title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: "Metal Gear" was originally released on the MSX2 home computer in Japan on July 13, 1987, with an English version released in Europe during the same year. Due to memory constraints, the Japanese version was written entirely in katakana (with character names presented in Roman letters), while the English version is written entirely in uppercase, has numerous instances of erroneous grammar and misspellings, and features fewer radio calls than the Japanese version (with 56% of the calls kept) and shortened messages.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: On August 18, 2004, Konami released a port of the MSX2 "Metal Gear" for feature phones through their Konami Net DX service in Japan as a promotional tie-in for "". This updated port served as the basis for the version included on the second disc of "Subsistence" (the expanded edition of "Metal Gear Solid 3") for the PlayStation 2 released in 2005, and later in the "HD Edition" released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 and for PlayStation Vita in 2012.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: The MSX2 "Metal Gear" would be released as a Virtual Console download for the Wii in Japan on December 8, 2009. The ROM used for this emulated re-release has been modified to bring it more in line with the later versions of the game released for other platforms. An Amiga port of the NES version was announced in 1989, but was not released; although an unofficial Amiga port of the MSX2 version developed by hobbyist programmer h0ffman in May 2021.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: A port of "Metal Gear" for the Family Computer (or Famicom) was released in Japan on December 22, 1987. This was followed by an English localization for the Nintendo Entertainment System (or NES) released in North America in June 1988 (published by Konami's Ultra Games division) and in Europe and Australia sometime in 1989. This was the first version of "Metal Gear" that was released in North America, since the MSX2 platform was never released in that market.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: According to Kojima, the port was developed by another Konami division at Tokyo which was given the source code from the MSX2 version without the consent of the original team. Many changes were made during the porting process that later led to this version being publicly disowned by Kojima years after its release. Masahiro Ueno, who worked as a programmer for the NES version, has stated that the staff who worked on the port were given a three-month deadline and were ordered to make the port as different as possible from the MSX2 version. Due to hardware limitations with the mapper used, the Metal Gear boss ended up being replaced by a Supercomputer guarded by four enemy soldiers.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: Another big change made to the game was in the level designs. Instead of the underwater infiltration from the MSX2 version, the NES version starts the game with Solid Snake parachuting into the middle of a jungle alongside three other soldiers (who are never seen nor mentioned after the intro). After landing in the jungle, the player must reach a transport truck at the end that will take Snake to the entrance of the first building. The player can use other transport trucks to reach the entrances of the other buildings quicker, since they travel in a cyclical pattern. The basement floors of Building 1 and 2 in the MSX2 version were made into separate buildings, Building 4 and 5 respectively, which are only reachable by going through one of two jungle mazes located in the outdoor areas between the other three buildings. The correct path to take in the jungle maze is never revealed in the game. In addition to the removal of the Metal Gear tank, the Hind D boss on the rooftop of Building 1 was replaced by a pair of armed turret gunners called "Twin Shot". The NES version lacks the higher alert phase from the MSX2 version and the jetpack-wearing soldiers on the rooftops of Building 1 and 2 lost their ability to fly (making them act more like regular guards). On the other hand, enemies no longer drop ammo nor rations when punched to death. Much like the MSX2 version, the English localization of the NES versions contains numerous instances of erroneous grammar, such as "Contact missing our Grey Fox", "Uh-Oh! The truck have started to move!", and "I feel asleep!!"


