title: Dara Khosrowshahi

text: His second cousin, Hassan Khosrowshahi, also fled Iran due to the Iranian Revolution and is now a billionaire. His cousin Amir co-founded Nervana Systems, which was acquired by Intel in 2016 for $408 million. Another cousin, Golnar, founded Reservoir Media in 2007 as a music publishing company. He is also related to Darian Shirazi, the founder of Radius and the first intern hired by Facebook.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of primarily African American military pilots (fighter and bomber) and airmen who fought in World War II. They formed the 332d Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group (Medium) of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). The name also applies to the navigators, bombardiers, mechanics, instructors, crew chiefs, nurses, cooks, and other support personnel. The Tuskegee airmen received praise for their excellent combat record earned while protecting American bombers from enemy fighters. The group was awarded three Distinguished Unit Citations.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: All black military pilots who trained in the United States trained at Griel Field, Kennedy Field, Moton Field, Shorter Field, and the Tuskegee Army Air Fields. They were educated at the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University), located near Tuskegee, Alabama. Of the 922 pilots, five were Haitians from the Haitian Air Force and one pilot was from Trinidad. It also included a Hispanic or Latino airman born in the Dominican Republic.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 99th Pursuit Squadron (later the 99th Fighter Squadron) was the first black flying squadron, and the first to deploy overseas (to North Africa in April 1943, and later to Sicily and other parts of Italy). The 332nd Fighter Group, which originally included the 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons, was the first black flying group. It deployed to Italy in early 1944. Although the 477th Bombardment Group trained with North American B-25 Mitchell bombers, they never served in combat. In June 1944, the 332nd Fighter Group began flying heavy bomber escort missions and, in July 1944, with the addition of the 99th Fighter Squadron, it had four fighter squadrons.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 99th Fighter Squadron was initially equipped with Curtiss P-40 Warhawk fighter-bomber aircraft. The 332nd Fighter Group and its 100th, 301st and 302nd Fighter Squadrons were equipped for initial combat missions with Bell P-39 Airacobras (March 1944), later with Republic P-47 Thunderbolts (June–July 1944) and finally with the aircraft with which they became most commonly associated, the North American P-51 Mustang (July 1944). When the pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group painted the tails of their P-47s red, the nickname "Red Tails" was coined. The red markings that distinguished the Tuskegee Airmen included red bands on the noses of P-51s as well as a red empennage; the P-51B, C and D Mustangs flew with similar color schemes, with red propeller spinners, yellow wing bands and all-red tail surfaces.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-American military aviators in the United States Armed Forces. During World War II, black Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to the Jim Crow laws and the American military was racially segregated, as was much of the federal government. The Tuskegee Airmen were subjected to discrimination, both within and outside of the army.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Before the Tuskegee Airmen, no African-American had been a U.S. military pilot. In 1917, African-American men had tried to become aerial observers but were rejected. African-American Eugene Bullard served in the French air service during World War I because he was not allowed to serve in an American unit. Instead, Bullard returned to infantry duty with the French.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The racially motivated rejections of World War I African-American recruits sparked more than two decades of advocacy by African-Americans who wished to enlist and train as military aviators. The effort was led by such prominent civil rights leaders as Walter White of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, labor union leader A. Philip Randolph and Judge William H. Hastie. Finally, on 3 April 1939, Appropriations Bill Public Law 18 was passed by Congress containing an amendment by Senator Harry H. Schwartz designating funds for training African-American pilots. The War Department managed to put the money into funds of civilian flight schools willing to train black Americans.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: War Department tradition and policy mandated the segregation of African-Americans into separate military units staffed by white officers, as had been done previously with the 9th Cavalry, 10th Cavalry, 24th Infantry Regiment and 25th Infantry Regiment. When the appropriation of funds for aviation training created opportunities for pilot cadets, their numbers diminished the rosters of these older units. In 1941, the War Department and the Army Air Corps, under pressure — three months before its transformation into the USAAF — constituted the first all-black flying unit, the 99th Pursuit Squadron.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Because of the restrictive nature of selection policies, the situation did not seem promising for African-Americans, since in 1940 the U.S. Census Bureau reported there were only 124 African-American pilots in the nation. The exclusionary policies failed dramatically when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified, even under the restrictive requirements. Many of the applicants had already participated in the Civilian Pilot Training Program, unveiled in late December 1938 (CPTP). Tuskegee University had participated since 1939.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the Psychological Research Unit 1 at Maxwell Army Air Field, Montgomery, Alabama, and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, navigators and bombardiers. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first standardized tests to quantify IQ, dexterity, and leadership qualities to select and train the best-suited personnel for the roles of bombardier, navigator, and pilot. The Air Corps determined that the existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort continued with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. The War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education which ensured that only the ablest and most intelligent African-American applicants were able to join.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Airman Coleman Young, later the first African-American mayor of Detroit, told journalist Studs Terkel about the process:


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The budding flight program at Tuskegee received a publicity boost when First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt inspected it on 29 March 1941, and flew with African-American chief civilian instructor C. Alfred "Chief" Anderson. Anderson, who had been flying since 1929 and was responsible for training thousands of rookie pilots, took his prestigious passenger on a half-hour flight in a Piper J-3 Cub. After landing, she cheerfully announced, "Well, you can fly all right."


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The subsequent brouhaha over the First Lady's flight had such an impact it is often mistakenly cited as the start of the CPTP at Tuskegee, even though the program was already five months old. Eleanor Roosevelt used her position as a trustee of the Julius Rosenwald Fund to arrange a loan of $175,000 to help finance the building of Moton Field.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 22 March 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was activated without pilots at Chanute Field in Rantoul, Illinois.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: A cadre of 14 black non-commissioned officers from the 24th and 25th Infantry Regiments were sent to Chanute Field to help in the administration and supervision of the trainees. A white officer, Army Captain Harold R. Maddux, was assigned as the first commander of the 99th Fighter Squadron.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: A group of 271 enlisted men began training in aircraft ground support trades at Chanute Field in March 1941 until they were transferred to bases in Alabama in July 1941. The skills being taught were so technical that setting up segregated classes was deemed impossible. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee Fields in Alabama.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: While the enlisted men were in training, five black youths were admitted to the Officers Training School (OTS) at Chanute Field as aviation cadets. Specifically, Elmer D. Jones, Dudley Stevenson, and James Johnson of Washington, DC; Nelson Brooks of Illinois, and William R. Thompson of Pittsburgh, PA successfully completed OTS and were commissioned as the first Black Army Air Corps Officers.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In June 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was transferred to Tuskegee, Alabama, and remained the only black flying unit in the country, but did not yet have pilots. The famous airmen were actually trained at five airfields surrounding Tuskegee University (formerly Tuskegee Institute)--Griel, Kennedy, Moton, Shorter, and Tuskegee Army Air Fields. The flying unit consisted of 47 officers and 429 enlisted men and was backed by an entire service arm. On 19 July 1941, thirteen individuals made up the first class of aviation cadets (42-C) when they entered preflight training at Tuskegee Institute. After primary training at Moton Field, they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field, about to the west for conversion training onto operational types. Consequently, Tuskegee Army Air Field became the only Army installation performing three phases of pilot training (basic, advanced, and transition) at a single location. Initial planning called for 500 personnel in residence at a time.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: By mid-1942, over six times that many were stationed at Tuskegee, even though only two squadrons were training there.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Tuskegee Army Airfield was similar to already-existing airfields reserved for training white pilots, such as Maxwell Field, only distant. African-American contractor McKissack and McKissack, Inc. was in charge of the contract. The company's 2,000 workmen, the Alabama Works Progress Administration, and the U.S. Army built the airfield in only six months. The construction was budgeted at $1,663,057. The airmen were placed under the command of Captain Benjamin O. Davis Jr., one of only two black line officers then serving.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: During training, Tuskegee Army Air Field was commanded first by Major James Ellison. Ellison made great progress in organizing the construction of the facilities needed for the military program at Tuskegee. However, he was transferred on 12 January 1942, reputedly because of his insistence that his African-American sentries and Military Police had police authority over local Caucasian civilians.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: His successor, Colonel Frederick von Kimble, then oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield. Contrary to new Army regulations, Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs in the state of Alabama, a policy that was resented by the airmen. Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble. His replacement had been the director of training at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major Noel F. Parrish. Counter to the prevalent racism of the day, Parrish was fair and open-minded and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The strict racial segregation the U.S. Army required gave way in the face of the requirements for complex training in technical vocations. Typical of the process was the development of separate African-American flight surgeons to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen. Before the development of this unit, no U.S. Army flight surgeons had been black.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Training of African-American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses, until 1943, when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army School of Aviation Medicine at Randolph Field, Texas. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with the Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 to 1949. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily, and other parts of Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was Vance H. Marchbanks Jr., MD, a childhood friend of Benjamin Davis.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The accumulation of washed-out cadets at Tuskegee and the propensity of other commands to "dump" African-American personnel on the post exacerbated the difficulties of administering Tuskegee. A shortage of jobs for them made these enlisted men a drag on Tuskegee's housing and culinary departments.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Trained officers were also left idle as the plan to shift African-American officers into command slots stalled, and white officers not only continued to hold command but were joined by additional white officers assigned to the post. One rationale behind the non-assignment of trained African-American officers was stated by the commanding officer of the Army Air Forces, General Henry "Hap" Arnold: "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Corps units since this would result in Negro officers serving over white enlisted men creating an impossible social situation."


