title: George Thorogood

text: Thorogood gained his first mainstream exposure as a support act for the Rolling Stones during their 1981 U.S. tour. He was also the featured musical guest on "Saturday Night Live" (Season 8, Episode 2) on the October 2, 1982, broadcast. During this time, Thorogood and the Destroyers became known for their rigorous touring schedule, including the "50/50" tour in 1981, on which the band toured all 50 US states in 50 days. After two shows in Boulder, Colorado, Thorogood and his band flew to Hawaii for one show and then performed a show in Alaska the following night. The next day, Thorogood and his band met his roadies in Washington and continued the one-show-per-state tour. In addition, he played Washington, D.C. on the same day that he performed a show in Maryland, thereby playing 51 shows in 50 days.


title: George Thorogood

text: With his contract with Rounder Records expiring, Thorogood signed with EMI America Records and, in 1982, released the single "Bad to the Bone" and an album of the same name that went gold. The song became the band's most well-known song through appearances on MTV and use in films, television and commercials. Thorogood and his band went on to have two more gold studio albums in the 1980s, "Maverick" and "Born to Be Bad". The former features Thorogood's only "Billboard" Hot 100 hit, a remake of Johnny Otis's "Willie and the Hand Jive", and his concert staple "I Drink Alone".


title: George Thorogood

text: Thorogood's popularity waned in the 1990s, although he had a No. 2 hit on the "Billboard" Album Rock Tracks chart in 1992 with "Get a Haircut".


title: George Thorogood

text: In 2012, Thorogood was named one of the "50 Most Influential Delawareans of the Past 50 Years". He released his first proper solo album in 2017 titled "Party of One".


title: George Thorogood

text: On March 14, 2020, Thorogood was inducted into the Mississippi Music Project Hall of Fame in Biloxi, Mississippi and was awarded the MMP Music Award for his lifelong commitment to the music industry.


title: George Thorogood

text: Thorogood has been a baseball fan for most of his life, playing semi-pro ball as a second baseman during the 1970s (drummer Jeff Simon played center field on the same team). He took his daughter to Chicago for her first major league game (Cubs vs. Rockies), during which he sang "Take Me Out to the Ball Game". In a 2011 "Guitar World" interview, he stated "I'm a Mets fan. There aren't many of us but you know, that's me."


title: Lucas Hedges

text: Lucas Hedges (born December 12, 1996) is an American actor. A son of filmmaker Peter Hedges, he studied theater at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts. Hedges began his acting career with a supporting role in Wes Anderson's comedy-drama "Moonrise Kingdom" (2012). He had his breakthrough in 2016 playing a sardonic teenager in Kenneth Lonergan's drama "Manchester by the Sea", which earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Hedges then starred as an aggressive youth in an off-Broadway production of "Yen" and had supporting roles in the coming-of-age film "Lady Bird" and the drama "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri" in 2017.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: In 2018, Hedges played the lead role of a teenager forced into a gay conversion therapy program in "Boy Erased", which earned him a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Drama. He also made his Broadway debut in a revival of Lonergan's drama "The Waverly Gallery" in the same year.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: Hedges was born in Brooklyn Heights, New York, the second of two boys born to poet and actress Susan Bruce (née Titman) and screenwriter and director Peter Hedges. His paternal grandfather, the Rev. Robert Boyden Hedges, was an Episcopal minister. His maternal grandfather was a former vice president in New York at HBO, and his maternal grandmother, Narcissa Titman, is a former theatre director and lecturer. He has an older brother, Simon, who works in private equity in New York. He grew up in Brooklyn Heights and Cobble Hill, frequently visiting his father's film sets. As a child, Hedges made his feature film debut as an extra in his father's film "Dan in Real Life" (2007), but his line in the film was cut in post-production.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: A graduate of Saint Ann's School, he studied theatre at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts from 2015 to 2016. Hedges is a graduate of the Cherubs Theatre Program at Northwestern University's National High School Institute.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: During a middle-school play production, Hedges was spotted by the casting director for Wes Anderson's "Moonrise Kingdom" (2012), who eventually cast him in the film as Redford. He went on to play small roles in the comedy-drama "Arthur Newman" (2012), Jason Reitman's romance "Labor Day" (2013), and Terry Gilliam's science fiction film "The Zero Theorem" (2013). In 2014, Hedges had a minor role in Anderson's "The Grand Budapest Hotel" and played the son of Jeremy Renner's character in Michael Cuesta's drama "Kill the Messenger", which was based on CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking. The latter led the critic Todd McCarthy to rank him as "very good," and Rodrigo Perez of IndieWire considered him to be the "surprise stand-out of the cast." In 2015, he was cast in the NBC miniseries "The Slap", which was adapted from the Australian series of the same name.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: Hedges next joined the cast of Kenneth Lonergan's independent drama "Manchester by the Sea" (2016). In it, he played Patrick Chandler, a 16-year-old boy dealing with the recent death of his father, who is left in the care of his unwilling and troubled uncle (played by Casey Affleck). The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival. Tim Robey of "The Daily Telegraph" wrote, "Hedges, phenomenal, fights off every cliché of 'troubled' teenagerhood and gives us a gruff, sympathetic boy with a tearaway sex drive." Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" said his performance was "glorious" and added that he "makes a tremendous troubled 16-year-old." It earned over $78 million against its $9 million budget. For his work, Hedges won a Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Young Performer, and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor, among others.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: The following year, Hedges made his stage debut as the lead in the Trip Cullman-directed off-Broadway play "Yen", penned by the playwright Anna Jordan. The production ran from February 19 to March 4 at the Lucille Lortel Theatre. Taking note of his performance as an aggressive and violent teenager who shares a troubled relationship with his half-brother, Ben Brantley of "The New York Times" wrote that he "delivers an expert anatomy of an adolescent on the edge of explosion". Hedges was nominated for the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Play and won the Theatre World Award for Outstanding Off-Broadway Debut Performance. Also in 2017, Hedges had supporting roles in two films—Greta Gerwig's directorial debut "Lady Bird" and Martin McDonagh's crime drama "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri", both of which were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture. The cast of the latter film were awarded with the SAG Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast.


title: Lucas Hedges

text: Hedges had three film releases in 2018. He played the supporting role of a teenager who violently bullies his younger brother (played by Sunny Suljic) in "Mid90s", which marked the directorial debut of Jonah Hill. Eric Kohn of IndieWire wrote, "Hedges, quickly becoming the most impressive actor of his generation, buries himself in the gruff, unhappy role of an angst-riddled teen." Hedges played the lead role in his two other 2018 films"Boy Erased" and "Ben Is Back". In the former, based on the , he played the son of a Baptist pastor who is forced to take part in a gay conversion therapy program. Russell Crowe and Nicole Kidman played his parents. Writing for "The Hollywood Reporter", Stephen Farber noted that Hedges "carries the entire show and is alternately frightened, bewildered and defiant. There isn't a false note in his performance." For "Boy Erased", Hedges received a nomination for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Drama. In "Ben Is Back", a drama directed by his father and co-starring Julia Roberts, he played the titular character, a drug addict who returns home after spending time in rehab. Pete Hammond of "Deadline Hollywood" praised both Roberts's and Hedges's performances, adding that they "are pitch perfect together, never striking a false note in demonstrating the everlasting bond between a mother and son."


title: Lucas Hedges

text: Also in 2018, Hedges made his first appearance on Broadway in a revival of Kenneth Lonergan's play "The Waverly Gallery", alongside Elaine May, Michael Cera and Joan Allen at the John Golden Theatre. He played the role of a teenager coping with his grandmother's Alzheimer's disease. Chris Jones of the "Chicago Tribune" credited him for effectively conveying the "frustration family members feel when one of their own starts to decline." "Honey Boy", a drama penned by and co-starring Shia LaBeouf about his childhood and relationship with his father, marked Hedges's first film release of 2019. Hedges and Noah Jupe played Otis Lort, a character based on LaBeouf, at different ages. Reviewing the film for "Entertainment Weekly", Leah Greenblatt wrote that Hedges "doesn’t seem to have found a role yet he can’t fully inhabit; his Otis is raw and furious, and genuinely funny." He next took on a supporting part in Trey Edward Shults' "Waves", a drama about the emotional journey of a suburban family, which led Peter Debruge of "Variety" to consider it "an impactful reminder of how much the actor can bring to a smaller role".


title: Lucas Hedges

text: In 2020, Hedges appeared in the miniseries "" for Quibi to raise money for World Central Kitchen. Also that year, he starred alongside Michelle Pfeiffer in the comedy "French Exit", and was part of the ensemble cast of Steven Soderbergh's comedy film "Let Them All Talk". The following year, he appeared in an episode of the FX anthology series "The Premise".


title: Lucas Hedges

text: When asked about his sexuality in 2018, Hedges said: "In the early stages of my life, some of the people I was most infatuated with were my closest male friends. That was the case through high school, and I think I was always aware of that, while for the most part I was attracted to women," also adding that he exists "on that spectrum: Not totally straight, but also not gay and not necessarily bisexual." He later spoke about being an ally to the LGBTQ community and said that he considered his sexuality to be a "fluid experience."


title: Lucas Hedges

text: At the 89th Academy Awards, Hedges was nominated for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "Manchester by the Sea" (2016). Additionally, for the aforementioned film, he earned Screen Actors Guild Award nominations for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role and Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture; winning the latter the following year for his supporting role in "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri" (2017). For "Manchester by the Sea" and "Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri", he won the respective Critics' Choice Movie Awards for Best Young Actor and Best Acting Ensemble. Hedges also played Jared Eamons, a character based on LGBTQ+ rights activist Garrard Conley, for which he was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture Drama.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves (also known as freak waves, monster waves, episodic waves, killer waves, extreme waves, and abnormal waves) are unusually large, unpredictable, and suddenly appearing surface waves that can be extremely dangerous to ships, even to large ones. They are distinct from tsunamis, which are often almost unnoticeable in deep waters and are caused by the displacement of water due to other phenomena (such as earthquakes). A rogue wave appearing at the shore is sometimes referred to as a sneaker wave.