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: Passcodes are used in this version to save progress. When Snake is killed by the enemy or loses his life by certain other means, the player is given a choice to continue the game from the last checkpoint or quit and resume later with the given passcode. The passcode keeps track of Snake's rank (which determines his checkpoint in this version), inventory, hostages rescued, bosses defeated and certain event flags. One particular passcode featured in the Japanese and North American version, in which the player types the expletive "fuck me" and fills the remaining spaces with "1", will transport the player to the final battle with no equipment. This resulted in the passcode system being altered for the European versions of the game, with all of the vowels being removed.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: Because the MSX2 version was not released in North America at the time, the NES version was the one that served as the basis for a couple of home computer ports released by Ultra Games in 1990 for the Commodore 64 and MS-DOS. The Commodore 64 version was released in 1989, and the MS-DOS version in 1990. An emulated port of the Famicom version was also included in a bonus disc packaged alongside "" in a limited edition GameCube console bundle released in Japan.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: The MSX2 version of "Metal Gear" was ranked on "MSX Magazine"s top 20 best selling MSX games in Japan for five months, debuting at no. 4 on the October 1987 issue and peaking at no. 3 the following month. The NES version was a major international success, selling units in the United States. It was the second top-selling game in the United States during October 1988, just below "Super Mario Bros. 2", and remained in the top ten through early 1989.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: "The Games Machine" gave a positive review of the MSX version, giving the game a 79% score. They stated that the "initial impression of disdain at this non too-impressively animated macho man may rapidly change on delving deeper." They praised the graphics and the size of the game area, underlining the fact that it ensured "the action and suspense never wanes". They also wrote that the game was rapidly addictive, and that "the urge to get further into the game is quite strong". They concluded positively on the quality of the game, saying that if "this standard of Konami software is maintained then maybe more people will think hard about joining the other 200,000 MSX owners". They noted that there was no information regarding the game's Japanese author at the time, but stated that "whoever they may be they certainly seem to know their business."


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: "Famitsu" rated the Famicom version 24 out of 40 in 1988, and 3 out of 5 stars in 1989. "Game Players" reviewed the NES and Commodore versions, stating "Metal Gear" "out-Rambos" "Rambo" and is a "fearsomely challenging" game that "takes place in an elaborate maze-like setting and has plenty of room for strategy as well as stamina." They listed it among the top 100 best games of all time in 1989. "Computer Gaming World" also reviewed the NES version, praising its "strong concept" but stating it was "something less than a total success". They called the graphics "acceptable" and praised how it requires the "player to acquire newer, deadlier technology through the course of a game" but criticized the control system and the player's great vulnerability when unarmed at the start of the game. They nonetheless stated that "Metal Gear" "shows great promise for future Ultra Games entries" as it "attempts to move beyond the standard run/jump/shoot format" of most NES games, concluding the game to be "a potential super-hit that, unfortunately, is sabotaged by its own weaknesses".


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: The NES version of "Metal Gear" was ranked the 104th best game made on a Nintendo System in "Nintendo Power" Top 200 Games list. "GamesRadar" ranked it the sixth-best NES game ever made, and the staff felt that it popularized its genre. In 1997 "Electronic Gaming Monthly" named the NES version the 35th best console video game of all time, citing "how you have to think like a spy to win, which means you don't always have to fight." "Game Informer" placed the game 53rd on their top 100 video games of all time praising the game’s stealth aspects and dramatic plot.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: Its success led to the creation of two separately produced sequels; the first one, "Snake's Revenge", was produced specifically for the NES in North America and Europe in 1990 and the other, "", was the sequel developed by Hideo Kojima and released in Japan for the MSX2 during the same year as a response to the former's creation. The latter was followed by "Metal Gear Solid" for the PlayStation in 1998, which was in turn followed by numerous sequels and spinoffs in "Metal Gear" series.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: The intro theme ("Operation Intrude N313"), main theme ("Theme of Tara") and game over theme ("Just Another Dead Soldier") from the MSX2 version were reused for the VR Training theme in "Metal Gear Solid", which in turn was reused in "" and "". "Theme of Tara" is one of the tunes that can be heard in the "Shadow Moses Island" stage in "Super Smash Bros. Brawl" for the Wii, the music for the beginning section of the Battleship Halberd Interior stage of the Adventure mode, where Snake officially enters the storyline, and can also be selected as music with an iPod item in "".


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: In 1988, Konami published a gamebook adaptation of "Metal Gear" in Japan as the second installment in their Konami Gamebook Series. The gamebook is set two years after the events of the game, in which Solid Snake is called back into action after FOXHOUND receives intelligence on a terrorist group who have obtained the plans for Metal Gear and are now mass-producing the mech. The book portrays Solid Snake as an unsuccessful illustrator in his personal life outside his job as a FOXHOUND agent.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: In 1990, a novelization of "Metal Gear" was published in the U.S. by Scholastic Books as part of their "Worlds of Power" series of novelizations based on third-party NES games. The "Metal Gear" book was written by Alexander Frost under the pen name F.X. Nine, the same pen name used for all the authors in the Worlds of Power series. This book adheres much more closely to the localized version of the backstory as presented in the North American packaging and manual, as opposed to the actual in-game plot which was not changed to reflect this difference. Big Boss is not featured in the book, but instead, two different characters, Commander South and Colonel Vermon CaTaffy, serve as Solid Snake's commanding officer and Outer Heaven's leader respectively. The book also gives Solid Snake the identity of Justin Halley and changes the name of his organization from FOX HOUND to the Snake Men. Because the book was targeted at young kids, the cover illustration was altered, with Snake's handgun being airbrushed out.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: During a public Q&A event conducted at London with Geoff Keighley on March 13, 2014, series' creator Hideo Kojima expressed interest in developing remakes of the MSX2 "Metal Gear" games in order to reconcile plot discrepancies that have since been introduced into the series, but had no plans at the time due to the ongoing development of "" (itself a prequel set before the events of the original "Metal Gear"). However, Kojima has since departed from Konami following the release of "The Phantom Pain", leaving the possibility of such remakes in question.


