

text: Similarly, in the planar case, if formula_107 and formula_81 do not share an edge of the triangulation, then the integrals


title: Finite element method

text: If we write formula_111 and formula_112 then problem (3), taking formula_113 for formula_114, becomes


title: Finite element method

text: If we denote by formula_115 and formula_116 the column vectors formula_117 and formula_118, and if we let


title: Finite element method

text: It is not necessary to assume formula_112. For a general function formula_124, problem (3) with formula_113 for formula_114 becomes actually simpler, since no matrix formula_127 is used,


title: Finite element method

text: As we have discussed before, most of the entries of formula_131 and formula_127 are zero because the basis functions formula_82 have small support. So we now have to solve a linear system in the unknown formula_115 where most of the entries of the matrix formula_131, which we need to invert, are zero.


title: Finite element method

text: Such matrices are known as sparse matrices, and there are efficient solvers for such problems (much more efficient than actually inverting the matrix.) In addition, formula_131 is symmetric and positive definite, so a technique such as the conjugate gradient method is favored. For problems that are not too large, sparse LU decompositions and Cholesky decompositions still work well. For instance, MATLAB's backslash operator (which uses sparse LU, sparse Cholesky, and other factorization methods) can be sufficient for meshes with a hundred thousand vertices.


title: Finite element method

text: The matrix formula_131 is usually referred to as the stiffness matrix, while the matrix formula_127 is dubbed the mass matrix.


title: Finite element method

text: Separate consideration is the smoothness of the basis functions. For second-order elliptic boundary value problems, piecewise polynomial basis function that is merely continuous suffice (i.e., the derivatives are discontinuous.) For higher-order partial differential equations, one must use smoother basis functions. For instance, for a fourth-order problem such as formula_140, one may use piecewise quadratic basis functions that are formula_141.


title: Finite element method

text: Another consideration is the relation of the finite-dimensional space formula_54 to its infinite-dimensional counterpart, in the examples above formula_55. A conforming element method is one in which space formula_54 is a subspace of the element space for the continuous problem. The example above is such a method. If this condition is not satisfied, we obtain a nonconforming element method, an example of which is the space of piecewise linear functions over the mesh which are continuous at each edge midpoint. Since these functions are in general discontinuous along the edges, this finite-dimensional space is not a subspace of the original formula_55.


title: Finite element method

text: Typically, one has an algorithm for taking a given mesh and subdividing it. If the main method for increasing precision is to subdivide the mesh, one has an "h"-method ("h" is customarily the diameter of the largest element in the mesh.) In this manner, if one shows that the error with a grid formula_77 is bounded above by formula_147, for some formula_148 and formula_149, then one has an order "p" method. Under certain hypotheses (for instance, if the domain is convex), a piecewise polynomial of order formula_150 method will have an error of order formula_151.


title: Finite element method

text: If instead of making "h" smaller, one increases the degree of the polynomials used in the basis function, one has a "p"-method. If one combines these two refinement types, one obtains an "hp"-method (hp-FEM). In the hp-FEM, the polynomial degrees can vary from element to element. High order methods with large uniform "p" are called spectral finite element methods (SFEM). These are not to be confused with spectral methods.


title: Finite element method

text: The Applied Element Method or AEM combines features of both FEM and Discrete element method, or (DEM).


title: Finite element method

text: The Augmented-Finite Element Method is introduced by Yang and Lui whose goal was to model the weak and strong discontinuities without the need of extra DoFs as in PuM stated.


title: Finite element method

text: The generalized finite element method (GFEM) uses local spaces consisting of functions, not necessarily polynomials, that reflect the available information on the unknown solution and thus ensure good local approximation. Then a partition of unity is used to “bond” these spaces together to form the approximating subspace. The effectiveness of GFEM has been shown when applied to problems with domains having complicated boundaries, problems with micro-scales, and problems with boundary layers.


title: Finite element method

text: The mixed finite element method is a type of finite element method in which extra independent variables are introduced as nodal variables during the discretization of a partial differential equation problem.


title: Finite element method

text: The hp-FEM combines adaptively, elements with variable size "h" and polynomial degree "p" in order to achieve exceptionally fast, exponential convergence rates.


title: Finite element method

text: The hpk-FEM combines adaptively, elements with variable size "h", polynomial degree of the local approximations "p" and global differentiability of the local approximations "(k-1)" to achieve best convergence rates.


title: Finite element method

text: The extended finite element method (XFEM) is a numerical technique based on the generalized finite element method (GFEM) and the partition of unity method (PUM). It extends the classical finite element method by enriching the solution space for solutions to differential equations with discontinuous functions. Extended finite element methods enrich the approximation space so that it can naturally reproduce the challenging feature associated with the problem of interest: the discontinuity, singularity, boundary layer, etc. It was shown that for some problems, such an embedding of the problem's feature into the approximation space can significantly improve convergence rates and accuracy. Moreover, treating problems with discontinuities with XFEMs suppresses the need to mesh and re-mesh the discontinuity surfaces, thus alleviating the computational costs and projection errors associated with conventional finite element methods, at the cost of restricting the discontinuities to mesh edges.