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 99th was finally considered ready for combat duty by April 1943. It shipped out of Tuskegee on 2 April, bound for North Africa, where it would join the 33rd Fighter Group and its commander, Colonel William W. Momyer. Given little guidance from battle-experienced pilots, the 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small strategic volcanic island of Pantelleria, code name Operation Corkscrew, in the Mediterranean Sea to clear the sea lanes for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The air assault on the island began 30 May 1943. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 2 June. The surrender of the garrison of 11,121 Italians and 78 Germans due to air attack was the first of its kind.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 99th then moved on to Sicily and received a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) for its performance in combat.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: By the end of February 1944, the all-black 332nd Fighter Group had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The 100th, 301st and 302nd.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on 1 May 1944, joined them on 6 June at Ramitelli Airfield, nine kilometers south-southeast of the small city of Campomarino, on the Adriatic coast. From Ramitelli, the 332nd Fighter Group escorted Fifteenth Air Force heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. The Allies called these airmen "Red Tails" or "Red-Tail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson unit identification marking predominantly applied on the tail section of the unit's aircraft.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: A B-25 bomb group, the 477th Bombardment Group, was forming in the U.S. but was not able to complete its training in time to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The only black air units that saw combat during the war were the 99th Pursuit Squadron and the 332nd Fighter Group. The dive-bombing and strafing missions under Lieutenant Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. were considered to be highly successful.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In May 1942, the 99th Pursuit Squadron was renamed the 99th Fighter Squadron. It earned three Distinguished Unit Citations (DUC) during World War II. The DUCs were for operations over Sicily from 30 May – 11 June 1943, Monastery Hill near Cassino from 12 to 14 May 1944, and for successfully fighting off German jet aircraft on 24 March 1945. The mission was the longest bomber escort mission of the Fifteenth Air Force throughout the war. The 332nd flew missions in Sicily, Anzio, Normandy, the Rhineland, the Po Valley and Rome-Arno and others. Pilots of the 99th once set a record for destroying five enemy aircraft in under four minutes.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The Tuskegee Airmen shot down three German jets in a single day. On 24 March 1945, 43 P-51 Mustangs led by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis escorted B-17 bombers over into Germany and back. The bombers' target, a massive Daimler-Benz tank factory in Berlin, was heavily defended by "Luftwaffe" aircraft, including propeller-driven Fw 190s, Me 163 "Komet" rocket-powered fighters, and 25 of the much more formidable Me 262s, history's first operational jet fighter. Pilots Charles Brantley, Earl Lane and Roscoe Brown all shot down German jets over Berlin that day. For the mission, the 332nd Fighter Group earned a Distinguished Unit Citation.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group earned 96 Distinguished Flying Crosses. Their missions took them over Italy and enemy-occupied parts of central and southern Europe. Their operational aircraft were, in succession: Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, Bell P-39 Airacobra, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and North American P-51 Mustang fighter aircraft.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: With African-American fighter pilots being trained successfully, the Army Air Force now came under political pressure from the NAACP and other civil rights organizations to organize a bomber unit. There could be no defensible argument that the quota of 100 African-American pilots in training at one time, or 200 per year out of a total of 60,000 American aviation cadets in annual training, represented the service potential of 13 million African-Americans.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 13 May 1943, the 616th Bombardment Squadron was established as the initial subordinate squadron of the 477th Bombardment Group, an all-white group. The squadron was activated on 1 July 1943, only to be inactivated on 15 August 1943. By September 1943, the number of washed-out cadets on base had surged to 286, with few of them working. In January 1944, the 477th Bombardment Group was reactivated—an all-Black group. At the time, the usual training cycle for a bombardment group took three to four months.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 477th would eventually contain four medium bomber squadrons. Slated to comprise 1,200 officers and enlisted men, the unit would operate 60 North American B-25 Mitchell bombers. The 477th would go on to encompass three more bomber squadrons–the 617th Bombardment Squadron, the 618th Bombardment Squadron, and the 619th Bombardment Squadron. The 477th was anticipated to be ready for action in November 1944.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The home field for the 477th was Selfridge Field, located outside Detroit, with forays to Oscoda Army Air Field in Oscoda, Michigan. However, other bases would be used for various types of training courses. Twin-engine pilot training began at Tuskegee while the transition to multi-engine pilot training was at Mather Field, California. Some ground crews trained at Mather before rotating to Inglewood. Gunners learned to shoot at Eglin Field, Florida. Bombers-navigators learned their trades at Hondo Army Air Field and Midland Air Field, Texas or at Roswell, New Mexico. Training of the new African-American crewmen also took place at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, Lincoln, Nebraska, and Scott Field, Belleville, Illinois. Once trained, the air and ground crews would be spliced into a working unit at Selfridge.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The new group's first commanding officer was Colonel Robert Selway, who had also commanded the 332nd Fighter Group before it deployed for combat overseas. Like his ranking officer, Major General Frank O'Driscoll Hunter from Georgia, Selway was a racial segregationist. Hunter was blunt about it, saying such things as "...racial friction will occur if colored and white pilots are trained together." He backed Selway's violations of Army Regulation 210–10, which forbade segregation of airbase facilities. They segregated base facilities so thoroughly that they even drew a line in the base theater and ordered separate seating by race. When the audience sat in random patterns as part of "Operation Checkerboard," the movie was halted to make men return to segregated seating. African-American officers petitioned base Commanding Officer William Boyd for access to the only officer's club on base. Lieutenant Milton Henry entered the club and personally demanded his club rights; he was court-martialed for this.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Subsequently, Colonel Boyd denied club rights to African-Americans, although General Hunter stepped in and promised a separate but equal club would be built for black airmen. The 477th was transferred to Godman Field, Kentucky before the club was built. They had spent five months at Selfridge but found themselves on a base a fraction of Selfridge's size, with no air-to-ground gunnery range and deteriorating runways that were too short for B-25 landings. Colonel Selway took on the second role of the commanding officer of Godman Field. In that capacity, he ceded Godman Field's officers club to African-American airmen. Caucasian officers used the whites-only clubs at nearby Fort Knox, much to the displeasure of African-American officers.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Another irritant was a professional one for African-American officers. They observed a steady flow of white officers through the command positions of the group and squadrons; these officers stayed just long enough to be "promotable" before transferring out at their new rank. This seemed to take about four months. In an extreme example, 22-year-old Robert Mattern was promoted to captain, transferred into squadron command in the 477th days later, and left a month later as a major. He was replaced by another Caucasian officer. Meanwhile, no Tuskegee Airmen held command.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 15 March 1945, the 477th was transferred to Freeman Field, near Seymour, Indiana. The white population of Freeman Field was 250 officers and 600 enlisted men. Superimposed on it were 400 African-American officers and 2,500 enlisted men of the 477th and its associated units. Freeman Field had a firing range, usable runways, and other amenities useful for training. African-American airmen would work in proximity with white ones; both would live in a public housing project adjacent to the base.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Colonel Selway turned the noncommissioned officers out of their club and turned it into a second officers' club. He then classified all white personnel as cadre and all African-Americans as trainees. One officers' club became the cadre's club. The old Non-Commissioned Officers Club, promptly sarcastically dubbed "Uncle Tom's Cabin", became the trainees' officers club. At least four of the trainees had flown combat in Europe as fighter pilots and had about four years in service. Four others had completed training as pilots, bombardiers and navigators and may have been the only triply qualified officers in the entire Air Corps. Several of the Tuskegee Airmen had logged over 900 flight hours by this time. Nevertheless, by Colonel Selway's fiat, they were trainees.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Off base was no better; many businesses in Seymour would not serve African-Americans. A local laundry would not wash their and yet willingly laundered those of captured German soldiers.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In early April 1945, the 118th Base Unit transferred in from Godman Field; its African-American personnel held orders that specified they were base cadre, not trainees. On 5 April, officers of the 477th peaceably tried to enter the whites-only officer's club. Selway had been tipped off by a phone call and had the assistant provost marshal and base billeting manager stationed at the door to refuse the 477th officers' entry. The latter, a major, ordered them to leave and took their names as a means of arresting them when they refused. It was the beginning of the Freeman Field Mutiny.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In the wake of the Freeman Field Mutiny, the 616th and 619th were disbanded and the returned 99th Fighter Squadron was assigned to the 477th on 22 June 1945; it was redesignated the 477th Composite Group as a result. On 1 July 1945, Colonel Robert Selway was relieved of the Group's command; he was replaced by Colonel Benjamin O. Davis Jr. A complete sweep of Selway's white staff followed, with all vacated jobs filled by African-American officers. The war ended before the 477th Composite Group could get into action. The 618th Bombardment Squadron was disbanded on 8 October 1945. On 13 March 1946, the two-squadron group, supported by the 602nd Engineer Squadron (later renamed 602nd Air Engineer Squadron), the 118th Base Unit, and a band, moved to its final station, Lockbourne Field. The 617th Bombardment Squadron and the 99th Fighter Squadron disbanded on 1 July 1947, ending the 477th Composite Group. It would be reorganized as the 332nd Fighter Wing.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In all, 992 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946. 355 were deployed overseas, and 84 lost their lives. The toll included 68 pilots killed in action or accidents, 12 killed in training and non-combat missions and 32 captured as prisoners of war.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 24 March 1945, during the war, the "Chicago Defender" said that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire, under the headline: "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss"; the article was based on information supplied by the 15th Air Force.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: This statement was repeated for many years, and not publicly challenged, partly because the mission reports were classified for a number of years after the war. In 2004, William Holton, who was serving as the historian of the Tuskegee Airmen Incorporated, conducted research into wartime action reports.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Alan Gropman, a professor at the National Defense University, disputed the initial refutations of the no-loss myth and said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters. Dr. Daniel Haulman of the Air Force Historical Research Agency conducted a reassessment of the history of the unit in 2006 and early 2007. His subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups, as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In a subsequent article, "The Tuskegee Airmen and the Never Lost a Bomber Myth," published in the "Alabama Review" and also by NewSouth Books as an e-book, and included in a more comprehensive study regarding misconceptions about the Tuskegee Airmen released by AFHRA in July 2013, Haulman documented 27 bombers shot down by enemy aircraft while those bombers were being escorted by the 332nd Fighter Group. This total included 15 B-17s of the 483rd Bombardment Group shot down during a particularly savage air battle with an estimated 300 German fighters on 18 July 1944, that also resulted in nine kill credits and the award of five Distinguished Flying Crosses to members of the 332nd.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Of the 179 bomber escort missions the 332nd Fighter Group flew for the Fifteenth Air Force, the group encountered enemy aircraft on 35 of those missions and lost bombers to enemy aircraft on only seven, and the total number of bombers lost was 27. By comparison, the average number of bombers lost by the other P-51 fighter groups of the Fifteenth Air Force during the same period was 46.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The historical record shows several examples of the fighter group's losses. A mission report states that on 26 July 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A [target area] after attack by E/A [enemy aircraft]. No chutes seen to open." The Distinguished Flying Cross citation awarded to Colonel Benjamin O. Davis for the mission on 9 June 1944, noted that he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: William H. Holloman was reported by the "Times" as saying his review of records confirmed bombers had been lost. Holloman was a member of Tuskegee Airmen Inc., a group of surviving Tuskegee pilots and their supporters, who also taught Black Studies at the University of Washington and chaired the Airmen's history committee. According to the 28 March 2007 Air Force report, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were even shot down on the day the "Chicago Defender" article was published. The mission reports, however, do credit the group for not losing a bomber on an escort mission for a six-month period between September 1944 and March 1945, albeit when Luftwaffe contacts were far fewer than earlier.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Contrary to negative predictions from some quarters, Tuskegee Airmen were some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces due to a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight racism. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group, but other units continued to harass these airmen.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual U.S. Continental Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada. The competition included shooting aerial and ground targets and dropping bombs on targets. Flying the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt (built for the long-range escort mission in the Pacific theatre of World War II), the 332nd Fighter Wing took first place in the conventional fighter class. The pilots were Captain Alva Temple, Lts. Harry Stewart, Jr., James H. Harvey III and Halbert Alexander. Staff Sergeant Buford A. Johnson (30 August 1927 – 15 April 2017) served as the pilots' aircraft crew chief. Lt. Harvey said, "We had a perfect score. Three missions, two bombs per plane. We didn't guess at anything, we were good." They received congratulations from the governor of Ohio and Air Force commanders across the nation.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman with Executive Order 9981, the veteran Tuskegee Airmen found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed United States Air Force. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned Columbia Air Center in Maryland. On 11 May 1949, "Air Force Letter 35.3" mandated that black Airmen be screened for reassignment to formerly all-white units according to qualifications.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Tuskegee Airmen were instrumental in postwar developments in aviation. Edward A. Gibbs, a civilian flight instructor who helped launch in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at Tuskegee, later became the founder of Negro Airmen International, an association joined by many airmen. USAF General Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. (then Lt.) was an instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron and later a fighter pilot in Europe. In 1975, he became the first African-American to reach the rank of four-star general. Post-war commander of the 99th Squadron Marion Rodgers went on to work in communications for NORAD and as a program developer for the Apollo 13 project.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2005, seven Tuskegee Airmen, including Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Carter, Colonel Charles McGee, group historian Ted Johnson, and Lieutenant Colonel Lee Archer, flew to Balad, Iraq, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, which was reactivated as the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the Ninth Air Force and U.S. Central Command Air Forces.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: , no one knew how many of the original 996 pilots and about 16,000 ground personnel were still alive. In August 2019, 14 documented original surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen participated at the annual Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Willie Rogers, one of the last surviving members of the original Tuskegee Airmen, died at the age of 101 on 18 November 2016 in St. Petersburg, Florida, following a stroke. Rogers was drafted into the Army in 1942 and was part of the 100th Air Engineer Squad. Rogers also served with the Red Tail Angels. He was wounded in action, shot in the stomach and leg by German soldiers during a mission in Italy in January 1943. In 2007, President George W. Bush awarded the Congressional Gold Medal to the 300 surviving Tuskegee Airmen, but Rogers was not present. He was given a medal in 2013 after he revealed his previously undisclosed involvement. His pastor, Rev. Irby, said Rogers was a "passionate oral historian."