title: Metal Gear (video game)

text: A "Metal Gear" remake mod for "Alien Swarm" was in development that was granted permission by Konami to use copyrighted material with the agreement that they don't make a profit from the recreation or accept donations for the production. It was canceled on June 3, 2014. David Hayter was set to voice Solid Snake. A new fan remake is currently in development using Unreal Engine 4 titled "Outer Heaven".


title: Jessica Lucas

text: Jessica Lucas (born September 24, 1985) is a Canadian actress. She is known for her roles in television, such as "Edgemont", "Melrose Place", "Cult", and "Gotham", and in the films "The Covenant", "Cloverfield" and the 2013 "Evil Dead". She also starred in the music video for Coldplay's 2014 single "True Love".


title: Jessica Lucas

text: Lucas was born and raised in Vancouver, British Columbia. Her father is Black Canadian, and her mother is European Canadian. She began acting at seven years old, and trained with the Children's Arts Theatre School in Toronto. She started her career appearing in stage productions, including local productions of "Snow White & The Seven Dwarfs", "Grease", "Cinderella", "Mousetrap" and "Music Medley".


title: Jessica Lucas

text: In 2001, she joined the Canadian teen drama television series "Edgemont" as recurring character Bekka Lawrence, later becoming a series regular on the show, which she remained through the end of the show's run in 2005. She was also a series regular on another Canadian television series, YTV's short-lived "2030 CE" in 2002.


title: Jessica Lucas

text: She guest starred in an episode of "The L Word" as Roxanne in 2004. She went on to appear as a series regular in the short-lived ABC teen drama series "Life as We Know It" as Sue; the series which ran for just one season. In 2006, she appeared in the film "She's the Man" and co-starred in "The Covenant". She was cast in another ABC television pilot, "Secrets of a Small Town", though it was not picked up to series.


title: Jessica Lucas

text: In 2007, she joined the cast of "" playing the recurring character of Ronnie Lake. Despite appearing in four episodes, rumours were denied that she would be a permanent replacement for Sara Sidle. The character was written out of the series with no explanation. She also appeared in a made-for-television film "Split Decision".


title: Jessica Lucas

text: In 2008, she guest starred as Kimberly MacIntyre in four episodes of The CW's "90210". She also starred in a leading role as Lily in J. J. Abrams "Cloverfield", which was a box office success and was well received by critics. She was cast as Lisa in the film "Amusement" in 2006; the film was set to be released theatrically by New Line Cinema, but after a negative reaction it was released instead straight-to-DVD in 2009. The same year, Lucas was announced to have signed on as Riley Richmond, one of the lead roles in another CW television series "Melrose Place", a followup to the popular 1990s series of the same name.


title: Jessica Lucas

text: Lucas was part of the main cast of the NBC sitcom "Friends with Benefits", which aired during the summer of 2011 before being cancelled. In 2011, she played Haley in "", where she showcased her singing talents as well as her acting skills.


title: Jessica Lucas

text: In 2012, Lucas was cast as the lead character, Skye Yarrow, in the CW series "Cult", which was filmed in the spring of 2012. In 2012, she was cast in a main role in the 2013 remake of the classic horror film "The Evil Dead". In 2014, Lucas appeared in "Pompeii" directed by Paul W. S. Anderson.


title: Jessica Lucas

text: From 2015 to 2019, she has had a regular role in Fox's "Gotham" as Tabitha Galavan. In 2019, Lucas played the starring role of Kate Jameson in the Canadian crime drama television series "The Murders" which aired on Citytv. In late 2020, she was cast in the regular role of Billie in the fourth season of the Fox medical drama television series "The Resident".