title: Finite element method

text: XFEM has also been implemented in codes like Altair Radios, ASTER, Morfeo, and Abaqus. It is increasingly being adopted by other commercial finite element software, with a few plugins and actual core implementations available (ANSYS, SAMCEF, OOFELIE, etc.).


title: Finite element method

text: The introduction of the scaled boundary finite element method (SBFEM) came from Song and Wolf (1997). The SBFEM has been one of the most profitable contributions in the area of numerical analysis of fracture mechanics problems. It is a semi-analytical fundamental-solutionless method which combines the advantages of both the finite element formulations and procedures and the boundary element discretization. However, unlike the boundary element method, no fundamental differential solution is required.


title: Finite element method

text: The S-FEM, Smoothed Finite Element Methods, is a particular class of numerical simulation algorithms for the simulation of physical phenomena. It was developed by combining meshfree methods with the finite element method.


title: Finite element method

text: Spectral element methods combine the geometric flexibility of finite elements and the acute accuracy of spectral methods. Spectral methods are the approximate solution of weak form partial equations that are based on high-order Lagrangian interpolants and used only with certain quadrature rules.


title: Finite element method

text: Crystal plasticity finite element method (CPFEM) is an advanced numerical tool developed by Franz Roters. Metals can be regarded as crystal aggregates and it behave anisotropy under deformation, for example, abnormal stress and strain localization. CPFEM based on slip (shear strain rate) can calculate dislocation, crystal orientation and other texture information to consider crystal anisotropy during the routine. Now it has been applied in the numerical study of material deformation, surface roughness, fractures and so on.


title: Finite element method

text: The virtual element method (VEM), introduced by Beirão da Veiga et al. (2013) as an extension of mimetic finite difference (MFD) methods, is a generalisation of the standard finite element method for arbitrary element geometries. This allows admission of general polygons (or polyhedra in 3D) that are highly irregular and non-convex in shape. The name "virtual" derives from the fact that knowledge of the local shape function basis is not required, and is in fact never explicitly calculated.


title: Finite element method

text: Some types of finite element methods (conforming, nonconforming, mixed finite element methods) are particular cases of the gradient discretization method (GDM). Hence the convergence properties of the GDM, which are established for a series of problems (linear and non-linear elliptic problems, linear, nonlinear, and degenerate parabolic problems), hold as well for these particular finite element methods.


title: Finite element method

text: The finite difference method (FDM) is an alternative way of approximating solutions of PDEs. The differences between FEM and FDM are:


title: Finite element method

text: Generally, FEM is the method of choice in all types of analysis in structural mechanics (i.e. solving for deformation and stresses in solid bodies or dynamics of structures) while computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tend to use FDM or other methods like finite volume method (FVM). CFD problems usually require discretization of the problem into a large number of cells/gridpoints (millions and more), therefore the cost of the solution favors simpler, lower-order approximation within each cell. This is especially true for 'external flow' problems, like airflow around the car or airplane, or weather simulation.


title: Finite element method

text: A variety of specializations under the umbrella of the mechanical engineering discipline (such as aeronautical, biomechanical, and automotive industries) commonly use integrated FEM in the design and development of their products. Several modern FEM packages include specific components such as thermal, electromagnetic, fluid, and structural working environments. In a structural simulation, FEM helps tremendously in producing stiffness and strength visualizations and also in minimizing weight, materials, and costs.


title: Finite element method

text: FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the distribution of stresses and displacements. FEM software provides a wide range of simulation options for controlling the complexity of both modeling and analysis of a system. Similarly, the desired level of accuracy required and associated computational time requirements can be managed simultaneously to address most engineering applications. FEM allows entire designs to be constructed, refined, and optimized before the design is manufactured. The mesh is an integral part of the model and it must be controlled carefully to give the best results. Generally the higher the number of elements in a mesh, the more accurate the solution of the discretized problem. However, there is a value at which the results converge and further mesh refinement does not increase accuracy.


title: Finite element method

text: This powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs and the methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. The introduction of FEM has substantially decreased the time to take products from concept to the production line. It is primarily through improved initial prototype designs using FEM that testing and development have been accelerated. In summary, benefits of FEM include increased accuracy, enhanced design and better insight into critical design parameters, virtual prototyping, fewer hardware prototypes, a faster and less expensive design cycle, increased productivity, and increased revenue.