title: Rogue wave

text: In oceanography, rogue waves are more precisely defined as waves whose height is more than twice the significant wave height ("H" or SWH), which is itself defined as the mean of the largest third of waves in a wave record. Therefore, rogue waves are not necessarily the biggest waves found on the water; they are, rather, unusually large waves for a given sea state. Rogue waves seem not to have a single distinct cause, but occur where physical factors such as high winds and strong currents cause waves to merge to create a single exceptionally large wave.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves can occur in media other than water. They appear to be ubiquitous in nature and have also been reported in liquid helium, in quantum mechanics, in nonlinear optics, in microwave cavities, in Bose–Einstein condensate, in heat and diffusion, and in finance.


title: Rogue wave

text: A 2012 study supported the existence of oceanic rogue holes, the inverse of rogue waves, where the depth of the hole can reach more than twice the significant wave height. Rogue holes have been replicated in experiments using water-wave tanks, but have not been confirmed in the real world.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves are open-water phenomena, in which winds, currents, nonlinear phenomena such as solitons, and other circumstances cause a wave to briefly form that is far larger than the "average" large wave (the significant wave height or "SWH") of that time and place. The basic underlying physics that makes phenomena such as rogue waves possible is that different waves can travel at different speeds, so they can "pile up" in certain circumstances, known as "constructive interference". (In deep ocean, the speed of a gravity wave is proportional to the square root of its wavelength, the peak-to-peak distance between adjacent waves.) However, other situations can also give rise to rogue waves, particularly situations where nonlinear effects or instability effects can cause energy to move between waves and be concentrated in one or very few extremely large waves before returning to "normal" conditions.


title: Rogue wave

text: Once considered mythical and lacking hard evidence for their existence, rogue waves are now proven to exist and known to be natural ocean phenomena. Eyewitness accounts from mariners and damage inflicted on ships have long suggested that they occur, but the first scientific evidence of their existence came with the recording of a rogue wave by the Gorm platform in the central North Sea in 1984. A stand-out wave was detected with a wave height of in a relatively low sea state. However, what caught the attention of the scientific community was the digital measurement of a rogue wave at the Draupner platform in the North Sea on January 1, 1995; called the "Draupner wave", it had a recorded maximum wave height of and peak elevation of . During that event, minor damage was inflicted on the platform far above sea level, confirming the validity of the reading made by a downwards pointing laser sensor.


title: Rogue wave

text: Their existence has also since been confirmed by video and photographs, satellite imagery, radar of the ocean surface, stereo wave imaging systems, pressure transducers on the sea-floor, and oceanographic research vessels. In February 2000, a British oceanographic research vessel, the RRS "Discovery", sailing in the Rockall Trough west of Scotland, encountered the largest waves ever recorded by any scientific instruments in the open ocean, with a SWH of and individual waves up to . "In 2004 scientists using three weeks of radar images from European Space Agency satellites found ten rogue waves, each or higher."


title: Rogue wave

text: A rogue wave is a natural ocean phenomenon that is not caused by land movement, only lasts briefly, occurs in a limited location, and most often happens far out at sea. Rogue waves are considered rare, but potentially very dangerous, since they can involve the spontaneous formation of massive waves far beyond the usual expectations of ship designers, and can overwhelm the usual capabilities of ocean-going vessels which are not designed for such encounters. Rogue waves are, therefore, distinct from tsunamis. Tsunamis are caused by a massive displacement of water, often resulting from sudden movements of the ocean floor, after which they propagate at high speed over a wide area. They are nearly unnoticeable in deep water and only become dangerous as they approach the shoreline and the ocean floor becomes shallower; therefore, tsunamis do not present a threat to shipping at sea (e.g., the only ships lost in the 2004 Asian tsunami were in port.). They are also distinct from megatsunamis, which are single massive waves caused by sudden impact, such as meteor impact or landslides within enclosed or limited bodies of water. They are also different from the waves described as "hundred-year waves", which are a purely statistical prediction of the highest wave likely to occur in a 100-year period in a particular body of water.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves have now been proven to be the cause of the sudden loss of some ocean-going vessels. Well-documented instances include the freighter MS "München", lost in 1978. Rogue waves have been implicated in the loss of other vessels, including the "Ocean Ranger", a semisubmersible mobile offshore drilling unit that sank in Canadian waters on 15 February 1982. In 2007, the United States' National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration compiled a catalogue of more than 50 historical incidents probably associated with rogue waves.


title: Rogue wave

text: In 1826, French scientist and naval officer Captain Jules Dumont d'Urville reported waves as high as in the Indian Ocean with three colleagues as witnesses, yet he was publicly ridiculed by fellow scientist François Arago. In that era, the thought was widely held that no wave could exceed . Author Susan Casey wrote that much of that disbelief came because there were very few people who had seen a rogue wave and survived; until the advent of steel double-hulled ships of the 20th century "people who encountered rogue waves generally weren't coming back to tell people about it."


title: Rogue wave

text: Unusual waves have been studied scientifically for many years (for example, John Scott Russell's wave of translation, an 1834 study of a soliton wave), but these were not linked conceptually to sailors' stories of encounters with giant rogue ocean waves, as the latter were believed to be scientifically implausible.


title: Rogue wave

text: Since the 19th century, oceanographers, meteorologists, engineers, and ship designers have used a statistical model known as the Gaussian function (or Gaussian Sea or standard linear model) to predict wave height, on the assumption that wave heights in any given sea are tightly grouped around a central value equal to the average of the largest third, known as the significant wave height (SWH). In a storm sea with an SWH of , the model suggests hardly ever would a wave higher than occur. It suggests one of could indeed happen, but only once in 10,000 years. This basic assumption was well accepted, though acknowledged to be an approximation. The use of a Gaussian form to model waves had been the sole basis of virtually every text on that topic for the past 100 years.


title: Rogue wave

text: The first known scientific article on "freak waves" was written by Professor Laurence Draper in 1964. In that paper, he documented the efforts of the National Institute of Oceanography in the early 1960s to record wave height, and the highest wave recorded at that time, which was about . Draper also described "freak wave holes".


title: Rogue wave

text: Even as late as the mid-1990s, though, most popular texts on oceanography such as that by Pirie did not contain any mention of rogue or freak waves. Even after the 1995 Draupner wave, the popular text on "Oceanography" by Gross (1996) only gave rogue waves a mention and simply stated, "Under extraordinary circumstances, unusually large waves called rogue waves can form" without providing any further detail.


title: Rogue wave

text: The Draupner wave (or New Year's wave) was the first rogue wave to be detected by a measuring instrument. The wave was recorded in 1995 at Unit E of the Draupner platform, a gas pipeline support complex located in the North Sea about southwest from the southern tip of Norway.


title: Rogue wave

text: The rig was built to withstand a calculated 1-in-10,000-years wave with a predicted height of and was fitted with a state-of-the-art set of sensors, including a laser rangefinder wave recorder on the platform's underside. At 3 pm on 1 January 1995, the device recorded a rogue wave with a maximum wave height of . Peak elevation above still water level was . The reading was confirmed by the other sensors. The platform sustained minor damage in the event.


title: Rogue wave

text: In the area, the SWH was about , so the Draupner wave was more than twice as tall and steep as its neighbors, with characteristics that fell outside any known wave model. The wave caused enormous interest in the scientific community.


title: Rogue wave

text: The first scientific study to comprehensively prove that freak waves exist, which are clearly outside the range of Gaussian waves, was published in 1997. Some research confirms that observed wave height distribution in general follows well the Rayleigh distribution, but in shallow waters during high energy events, extremely high waves are rarer than this particular model predicts. From about 1997 most leading authors acknowledged the existence of rogue waves with the caveat that wave models had been unable to replicate rogue waves.


title: Rogue wave

text: Statoil researchers presented a paper in 2000, collating evidence that freak waves were not the rare realizations of a typical or slightly non-gaussian sea surface population ("classical" extreme waves), but rather they were the typical realizations of a rare and strongly non-gaussian sea surface population of waves ("freak" extreme waves). A workshop of leading researchers in the world attended the first Rogue Waves 2000 workshop held in Brest in November 2000.


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2000, British oceanographic vessel RRS "Discovery" recorded a wave off the coast of Scotland near Rockall. This was a scientific research vessel fitted with high-quality instruments. Subsequent analysis determined that under severe gale-force conditions with wind speeds averaging , a ship-borne wave recorder measured individual waves up to from crest to trough, and a maximum SWH of . These were some of the largest waves recorded by scientific instruments up to that time. The authors noted that modern wave prediction models are "known" to significantly under-predict extreme sea states for waves with a "significant" height (H) above . The analysis of this event took a number of years, and noted that "none of the state-of-the-art weather forecasts and wave models – the information upon which all ships, oil rigs, fisheries, and passenger boats rely – had predicted these behemoths." Put simply, a scientific model (and also ship design method) to describe the waves encountered did not exist. This finding was widely reported in the press, which reported that "according to all of the theoretical models at the time under this particular set of weather conditions, waves of this size should not have existed".