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Capt. Lawrence E. Dickson, 24, had gone missing while flying a P-51 Mustang and escorting a reconnaissance flight to Prague from Italy on 23 December 1944. He was on his 68th mission and had previously been awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. On 27 July 2018, his remains, which had been recovered in Austria a year earlier, were conclusively identified and confirmed to his daughter – included with them was a ring inscribed from her mother to her father and dated 1943. The day before to the announcement, his wingman, 2nd Lt. Robert L. Martin, had died at 99, in Olympia Fields, Illinois. The bodies of 26 other Tuskegee Airmen who disappeared in WWII remain unrecovered.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2019, Lt. Col. Robert J. Friend, one of 12 remaining Tuskegee Airmen at the time, died on 21 June in Long Beach at the age of 99. He had flown 142 combat missions in World War II. A public viewing and memorial was held at the Palm Springs Air Museum on 6 July. He had spoken about his experiences in many different events before to his death, such as in John Murdy Elementary School's "The Gratitude Project" in Garden Grove.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On January 16, 2022, Brigadier General Charles McGee died in his sleep at the age of 102. His 30-year military career included 409 combat missions in World War II, the Korean War, and Vietnam War.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 29 March 2007, the Tuskegee Airmen were collectively awarded a Congressional Gold Medal at a ceremony in the U.S. Capitol rotunda. The medal is currently on display at the Smithsonian Institution. The airfield where the airmen trained is now the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Thurgood Marshall, the future Supreme Court justice, got his start defending Tuskegee bomber trainees. The 477th Bombardment Group was formed in 1944 to extend the so-called "Tuskegee experiment" by allowing black aviators to serve on bomber crews. The aim was to send pilots—many of them veterans of the original Tuskegee fighter group—back to the States for training on B-25 bombers. While in Indiana, some of the African-American officers were arrested and charged with mutiny after entering an all-white officers' club. Marshall, then a young lawyer, represented the 100 black officers who had landed in jail as a result of the confrontation. The men were soon released (although one was later convicted of violent conduct and fined).


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Robert W. Williams Jr, a navigator/bombardier in the 477th Bombardment Group, became a judge in the First Judicial District, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. In 1979, he was elected to the Commonwealth Court, an appellate court, and the first African American to serve on that court. In 1985, he resigned from the court to run for the District Attorney of Philadelphia County. He was the first African American to successfully become a city-wide candidate for that office.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Other members of the Tuskegee Airmen have made contributions in the world of business. Eugene Winslow founded Afro-Am Publishing in Chicago, Illinois, which published "Great Negroes Past and Present" in 1963.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Daniel "Chappie" James Jr. started his career in the early 1940s at Tuskegee, joining the Army Air Corps in July 1943. After the war ended, James stayed in what became the Air Force and flew missions in both Korea and Vietnam. In 1969, James was put in command of Wheelus Air Base outside of Tripoli.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: Four Tuskegee airmen went on to become generals. For keeping his cool in the face of Qaddafi's troops, James was appointed a brigadier general by President Nixon. However, he was not the only Tuskegee graduate to make flag rank. James followed in the footsteps of Benjamin O. Davis Jr., the original commander of the 332nd Fighter Group and the first black general in the U.S. Air Force. Another Tuskegee aviator, Lucius Theus, retired a major general after dedicating most of his 36-year career in the Air Force to improving the military's bureaucracy, helping to implement a direct deposit system for service members. In 2019, at 100 years old, Colonel Charles McGee was promoted to honorary Brigadier General.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2006, California Congressman Adam Schiff and Missouri Congressman William Lacy Clay Jr., led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The 99th Flying Training Squadron flies T-1A Jayhawks and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, painted the tops of the tails of their aircraft red. On 1 August 2008, Camp Creek Parkway, a portion of State Route 6 in south Fulton County and in the City of East Point near Atlanta, Georgia, was officially renamed in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The Heinz History Center in Pittsburgh presented an award to several Western Pennsylvania Tuskegee veterans, as well as suburban Sewickley, Pennsylvania dedicated a memorial to the seven from that municipality. An exhibit was established at Pittsburgh International Airport in Concourse A.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 9 December 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the inauguration of Barack Obama, the first African-American elected as president. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of Upper Marlboro, Maryland, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others was this great prize we were given on 4 Nov.. Now we feel like we've completed our mission." More than 180 airmen attended 20 January 2009 inauguration.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In July 2009, 15-year-old Kimberly Anyadike became the youngest female African-American pilot to complete a transcontinental flight across the United States. She cited the Tuskegee Airmen as one of her biggest inspirations, and was accompanied on her trip by 87-year-old former Tuskegee Airman Levi Thornhill.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at Walterboro Army Airfield, South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors, and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during World War II. In the 2010 Rose Parade, the city of West Covina, California paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled ""Tuskegee Airmen—A Cut Above"", which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II ""Redtail"" fighter aircraft and historical images of some of the airmen who served. The float won the mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry—national or international.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In June 1998, the Ohio Army and Air National Guard opened a jointly operated dining hall. They dedicated the new dining facility called the "Red Tail Dining Facility" to the Tuskegee Airmen. The facility is operated at the Rickenbacker ANG base outside of Columbus Ohio.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2008, the Tuskegee Airmen were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In January 2012, MTA Regional Bus Operations officially changed the name of its 100th Street depot in New York City to the Tuskegee Airmen Depot. In 2012, George Lucas produced "Red Tails", a film based on the experiences of the Tuskegee Airmen.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2012, Aldine Independent School District in Harris County, Texas named Benjamin O. Davis High School in honor of Benjamin O. Davis Jr.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 16 September 2019, the USAF officially named the winning T-X program aircraft the "T-7A Red Hawk" as a tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen, who painted their airplanes' tails red, and to the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, one of the aircraft flown by the Tuskegee Airmen.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: In 2021 the U.S. Mint issued an America the Beautiful quarter commemorating the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site. The coin depicts a Tuskegee Airman suiting up with two P-51 Mustangs flying overhead and the motto "They fought two wars".