title: Finite element method

text: In the 1990s FEM was proposed for use in stochastic modelling for numerically solving probability models and later for reliability assessment.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Jean-Paul Marat (; born Mara; 24 May 1743 – 13 July 1793) was a French political theorist, physician, and scientist. A journalist and politician during the French Revolution, he was a vigorous defender of the "sans-culottes", a radical voice, and published his views in pamphlets, placards and newspapers. His periodical "L'Ami du peuple" ("Friend of the People") made him an unofficial link with the radical Jacobin group that came to power after June 1793.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: His journalism was known for its fierce tone and uncompromising stance toward the new leaders and institutions of the revolution. Responsibility for the September massacres has been attributed to him, given his position of renown at the time, and an alleged paper trail of decisions leading up to the massacres. Others posit the collective mentality that made them possible resulted from circumstances and not from the will of any particular individual. Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin sympathizer, while taking a medicinal bath for his debilitating skin condition. Corday was executed four days later for his assassination, on 17 July 1793.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In death, Marat became an icon to the Montagnards faction of the Jacobins as well as the greater sans-culotte population, and a revolutionary martyr; according to contemporary accounts, some even mourned him with a kind of prayer: "O heart of Jesus! O sacred heart of Marat". The most famous painter in Paris, Jacques-Louis David, immortalized Marat in his iconic painting "The Death of Marat". David and Marat were part of the Paris Commune leadership anchored in the Cordeliers section, from where the Revolution is said to have started in 1789 because those who stormed the Bastille lived there. Both David and Marat were on the Commune's Committee of General Security during the beginnings of what would become known as the Reign of Terror.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Jean-Paul Marat was born in Boudry, in the Prussian Principality of Neuchâtel (now a canton of Switzerland), on 24 May 1743. He was the first of five children born to Jean Mara (born Juan Salvador Mara; 1704–1783), a Sardinian from Cagliari of Spanish descent, and Louise Cabrol (1724–1782), from Geneva. His father studied in Spain and Sardinia before becoming a Mercedarian monk in 1720, at age 16, but at some point left the order and converted to Calvinism, and in 1740 immigrated to the Protestant Republic of Geneva. His mother, who had Huguenot background from both sides of her family, was the daughter of French "perruquier" Louis Cabrol, originally from Castres, Languedoc, and Genevan citizen after 1723, and his wife Pauline-Catherine Molinier. Jean Mara and Louise Cabrol married on 19 March 1741 at the parish church of Le Petit-Saconnex, a district of Geneva. One of Marat's brothers, David Mara (born in 1756), was a professor at the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum in the Russian Empire, where he had Alexander Pushkin as his student.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat's family lived in moderate circumstances, as his father was well educated but unable to secure a stable profession. Marat credits his father for instilling in him a love of learning. He explains he felt "exceptionally fortunate to have had the advantage of receiving a very careful education in my paternal home." From his mother, he claims to have been taught a strong sense of morality and social conscience. Marat left home at the age of 16, desiring to seek an education in France. He was aware of the limited opportunities for those seen as outsiders as his highly educated father had been turned down for several college (secondary) teaching posts. In 1754 his family settled in Neuchâtel, capital of the Principality, where Marat's father began working as a tutor.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat received his early education in the city of Neuchâtel and there was a student of Jean-Élie Bertrand, who later founded the Société typographique de Neuchâtel. At 17 years of age he applied for the expedition of Jean-Baptiste Chappe d'Auteroche to Tobolsk to measure the transit of Venus, but was turned down. His first patronage was fulfilled with the wealthy Nairac family in Bordeaux, where he stayed for two years. He then moved to Paris and studied medicine without gaining any formal qualifications. After moving to France, Jean-Paul Mara francized his surname as "Marat".