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2004, the ESA MaxWave project identified more than 10 individual giant waves above in height during a short survey period of three weeks in a limited area of the South Atlantic. The ESA's ERS satellites have helped to establish the widespread existence of these "rogue" waves. By 2007, it was further proven via satellite radar studies that waves with crest-to-trough heights of occur far more frequently than previously thought. Rogue waves are now known to occur in all of the world's oceans many times each day.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves are now accepted as a common phenomenon. Professor Akhmediev of the Australian National University has stated that 10 rogue waves exist in the world's oceans at any moment. Some researchers have speculated that roughly three of every 10,000 waves on the oceans achieve rogue status, yet in certain spots – such as coastal inlets and river mouths – these extreme waves can make up three of every 1,000 waves, because wave energy can be focused.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves may also occur in lakes. A phenomenon known as the "Three Sisters" is said to occur in Lake Superior when a series of three large waves forms. The second wave hits the ship's deck before the first wave clears. The third incoming wave adds to the two accumulated backwashes and suddenly overloads the ship deck with tons of water. The phenomenon is one of various theorized causes of the sinking of the on Lake Superior in November 1975.


title: Rogue wave

text: Serious studies of the phenomenon of rogue waves only started after the 1995 Draupner wave and have intensified since about 2005. One of the remarkable features of the rogue waves is that they always appear from nowhere and quickly disappear without a trace. Recent research has suggested that "super-rogue waves", which are up to five times the average sea state, could also exist. "Rogue wave" has now become a near-universal term used by scientists to describe isolated, large-amplitude waves that occur more frequently than expected for normal, Gaussian-distributed, statistical events. Rogue waves appear to be ubiquitous in nature and are not limited to the oceans. They appear in other contexts and recently have been reported in liquid helium, in nonlinear optics, and in microwave cavities. Marine researchers universally now accept that these waves belong to a specific kind of sea wave, not taken into account by conventional models for sea wind waves.


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2012, researchers at the Australian National University proved the existence of "rogue wave holes", an inverted profile of a rogue wave. Their research created rogue wave holes on the water surface, in a water-wave tank. In maritime folklore, stories of rogue holes are as common as stories of rogue waves. They follow from theoretical analysis, but had never been proven experimentally.


title: Rogue wave

text: A 2015 paper studied the wave behavior around a rogue wave, including optical, and the Draupner wave, and concluded, "rogue events do not necessarily appear without a warning, but are often preceded by a short phase of relative order".


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2019, researchers succeeded in producing a wave with similar characteristics to the Draupner wave (steepness and breaking), and proportionately greater height, using multiple wavetrains meeting at an angle of 120°. Previous research had strongly suggested that the wave resulted from an interaction between waves from different directions ("crossing seas"). Their research also highlighted that wave-breaking behavior was not necessarily as expected. If waves met at an angle less than about 60°, then the top of the wave "broke" sideways and downwards (a "plunging breaker"), but from about 60° and greater, the wave began to break "vertically upwards", creating a peak that did not reduce the wave height as usual, but instead "increased" it (a "vertical jet"). They also showed that the steepness of rogue waves could be reproduced in this manner. Finally, they observed that optical instruments such as the laser used for the Draupner wave might be somewhat confused by the spray at the top of the wave, if it broke, and this could lead to uncertainties of around in the wave height. They concluded, "... the onset and type of wave breaking play a significant role and differ significantly for crossing and noncrossing waves. Crucially, breaking becomes less crest-amplitude limiting for sufficiently large crossing angles and involves the formation of near-vertical jets".


title: Rogue wave

text: Because the phenomenon of rogue waves is still a matter of active research, stating clearly what the most common causes are or whether they vary from place to place is premature. The areas of highest predictable risk appear to be where a strong current runs counter to the primary direction of travel of the waves; the area near Cape Agulhas off the southern tip of Africa is one such area. The warm Agulhas Current runs to the southwest, while the dominant winds are westerlies, but since this thesis does not explain the existence of all waves that have been detected, several different mechanisms are likely, with localized variation. Suggested mechanisms for freak waves include:


title: Rogue wave

text: The spatiotemporal focusing seen in the NLS equation can also occur when the nonlinearity is removed. In this case, focusing is primarily due to different waves coming into phase, rather than any energy-transfer processes. Further analysis of rogue waves using a fully nonlinear model by R. H. Gibbs (2005) brings this mode into question, as it is shown that a typical wave group focuses in such a way as to produce a significant wall of water, at the cost of a reduced height.


title: Rogue wave

text: A rogue wave, and the deep trough commonly seen before and after it, may last only for some minutes before either breaking, or reducing in size again. Apart from a single one, the rogue wave may be part of a wave packet consisting of a few rogue waves. Such rogue wave groups have been observed in nature.


title: Rogue wave

text: Researchers at UCLA observed rogue-wave phenomena in microstructured optical fibers near the threshold of soliton supercontinuum generation, and characterized the initial conditions for generating rogue waves in any medium. Research in optics has pointed out the role played by a nonlinear structure called Peregrine soliton that may explain those waves that appear and disappear without leaving a trace.


title: Rogue wave

text: Many of these encounters are reported only in the media, and are not examples of open-ocean rogue waves. Often, in popular culture, an endangering huge wave is loosely denoted as a "rogue wave", while the case has not been (and most often cannot be) established that the reported event is a rogue wave in the scientific sense – "i.e." of a very different nature in characteristics as the surrounding waves in that sea state] and with very low probability of occurrence (according to a Gaussian process description as valid for linear wave theory).


title: Rogue wave

text: The loss of the in 1978 provided some of the first physical evidence of the existence of rogue waves. "München" was a state-of-the-art cargo ship with multiple water-tight compartments and an expert crew. She was lost with all crew, and the wreck has never been found. The only evidence found was the starboard lifeboat, which was recovered from floating wreckage sometime later. The lifeboats hung from forward and aft blocks above the waterline. The pins had been bent back from forward to aft, indicating the lifeboat hanging below it had been struck by a wave that had run from fore to aft of the ship and had torn the lifeboat from the ship. To exert such force, the wave must have been considerably higher than . At the time of the inquiry, the existence of rogue waves was considered so statistically unlikely as to be near impossible. Consequently, the Maritime Court investigation concluded that the severe weather had somehow created an "unusual event" that had led to the sinking of the "München".


title: Rogue wave

text: In 1980, the MV "Derbyshire" was lost during Typhoon Orchid south of Japan, along with all of her crew. The "Derbyshire" was an ore-bulk oil combination carrier built in 1976. At 91,655 gross register tons, she was – and remains – the largest British ship ever to have been lost at sea. The wreck was found in June 1994. The survey team deployed a remotely operated vehicle to photograph the wreck. A private report published in 1998 prompted the British government to reopen a formal investigation into the sinking. The investigation included a comprehensive survey by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, which took 135,774 pictures of the wreck during two surveys. The formal forensic investigation concluded that the ship sank because of structural failure and absolved the crew of any responsibility. Most notably, the report determined the detailed sequence of events that led to the structural failure of the vessel. A third comprehensive analysis was subsequently done by Douglas Faulkner, professor of marine architecture and ocean engineering at the University of Glasgow. His 2001 report linked the loss of the "Derbyshire" with the emerging science on freak waves, concluding that the "Derbyshire" was almost certainly destroyed by a rogue wave.


title: Rogue wave

text: Work by sailor and author Craig B. Smith in 2007 confirmed prior forensic work by Faulkner in 1998 and determined that the "Derbyshire" was exposed to a hydrostatic pressure of a "static head" of water of about with a resultant static pressure of . This is in effect of seawater (possibly a super rogue wave) flowing over the vessel. The deck cargo hatches on the "Derbyshire" were determined to be the key point of failure when the rogue wave washed over the ship. The design of the hatches only allowed for a static pressure less than of water or , meaning that the typhoon load on the hatches was more than 10 times the design load. The forensic structural analysis of the wreck of the "Derbyshire" is now widely regarded as irrefutable.


title: Rogue wave

text: In addition, fast-moving waves are now known to "also" exert extremely high dynamic pressure. Plunging or breaking waves are known to cause short-lived impulse pressure spikes called Gifle peaks. These can reach pressures of (or more) for milliseconds, which is sufficient pressure to lead to brittle fracture of mild steel. Evidence of failure by this mechanism was also found on the "Derbyshire". Smith has documented scenarios where hydrodynamic pressure up to or over 500 metric tonnes/m could occur.


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2004, an extreme wave was recorded impacting the Admiralty Breakwater, Alderney, in the Channel Islands. This breakwater is exposed to the Atlantic Ocean. The peak pressure recorded by a shore-mounted transducer was . This pressure far exceeds almost any design criteria for modern ships, and this wave would have destroyed almost any merchant vessel.


title: Rogue wave

text: In November 1997, the International Maritime Organization adopted new rules covering survivability and structural requirements for bulk carriers of and upwards. The bulkhead and double bottom must be strong enough to allow the ship to survive flooding in hold one unless loading is restricted.


title: Rogue wave

text: Rogue waves present considerable danger for several reasons; they are rare, unpredictable, may appear suddenly or without warning, and can impact with tremendous force. A wave in the usual "linear" model would have a breaking force of . Although modern ships are designed to (typically) tolerate a breaking wave of 15 t/m, a rogue wave can dwarf both of these figures with a breaking force far exceeding 100 t/m. Smith has presented calculations using the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) Common Structural Rules for a typical bulk carrier, which are consistent.


title: Rogue wave

text: Peter Challenor, a leading scientist in this field from the National Oceanography Centre in the United Kingdom, was quoted in Casey's book in 2010 as saying: "We don’t have that random messy theory for nonlinear waves. At all." He added, "People have been working actively on this for the past 50 years at least. We don’t even have the start of a theory."


title: Rogue wave

text: In 2006, Smith proposed that the IACS recommendation 34 pertaining to standard wave data be modified so that the minimum design wave height be increased to . He presented analysis that sufficient evidence exists to conclude that high waves can be experienced in the 25-year lifetime of oceangoing vessels, and that high waves are less likely, but not out of the question. Therefore, a design criterion based on high waves seems inadequate when the risk of losing crew and cargo is considered. Smith has also proposed that the dynamic force of wave impacts should be included in the structural analysis.


title: Rogue wave

text: The Norwegian offshore standards now take into account extreme severe wave conditions and require that a 10,000-year wave does not endanger the ships' integrity. Rosenthal notes that as of 2005, rogue waves were not explicitly accounted for in Classification Society's rules for ships’ design. As an example, DNV GL, one of the world's largest international certification bodies and classification society with main expertise in technical assessment, advisory, and risk management publishes their Structure Design Load Principles which remain largely based on the Significant Wave Height, and as at January 2016, still has not included any allowance for rogue waves.