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: On 25 April 2021, NASCAR Cup Series driver, Erik Jones honored the Airmen with a paint scheme at Talladega Superspeedway similar to the design of the P-51 Mustang they flew in World War II. Jones led 7 laps in the race, but crashed while running fourth on the final lap, and had to settle for a 27th-place finish.


title: Tuskegee Airmen

text: There is a mural depicting the Tuskegee Airmen and their contributions at 39th and Chestnut Streets in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Julie Pottinger (née Cotler; born 1970), better known by her pen name Julia Quinn, is a best-selling American author of historical romance fiction. Her novels have been translated into 41 languages, and have appeared on "The New York Times" Bestseller List 19 times. She has been inducted into the Romance Writers of America Hall of Fame. Her "Bridgerton" series of novels has been adapted for Netflix by Shondaland under the title "Bridgerton".


title: Julia Quinn

text: Quinn was born as Julie Cotler in 1970 to Jane and Stephen Lewis Cotler. She has three sisters: Emily, Abigail, and Ariana. She is Jewish. She was raised primarily in New England, although she spent much of her time in California following her parents' divorce.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Since her early childhood, Quinn thoroughly enjoyed books. At age 12, her father disagreed with her choices of reading material, "Sweet Dreams" and the "Sweet Valley High" book series, and told her she could keep reading them only if she could prove that they were good for her. She promptly told him that she was studying them in order to write one herself. Challenged to prove that she meant her statement, Quinn sat down at their computer and wrote her first two chapters. After finishing her novel three years later, she submitted it to "Sweet Dreams", but was rejected.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Quinn graduated from Hotchkiss School and Harvard with a degree in Art History. During her senior year of college, she realized that she did not know what she wanted to do with her degree and decided to attend medical school. That decision required her to attend two additional years of college to complete the science prerequisites necessary to apply for medical school. She postponed medical school for two years while she wrote two more novels.


title: Julia Quinn

text: To occupy herself during the long days of studying science, Quinn began to write light-hearted Regency novels. A few weeks after she was accepted to medical school, she discovered that her first two novels, "Splendid" and "Dancing At Midnight", had been sold at auction, an unusual occurrence for a novice romance author. By the time Quinn finally entered Yale School of Medicine intending to become a doctor, three of her books had been published. After a few months of studying medicine, Quinn realized that she preferred writing to medical study. She left medical school and devoted herself full-time to her writing.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Quinn considers herself a feminist and gives her heroines feminist qualities that are not necessarily true to the most prevalent attitudes of the times her novels are set in. Her books are noted for being their humor and sharp, witty dialogue. The novels are primarily character-driven, lacking the great external conflicts that many romance novels employ. One of her novels, "When He was Wicked", was unusual for a romance novel, as the first four chapters describe the heroine in a happy marriage with someone who is not the hero, and then shows the death of the original husband and deals with the grief of both the heroine and hero before allowing the second love story to flourish.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Most of her books are dedicated to her husband, Paul Pottinger, often with references to amusing alternate titles for the work. Quinn won the Romance Writers of America RITA Award for 2007 for "On the Way to the Wedding" and again for 2008 for "The Secret Diaries of Miss Miranda Cheever". When she won for 2010 for "What Happens in London", she became (at the time) the youngest member and is now one of only 16 authors to be inducted into the RWA Hall of Fame.


title: Julia Quinn

text: In 2003, she enjoyed the rare honor of being profiled in "Time Magazine", an accomplishment few romance novelists have achieved. In 2005 "Publishers Weekly" gave "To Sir Phillip, With Love" a rare starred review, and later named it one of the six best mass market original novels of the year.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Each of her last 17 novels has appeared on the "New York Times" Bestseller List, with "Mr. Cavendish, I Presume" hitting number one in October 2008. Most recently, "The Girl With the Make-Believe Husband" was on the "NYT" list in June 2017. Additionally to those, both her Lady Whistledown anthologies appeared on the "NY Times" list, as did both of her novel-in-three-part collaborations with Connie Brockway and Eloisa James ("The Lady Most Likely" and "The Lady Most Willing"), and the "Bridgertons: Happily Ever After" collection of Bridgerton’s second epilogues.


title: Julia Quinn

text: Her "Bridgerton" series of books has been adapted for Netflix by Shonda Rhimes under the title "Bridgerton".


title: Julia Quinn

text: In 2001, Quinn won $79,000 on "The Weakest Link". She is an avid reader and posts recommendations of her favorite books on her Facebook page.


title: Julia Quinn

text: On June 29, 2021, Quinn's sister and father, Ariana Elise Cotler and Stephen Lewis Cotler, respectively, were killed by a drunk driver in Kaysville, Utah.


title: Julia Quinn

text: According to Quinn, this two-book set was based on the premise, "Two men say they’re the Duke of something. One of them must be wrong," inspired by a lyric from the Dire Straits song, "Industrial Disease". The events are concurrent and the plots are intertwined, with some scenes appearing in both books but from different perspectives.


title: Julia Quinn

text: The Rokesby series is often considered a prequel series as it follows the Rokesby and Bridgerton families.


title: Julia Quinn

text: The witty gossip columnist "Lady Whistledown" from the Bridgerton series ties together these two anthologies of interlinked novellas:


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Wrath of the Titans is a 2012 action fantasy film and a sequel to the 2010 film "Clash of the Titans". The film stars Sam Worthington, Rosamund Pike, Bill Nighy, Édgar Ramírez, Toby Kebbell, Danny Huston, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson, with Jonathan Liebesman directing a screenplay by Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson from a story by them and Greg Berlanti. "Wrath of the Titans" takes place a decade after the events of the preceding film as the gods lose control over the imprisoned Titans (thanks to humanity's lack of prayers which also is draining their immortality) and Perseus is called, this time to rescue his father Zeus, overthrow the Titans, and save mankind.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Talk of a sequel began with the release of "Clash of the Titans" in March 2010. Writers Dan Mazeau and David Leslie Johnson were hired in June 2010 and director Jonathan Liebesman was brought on board in August 2010. The majority of the casting took place between January and February 2011. Principal photography began in London in March 2011. Like its predecessor, the film was converted to 3D in post-production. "Wrath of the Titans" was released in 2D and 3D on March 30, 2012, in the United States. The film received widespread negative reception from critics and grossed $302 million worldwide. A sequel entitled "Revenge of the Titans" was planned for a 2013 release, but was cancelled due to the two films' critical failures and too few ideas for the script.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Ten years after defeating Hades' Kraken, Perseus, the demigod son of Zeus, now lives as a fisherman with his young son Heleus, after the death of his wife Io. Zeus visits Perseus and asks for his help, saying that humans are not praying to the gods; as a result, the gods are losing their power and becoming mortal, meaning they can no longer sustain the walls of Tartarus which are holding back the imprisoned Titan Kronos from freedom. Perseus, valuing his family's safety, refuses to get involved.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Zeus meets his brothers Hades and Poseidon and his son Ares in Tartarus. He asks Hades's help in rebuilding Tartarus's walls, but Hades rejects the offer and attacks Zeus. Ares too, having decided to betray Zeus, attacks his father. Poseidon is fatally injured in the ensuing fight. Hades and Ares imprison Zeus, stealing his thunderbolt. They plan to make a deal with Kronos; in exchange for remaining immortal, they will drain Zeus's divine power to revive Kronos. The walls of Tartarus break, unleashing monsters onto the world.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: After killing a two-headed Chimera that attacked his village, Perseus travels to meet his father. He instead finds a dying Poseidon who informs him of the circumstances and tells him to find his demigod son Agenor, who will lead him to Hephaestus, who knows the way into Tartarus. Poseidon then gives Perseus his trident and succumbs to his injuries. Perseus, Andromeda and Agenor set out to find Hephaestus on a hidden island.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Agenor explains that Hephaestus created three weapons which Zeus, Hades, and Poseidon wield: Zeus's thunderbolt, Hades's pitchfork, and Poseidon's trident, which can jointly form the Spear of Trium, the only weapon that can defeat Kronos. After an encounter with three 30 ft. Cyclopes, the travelers eventually meet the now-mortal Hephaestus and reach the entrance of a labyrinth leading to Tartarus. Hephaestus sacrifices himself during an attack by Ares to enable Perseus, Andromeda, and Agenor to enter the labyrinth. Once inside the labyrinth they encounter the Minotaur that attacks them, but Perseus manages to kill it.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: The group eventually enters Tartarus. Meanwhile, Zeus has been almost entirely drained of power as Kronos awakens. Zeus apologizes to Hades for banishing him to the underworld and asks his forgiveness, as he has forgiven Hades for his actions. Hades decides to help Zeus and stop Kronos in contrast to Ares, who still wants to proceed to the former's revival. Perseus arrives and frees Zeus. Ares wounds Zeus with Hades' pitchfork, allowing Perseus to obtain it before he and the others escape Tartarus with Zeus.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Aiming to retrieve Zeus' thunderbolt from Ares in order to defeat Kronos, Perseus challenges him to a duel. Meanwhile, Andromeda's army is overwhelmed by the Makhai. Hades revives Zeus and together they defeat the creatures. Kronos appears and begins to attack Andromeda's army. Zeus and Hades hold off Kronos while Perseus duels Ares, eventually killing him with the thunderbolt. Combining the gods' weapons into the Spear of Trium, Perseus destroys Kronos by traveling to his heart and throwing the spear into it.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Zeus reconciles with Perseus and then dies of his wounds. Hades leaves, telling Perseus that he is now powerless. Perseus kisses Andromeda, and Heleus tells his father that he wants to return to his life as a fisherman, but Perseus tells him they cannot. Perseus encourages Heleus to be proud of himself, as he is the son of Perseus and the grandson of Zeus. The film ends with Perseus giving his sword to Heleus.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Lily James appears as Korrina, a female warrior from Argos, while Matt Milne plays another Argive soldier. Alejandro Naranjo plays the Argive general Mantius.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: John Bell plays Helius, the young son of Perseus and Io. In classical Greek mythology, Helius was one of the sons of Perseus and Andromeda; not Io who lived hundreds of years before Perseus and was actually one of his ancestors.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: The Minotaur is performed by Spencer Wilding, with Martin Bayfield motion-captured the oldest of the three cyclopes, who are based on the mythological cyclopes Arges, Steropes, and Brontes, who assisted Hephaestes.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Talks of a sequel to "Clash of the Titans" began as early as March 2010. Tamer Hassan, who played Ares in the first film, stated at the film's world premiere that, "They want this one to do well so they can go ahead with the sequel, "Return of the Gods"". In April 2010 it was reported that director Louis Leterrier would not return to direct, but would be an executive producer on the second installment. The report also stated that Sam Worthington was on board and that Greg Berlanti would write the story.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: In June 2010, Warner Bros. hired David Leslie Johnson and Dan Mazeau to write the screenplay, with Basil Iwanyk returning as the producer. It was announced that the sequel would be filmed in 3D, rather than being converted to 3D as the first film was. In August 2010, it was reported that Jonathan Liebesman had signed on as director.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: In September 2010, Liebesman confirmed that Sam Worthington, Gemma Arterton, Ralph Fiennes, and Liam Neeson would be returning. However, Arterton did not reprise her role for unknown reasons, leaving her character, Io, dead in the film. In December 2010, Neeson revealed that the film would be titled "Wrath of the Titans" and that filming was expected to begin next March.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: In January 2011, it was reported that Édgar Ramírez and Toby Kebbell were in negotiations to play Ares and Agenor respectively. It was also reported that Bill Nighy was being courted to play Hephaestus. Additionally, Hayley Atwell was on the shortlist of actresses screen testing for the role of Andromeda, played in the previous film by Alexa Davalos who left due to a scheduling conflict. Other actresses being considered for Andromeda included Georgina Haig, Janet Montgomery, Dominique McElligott, and Clémence Poésy.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: In February 2011, it was reported that Rosamund Pike was near a deal for the part. Also in February, Liebesman announced that "Wrath of the Titans" would be converted to 3D rather than shot in 3D as previously reported despite the negative criticism the first "Clash of the Titans" received for its use of post-conversion 3D. Liebesman explained, "I think what you have to remember is the first film was neither shot nor edited with 3D in mind. It was shot as a 2D movie and edited as a 2D film, and they decided to convert it with six or seven weeks to go until release, which is insane; the technology was not there. That's why we're conceiving it from the start, from the ground up, in 3D, editing in 3D for 3D." Liebesman also stated the reason behind the conversion was because he wants to shoot on film, which will give the film's imagery better texture than he would get shooting digitally.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Principal photography began on March 23, 2011. Filming took place in studios outside London and later shot on location in Surrey, South Wales and in the Canary Islands on the island of Tenerife and Torres del Paine National Park in Chilean Patagonia.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: "Wrath of the Titans" premiered on March 26, 2012, at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City. Warner Bros. Pictures released the film in theaters in the United States on March 30, 2012.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: "Wrath of the Titans" was released on Blu-ray, 3D Blu-ray, DVD and digital download on June 26, 2012.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: "Wrath of the Titans" earned $83.6 million in North America and $221.6 million internationally for a worldwide total of $301 million, less than the $493 million grossed by its predecessor. The film was co-financed by Warner Bros. and Legendary Pictures for $150 million, about $25 million more than it cost to produce the original. It debuted day-and-date in 61 markets worldwide sans Japan and delivered a global opening of $110.3 million.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: In the United States and Canada, the film was released in a total of 3,545 theaters with 2,900 3D locations (4,400 3D screens), and 290 IMAX locations. Initially, it was projected open around with $35–40 million. It opened Friday, March 30, 2012, with $1 million from midnight screenings in 1,490 theaters. The film went on to earn $34.2 million in North America over the weekend, finishing in second place behind "The Hunger Games" which was playing its second weekend. The opening was over half of the original's $61.2 million debut. It played well in IMAX representing $4.7 million of the total weekend's gross. The follow-up attracted a large male contingent on its opening weekend with 66%. Roughly 65% of the moviegoers – about 55% of whom were over the age of 25 – saw the film in 3D.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Dan Fellman, Warner Bros. president of domestic distribution, said the comparison between the opening of the first and second film was not fair because the original opened on Good Friday, when more teenagers were out on spring break. He lamented on the film's poor box office performance: "We made a decision to open a week before the holiday this time and generate positive word-of-mouth since we had issues with the last one regarding the 3-D conversion, we're gonna get there – we're just gonna get there in a different way." However, despite not opening on a holiday weekend, the film had the advantage of playing a week before Easter in which the company could avail the spring break, which was staggered over the next two weeks. However, all this didn't necessarily aid the film's further box office performance. Warner Bros. said they didn't expect the sequel to reach the same level.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Outside North America, the film had a more successful opening but this success later dwindled due to poor word of mouth and eventually was unable to topple the first film's final $332 million international gross. It opened in first place – dethroning "The Hunger Games" — with $76.1 million from 14,600 screens (9,766 of which were in 3D) in 60 territories. It debuted in first place in 46 markets, notably in nine of the top 12 international territories including Korea ($4.3 million), France ($3.1 million) and Italy ($1.8 million). Its biggest opening territories were Russia and the CIS ($12.8 million, representing 18% of the total weekend foreign take), Mexico ($5.2 million) and Brazil ($4.1 million). The film was ranked No. 1 in 11 markets across Latin America. Also internationally, it had an IMAX opening of $4 million from 176 screens – or $22,000 per site – with Russia contributing about $55,000 per-screen at 19 IMAX locations.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports that of surveyed critics gave the film a positive review; the average rating is . The site's critical consensus reads, "Its 3D effects are an improvement over its predecessor's, but in nearly every other respect, "Wrath of the Titans" fails to improve upon the stilted acting, wooden dialogue, and chaos-driven plot of the franchise's first installment." Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 37 out of 100 based on 32 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, audiences gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale, slightly better than the first film's "B" grade.