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: He worked, informally, as a doctor after moving to London in 1765 due to a fear of being "drawn into dissipation". While there he befriended the Royal Academician artist Angelica Kauffman. His social circle included Italian artists and architects who met in coffee houses around Soho. Highly ambitious, but without patronage or qualifications, he set about inserting himself into the intellectual scene.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Around 1770, Marat moved to Newcastle upon Tyne. His first political work, "Chains of Slavery" (1774), inspired by the extra-parliamentary activities of the disenfranchised MP and later Mayor of London John Wilkes, was most probably compiled in the central library there. By Marat's own account, while composing it he lived on black coffee for three months and slept two hours a night, and after finishing it he slept soundly for 13 days in a row. He gave it the subtitle, "A work in which the clandestine and villainous attempts of Princes to ruin Liberty are pointed out, and the dreadful scenes of Despotism disclosed". In the work, Marat criticized aspects of England's constitution that he believed to be corrupt or despotic. He condemned the King's power to influence Parliament through bribery and attacked limitations on voting rights. "Chains of Slavery's" political ideology take clear inspiration from Jean-Jacques Rousseau by attributing the nation's sovereignty to the common people rather than a monarch. He also suggests that the people express sovereignty through representatives who cannot enact legislation without the approval of the people they represent. This work earned him honorary membership of the patriotic societies of Berwick-upon-Tweed, Carlisle and Newcastle. The Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society Library possesses a copy, and Tyne and Wear Archives Service holds three presented to the various Newcastle guilds.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat published "A Philosophical Essay on Man," in 1773 and "Chains of Slavery," in 1774. Voltaire's sharp critique of "De l'Homme" (an augmented translation, published 1775–76), partly in defence of his protégé Helvétius, reinforced Marat's growing sense of a widening gulf between the "philosophes", grouped around Voltaire on one hand, and their opponents, loosely grouped around Rousseau on the other.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: After a published essay on curing a friend of gleets (gonorrhoea) he secured medical "referees" for an MD from the University of St Andrews in June 1775.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: He published "Enquiry into the Nature, Cause, and Cure of a Singular Disease of the Eyes" on his return to London. In 1776, Marat moved to Paris after stopping in Geneva to visit his family.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In Paris, his growing reputation as a highly effective doctor along with the patronage of the Marquis de l'Aubespine (the husband of one of his patients) secured his appointment as physician to the bodyguard of the Comte d'Artois, Louis XVI's youngest brother who was to become king Charles X in 1824. He began this position in June 1777. The position paid 2,000 livres a year plus allowances.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat set up a laboratory in the Marquise de l'Aubespine's house with funds obtained by serving as court doctor among the aristocracy. His method was to describe in detail the meticulous series of experiments he had undertaken on a problem, seeking to explore and then exclude all possible conclusions but the one he reached.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: He published works on fire and heat, electricity, and light. He published a summary of his scientific views and discoveries in "Découvertes de M. Marat sur le feu, l'électricité et la lumière" (English: "Mr Marat's Discoveries on Fire, Electricity and Light") in 1779. He published three more detailed and extensive works that expanded on each of his areas of research.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: The first of Marat's large-scale publications detailing his experiments and drawing conclusions from them was "Recherches Physiques sur le Feu" (English: "Research into the Physics of Fire"), which was published in 1780 with the approval of the official censors.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: This publication describes 166 experiments conducted to demonstrate that fire was not, as was widely held, a material element but an "igneous fluid." He asked the Academy of Sciences to appraise his work, and it appointed a commission to do so, which reported in April 1779. The report avoided endorsing Marat's conclusions but praised his "new, precise and well-executed experiments, appropriately and ingeniously designed". Marat then published his work, with the claim that the Academy approved of its contents. Since the Academy had endorsed his methods but said nothing about his conclusions, this claim drew the ire of Antoine Lavoisier, who demanded that the Academy repudiate it. When the Academy did so, this marked the beginning of worsening relations between Marat and many of its leading members. A number of them, including Lavoisier himself, as well as Condorcet and Laplace took a strong dislike to Marat. However, Lamarck and Lacépède wrote positively about Marat's experiments and conclusions.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In Marat's time, Newton's views on light and colour were regarded almost universally as definitive, yet Marat's explicit purpose in his second major work "Découvertes sur la Lumière" ("Discoveries on Light") was to demonstrate that in certain key areas, Newton was wrong.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: The focus of Marat's work was the study of how light bends around objects, and his main argument was that while Newton held that white light was broken down into colours by refraction, the colours were actually caused by diffraction. When a beam of sunlight shone through an aperture, passed through a prism and projected colour onto a wall, the splitting of the light into colours took place not in the prism, as Newton maintained, but at the edges of the aperture itself. Marat sought to demonstrate that there are only three primary colours, rather than seven as Newton had argued.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Once again, Marat requested the Academy of Sciences review his work, and it set up a commission to do so. Over a period of seven months, from June 1779 to January 1780, Marat performed his experiments in the presence of the commissioners so that they could appraise his methods and conclusions. The drafting of their final report was assigned to Jean-Baptiste Le Roy. The report was finally produced after many delays in May 1780, and consisted of just three short paragraphs. Significantly, the report concluded that" "these experiments are so very numerous...[but]...they do not appear to us to prove what the author believes they establish". " The Academy declined to endorse Marat's work. When it was published, "Découvertes sur la lumière" did not carry the royal approbation. According to the title page, it was printed in London, so either that Marat could not get the official censor to approve it, or he did not want to spend the time and effort to do so.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat's third major work, "Recherches Physiques sur l'Électricité" (English: "Research on the Physics of Electricity"), outlined 214 experiments. One of his major areas of interest was in electrical attraction and repulsion. Repulsion, he held, was not a basic force of nature. He addressed a number of other areas of enquiry in his work, concluding with a section on lightning rods which argued that those with pointed ends were more effective than those with blunt ends, and denouncing the idea of "earthquake rods" advocated by Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare. This book was published with the censor's stamp of approval, but Marat did not seek the endorsement of the Academy of Sciences.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In April 1783, he resigned his court appointment and devoted his energies full-time to scientific research. Apart from his major works, during this period Marat published shorter essays on the medical use of electricity ("Mémoire sur l'électricité médicale" (1783)) and on optics ("Notions élémentaires d'optique" (1784)). He published a well-received translation of Newton's "Opticks" (1787), which was still in print until recently, and later a collection of essays on his experimental findings, including a study on the effect of light on soap bubbles in his "Mémoires académiques, ou nouvelles découvertes sur la lumière" ("Academic memoirs, or new discoveries on light", 1788). Benjamin Franklin visited him on several occasions and Goethe described his rejection by the Academy as a glaring example of scientific despotism.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In 1780, Marat published his "favourite work," a "Plan de législation criminelle." It was a polemic for penal reform which had been entered into a competition announced by the Berne Economic Society in February 1777 and backed by Frederick the Great and Voltaire. Marat was inspired by Rousseau and Cesare Beccaria's "Il libro dei delitti e delle pene".