title: Rogue wave

text: The U.S. Navy historically took the design position that the largest wave likely to be encountered was . Smith observed in 2007 that the navy now believes that larger waves can occur and the possibility of extreme waves that are steeper (i.e. do not have longer wavelengths) is now recognized. The navy has not had to make any fundamental changes in ship design as a consequence of new knowledge of waves greater than 21.4 m because they build to higher standards.


title: Rogue wave

text: The more than 50 classification societies worldwide each has different rules, although most new ships are built to the standards of the 12 members of the International Association of Classification Societies, which implemented two sets of common structural rules - one for oil tankers and one for bulk carriers, in 2006. These were later harmonised into a single set of rules.


title: Bering Strait

text: The Bering Strait () is a strait between the Pacific and Arctic oceans, separating the Chukchi Peninsula of the Russian Far East from the Seward Peninsula of Alaska. The present Russia-United States maritime boundary is at 168° 58' 37" W longitude, slightly south of the Arctic Circle at about 65° 40' N latitude. The Strait is named after Vitus Bering, a Danish explorer in the service of the Russian Empire.


title: Bering Strait

text: The Bering Strait has been the subject of the scientific theory that humans migrated from Asia to North America across a land bridge known as Beringia when lower ocean levels – perhaps a result of glaciers locking up vast amounts of water – exposed a wide stretch of the sea floor, both at the present strait and in the shallow sea north and south of it. This view of how Paleo-Indians entered America has been the dominant one for several decades and continues to be the most accepted one. Numerous successful crossings without the use of a boat have also been recorded since at least the early 20th century.


title: Bering Strait

text: The Bering Strait is about wide at its narrowest point, between Cape Dezhnev, Chukchi Peninsula, Russia, the easternmost point (169° 39' W) of the Asian continent and Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, United States, the westernmost point (168° 05' W) of the North American continent. It is wide, and at its deepest point is only in depth. It borders the Chukchi Sea (part of the Arctic Ocean) to the north and the Bering Sea to the south. The strait is a unique habitat sparsely populated by the Yupik, Inuit, and Chukchi people who have cultural and linguistic ties to each other.


title: Bering Strait

text: From at least 1562, European geographers thought that there was a Strait of Anián between Asia and North America. In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov probably passed through the strait, but his report did not reach Europe. Danish-born Russian navigator Vitus Bering entered it in 1728. In 1732, Mikhail Gvozdev crossed it for the first time, from Asia to America. It was visited in 1778 by the third voyage of James Cook.


title: Bering Strait

text: In March 1913, Captain Max Gottschalk (German) crossed from the east cape of Siberia to Shishmaref, Alaska, on dogsled via Little and Big Diomede islands. He was the first documented modern voyager to cross from Russia to North America without the use of a boat.


title: Bering Strait

text: In 1987, swimmer Lynne Cox swam a course between the Diomede Islands from Alaska to the Soviet Union in water during the last years of the Cold War. She was congratulated jointly by American President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.


title: Bering Strait

text: In June and July 1989, three independent teams attempted the first modern sea-kayak crossing of the Bering Strait. The groups were: seven Alaskans, who called their effort "Paddling Into Tomorrow" (i.e. crossing the international dateline); a four-man British expedition, "Kayaks Across the Bering Strait"; and a team of Californians in a three-person baidarka, led by Jim Noyes (who launched his ambitious expedition as a paraplegic). Accompanying the Californians was a film crew in a umiak, a walrus-skin boat traditional to the region; they were filming the 1991 documentary "Curtain of Ice", directed by John Armstrong.


title: Bering Strait

text: In March 2006, Briton Karl Bushby and French-American adventurer Dimitri Kieffer crossed the strait on foot, walking across a frozen section in 15 days. They were soon arrested for not entering Russia through a regular port of entry.


title: Bering Strait

text: August 2008 marked the first crossing of the Bering Strait using an amphibious road-going vehicle. The specially modified Land Rover Defender 110 was driven by Steve Burgess and Dan Evans across the straits on its second attempt following the interruption of the first by bad weather.


title: Bering Strait

text: In February 2012, a Korean team led by Hong Sung-Taek crossed the straits on foot in six days. They started from Chukotka Peninsula, the east coast of Russia on February 23 and arrived in Wales, the western coastal town in Alaska on February 29.


title: Bering Strait

text: In July 2012, six adventurers associated with "Dangerous Waters", a reality adventure show under production, made the crossing on Sea-Doos but were arrested and permitted to return to Alaska on their Sea-Doos after being briefly detained in Lavrentiya, the administrative center of the Chukotsky District. They were treated well and given a tour of the village's museum, but not permitted to continue south along the Pacific coast. The men had visas but the western coast of the Bering Strait is a closed military zone.


title: Bering Strait

text: Between August 4 and 10 (US time), 2013, a team of 65 swimmers from 17 countries performed a relay swim across the Bering Strait, the first such swim in history. They swam from Cape Dezhnev, Russia, to Cape Prince of Wales, United States (roughly , due to the current). They had direct support from the Russian Navy, using one of its ships, and assistance with permission.


title: Bering Strait

text: A physical link between Asia and North America via the Bering Strait nearly became a reality in 1864 when a Russian-American telegraph company began preparations for an overland telegraph line connecting Europe and America via the east. It was abandoned when the undersea Atlantic Cable proved successful.


title: Bering Strait

text: A further proposal for a bridge-and-tunnel link from eastern Russia to Alaska was made by French engineer Baron Loicq de Lobel in 1906. Czar Nicholas II of Russia issued an order authorising a Franco-American syndicate represented by de Lobel to begin work on the Trans-Siberian Alaska railroad project, but no physical work ever commenced.


title: Bering Strait

text: Suggestions have been made to construct a Bering Strait bridge between Alaska and Siberia. Despite the unprecedented engineering, political, and financial challenges, Russia green-lighted a US$65-billion TKM-World Link tunnel project in August 2011. If completed, the tunnel will be the world's longest. China considered construction of a "China-Russia-Canada-America" railroad line that would include construction of a underwater tunnel that would cross the Bering Strait.


title: Bering Strait

text: In 1956, the Soviet Union proposed to the US a joint bi-national project to warm the Arctic Ocean and melt some of the ice cap. As designed by Petr Borisov, the Soviet project called for a dam across the Bering Strait. It would block the cold Pacific current from entering the Arctic. By pumping low-salinity cold surface water across the dam to the Pacific, warmer and higher salinity sea water from the Atlantic Ocean would be introduced into the Arctic Ocean. However, citing national security concerns, the CIA and FBI experts opposed the Soviet plan by arguing that while the plan was feasible, it would compromise NORAD and thus the dam could be built at only an immense cost. Soviet scientist D. A. Drogaytsev also opposed the idea, stating that the sea north of the dam and north-flowing rivers in Siberia would become unnavigable year round, and the Gobi and other deserts would be extended to the northern Siberia coastline.


title: Bering Strait

text: American Charles P. Steinmetz (1865–1923) earlier proposed to widen the Bering Strait by removing St. Lawrence Island and parts of Seward and Chukotski Peninsulas. A strait wide would let the Japan Current melt the Arctic Ocean.


title: Bering Strait

text: In the 21st century, a dam has also been proposed. However, the aim of the proposal is to preserve the Arctic ice cap against global warming.


title: Bering Strait

text: During the Cold War, the Bering Strait marked the border between the Soviet Union and the United States. The Diomede Islands—Big Diomede (Russia) and Little Diomede (US)—are only apart. Traditionally, the indigenous people in the area had frequently crossed the border back and forth for "routine visits, seasonal festivals and subsistence trade", but were prevented from doing so during the Cold War. The border became known as the "Ice Curtain". It was completely closed, and there was no regular passenger air or boat traffic.


title: Bering Strait

text: Since 2012, the Russian coast of the Bering Strait has been a closed military zone. Through organized trips and the use of special permits, it is possible for foreigners to visit. All arrivals must be through an airport or a cruise port, near the Bering Strait only at Anadyr or Provideniya. Unauthorized travelers who arrive on shore after crossing the strait, even those with visas, may be arrested, imprisoned briefly, fined, deported and banned from future visas.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Passiflora edulis, commonly known as passion fruit, is a vine species of passion flower native to southern Brazil through Paraguay and northern Argentina. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, juicy interior filled with numerous seeds. The fruit is both eaten and juiced, the juice often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The passion fruit is so called because it is one of the many species of passion flower, the English translation of the Latin genus name, "Passiflora". Around 1700, the name was given by missionaries in Brazil as an educational aid while trying to convert the indigenous inhabitants to Christianity; its name was "flor das cinco chagas" or "flower of the five wounds" to illustrate the crucifixion of Christ, with other plant components also named after an emblem in the Passion of Jesus.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: "Passiflora edulis" is a perennial vine; tendrils are borne in leaf axils, and have a red or purple hue when young. There are two main varieties: a purple-fruited type, "P. edulis" f. "edulis", and the yellow-fruited "P. edulis" f. "flavicarpa".