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: The film earned a Razzie Award nomination for Neeson as Worst Supporting Actor. Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" called it, "A relentlessly mechanical piece of work that will not or cannot take the imaginative leaps to yield even fleeting moments of awe, wonder or charm". Roger Ebert, who gave the first film three stars, awarded "Wrath" with only two, remarking "It lacks a comprehensible story, and you won't need your CliffsNotes on the Greek myths. You get an idea of who the major players are, and then they spend a modest amount of time shouting laughable dialogue at one another while being all but forced off the screen by special effects.". Mark Olsen of the "Los Angeles Times" criticized, "Directed this time out by Jonathan Liebesman, the film lacks inspiration or zest in storytelling, performance or action. This is pure product, a movie desperately without energy or enthusiasm of any kind". However, there have been some positive reviews. Andrew Barker of "Variety" noted that, "The ["Clash of the Titans"] franchise has matured ever so slightly with "Wrath of the Titans," hewing incrementally more faithfully to its Greek origins and trimming the fat in essential places". Richard Corliss of "Time" magazine wrote, ""Wrath [of the Titans]" radiates the straight-forward, straight-faced pleasures of the mytho-muscular epics, like "Hercules" and "Jason and the Argonauts", produced in Europe a half-century ago". Owen Gleiberman of "Entertainment Weekly" commented, "For a movie that's basically all warmed-over pseudo-mythology and special effects, "Wrath of the Titans" is certainly more fun, in its solemnly junky way, than "John Carter". It may also be a little more fun than its cheeseball predecessor, the 2010 remake of "Clash of the Titans"".


title: Wrath of the Titans

text: Following the film's release, a second sequel, called "Revenge of the Titans", was in the pipeline. However, due to "Wrath"s disappointing critical reception and box office returns, the project was later shelved. In May 2013, Worthington stated he did not think a third film would be made. In December 2013, producer Basil Iwanyk confirmed the sequel was not happening due to a lack of fresh ideas for the script.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The Gwangju Uprising was a popular uprising in the city of Gwangju, South Korea, from May 18 to May 27, 1980, which pitted local, armed citizens against soldiers and police of the South Korean government. The event is sometimes called 5·18 (May 18; ), in reference to the date the movement began. The uprising is also known as the Gwangju Democratization Struggle (), the Gwangju Massacre, the May 18 Democratic Uprising, or the May 18 Gwangju Democratization Movement ().


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The uprising began after local Chonnam University students who were demonstrating against the martial law government were fired upon, killed, raped, and beaten by government troops. Some Gwangju citizens took up arms, raiding local police stations and armouries, and were able to take control of large sections of the city before soldiers re-entered the city and put down the uprising. At the time, the South Korean government reported estimates of around 170 people killed, but other estimates have measured 600 to 2,300 people killed. During Chun Doo-hwan's unelected presidency, the authorities defined the incident by classifying it as the <nowiki>"</nowiki>Gwangju Riot,<nowiki>"</nowiki> and claimed that it was being instigated by "communist sympathizers and rioters", possibly acting on the support of the North Korean government.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Denial of or support for the Gwangju Uprising has long acted as a litmus test between conservative and far-right groups and beliefs, and mainstream and progressive sectors of the population, within modern Korean politics. The far-right groups have sought to discredit the uprising. One such argument points to the fact that it occurred before Chun Doo-hwan officially took office, and so contend that it could not really have been a simple student protest against him that started it. However, Chun Doo-hwan had become the de facto leader of South Korea at that time since coming into power on December 12, 1979, after leading a successful military coup against the previous South Korean government which was itself also authoritarian.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In 1997, a national cemetery and day of commemoration (May 18), along with acts to "compensate, and restore honor" to victims, were established. Later investigations would confirm various atrocities which had been committed by the army. In 2011, 1980 Archives for the May 18th Democratic Uprising against Military Regime located in Gwangju's city hall were inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World Register.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: A series of democratic movements in South Korea began with the assassination of President Park Chung-hee on October 26, 1979. The abrupt termination of Park's 18-year authoritarian rule left a power vacuum and led to political and social instability. While President Choi Kyu-hah, the successor to the Presidency after Park's death, had no dominant control over the government, South Korean Army major general Chun Doo-hwan, the chief of the Defense Security Command, seized military power through the Coup d'état of December Twelfth and tried to intervene in domestic issues. The military however could not explicitly reveal its political ambitions and had no obvious influence over the civil administration before the mass civil unrest in May 1980.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The nation's democratization movements, which had been suppressed during Park's tenure, were being revived. With the beginning of a new semester in March 1980, professors and students expelled for pro-democracy activities returned to their universities, and student unions were formed. These unions led nationwide demonstrations for reforms, including an end to martial law (declared after Park's assassination), democratization, human rights, minimum wage demands, and freedom of the press. These activities culminated in the anti-martial law demonstration at Seoul Station on May 15, 1980, in which about 100,000 students and citizens participated.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In response, Chun Doo-hwan took several suppressive measures. On February 18 1980, a riot control training order was issued throughout Several units(such as Capital Garrison Command, ROK-SWC) by ROK Army Headquarters. this riot control training so-called "Chungjeong Training()" was Harsh and unconscionable, including the prohibition of furlough and oppressive mind training. consequently, Chungjeong Training is criticized as one of the Important Reasons that ROK-SWC Paratroopers behave irrationally(using indiscriminate violence against citizens and even Local Police officers without proper reason) during the Uprising.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On May 17, he forced the Cabinet to extend martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to Jeju Province. The extended martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. To enforce martial law, troops were dispatched to various parts of the country. On the same day, the Defense Security Command raided a national conference of student union leaders from 55 universities, who were gathered to discuss their next moves in the wake of the May 15 demonstration. Twenty-six politicians, including South Jeolla Province native Kim Dae-jung, were also arrested on charges of instigating demonstrations. What is often not mentioned is how Chun played down the protests by cutting off all communication to and from Gwangju and used propaganda to inform the rest of the nation that the protestors in Gwangju were all communists.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Ensuing strife was focused in South Jeolla Province, particularly in the then-provincial capital, Gwangju, for complex political and geographical reasons. These factors were both deep and contemporary:


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: [The Jeolla, or Honam] region is the granary of Korea. However, due to its abundant natural resources, the Jeolla area has historically been the target of exploitation by both domestic and foreign powers.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The oppositional protest had existed in Korea historicallyespecially in the South Jeolla Province regionduring the Donghak Peasant Revolution, Gwangju Students Movement, Yeosu–Suncheon Rebellion, regional resistance to the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598), and more recently under the Third Republic of South Korea and Fourth Republic of South Korea, as can be seen by the excerpts below:


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Park Chung Hee's dictatorship had showered economic and political favors on his native Gyeongsang Province in the southeast, at the expense of the Jeolla region of the southwest. The latter became the real hotbed of political opposition to the dictatorship, which in turn led to more discrimination from the centre. Finally, in May 1980 the city of Gwangju in South Jeolla province exploded in a popular uprising against the new military strongman, General Chun Doo Hwan, who responded with a bloodbath that killed hundreds of Gwangju's citizens.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The city of Kwangju was subject to particularly severe and violent repression by the military after [nationwide] martial law was imposed. The denial of democracy and the heightening authoritarianism that accompanied the coming to power of Chun Doo Hwan to replace Park prompted nationwide protests which, because of Cholla's [Jeolla's] historical legacy of dissent and radicalism, were most intense in that region.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On the morning of May 18, students gathered at the gate of Chonnam National University in defiance of its closing. By 9:30 am, around 200 students had arrived; they were opposed by 30 paratroopers. At around 10 am, soldiers and students clashed: soldiers charged the students; students threw stones. The protest then moved to the downtown, Geumnamno (the street leading to the Jeollanamdo Provincial Office), area. There the conflict broadened, to around 2000 participants by the afternoon. Initially, police handled the Geumnamno protests; at 4 pm, though, the ROK Special Warfare Command (SWC) sent paratroopers to take over. The arrival of these 686 soldiers, from the 33rd and 35th battalions of the 7th Airborne Brigade, marked a new, violent, and now infamous phase of suppression.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Witnesses say soldiers clubbed both demonstrators and onlookers unreasonably. Testimonies, photographs, and internal records attest to the use of bayonets. To make things worse, paratroopers would break and enter buildings that are irrelevant to the demonstration; including hotels, cafés, and barbershops; and attacked, torture, or sometimes killed the citizens indiscriminately. The first known fatality was a 29-year-old deaf man named Kim Gyeong-cheol, who was clubbed to death on May 18 while passing by the scene without any hostile intent. As citizens were infuriated by the violence of these ROK-SWC paratroopers, the number of protesters rapidly increased and exceeded 10,000 by May 20.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: As the conflict escalated, the army began to fire on citizens, killing an unknown number near Gwangju station on May 20. That same day, angered protesters burned down the local MBC station, which had misreported the situation then unfolded in Gwangju (acknowledging only one civilian casualty, for example). Four policemen were killed at a police barricade near the Provincial Government Building after a car drove into them.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On the night of May 20, hundreds of taxis led a large parade of buses, trucks, and cars toward the Provincial Office to meet the protest. These "drivers of democracy" showed up to support the citizens and the demonstration because of troop brutality witnessed earlier in the day. As the drivers joined in the demonstration, troops used tear gas on them, and pulled them out of their vehicles and beat them. This in turn led more drivers to come to the scene in anger after many taxi drivers were assaulted when trying to assist the injured and while taking people to the hospital. Some were shot after the drivers attempted to use the vehicles as weapons or to block soldiers.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The violence climaxed on May 21. At about 1 pm, the army fired at a protesting crowd gathered in front of the South Jeolla Provincial Office building, causing casualties. In response, some protesters raided Reserve Force armories and police stations in nearby towns and armed themselves with M1 rifles or M1/M2 carbines. The militias also started to exercise caution against North Korean interventions, such as raising placards that say "Don't misjudge, Northerners (북괴는 오판말라)" Later that afternoon, bloody gunfights between civilian militias and the army broke out in the Provincial Office Square. By 5:30 pm, militias had acquired two light machine guns and used them against the army, which began to retreat from the downtown area.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: At this point, all troops retreated to rural outskirt areas Outside of the Main City to wait for reinforcements, including troops from the 3rd Airborne Brigade, 11th Airborne Brigade, 20th Mechanised Infantry Division, and 31st Infantry Division, and Combat Arms Training Command (CATC, - currently known as the ROK Army Training & Doctrine Command), especially CATC's three subordinate units came from their HQ Located in Sangmudae military complex - Army Infantry School (), Army Artillery School (), and Army Armor School ().