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat's entry contained many radical ideas, including the argument that society should provide fundamental natural needs, such as food and shelter, if it expected all its citizens to follow its civil laws, that the king was no more than the "first magistrate" of his people, that there should be a common death penalty regardless of class, and that each town should have a dedicated ""avocat" "des" pauvres" and set up independent criminal tribunals with twelve-man juries to ensure a fair trial.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In 1788, the Assembly of Notables advised Louis XVI to assemble the Estates-General for the first time in 175 years. According to Marat, that in the latter half of 1788, he had been deathly ill. Upon hearing of the King's decision to call together the Estates General, however, he explains that the "news had a powerful effect on me; my illness suddenly broke and my spirits revived". He strongly desired to contribute his ideas to the coming events and subsequently abandoned his career as a scientist and doctor, taking up his pen on behalf of the Third Estate.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat anonymously published his first contribution to the revolution in February 1789, titled "Offrande à la Patrie" ("Offering to the Nation"), which touched on some of the same points as the Abbé Sieyès' famous ""Qu'est-ce que le Tiers État?"" ("What is the Third Estate?"). Marat claimed that this work caused a sensation throughout France, though he likely exaggerated its effect as the pamphlet mostly echoed ideas similar to many other pamphlets and cahiers circulating at the time. This was followed by a "Supplément de l'Offrande" in March, where he was less optimistic, expressing displeasure with the King's "Lettres Royales" of 24 January. In August 1789, he published "La Constitution, ou Projet de déclaration des droits de l'homme et du citoyen", intended to influence the drafting of France's new constitution, then being debated in the National Assembly. In this work, he builds his theories upon ideas taken from Montesquieu and Rousseau, claiming that the sovereignty of the nation rests with the people and emphasizing the need for a separation of powers. He argues for a constitutional monarchy, believing that a republic is ineffective in large nations. Marat's work elicited no response from the National Assembly.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: On 14 July, three days after Louis XVI dismissed Jacques Necker as his financial advisor, the people of Paris attacked the Hotel des Invalides and the Bastille, marking the first insurrection of the French Revolution. Marat was not directly involved in the Fall of the Bastille but sought to glorify his role that day by claiming that he had intercepted a group of German soldiers on Pont Neuf. He claims that these soldiers were seeking to crush the revolution in its infancy, and that he had successfully convinced a crowd to force the soldiers to surrender their weapons. Whether or not this event actually occurred is questionable as there are no other known accounts that confirm Marat's story.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: On 12 September 1789, Marat began his own newspaper, entitled "Publiciste parisien", before changing its name four days later to "L'Ami du peuple" ("The People's friend"). From this position, he often attacked the most influential and powerful groups in Paris as conspirators against the Revolution, including the Commune, the Constituent Assembly, the ministers, and the Châtelet. In January 1790, he moved to the radical Cordeliers section, then under the leadership of the lawyer Danton, was nearly arrested for his attacks against Jacques Necker, Louis XVI's popular Finance Minister, and was forced to flee to London. In May, he returned to Paris to continue publication of "L'Ami du peuple" and briefly ran a second newspaper in June 1790 called "Le" "Junius" "français" named after the notorious English polemicist Junius. Marat faced the problem of counterfeiters distributing falsified versions of "L'Ami du peuple". This led him to call for police intervention, which resulted in the suppression of the fraudulent issues, leaving Marat the continuing sole author of "L'Ami du peuple".


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: During this period, Marat made regular attacks on the more conservative revolutionary leaders. In a pamphlet from 26 July 1790, entitled ""C'en est fait de nous"" ("We're done for!"), he warned against counter-revolutionaries, advising, "five or six hundred heads cut off would have assured your repose, freedom and happiness."