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Usually the vine produces a single flower 5–7.5 cm wide at each node. The flower has 5 oblong, green sepals and 5 white petals. The sepals and petals are 4-6mm in length and form a fringe. The base of the flower is a rich purple with 5 stamens, an ovary, and a branched style. The styles bend backward and the stigmas, which are located on top of the styles, have a very distinct head.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The fruit produced is entirely fleshy (making it botanically a berry), and is spherical to ovoid. The outside color of the berry ranges from dark-purple with fine white specks to light yellow. The fruit is 4–7.5 cm in diameter; purple fruits are smaller, weighing around 35 grams, while yellow fruits are closer to 80 grams. The smooth, leathery rind is 9–13 mm thick, including a thick layer of pith. Within the berry, there are typically 250 brown seeds, each 2.4 mm in length. Each seed is surrounded by a membranous sac filled with pulpy juice. The flavor of the juice is slightly acidic and musky. The passion fruit's flavor can be compared to the guava fruit.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Several distinct varieties of passion fruit with clearly differing exterior appearances exist. The bright yellow "flavicarpa" variety, also known as yellow or golden passionfruit, can grow up to the size of a grapefruit, has a smooth, glossy, light and airy rind, and has been used as a rootstock for purple passionfruit in Australia. The dark purple "edulis" variety is smaller than a lemon, though it is less acidic than yellow passionfruit, and has a richer aroma and flavour.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Raw passion fruit is 73% water, 22% carbohydrates, 2% protein and 0.7% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, raw passion fruit supplies 97 calories and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin C (36% DV) and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of riboflavin, niacin, iron and phosphorus (table). No other micronutrients are in significant content.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Several varieties of passionfruit are rich in polyphenol content, and yellow varieties of the fruit were found to contain prunasin and other cyanogenic glycosides in the peel and juice.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Passion fruit is widely grown in tropical and semitropical regions of the world. In the United States, it is cultivated in Florida, Hawaii, and California. They generally have to be protected from frost, although certain cultivars have survived light frosts after heavy pruning of affected areas.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The flower of the yellow-fruited form of the passion fruit plant is self-sterile, while that of the purple-fruited form is self-compatible. In California, it is reported that pollination of flowers is most effective when done by the carpenter bee. There are three types of yellow passion fruit flowers, classified by curvature of style. To help assure the presence of carpenter bees, some gardeners place decaying logs near the vines, which provide shelter for the bees.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Passion fruit woodiness virus is one of the most well-known viruses to the passion fruit. It belongs to the "Potyvirus" group and can attack a plant at any age from nursery to mature plants. Some features include yellow leaves that display distortion in the leaf length and shape. As well as affecting the leaf, this virus influences fruit shape and size. Affected fruits become stone-like and much smaller than normal, with many fruits becoming scabbed and cracked. The virus is spread by sap-sucking insects such as aphids and mites. Woodiness can also spread through vegetation propagation such as infected scions or contaminated tools. There is no chemical control for this virus once the plant is infected, but the use of clean planting material can reduce its dissemination.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: One of the most serious viruses pertaining to vegetation is the cucumber mosaic virus. In the passion fruit, this virus appears with yellow mottling on leaves starting at random points on the vine and diminishing in intensity towards the tip. Expanding leaves typically become twisted, curl downward, and develop a "shoestring" appearance as a result of a restriction of the leaf surface. It is mobile and can spread easily through interactions with other plants such as brushing between leaves. This virus is naturally transmitted through aphids and can also be transmitted mechanically through seedlings. Varietal resistance is the primary management tool, and eliminating weeds and infected perennial ornamentals that may harbor the virus is critical. Once the plant has been infected, there is no possible management of control for the virus.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Overshooting is the term used when "Phytoplasma", a specialized bacterium, attacks the phloem of a plant. "Phytoplasma" infection is characterized by chlorotic small leaves, shortening of internodes, excessive lateral shoots and abnormal flowers. Although there have been reports of this disease within the passion fruit plant, many infected plants are affected without visible signs of disease. Although "Phytoplasma" can be spread through grafting, it can be inhibited by periodic inspection of plant nurseries and areas that have had past infections. Overshooting responds to treatment with tetracycline, a common broad-spectrum antibiotic.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Bacterial leaf spot, which causes vein clearing, forms bright yellow colonies causing infection and leaf wilt and, eventually, deterioration of fruit pulp, especially of young fruits. Under favorable conditions for the bacteria, infection occurs through natural openings or wounds from other pathogens that affect leaf inter-cellular spaces. Fertilizers or a copper chloride and mancozeb mixture can control the intensity of the disease, but are not a cure.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The bacterial grease-spot of the passion fruit is caused by Pseudomonas syringae. It appears with olive-green to brown greasy-looking spots or brown, sunken circular lesions. On a later stage, a hard crust can cover the lesions showing a chlorotic halo. Affecting mainly the stomata, the grease-spot thrives in high temperatures and high relative humidity. To avoid infection, measures that may be adopted include planting seeds from healthy plants and using existing healthy areas. Fungicide controls can aid in preventing further infection.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Collar rot disease is caused by the fungus "Fusarium solani". It is characterized by necrotic lesions at the collar region, browning of the stem at soil level, and dark discoloration of the stem. The rotting stem interferes with food and water transport within the plant, leading to withering of the plant until death. Infection occurs mostly through contaminated soil and infected plants which cause the plants to survive for only a few weeks. There are no chemical controls. Management includes planting seedlings in unaffected areas and using clean tools.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The fungus called fusarium wilt commonly occurs in adult plants and is caused by "Fusarium oxysporum". The pathogen has ability to survive for long periods, penetrating roots, invading the xylem and preventing the transport of water and nutrients to other organs of the plant. Once infected, this disease causes leaves to yellow and browning of the vascular system until it wilts and dies. It occurs in any type of soil infecting all plants. Management of crops include planting clean seedlings, uprooting and burning infected plants, and using sterilized tools.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: The anthracnose, a canker caused by "Colletotrichum gloeosporiodes", is a pathogen of the passion fruit creating dark and sunken lesions of the trunk. By attacking mature passion fruit trees, these lesions cause intense defoliation and fruit rot. Many leaves die due to the foliar lesions and the skin of fruits becomes papery. Under warm and humid conditions, this disease can worsen, causing red and orange spores eventually killing the plant. Infection is carried out through the residues of the passion flower, infected seeds, seedlings, and cuttings. Managing this disease involves a combination of using pathogen-free seedlings, eliminating infected areas, and improving ventilation and light conditions. Copper-based fungicides on injured areas can prevent the spread of disease.


title: Passiflora edulis

text: Passion fruit flower is the national flower of Paraguay. In 2006, singer-songwriter Paula Fuga released the popular song "", the Hawaiian language word for passion fruit; the song is featured on an album also named after the fruit. Hip-hop artist Drake released the hit song "Passionfruit" in 2017.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: Lean Six Sigma is a method that uses a collaborative team effort to improve performance by systematically removing waste and reducing variation. It combines lean manufacturing/lean enterprise and Six Sigma to eliminate the eight kinds of waste ("muda").


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: Lean Six Sigma's predecessor, Six Sigma, originated from the Motorola company in the United States in 1986. Six Sigma was developed within Motorola to compete with the "kaizen" (or lean manufacturing) business model in Japan.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: In the 1990s, Allied Signal hired Larry Bossidy and introduced Six Sigma in heavy manufacturing. A few years later, General Electric's Jack Welch consulted Bossidy and implemented Six Sigma at the conglomerate.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: During the 2000s, Lean Six Sigma forked from Six Sigma and became its own unique process. While Lean Six Sigma developed as a specific process of Six Sigma, it also incorporates ideas from lean manufacturing, which was developed as a part of the Toyota Production System in the 1950s.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: The first concept of Lean Six Sigma was created in 2001 by a book titled "Leaning into Six Sigma: The Path to Integration of Lean Enterprise and Six Sigma". It was developed as a guide for managers of manufacturing plants on how to combine lean manufacturing and Six Sigma to improve quality and cycle time in the plant.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: In the early 2000s Six Sigma principles expanded into other sectors of the economy, such as healthcare, finance, and supply chains.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: Lean Six Sigma is a synergized managerial concept of Lean and Six Sigma. Lean traditionally focuses on eliminating the eight kinds of waste (""muda")", and Six Sigma focuses on improving process output quality by identifying and removing the causes of defects (errors) and minimizing variability in (manufacturing and business) processes.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: Lean Six Sigma uses the DMAIC phases similar to that of Six Sigma. The five phases used in Lean Six Sigma aim to identify the root cause of inefficiencies and work with any process, product, or service that has a large amount of data or measurable characteristics available.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: The different levels of certifications are divided into belt colors. The highest level of certification is a black belt, signifying a deep knowledge of Lean Six Sigma principles. Below the black belt are the green and yellow belts. For each of these belts, level skill sets that describe which of the overall Lean Six Sigma tools are expected to be part at a certain belt level are available. The skill sets reflect elements from Six Sigma, Lean and other process improvement methods like the theory of constraints and total productive maintenance. In order to achieve any of the certification levels, a proctored exam must be passed that asks questions about Lean Six Sigma and its applications.


title: Lean Six Sigma

text: Waste ("muda") is defined by Fujio Cho as "anything other than the minimum amount of equipment, materials, parts, space, and workers time, which are absolutely essential to add value to the product".


title: Plum

text: Plums may have been one of the first fruits domesticated by humans. Three of the most abundantly cultivated species are not found in the wild, only around human settlements: "Prunus domestica" has been traced to East European and Caucasian mountains, while "Prunus salicina" and "Prunus simonii" originated in China. Plum remains have been found in Neolithic age archaeological sites along with olives, grapes and figs. According to Ken Albala, plums originated in Iran. They were brought to Britain from Asia.


title: Plum

text: An article on plum tree cultivation in Andalusia (southern Spain) appears in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, "Book on Agriculture".


title: Plum

text: The name plum derived from Old English "plume" "plum, plum tree", borrowed from Germanic or Middle Dutch, derived from Latin "" and ultimately from Ancient Greek "proumnon", itself believed to be a loanword from an unknown language of Asia Minor. In the late 18th century, the word "plum" was used to indicate "something desirable", probably in reference to tasty fruit pieces in desserts.


title: Plum

text: Plums are a diverse group of species. The commercially important plum trees are medium-sized, usually pruned to height. The tree is of medium hardiness. Without pruning, the trees can reach in height and spread across . They blossom in different months in different parts of the world; for example, in about January in Taiwan and early April in the United Kingdom.


title: Plum

text: Fruits are usually of medium size, between in diameter, globose to oval. The flesh is firm and juicy. The fruit's peel is smooth, with a natural waxy surface that adheres to the flesh. The plum is a drupe, meaning its fleshy fruit surrounds a single hard fruitstone which encloses the fruit's seed.