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The army blocked all routes and communications leading into and out of the city. Although there was a lull in fighting between militias and the army, more casualties were incurred on May 23 when soldiers fired at a bus that attempted to break out of the city in Jiwon-dong, killing 15 of the 18 passengers, and summarily executing two wounded passengers.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The following day, At 13:10 p.m., two boys, Jeon Jae-su and Bang Gwang-beom attempted to swim across the Wonje reservoir, but the 11th Airborne Brigade Troopers opened fire on them, resulting in their deaths at 13:50 p.m.. At 13:55 p.m., The army suffered the most casualties when troops of the 11th Airborne Brigade 63rd Special Operations Battalion and CATC Army Infantry School Training Battalion mistakenly fired at each other in Songam-dong, resulting in the deaths of 13 soldiers. The 11th Airborne Brigade Troopers murdered unarmed civilians and residents of Near Village in Songam-dong indiscriminately, also plundering nearby stores. Martial Law Command misinterpreted friendly fire at Songam-dong as the work of insurgents within the army, as Airborne Brigade Troopers were using a different communications channel.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Meanwhile, in the "liberated" city of Gwangju, the Citizens' Settlement Committee and the Students' Settlement Committee were formed. The former was composed of about 20 preachers, lawyers, and professors. They negotiated with the army, demanding the release of arrested citizens, compensation for victims, and prohibition of retaliation in exchange for the disarmament of militias. The latter was formed by university students and took charge of funerals, public campaigns, traffic control, withdrawal of weapons, and medical aid.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Order in the city was well maintained, but negotiations came to a deadlock as the army urged the militias to immediately and unconditionally disarm themselves. This issue caused division within the Settlement Committees; some wanted immediate surrender, while others called for continued resistance until their demands were met. After heated debates, those calling for continued resistance eventually took control.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: As the news of the bloody crackdown spread, further protests against the government broke out in nearby regions, including Hwasun, Naju, Haenam, Mokpo, Yeongam, Gangjin, and Muan. While protests ended peacefully in most regions, in Haenam there were gunfights between armed protesters and troops. By May 24, most of these protests had died down; in Mokpo, protests continued until May 28.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: By May 26, the army was ready to reenter Gwangju. Members of the Citizens' Settlement Committee unsuccessfully tried to block the army's advance by lying down in the streets. As the news of the imminent attack spread, civil militias gathered in the Provincial Office, preparing for the last stand.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Martial Law Command decides to execute Operation Sangmu-Chungjeong(, Operation Martialism and Loyalty). 3rd Airborne Brigade, 7th Airborne Brigade, and 11th Airborne Brigade Troopers armed with M16A1 and stun grenades and wearing Flak Vest, Leaf camo Helmet with White Band, Ordinary ROK Army Infantryman combat uniform without any Insignia and Patches, instead of ROK-SWC's Signature Noodle Camo pattern uniform called Chungjeong bok (Loyalty Uniform) since the 1970s. for making them look like Ordinary Army Infantryman because their Camo uniform is too notorious already in Whole Gwangju city as a consequence of What they did.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: At 4:00 a.m., Disguised troopers from three Airborne Brigade were in the Vanguard of Operation. 20th Mechanised Infantry Division and 31st Infantry Division join the Operation as backup. and Finally, troops of Combat Arms Training Command's three subordinate units (Army Infantry School, Army Artillery School, Army Armor School) maintain their role in Gwangju Blockade during the Operation.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The Airborne Brigade troopers moved into the downtown area and defeated the civil militias within 90 minutes.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The National Police Agency, then called the National Security Headquarters, initially dealt with controlling the protests, but was soon assisted by paratroopers from the 7th Airborne Brigade, before being ordered to evacuate and allow the army to fully take over duties in controlling unrest. The police suffered some of the first casualties of the uprising when four policemen were killed during a car-ramming attack. however, the Martial Law Forces are also not friendly to the Local Police of Gwangju city.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Commissioner General of the Jeonnam Provincial Police, Ahn Byung-ha, refused to order policemen to open fire on civilians, as instructed by Chun Doo-hwan, leading to his eventual replacement as Police Chief, and subsequent torture by the Army Counterintelligence Corps, which in turn led to his death 8 years later. moreover, some of Paratroopers unreasonably assault the policemen. Kim Seung-ho, who was an ophthalmology resident of the Chonnam National University Hospital in May 1980 said "the hospital accommodation was located on the 11th Floor so I can see what is going on the outside. one day when I looking in the direction of the Provincial Office Building, a group of Soldiers chase the Police Officers. I saw the weird thing that Police Officers were threatened in the ally by Soldiers and Soldiers trying to hunt them down."


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: As such, the police played little role in the violent suppression of the uprising, and several policemen were themselves targeted by the army and government for expressing sympathies with protesters.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: There is no universally accepted death toll for the 1980 Gwangju Uprising. Official figures released by the government's Martial Law Command shortly after the event put the death toll at 144 civilians, 22 troops and four police killed, with 127 civilians, 109 troops and 144 police wounded. Individuals who attempted to dispute these figures were liable for arrest for "spreading false rumors".


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: According to the May 18 Bereaved Family Association, at least 165 people died between May 18 and 27. Another 76 are still missing and presumed dead. Twenty-two soldiers and four policemen were killed during the uprising, including 13 soldiers killed in the friendly-fire incident between troops in Songam-dong. Figures for police casualties are likely to be higher, due to reports of several policemen being killed by soldiers for releasing captured protesters. Estimates for civilians wounded vary heavily, with some measuring around 1,800 to 3,500 wounded.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The official figures have been criticized by some as being too low. Based on reports by foreign press sources and critics of the Chun Doo-hwan administration, it has been argued that the actual death toll was in the 1,000 to 2,000 range.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The government denounced the uprising as a rebellion instigated by Kim Dae-jung and his followers. In subsequent trials, Kim was convicted and sentenced to death, although his punishment was later reduced in response to international outcries. Overall, 1,394 people were arrested for involvement in the Gwangju incident, and 427 were indicted. Among them, 7 received death sentences, and 12 received life sentences. It is estimated that up to 200,000 people may have participated in the uprising, at various stages, facing roughly 3,000 paratroopers and 18,000 policemen.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: 137 victims were carried in handcarts and garbage trucks to be buried at the located on the outskirts of Gwangju. A New Mangweol-dong Cemetery was created by the state to educate on and commemorate Gwangju's history.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The Gwangju Uprising had a profound impact on South Korean politics and history. Chun Doo-hwan already had popularity problems due to his taking power through a military coup, but authorizing the dispatch of Special Forces paratroopers against citizens damaged his legitimacy even further. The movement preceded other democratic movements in the 1980s that pressured the regime into democratic reforms, paving the way for the election of oppositional candidate Kim Dae-Jung in 1997. on December 16, 1996, Seoul High Court held that Martial Law Forces' action during the Gwangju Uprising was "a Riot that Martial Law Forces had done as a perpetrator (계엄군을 이용하여 폭동을 한 경우)" for the subversion of the national constitution. and on April 17, 1997, Supreme Court of Korea held that what Chun Doo-hwan's Martial Law Forces did was Police riot, not a legitimate act. and Militia's action was a justifiable use of force for protecting constitutional order of the country. The Gwangju Uprising has become a symbol of South Koreans' struggle against authoritarian regimes and for democracy.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Beginning in 2000, the May 18 Memorial Foundation has offered an annual Gwangju Prize for Human Rights to a notable human rights defender in memory of the uprising.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On May 25, 2011, the documents of Gwangju Uprising were listed as a 'UNESCO Memory of the World.’ (The official registration name of these documents is 'Human Rights Documentary Heritage 1980 Archives for the May 18th Democratic Uprising against Military Regime, in Gwangju, Republic of Korea.') It then became clear that there was an urgent need to systematically collect and preserve these documents. Gwangju Metropolitan City government then decided to establish May 18 Archives by legislating an ordinance known as the 'Management Act on the Archives of May 18 Gwangju Democratization Movement. Since then, the Gwangju Metropolitan City government decided to re-model the former Gwangju Catholic center building for record conservation. The construction of this facility started in 2014 and was completed in 2015.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: The 1980s marked a surge in Anti-Americanism in Korea, widely traced to the events of May 1980 due to the United States support for Chun's government. According to Bruce Cumings:


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Gwangju convinced a new generation of young [Koreans] that the democratic movement had developed not with the support of Washington, as an older generation of more conservative Koreans thought, but in the face of daily American support for any dictator who could quell the democratic aspirations of the Korean people. The result was an anti-American movement in the 1980s that threatened to bring down the whole structure of American support for the ROK. American cultural centers were burned to the ground (more than once in Gwangju); students immolated themselves in protest of Reagan's support for Chun.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Fundamental to this movement was a perception of U.S. complicity in Chun's rise to power, and, more particularly, in the Gwangju Uprising itself. These matters remain controversial. It is clear, for example, that the U.S. authorized the ROK Army's 20th Division to re-take Gwangju – as acknowledged in a 1982 letter to the New York Times by then-Ambassador William H. Gleysteen.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: [General John A. Wickham], with my concurrence, permitted the transfer of well-trained troops of the twentieth ROKA Division from martial-law duty in Seoul to Gwangju because law and order had to be restored in a situation that had run amok following the outrageous behavior of the Korean Special Forces, which had never been under General Wickham's command.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: However, as Gwangju Uprising editors Scott-Stokes and Lee note, whether the expulsion of government troops left the situation lawless or "amok" is open to dispute.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: But the gravest questions pertain to the initial, triggering use of South Korean special forces. The United States has always denied foreknowledge of their deployment, most definitively in a June 19, 1989 white paper; that report additionally downplays Gleysteen's and others' characterizations of the U.S. actions.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: ...Ambassador Gleysteen has stated that the U.S. "approved" the movement of the 20th Division, and a U.S. Department of Defense spokesman on May 23, 1980, stated that the U.S. had "agreed" to release from OPCON [operational control] of the troops sent to Gwangju. Irrespective of the terminology, under the rights of national sovereignty the ROKG had the authority to deploy the 20th Division as it saw fit, once it had OPCON, regardless of the views of the U.S. Government.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: At the Mangwol-dong cemetery in Gwangju where victims' bodies were buried, survivors of the democratization movement and bereaved families have held an annual memorial service on May 18 every year since 1980 called the May Movement ("O-wol Undong"). Many pro-democracy demonstrations in the 1980s demanded official recognition of the truth of the uprising and punishment for those responsible.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Official reevaluation began after the reinstatement of direct presidential elections in 1987. In 1988, the National Assembly held a public hearing on the Gwangju Uprising and officially renamed the incident the Gwangju Uprising. While the official renaming occurred in 1987, it can also be found translated into English as "Gwangju People's Uprising".


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In 1995, as public pressure mounted, the National Assembly passed the Special Law on May 18 Democratization Movement, which enabled the prosecution of those responsible for the December 12 coup d'état and Gwangju Uprising although the statute of limitations had run out.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In 1996, eight politicians including Chun Doo-hwan and Roh Tae-woo were indicted for high treason and the massacre. Their punishments were settled in 1997, including a death sentence, which was changed to a life sentence, for Chun Doo-hwan. Former President Roh Tae-Woo, Chun's successor and fellow participant in the December 12 coup, was also sentenced to life in prison. However, all convicts were pardoned in the name of national reconciliation on December 22, 1997, by President Kim Young-sam, based on advice from President-elect Kim Dae-jung.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In 1997, May 18 was declared an official memorial day. In 2002, a law privileging bereaved families took effect, and the Mangwol-dong cemetery was elevated to the status of a national cemetery.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On May 18, 2013, President Park Geun-hye attended the 33rd anniversary of the Gwangju uprising and stated, "I feel the sorrow of family members and the city of Gwangju every time I visit the National May 18 Cemetery", and that "I believe achieving a more mature democracy is a way to repay the sacrifice paid by those [killed in the massacre]."


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: After Park Geun-hye's impeachment and removal from office, newly elected South Korean President Moon Jae-in vowed to reopen the investigation into the South Korean government's role in the suppression of the uprising in May 2017.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In February 2018, it was revealed for the first time that the army had used McDonnell Douglas MD 500 Defender and Bell UH-1 Iroquois helicopters to fire on civilians. Defense Minister Song Young-moo delivered an apology.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: On November 7, 2018, Defense Minister Jeong Kyeong-doo issued another apology for the South Korean military's role in suppressing the uprising and acknowledged that soldiers had engaged in acts of sexual violence during the crackdown as well.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In May 2019, Kim Yong-Jang, a former intelligence officer at the 501st Military Intelligence Brigade of the U.S. Army testified that Chun Doo-hwan personally ordered troops to shoot protesters based on the intelligence he saw at the time. According to Kim, Chun secretly came to Gwangju on May 21, 1980, by helicopter to meet four military leaders including Chung Ho-Yong, then-commander of special operations, and Lee Jae-woo, then-colonel of the Gwangju 505 security unit. Kim also said there were undercover soldiers among the Gwangju citizens acting as agents provocateurs to discredit the movement. The soldiers were "in their 20s and 30s with short hair, some wearing wigs" and "their faces were burnt and some wore worn-out clothes".


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: In May 2020, 40 years after the uprising, the independent May 18 Democratization Movement Truth Commission was launched to investigate the crackdown and use of military force. Under legislation passed in 2018, it would operate for two years, with a one-year extension allowed if necessary. In an interview held to mark the 40th anniversary, President Moon announced his support for inscribing the historic value and significance of the May 18 Democratization Movement in a new constitution of South Korea following the liberals' landslide victory in the 2020 National Assembly elections.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Subsequently, with its new three-fifths majority in the National Assembly, the Democratic Party implemented a series of reforms that were approved by the National Assembly in December 2020 including revisions to the May 18 Special Act, penalizing those involved in making false factual claims regarding the 1980 Gwangju Uprising.


title: Gwangju Uprising

text: Declassified United States Department of State documents in July 2021, requested by the South Korean government, revealed that the U.S. ambassador William H. Gleysteen was informed by the Chief Presidential Secretary Choi Kwang-soo of the plans for an army crackdown on 26 May 1980, a day before it took place. The diplomatic cables showed Gleysteen expressed Washington's concerns over growing anti-American sentiment in and around the Gwangju area, amid "broadcasts" asserting that the U.S. was involved in the military crackdown. Prior to the declassification, the notion of American foreknowledge and involvement in the Gwangju Massacre was already immediately known after the event, but had been officially denied by the United States.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi ("Fear Factor: Players of Danger") also known as (Khatron Ke Khiladi) is an Indian Hindi-language stunt based reality television series based on the American series "Fear Factor". First launched as "Fear Factor India" on Sony TV it was sold to Colors TV and was relaunched as "Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi" on 21 July 2008. A "Spin-off" of the main-series was launched on 1 August 2020 where previous year contestants participated.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 1 was hosted by Akshay Kumar. Nethra Raghuraman was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 2 was hosted by Akshay Kumar. Anushka Manchanda was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 3 was hosted by Priyanka Chopra. Shabir Ahluwalia was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 4 was hosted by Akshay Kumar. The tagline for this season was "Torchaar 4". Aarti Chhabria was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 5 was hosted by Rohit Shetty The tagline for this season was "Darr Ka Blockbuster". Rajneesh Duggal was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 6 was hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Darr Ka Blockbuster Returns". Aashish Chaudhary was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 7 was hosted by Arjun Kapoor. The tagline for this season was "Kabhi पीड़ा Kabhi कीड़ा in Argentina". Sidharth Shukla was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 8 was hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Pain in Spain". Shantanu Maheshwari was declared the winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 9 was hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Jigar Pe Trigger". Punit Pathak was declared as winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 10 was hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Jahaan Darr Lega Class Aur Dega Trass". The telecast was postponed for 3 months due to COVID-19 pandemic. Week 7 episodes started from 27 June. Karishma Tanna was declared as the winner of the season 10.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 11 was hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Darr VS Dare". Arjun Bijlani was declared as winner of the season.


title: Fear Factor: Khatron Ke Khiladi

text: Khatron Ke Khiladi 12 is hosted by Rohit Shetty. The tagline for this season was "Bach Ke Kahan Jayega? Khatra Kahin Se Bhi Aayega!". The show premiered on 2 July 2022, on Colors TV. Spanning over 26 episodes, it is the longest season of the series since its inception. Tushar Kalia was declared as winner of the season.


title: DirectX

text: Microsoft DirectX is a collection of application programming interfaces (APIs) for handling tasks related to multimedia, especially game programming and video, on Microsoft platforms. Originally, the names of these APIs all began with "Direct", such as Direct3D, DirectDraw, DirectMusic, DirectPlay, DirectSound, and so forth. The name "DirectX" was coined as a shorthand term for all of these APIs (the "X" standing in for the particular API names) and soon became the name of the collection. When Microsoft later set out to develop a gaming console, the "X" was used as the basis of the name Xbox to indicate that the console was based on DirectX technology. The "X" initial has been carried forward in the naming of APIs designed for the Xbox such as XInput and the Cross-platform Audio Creation Tool (XACT), while the DirectX pattern has been continued for Windows APIs such as Direct2D and DirectWrite.


title: DirectX

text: Direct3D (the 3D graphics API within DirectX) is widely used in the development of video games for Microsoft Windows and the Xbox line of consoles. Direct3D is also used by other software applications for visualization and graphics tasks such as CAD/CAM engineering. As Direct3D is the most widely publicized component of DirectX, it is common to see the names "DirectX" and "Direct3D" used interchangeably.