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Between 1789 and 1792, Marat was often forced into hiding, sometimes in the Paris sewers, where he almost certainly aggravated his debilitating chronic skin disease (possibly dermatitis herpetiformis). In January 1792, he married the 26-year-old Simone Evrard in a common-law ceremony on his return from exile in London, having previously expressed his love for her. She was the sister-in-law of his typographer, Jean-Antoine Corne, and had lent him money and sheltered him on several occasions.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat only emerged publicly on the 10 August insurrection, when the Tuileries Palace was invaded and the royal family forced to shelter within the Legislative Assembly. The spark for this uprising was the Brunswick Manifesto, which called for the crushing of the Revolution and helped to inflame popular outrage in Paris.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: As the Paris Commune of Marat's allies achieved more influence, it formed a Committee on Surveillance which included Marat, Jacque-Nicolas Billaud-Varennes, Jean-Marie Collot d'Herbois, Georges Danton, Jean-Lambert Tallien, Panis and David. Marat was said by Stanley Loomis to have claimed the position of its head. Ernest Belfort Bax disputed this claim, saying that on appearing once again in the upper daylight of Paris, Marat was almost immediately invited to assist the new governing body with his advice, and had a special tribune assigned to him. Marat was thus assiduous in his attendance at the Commune, although never formally a member. The Commune and the Sections of Paris, between them, had established a "Comité de Surveillance", with power to add to its numbers. Into this committee Marat was, according to Bax, co-opted. They quickly decided to round up those they believed were "suspect"; the Committee voted to do so and four thousand were sent into the prisons by late August 1792. The Committee also planned what to do with these mostly ordinary people, now become political prisoners. Marat suggested they be burned alive, but this was voted down for fear of setting fire to the houses next to the prisons. So "butchering" was settled on and Tallien told the Committee he knew how to arrange it. Actually the Committee, of which Marat was one of the most influential members, took the step of withdrawing from the prisons those of whose guilt, in its opinion, there was any reasonable doubt. Marat and the rest saw what was coming; the last straw to break the patience of Paris was the acquittal on Friday 31 August of Montmarin, the late Governor of Fontainebleau. Montmarin was notoriously and openly a courtier, who wished to see the allies in Paris, and his royal master reinstated, and who was proved, beyond the shadow of a doubt, to have been actively engaged in plotting to this end; yet, on being brought to trial, he was acquitted, and, as if to lend emphasis to the acquittal, the judge himself, descending from the bench, gave him his arm as he walked out of court. An unsuccessful attempt was even made to deprive the Commune of its powers. Forty-eight hours later, the notorious September massacres began.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Those arrangements would include a collection of mercenaries grouped as "Marsellais" though they were "foreign vagabonds, dregs of all nations, Genosee, Corsicans and Greeks led by a Pole named Lazowski" Added to these were convicted murderers and those imprisoned for other violent crimes, released in time to join the "Marsellais" at the center of the bloodlettings. At times those enacting violence were joined by mobs of locals, some of who had armed themselves in preparation for a defense of the city National Guardsmen and some "fédérés". In some cases makeshift "courts" were set-up, prisoners were pronounced "free" or "guilty" then all were led to a central courtyard where they were bludgeoned, hacked, speared, and decapitated. In other prisons, small bands of mercenaries entered cells which had held murderers days before, who turned their craft on the innocents brought in by the Committee, some as young as 10.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: On 3 September, the second day of the massacres, the Committee of Surveillance of the Commune published a circular that called on provincial Patriots to defend Paris and asked that, before leaving their homes, they eliminate counter-revolutionaries. Authored by Marat as head of the Committee, signed by him and circulated to the provinces, it hailed the rounding up and killing of political enemies going on in Paris as a model for the provinces. While Georges Lefebvre maintained collective mentality was sufficient explanation for the mass killing, Stanley Loomis says this "is their excuse or justification".