title: Plum

text: Japanese or Chinese plums are large and juicy with a long shelf life, and therefore dominate the fresh fruit market. They are usually clingstone and not suitable for making prunes. They are cultivars of "Prunus salicina" or its hybrids. The cultivars developed in the US are mostly hybrids of "P. salicina" with "P. simonii" and "P. cerasifera". Although these cultivars are often called Japanese plums, two of the three parents ("P. salicina" and "P. simonii") originated from China and one ("P. cerasifera") from Eurasia.


title: Plum

text: In some parts of Europe, European plum ("Prunus domestica") is also common in fresh fruit market. It has both dessert (eating) or culinary (cooking) cultivars, which include:


title: Plum

text: In West Asia, myrobalan plum or cherry plum ("Prunus cerasifera") is also widely cultivated. In Russia, apart from these three commonly cultivated species, there are also many cultivars resulting from hybridization between Japanese plum and myrobalan plum, known as Russian plum ("Prunus" × "rossica").


title: Plum

text: When it flowers in the early spring, a plum tree will be covered in blossoms, and in a good year approximately 50% of the flowers will be pollinated and become plums. Flowering starts after 80 growing degree days.


title: Plum

text: If the weather is too dry, the plums will not develop past a certain stage, but will fall from the tree while still tiny, green buds, and if it is unseasonably wet or if the plums are not harvested as soon as they are ripe, the fruit may develop a fungal condition called brown rot. Brown rot is not toxic, and some affected areas can be cut out of the fruit, but unless the rot is caught immediately, the fruit will no longer be edible. Plum is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera, including November moth, willow beauty and short-cloaked moth.


title: Plum

text: The taste of the plum fruit ranges from sweet to tart; the skin itself may be particularly tart. It is juicy and can be eaten fresh or used in jam-making or other recipes. Plum juice can be fermented into plum wine. In central England, a cider-like alcoholic beverage known as plum jerkum is made from plums. Dried, salted plums are used as a snack, sometimes known as "saladito" or "salao". Various flavors of dried plum are available at Chinese grocers and specialty stores worldwide. They tend to be much drier than the standard prune. Cream, ginseng, spicy, and salty are among the common varieties. Licorice is generally used to intensify the flavor of these plums and is used to make salty plum drinks and toppings for shaved ice or "baobing". Pickled plums are another type of preserve available in Asia and international specialty stores. The Japanese variety, called "umeboshi", is often used for rice balls, called "onigiri" or "omusubi". The "ume", from which "umeboshi" are made, is more closely related, however, to the apricot than to the plum.


title: Plum

text: In the Balkans, plum is converted into an alcoholic drink named "slivovitz" (plum brandy, called in Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin or Serbian "šljivovica"). A large number of plums, of the Damson variety, are also grown in Hungary, where they are called "szilva" and are used to make "lekvar" (a plum paste jam), "palinka" (traditional fruit brandy), plum dumplings, and other foods. In Romania, 80% of the plum production is used to create a similar brandy, called "țuică".


title: Plum

text: As with many other members of the rose family, plum kernels contain cyanogenic glycosides, including amygdalin. Prune kernel oil is made from the fleshy inner part of the pit of the plum. Though not available commercially, the wood of plum trees is used by hobbyists and other private woodworkers for musical instruments, knife handles, inlays, and similar small projects.


title: Plum

text: In 2019, global production of plums (data combined with sloes) was 12.6 million tonnes, led by China with 56% of the world total (table). Romania and Serbia were secondary producers.


title: Plum

text: Raw plums are 87% water, 11% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and less than 1% fat (table). In a reference serving, raw plums supply of food energy and are a moderate source only of vitamin C (12% Daily Value), with no other micronutrients in significant content (table).


title: Plum

text: The numerous species of "Prunus" subg. "Prunus" are classified into many sections, but not all of them are called plums. Plums include species of sect. "Prunus" and sect. "Prunocerasus", as well as "P. mume" of sect. "Armeniaca". Only two plum species, the hexaploid European plum ("Prunus domestica") and the diploid Japanese plum ("Prunus salicina" and hybrids), are of worldwide commercial significance. The origin of "P. domestica" is uncertain but may have involved P. cerasifera and possibly P. spinosa as ancestors. Other species of plum variously originated in Europe, Asia and America.


title: Plum

text: Sect. Prunus (Old World plums) – leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers 1–3 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed


title: Plum

text: Sect. Prunocerasus (New World plums) – leaves in bud folded inwards; flowers 3–5 together; fruit smooth, often wax-bloomed


title: Plum

text: Sect. Armeniaca (apricots) – leaves in bud rolled inwards; flowers very short-stalked; fruit velvety; treated as a distinct subgenus by some authors


title: Plum

text: In certain parts of the world, some fruits are called plums and are quite different from fruits known as plums in Europe or the Americas. For example, marian plums are popular in Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia, otherwise also known as "gandaria", "plum mango", "ma-praang", "ma-yong", "ramania", "kundang", "rembunia" or "setar". Another example is the loquat, also known as Japanese plum and Japanese medlar, as well as "nispero", "bibassier" and "wollmispel" elsewhere. In South Asia and Southeast Asia, Jambul, a fruit from tropical tree in family Myrtaceae, is similarly sometimes referred to 'damson plums', and it is different from damson plums found in Europe and Americas. Jambul is also called as "Java plum", "Malabar plum", "Jaman", "Jamun", "Jamblang", "Jiwat", "Salam", "Duhat", "Koeli", "Jambuláo" or "Koriang".


title: Astaroth

text: Astaroth (also Ashtaroth, Astarot and Asteroth), in demonology, was known to be the Great Duke of Hell in the first hierarchy with Beelzebub and Lucifer; he was part of the evil trinity. He is known to be a male figure most likely named after the Near Eastern goddess Astarte.


title: Astaroth

text: The name "Astaroth" was ultimately derived from that of 2nd millennium BC Phoenician goddess Astarte, an equivalent of the Babylonian Ishtar, and the earlier Sumerian Inanna. She is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible in the forms "Ashtoreth" (singular) and "Ashtaroth" (plural, in reference to multiple statues of it). This latter form was directly transliterated in the early Greek and Latin versions of the Bible, where it was less apparent that it had been a plural feminine in Hebrew.


title: Astaroth

text: The name "Astaroth" as a male demon is first seen in "The Book of Abramelin", purportedly written in Hebrew c. 1458, and recurred in most occult grimoires of the following centuries. Astaroth also features as an archdemon associated with the "Qliphoth" (adverse forces) according to later Kabbalistic texts, as he rules over the Qlipha of Jupiter, known as Gha'agsheblah.


title: Astaroth

text: Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer also described Astaroth in his "Pseudomonarchia Daemonum" (1577) thus: "Astaroth is a great and a strong duke, coming forth in the shape of a foul angel, sitting upon an infernal dragon, and carrying on his right hand a viper", who also claimed to rule 40 legions. Also, he had to be approached by the conjurer with a magical ring on account of his stinking breath. He is similarly referred to in the 17th-century work "The Lesser Key of Solomon". He also makes an appearance in the notorious "Grimorium Verum" (True Grimoire), as the infernal principality which rules the Americas.


title: Astaroth

text: According to some demonologists of the 16th century, August is the month during which this demon's attacks against man are stronger. According to Sebastien Michaelis, he is a demon of the First Hierarchy, who seduces by means of laziness, self-doubt, and rationalized philosophies. His adversary is St. Bartholomew, who can protect against him for he has resisted Astaroth's "temptations". To others, he teaches mathematical sciences and handicrafts, can make men invisible and lead them to hidden treasures, and answers every question formulated to him. He was also said to give to mortal beings the power over serpents.


title: Astaroth

text: According to Francis Barrett (c. 1801), Astaroth is the prince of accusers and inquisitors. In art, in the "Dictionnaire Infernal" (1818), Astaroth is depicted as a nude man with feathered wings, wearing a crown, holding a serpent in one hand, and riding a beast with dragon-like wings and a serpent-like tail.


title: Astaroth

text: The "Star of Astoroth" features prominently in the 1971 Disney film "Bedknobs and Broomsticks", where it takes the form of a magical medallion.


title: Astaroth

text: In the 1920 silent horror film "", Rabbi Loew and his assistant summon Astaroth to animate the Golem resulting in deadly and destructive results.


title: Astaroth

text: Astaroth also appears in the 2007 television series "Blood Ties". Symbol appears in the first few episodes.


title: Astaroth

text: Astaroth symbolism is also prevalent in the 2018 movie "" and a symbol of Astaroth appears in the movie over 170 times.


title: Astaroth

text: Astaroth is the title character in "Astaroth"/"Astaroth Female Demon", a film by the Brazilian director Larissa Anzoategui. The name of the company that made the film is also "Astaroth Produções"


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: Top Dawg Entertainment (TDE) is an American independent record label founded in 2004, by CEO Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith. Terrence "Punch" Henderson is president of the label. There are currently eleven artists signed to the label: the label's flagship artists, Black Hippy members Jay Rock, Ab-Soul and Schoolboy Q, as well as Isaiah Rashad, SZA, Lance Skiiiwalker, SiR, Reason, Zacari, Ray Vaughn, and Doechii. TDE is also the former label of Kendrick Lamar. The label houses a production division that includes Digi+Phonics, THC, King Blue, Kal Banx and Derek "MixedByAli" Ali. The musical focus of the label is predominantly album-oriented and progressive rap.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 1997, Anthony Tiffith (also known by his monikers, Dude Dawg and Top Dawg) embarked on a career in music as a record producer, producing for rappers such as The Game and Juvenile, among others. In 2003, Tiffith found a then 15-year-old Kendrick Lamar, a Compton native, who at the time went by K.Dot and had just released his first mixtape, which gained recognition and earned the young rapper some local buzz in his area. Tiffith saw potential in Lamar, signing him onto the label from the strength of the rapper's debut mixtape. It wasn't until 2005 that TDE started to gain success with another California-based rapper, Jay Rock. Following Rock's signing, TDE signed joint venture deals with Warner Bros. and later Asylum Records. However, following the merger, TDE began planning an exit strategy after the labels failed to handle Rock's debut "Follow Me Home" properly.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2007, Carson-based rapper Ab-Soul was added to the Top Dawg roster. On May 10, 2008, the label released a compilation mixtape titled "Do It Nigga Squad, Volume 1", which features songs by members of the label's roster, with other appearances coming from fellow American rappers Schoolboy Q, Lil Wayne and will.i.am. All songs on the mixtape were mixed by Top Dawg's resident engineer Derek "MixedByAli" Ali, much like a majority of their releases are.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2009, Los Angeles-based rapper Schoolboy Q signed with TDE after being affiliated with the label since 2006. In 2009, once they were all signed to the label, Schoolboy Q suggested that he, Lamar, Rock and Ab-Soul form a rap group. They all agreed and all four artists formed the hip hop group Black Hippy.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In March 2012, MTV reported that TDE closed a joint venture deal with Interscope Records and Aftermath Entertainment. Under the new deal, Kendrick Lamar's second studio album, "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City" would be jointly released via Top Dawg, Interscope and Aftermath. In August 2012, during "TDEFamAppreciationWeek", they released solo tracks from each of the Black Hippy members and a video of Lamar and Q acting out on the tour bus.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In June 2013, Top Dawg announced they were planning to sign two more artists, with the first being reported as Tennessee native, Isaiah Rashad. On July 14, it was revealed Top Dawg had signed an up-and-coming female singer named SZA to the label. In August 2013, during an interview with "Vibe", CEO Anthony Tiffith spoke on comparisons to Death Row Records, another label based in Southern California, run by Comptonite Marion "Suge" Knight, that had released albums from Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Tupac Shakur and others during the 1990s. Tiffith also said that he learned several lessons from his first major-label contract; a deal with Warner Bros. Records for Jay Rock, that lasted from 2006 until 2010. Tennessee-based rapper Isaiah Rashad's signing to TDE was officially announced on September 20, 2013.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In October 2013, at the BET Hip Hop Awards, Kendrick Lamar won five awards, including Album of the Year and Lyricist of the Year, the latter of which he also won the year before. At the award ceremony, Schoolboy Q performed his debut album's lead single "Collard Greens", with Lamar following him, performing "Money Trees", alongside Jay Rock. Lamar, Rock and Schoolboy Q were also featured in a cypher, along with Ab-Soul and newcomer Isaiah Rashad, which was presented by BET. In an October 2013 interview with "XXL", co-president Terrence "Punch" Henderson confirmed that the original reports of the record label being distributed by Interscope Records were incorrect. He said only Schoolboy Q and Kendrick Lamar ever had solo record deals with Interscope Records, while they were currently looking for a distribution deal for the entire label.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: After not releasing an album the entire year, on December 21, 2013, CEO Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith revealed that he plans on the entire label's roster releasing solo albums in 2014.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: On February 29, 2016, Top Dawg hinted at two new label signees, as well as scheduled releases for each of the label's artists' for 2016. On May 20, Top Dawg officially announced the signing of Lance Skiiiwalker. On July 1, 2016, TDE CEO Anthony Tiffith announced the label will be touring as a group after the four artists album releases in 2016. The TDE tour featured Kendrick Lamar, ScHoolboy Q, Jay Rock, Ab-Soul, Isaiah Rashad, SZA, Lance Skiiiwalker and co-president/occasional rapper Punch. On January 19, 2017, TDE officially announced the signing of Inglewood, California singer SiR. On April 28, 2017, SZA announced she signed her first major-label recording contract with RCA Records.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: On February 9, 2018, the label released "Black Panther: The Album", the soundtrack for the Marvel Studios superhero film "Black Panther" (2018), executively produced by Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith and Kendrick Lamar.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2018, TDE announced The Championship Tour featuring artists from the label, from May to June. On August 8, the label announced the signing of Carson, California rapper Reason. Later in the year, the company formed a sports agency division, signing former LSU running back Derrius Guice as the first athlete. On January 25, 2019, TDE officially revealed that Zacari is signed to the label.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2019, former co-president Dave Free announced he is leaving Top Dawg Entertainment, saying, "None of the tactics we used back in the day to break Kendrick, Ab-Soul, Jay Rock or Schoolboy would work now. It’s a whole new game. Blogs were very influential back then and I’d have to build a lot of relationships with blogs and now it’s just more about streaming. You have to have the relationships with the streaming sites and it can’t just be a fake relationship." Dave Free met Kendrick Lamar when the two were in high school as they later co-founded the service company pgLang in 2020.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2021, Kendrick Lamar announced he would also be leaving the label, with his next album, "Mr. Morale & the Big Steppers", being his last for TDE. It was released on May 13, 2022. On August 25, 2021, TDE announced the signing of Long Beach rapper Ray Vaughn, who signed in 2020.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In 2014, TDE started the inaugural Christmas concert and toy drive in Watts, Los Angeles, including performances by TDE's roster of artists as well as donations to families in need. The fundraising event has been an annual concert for the holidays, and had guest appearances from Rihanna, E-40, and Chris Brown.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: In May 2018, it was announced that Kendrick Lamar was planning a departure from Spotify. The announcement came after he heard the streaming platform intended to ban fellow rapper XXXTentacion from their editorial and algorithmic playlists for his alleged acts of violence against women. Lamar had been a fan of XXXTentacion's music. He tweeted a link to his debut album "17" accompanied by praise for the controversial rapper's "raw thoughts." The removal of XXXTentacion as well as R. Kelly arrived in accordance to Spotify's new policy. Conceived in light of the #MeToo movement, the hateful conduct policy sought to promote "openness, diversity, tolerance and respect" by removing content that promotes, advocates, or incites hatred and violence against an individual or group based on characteristics. The policy was especially poorly received by recording artists and executives working in hip-hop, the best-selling genre in the U.S. music industry, and the abrupt manner Spotify instituted it generated complaints. Terrence Punch, president of Top Dawg Entertainment responded on Twitter by remarking, "Whoa. Are they censoring the music? That’s dangerous." According to "The Guardian", a representative for Lamar personally contacted Daniel Ek to air his frustrations with the policy, claiming it was censorship. "Bloomberg" reported that the representative reached out to Spotify Chief Executive Officer Daniel Ek and head of artist relations Troy Carter, threatening to pull his music if the company kept the policy as it stood. Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith, CEO of Top Dawg Entertainment, confirmed he threatened to remove music from the service in an interview with "Billboard". Tiffith stated, "I reached out to Troy over there, we had a conversation and I expressed how I felt about it, about censorship, how you can’t do artists that way. I don’t think it’s right for artists to be censored, especially in our culture." In response to the criticism, Spotify reversed their policy and reinstated XXXTentacion's music back onto playlists after other artists followed suit in threatening to pull their musical works.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: Top Dawg Entertainment houses a production team named Digi+Phonics, composed of music producers Dave Free, Willie B, Tae Beast and Sounwave. They have composed the majority of the production on many of the TDE releases.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: King Blue, also known as Blue The Misfit, was once half of the musical duo Sore Losers and is also signed to Top Dawg as a producer, producing songs such as Kendrick Lamar's "P&P", Schoolboy Q's "To tha Beat (F’d Up)" and Mac Miller's "Down Them".


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: The production team THC, a duo of producers, have produced several songs by members of Black Hippy, including Kendrick Lamar's "Cartoon & Cereal" and "m.A.A.d City", as well as Schoolboy Q's "Collard Greens", among several other tracks.


title: Top Dawg Entertainment

text: The discography of Top Dawg Entertainment currently consists of 25 studio albums, two compilation albums, six extended plays (EPs) and 17 mixtapes. Overall the label has sold more than ten million records in the US alone.


title: Bit

text: The bit is the most basic unit of information in computing and digital communications. The name is a portmanteau of binary digit. The bit represents a logical state with one of two possible values. These values are most commonly represented as either , but other representations such as "true"/"false", "yes"/"no", "on"/"off", or "+"/"−" are also commonly used.


title: Bit

text: The relation between these values and the physical states of the underlying storage or device is a matter of convention, and different assignments may be used even within the same device or program. It may be physically implemented with a two-state device.


title: Bit

text: The symbol for the binary digit is either "bit" per recommendation by the IEC 80000-13:2008 standard, or the lowercase character "b", as recommended by the IEEE 1541-2002 standard.


title: Bit

text: A contiguous group of binary digits is commonly called a "bit string", a bit vector, or a single-dimensional (or multi-dimensional) "bit array".


title: Bit

text: A group of eight bits is called one "byte", but historically the size of the byte is not strictly defined. Frequently, half, full, double and quadruple words consist of a number of bytes which is a low power of two. A string of four bits is a "nibble".


title: Bit

text: In information theory, one bit is the information entropy of a random binary variable that is 0 or 1 with equal probability, or the information that is gained when the value of such a variable becomes known. As a unit of information, the bit is also known as a "shannon", named after Claude E. Shannon.


title: Bit

text: The encoding of data by discrete bits was used in the punched cards invented by Basile Bouchon and Jean-Baptiste Falcon (1732), developed by Joseph Marie Jacquard (1804), and later adopted by Semyon Korsakov, Charles Babbage, Hermann Hollerith, and early computer manufacturers like IBM. A variant of that idea was the perforated paper tape. In all those systems, the medium (card or tape) conceptually carried an array of hole positions; each position could be either punched through or not, thus carrying one bit of information. The encoding of text by bits was also used in Morse code (1844) and early digital communications machines such as teletypes and stock ticker machines (1870).


title: Bit

text: Ralph Hartley suggested the use of a logarithmic measure of information in 1928. Claude E. Shannon first used the word "bit" in his seminal 1948 paper "A Mathematical Theory of Communication". He attributed its origin to John W. Tukey, who had written a Bell Labs memo on 9 January 1947 in which he contracted "binary information digit" to simply "bit". Vannevar Bush had written in 1936 of "bits of information" that could be stored on the punched cards used in the mechanical computers of that time. The first programmable computer, built by Konrad Zuse, used binary notation for numbers.


title: Bit

text: A bit can be stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in either of two possible distinct states. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, the orientation of reversible double stranded DNA, etc.