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: The Girondins then made a number of copies of this circular, but there is no evidence that it had any effect. Marat himself did not participate in the violence of the massacres, but rather the Sections of Paris had begun to act of themselves. Marat and his Committee of Supervision at most took the control of the movement which had already begun spontaneously. Whether Marat played a part in the cause of the massacres is still continually debated. It can be said that there was a continuous goading on of the tribunals to definite and decided action. In No.679 of "L'Ami du Peuple" we have the following advice: Guard the King from view, put a price on the heads of the fugitive Capets, arm all the citizens, form a camp near Paris, press forward the sale of the goods of the ‘emigrants,’ and recompense the unfortunates who have taken part in the conquest of the Tuileries, invite the troops of the line to name their officers, guard the provisions, do not miss a word of this last advice, press the judgment of the traitors imprisoned in the Abbaye; ... if the sword of justice do at last but strike conspirators and prevaricators, we shall no longer hear popular executions spoken of, cruel resource which the law of necessity can alone commend to a people reduced to despair, but which the voluntary sleep of the laws always justifies. Danton at the same moment was urging from the tribune the necessity of the prompt appointment of a court to try traitors, as the only alternative to the popular justice of the streets. Maximilien Robespierre, Danton and Marat all stressed the necessity of a tribunal that would judge these crimes. Robespierre intervened on 15 August, as a delegate of the Commune, and proclaimed: "Since 10 August, the just vengeance of the people has not yet been satisfied.“ According to Bax, the September massacres were the result of the efforts of the Moderate party to screen men who were openly plotting the overthrow of the Revolution. The Moderatist and Girondist Assembly hesitated at making a few examples of even the most notorious of these plotters. The crisis in the war, long foreseen by Marat and others, was now becoming more acute every day. On 6 September, Mlle de Mareuil, daughter of a member of the Commune’s general council, wrote to her brother: I have to make the following remark: since the journée of 10 August, there have only been three people guillotined, and this has revolted the people. Finally people gathered from all sides... Oh my dear friend, we are all in a state of dreadful consternation.There is an exculpatory article in No.12 of Marat’s "Journal de la République", occasioned by the virulent attacks of the Girondins in the Convention on the Commune, the Committee of Supervision, and above all on Marat himself, with reference to the massacres:The disastrous events of the 2nd and 3rd of September, which perfidious and venal persons attribute to the Municipality, has been solely promoted by the denial of justice on the part of the Criminal tribunal which whitewashed the conspirator Montmarin, by the protection thus proclaimed to all others conspirators, and by the indignation of the people, fearing to find itself the slave of all the traitors who have for so long abused its misfortunes and its disasters. They call those brigands who massacred the traitors and scoundrels confined in the prisons. If that were so, Pétion would be criminal for having peaceably left brigands to perpetrate their crimes during two consecutive days in all the prisons of Paris. His culpable inaction would be the most serious crime, and he would merit the loss of his head for not having mobilised his whole armed force to oppose them. He will doubtless tell you, in order to exculpate himself, that the armed force would not have obeyed him, and that all Paris was involved, which is indeed a fact. Let us agree, then, that it is an imposture to make brigands responsible for an operation unhappily only too necessary. It is then because the conspirators have escaped the sword of justice that they have fallen under the axe of the people. Is it necessary to say more to refute the dishonest insinuation, which would make the Committee of Supervision of the Commune responsible for these popular executions? But its justification does not end there. We shall see what the principal members of this Committee have done to prevent any innocent person, any debtor, any one culpable of a trivial offence, being involved in the dangers which threatened great criminals. I was at the Committee of Supervision, when the announcement was made that the people had just seized from the hands of the Guard, and put to death, several refractory priests, accused of plotting, destined by the Committee for La Force, and that the people threatened to enter the prisons. At this news, Panis and myself exclaimed together, as if by inspiration, “Save the small delinquents, the poor debtors, those accused of trivial assaults!” The Committee immediately ordered the different jailers to separate these from the serious malefactors and the counter-revolutionary traitors, lest the people should be exposed to the risk of sacrificing some innocent persons. The separation was already made when the prisons were forced, but the precaution was unnecessary, owing to the care taken by the judges appointed by the people, who exercised the functions of tribunes during the expedition, to inquire into each case and to release all those whom the Committee of Supervision had separated. This is a discrimination the despot would certainly not have exercised had he triumphed on the 10th of August. Such are the facts which oppose themselves to the calumny that has distorted the narrative of the events of the 2nd and 3rd of September.The September massacres were not the work of one party, much less of one man, but an ebullition of popular fury, acquiesced in as a necessity by all parties and by all the leading men of the Revolution. This perspective of affairs is summed up in the passages of Mr. Bowen-Graves quoted by Ernest Belfort Bax:Marat’s part in these last terrible events has been constantly and grossly misrepresented. He had long foreseen and foretold what would happen if foreign invasion found Paris in a state of chaos. The predicted crisis had now arrived. On the east the Germans are at the Thermopylae of France. A step more, the Revolution sinks beneath them. On the west the standard of the Vendean insurrection is already raised. Between the two lies Paris, in hardly dormant civil war. Royalty is overthrown, but royalism is rampant. The Swiss guards, the rank and file have fallen, sacrificed to their fidelity to a master who had deserted and forgotten them; but officers, courtiers, "chevaliers de poignard", are lively as ever, intriguing, plotting, vapouring in street and café, openly rejoicing in the triumph which German armies will give them measuring, compasses in hand, the distance between Verdun and Paris. The newly-formed tribunal is inefficient, acquitting men, notorious for their part in the intrigues, which were the cause of all the evil. Lafayette, with his army, is believed to be marching on Paris to restore the monarchy. Republicans knew well enough what such restoration would mean. The horrors of Montauban, Arles, and Avignon are written in history, to show how well-founded were their fears. And in the midst of all this came the tidings that the one strong place between Paris and the enemy is besieged; that its resistance is a question hardly even of days. Then, while the tocsin was clanging, and the alarm cannon roaring, and the Girondin minister could find nothing better to suggest, with his unseasonable classicism, than carrying into the South the statue of liberty, Paris answered with one instinct to Danton’s thundering defiance, and perpetrated that tremendous act of self-defence at which we shudder to this day. The reaction hid its head and cowered; and within the month the ragged volunteers of the Republic were hurling back from the passes of the Argonne the finest soldiery which Europe could produce.On 2 September, news arrived in Paris that the army of the Duke of Braunschweig had invaded France and the fortress of Verdun had quickly fallen, and that the Prussians were rapidly advancing towards the capital. This information ignited anger and fear among the population. Parisians knew that an illumination had been staged at the Abbay prison on the day of the capture of Longwy, where behind bars the prisoners insulted passers-by and assured them that the Prussians would occupy Paris and destroy it. That the Parisians' hatred of the Royalists was founded can be deduced from an article published in a Girondist newspaper on 2 September stating that the Royalists decided to burn the city on all sides after the Prussian army entered Paris, starved the city population and punished the revolutionaries. And the Manifesto of the Duke of Braunschweig (25 July 1792), written in large part by Louis XVI's cousin Louis Joseph de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, leader of a large contingent of immigrants in the Allied army, threatened the French people with instant punishment if the people resists the imperial and Prussian armies and the re-establishment of a monarchy. The days of September in Paris were seen by some as the act of self-defense of a people who knew how brutal the counter-revolutionaries were, a people who feared a coup in Paris while fighting on the front lines. After the capture of Verdun, the Prussian army was only a hundred miles from Paris. Many Europeans had no doubt about the victory of the Duke of Braunschweig. A fall of Paris was not expected later than 10 September.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: In the "Créole patriote" for 2 September, the account began by evoking 10 August: 'The people, justly indignant at the crimes committed during the journée of 10 August, made for the prisons. They still feared plots and traitors... The news that Verdun had been taken... provoked their resentment and vengeance.’