title: Bit

text: Bits can be implemented in several forms. In most modern computing devices, a bit is usually represented by an electrical voltage or current pulse, or by the electrical state of a flip-flop circuit.


title: Bit

text: For devices using positive logic, a digit value of (or a logical value of true) is represented by a more positive voltage relative to the representation of . The specific voltages are different for different logic families and variations are permitted to allow for component aging and noise immunity. For example, in transistor–transistor logic (TTL) and compatible circuits, digit values and at the output of a device are represented by no higher than 0.4 volts and no lower than 2.6 volts, respectively; while TTL inputs are specified to recognize 0.8 volts or below as and 2.2 volts or above as .


title: Bit

text: Bits are transmitted one at a time in serial transmission, and by a multiple number of bits in parallel transmission. A bitwise operation optionally processes bits one at a time. Data transfer rates are usually measured in decimal SI multiples of the unit bit per second (bit/s), such as kbit/s.


title: Bit

text: In the earliest non-electronic information processing devices, such as Jacquard's loom or Babbage's Analytical Engine, a bit was often stored as the position of a mechanical lever or gear, or the presence or absence of a hole at a specific point of a paper card or tape. The first electrical devices for discrete logic (such as elevator and traffic light control circuits, telephone switches, and Konrad Zuse's computer) represented bits as the states of electrical relays which could be either "open" or "closed". When relays were replaced by vacuum tubes, starting in the 1940s, computer builders experimented with a variety of storage methods, such as pressure pulses traveling down a mercury delay line, charges stored on the inside surface of a cathode-ray tube, or opaque spots printed on glass discs by photolithographic techniques.


title: Bit

text: In the 1950s and 1960s, these methods were largely supplanted by magnetic storage devices such as magnetic-core memory, magnetic tapes, drums, and disks, where a bit was represented by the polarity of magnetization of a certain area of a ferromagnetic film, or by a change in polarity from one direction to the other. The same principle was later used in the magnetic bubble memory developed in the 1980s, and is still found in various magnetic strip items such as metro tickets and some credit cards.


title: Bit

text: In modern semiconductor memory, such as dynamic random-access memory, the two values of a bit may be represented by two levels of electric charge stored in a capacitor. In certain types of programmable logic arrays and read-only memory, a bit may be represented by the presence or absence of a conducting path at a certain point of a circuit. In optical discs, a bit is encoded as the presence or absence of a microscopic pit on a reflective surface. In one-dimensional bar codes, bits are encoded as the thickness of alternating black and white lines.


title: Bit

text: The bit is not defined in the International System of Units (SI). However, the International Electrotechnical Commission issued standard IEC 60027, which specifies that the symbol for binary digit should be 'bit', and this should be used in all multiples, such as 'kbit', for kilobit. However, the lower-case letter 'b' is widely used as well and was recommended by the IEEE 1541 Standard (2002). In contrast, the upper case letter 'B' is the standard and customary symbol for byte.


title: Bit

text: Multiple bits may be expressed and represented in several ways. For convenience of representing commonly reoccurring groups of bits in information technology, several units of information have traditionally been used. The most common is the unit byte, coined by Werner Buchholz in June 1956, which historically was used to represent the group of bits used to encode a single character of text (until UTF-8 multibyte encoding took over) in a computer and for this reason it was used as the basic addressable element in many computer architectures. The trend in hardware design converged on the most common implementation of using eight bits per byte, as it is widely used today. However, because of the ambiguity of relying on the underlying hardware design, the unit octet was defined to explicitly denote a sequence of eight bits.


title: Bit

text: Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally named "words". Like the byte, the number of bits in a word also varies with the hardware design, and is typically between 8 and 80 bits, or even more in some specialized computers. In the 21st century, retail personal or server computers have a word size of 32 or 64 bits.


title: Bit

text: The International System of Units defines a series of decimal prefixes for multiples of standardized units which are commonly also used with the bit and the byte. The prefixes kilo (10) through yotta (10) increment by multiples of one thousand, and the corresponding units are the kilobit (kbit) through the yottabit (Ybit).


title: Bit

text: When the information capacity of a storage system or a communication channel is presented in "bits" or "bits per second", this often refers to binary digits, which is a computer hardware capacity to store binary data ( or , up or down, current or not, etc.). Information capacity of a storage system is only an upper bound to the quantity of information stored therein. If the two possible values of one bit of storage are not equally likely, that bit of storage contains less than one bit of information. If the value is completely predictable, then the reading of that value provides no information at all (zero entropic bits, because no resolution of uncertainty occurs and therefore no information is available). If a computer file that uses "n" bits of storage contains only "m" < "n" bits of information, then that information can in principle be encoded in about "m" bits, at least on the average. This principle is the basis of data compression technology. Using an analogy, the hardware binary digits refer to the amount of storage space available (like the number of buckets available to store things), and the information content the filling, which comes in different levels of granularity (fine or coarse, that is, compressed or uncompressed information). When the granularity is finer—when information is more compressed—the same bucket can hold more.


title: Bit

text: For example, it is estimated that the combined technological capacity of the world to store information provides 1,300 exabytes of hardware digits. However, when this storage space is filled and the corresponding content is optimally compressed, this only represents 295 exabytes of information. When optimally compressed, the resulting carrying capacity approaches Shannon information or information entropy.


title: Bit

text: Certain bitwise computer processor instructions (such as "bit set") operate at the level of manipulating bits rather than manipulating data interpreted as an aggregate of bits.


title: Bit

text: In the 1980s, when bitmapped computer displays became popular, some computers provided specialized bit block transfer instructions to set or copy the bits that corresponded to a given rectangular area on the screen.


title: Bit

text: In most computers and programming languages, when a bit within a group of bits, such as a byte or word, is referred to, it is usually specified by a number from 0 upwards corresponding to its position within the byte or word. However, 0 can refer to either the most or least significant bit depending on the context.


title: Bit

text: Similar to torque and energy in physics; information-theoretic information and data storage size have the same dimensionality of units of measurement, but there is in general no meaning to adding, subtracting or otherwise combining the units mathematically, although one may act as a bound on the other.


title: Bit

text: Units of information used in information theory include the "shannon" (Sh), the "natural unit of information" (nat) and the "hartley" (Hart). One shannon is the maximum amount of information needed to specify the state of one bit of storage. These are related by 1 Sh ≈ 0.693 nat ≈ 0.301 Hart.


title: Bit

text: Some authors also define a binit as an arbitrary information unit equivalent to some fixed but unspecified number of bits.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: DeSean William Jackson (born December 1, 1986) is an American football wide receiver for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football for the California Golden Bears, where he was recognized as a consensus All-American in 2006 and 2007. He was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the second round of the 2008 NFL Draft, and has also played for the Washington Redskins, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and Los Angeles Rams. Jackson has been selected to the Pro Bowl three times, and was the first player selected to the Pro Bowl at two different positions in the same year when he was named to the 2010 Pro Bowl as a wide receiver and return specialist.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: Jackson was born in Los Angeles, California, and grew up in the Crenshaw neighborhood of Los Angeles. He attended Long Beach Polytechnic High School, the same high school as future Philadelphia Eagles teammate Winston Justice and many other current NFL players. He became one of the top wide receiver recruits in the nation, with many collegiate football programs pursuing his services. He was named the 2004 Glenn Davis Award winner by the "Los Angeles Times" as Southern California's player of the year. He also ran track and played baseball and was scouted by both the Tampa Bay Rays and Philadelphia Phillies in his senior year. In track, he was timed at 10.5 seconds in the 100 meters.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: Jackson caught 60 passes for 1,075 yards for 15 touchdowns his senior year, leading the Jackrabbits to a CIF Southern Section championship. He was pressed into service last minute as a defensive back in the section title game against Los Alamitos High School, responding with two interceptions, one which he returned 68 yards for a touchdown to help fuel Long Beach Poly's 21–6 victory.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: To cap off his high school career, Jackson was voted the Most Valuable Player at the U.S. Army All-American Bowl in San Antonio, Texas, where he caught seven passes for 141 yards and passed for a 45-yard touchdown in leading the West to a 35–3 victory in a game that featured 80 of the nation's top players. However, he was also involved in an embarrassing play when he attempted to somersault from the five-yard line for a touchdown, but landed on the one-yard line, leaving the football there. "ESPN.com"'s Tom Lemming rated him as the number four wide receiver in the country, "PrepStar Magazine" named him an All-American and a member of its Dream Team Top 100 players, and Calhisports.com voted him the 2004 Mr. Football State Player of the Year. He committed to the football program at the University of California, Berkeley under Coach Jeff Tedford, making his announcement on Southern California's FSN West. Jackson waited until the deadline to choose between scholarship offers for California and the University of Southern California.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: Jackson attended the University of California, where he played for the California Golden Bears football team from 2005 to 2007. Wearing the number 1, in his first collegiate game against Sacramento State in 2005, he scored both an offensive and special teams touchdown, returning a punt 49 yards for a score. Throughout his freshman season, Jackson picked up 38 receptions for 601 yards along with seven touchdowns, eclipsing the 100-yard mark three times. In the 2005 Las Vegas Bowl game against BYU, Jackson tallied 130 yards and two scores. Jackson was also expected to play for Cal's baseball team but, due to the success of his freshman football season, he chose to focus exclusively on football.


title: DeSean Jackson

text: Coming into his sophomore year with high expectations, Jackson displayed more of his talent and playmaking ability, tallying 1,060 receiving yards and nine touchdowns. Jackson also returned four punts for touchdowns. He earned first-team All-Pac-10 honors as both a punt returner and a wide receiver. Jackson garnered national recognition with selections to first-team All-America by the "Associated Press", Walter Camp Football Foundation, the Football Writers Association of America, the "Sporting News", and "Rivals.com" as a punt returner. Jackson also captured the inaugural Randy Moss Award as the top returner in the nation. In one of only two California losses in Pac-10 play, Jackson had a 95-yard punt return for a touchdown against Arizona.