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: It was enough for the Legislative Assembly, at the vigorous request of the Commune, to issue a statement to the French people on 4 September in which it promised "that it would fight with all its powers against the king and the royal government" so that the slaughter would end the same day and Parisians would go to the front. The Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792) was the first victory over their enemy since the beginning of the war. Johann Wolfgang van Goethe, an admirer of the scientific work of Dr. Marat, said, "At that place, on that day, a new era in world history began. It is the first victory of the people over the kings." No one was prosecuted for the killings.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat was elected to the National Convention in September 1792 as one of 26 Paris deputies, although he belonged to no party. When France was declared a Republic on 22 September, Marat renamed his "L'Ami du peuple" as "Le Journal de la République française" ("Journal of the French Republic").


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: His stance during the trial of the deposed king Louis XVI was unique. He declared it unfair to accuse Louis of anything before his acceptance of the French Constitution of 1791, and although implacably, he said, believing that the monarch's death would be good for the people, defended Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes, the King's counsel, as a ""sage et respectable vieillard"" ("wise and respected old man").


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined, which caused political turmoil. From January to May, Marat fought bitterly with the Girondins, whom he believed to be covert enemies of republicanism. Marat's hatred and suspicion of the Girondins became increasingly heated which led him to call for the use of violent tactics against them. He cried that France needed a chief, "a military Tribune". The Girondins fought back and demanded that Marat be tried before the Revolutionary Tribunal. After trying to avoid arrest for several days, Marat was finally imprisoned. On 24 April, he was brought before the Tribunal on the charges that he had printed in his paper statements calling for widespread murder as well as the suspension of the Convention. Marat decisively defended his actions, stating that he had no evil intentions directed against the Convention. Marat was acquitted of all charges to the celebration of his supporters.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: The fall of the Girondins on 2 June, helped by the actions of François Hanriot, the new leader of the National Guard, was one of Marat's last achievements. Forced to retire from the Convention due to his worsening skin disease, he continued to work from home, where he soaked in a medicinal bath. Now that the Montagnards no longer needed his support in the struggle against the Girondins, Robespierre and other leading Montagnards began to separate themselves from him, while the Convention largely ignored his letters.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Marat was in his bathtub on 13 July, when a young woman from Caen, Charlotte Corday, appeared at his flat, claiming to have vital information on the activities of the escaped Girondins who had fled to Normandy. Despite his wife Simone's protests, Marat asked for her to enter and gave her an audience by his bath, over which a board had been laid to serve as a writing desk. Their interview lasted around fifteen minutes. He asked her what was happening in Caen and she explained, reciting a list of the offending deputies. After he had finished writing out the list, Corday claimed that he told her, "Their heads will fall within a fortnight," a statement she later changed at her trial to, "Soon I shall have them all guillotined in Paris." This was unlikely since Marat did not have the power to have anyone guillotined. At that moment, Corday rose from her chair, drawing out from her corset a five-inch kitchen knife, which she had bought earlier that day, and brought it down into Marat's chest, where it pierced just under his right clavicle, opening the brachiocephalic artery, close to the heart. The massive bleeding was fatal within seconds. Slumping backwards, Marat cried out his last words to Simone, "Aidez-moi, ma chère amie!" ("Help me, my beloved!") and died.


title: Jean-Paul Marat

text: Corday was a Girondin sympathizer who came from an impoverished royalist family; her brothers were émigrés who had left to join the exiled royal princes. From her own account, and those of witnesses, it is clear that she had been inspired by Girondin speeches to a hatred of the Montagnards and their excesses, symbolised most powerfully in the character of Marat. The "Book of Days" claims the motive was to "avenge the death of her friend Barboroux". Marat's assassination contributed to the mounting suspicion which fed the Terror during which thousands of the Jacobins' adversaries – both royalists and Girondins – were executed on charges of treason. Charlotte Corday was guillotined on 17 July 1793 for the murder. During her four-day trial, she testified that she had carried out the assassination alone, saying "I killed one man to save 100,000."