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Sequoia sempervirens () is the sole living species of the genus "Sequoia" in the cypress family Cupressaceae (formerly treated in Taxodiaceae). Common names include coast redwood, coastal redwood, and California redwood. It is an evergreen, long-lived, monoecious tree living 1,200–2,200 years or more. This species includes the tallest living trees on Earth, reaching up to in height (without the roots) and up to in diameter at breast height. These trees are also among the oldest living things on Earth. Before commercial logging and clearing began by the 1850s, this massive tree occurred naturally in an estimated along much of coastal California (excluding southern California where rainfall is not sufficient) and the southwestern corner of coastal Oregon within the United States.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The name sequoia sometimes refers to the subfamily Sequoioideae, which includes "S. sempervirens" along with "Sequoiadendron" (giant sequoia) and "Metasequoia" (dawn redwood). Here, the term redwood on its own refers to the species covered in this article but not to the other two species.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The coast redwood is known to have reached 115.5 m or 380.1 ft tall, with a trunk diameter of . It has a conical crown, with horizontal to slightly drooping branches. The trunk is remarkably straight. The bark can be very thick, up to , and quite soft and fibrous, with a bright red-brown color when freshly exposed (hence the name redwood), weathering darker. The root system is composed of shallow, wide-spreading lateral roots.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The leaves are variable, being long and flat on young trees and shaded lower branches in older trees. The leaves are scalelike, long on shoots in full sun in the upper crown of older trees, with a full range of transition between the two extremes. They are dark green above and have two blue-white stomatal bands below. Leaf arrangement is spiral, but the larger shade leaves are twisted at the base to lie in a flat plane for maximum light capture.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The species is monoecious, with pollen and seed cones on the same plant. The seed cones are ovoid, long, with 15–25 spirally arranged scales; pollination is in late winter with maturation about 8–9 months after. Each cone scale bears three to seven seeds, each seed long and broad, with two wings wide. The seeds are released when the cone scales dry out and open at maturity. The pollen cones are ovular and long.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Its genetic makeup is unusual among conifers, being a hexaploid (6n) and possibly allopolyploid (AAAABB).


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Scottish botanist David Don described the redwood as the evergreen taxodium ("Taxodium sempervirens") in his colleague Aylmer Bourke Lambert's 1824 work "A description of the genus Pinus". Austrian botanist Stephan Endlicher erected the genus "Sequoia" in his 1847 work "Synopsis coniferarum", giving the redwood its current binomial name of "Sequoia sempervirens". Endlicher probably derived the name Sequoia from the Cherokee name of George Gist, usually spelled Sequoyah, who developed the still-used Cherokee syllabary. The redwood is one of three living species, each in its own genus, in the subfamily Sequoioideae. Molecular studies have shown that the three are each other's closest relatives, generally with the redwood and giant sequoia ("Sequoiadendron giganteum") as each other's closest relatives. However, Yang and colleagues in 2010 queried the polyploid state of the redwood and speculate that it may have arisen as an ancient hybrid between ancestors of the giant sequoia and dawn redwood ("Metasequoia"). Using two different single copy nuclear genes, LFY and NLY, to generate phylogenetic trees, they found that "Sequoia" was clustered with "Metasequoia" in the tree generated using the LFY gene, but with "Sequoiadendron "in the tree generated with the NLY gene. Further analysis strongly supported the hypothesis that "Sequoia" was the result of a hybridization event involving "Metasequoia" and "Sequoiadendron". Thus, Yang and colleagues hypothesize that the inconsistent relationships among "Metasequoia", "Sequoia," and "Sequoiadendron" could be a sign of reticulate evolution (in which two species hybridize and give rise to a third) among the three genera. However, the long evolutionary history of the three genera (the earliest fossil remains being from the Jurassic) make resolving the specifics of when and how "Sequoia" originated once and for all a difficult matter—especially since it in part depends on an incomplete fossil record.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Coast redwoods occupy a narrow strip of land approximately in length and in width along the Pacific coast of North America; the most southerly grove is in Monterey County, California, and the most northerly groves are in extreme southwestern Oregon. The prevailing elevation range is above sea level, occasionally down to 0 and up to about . They usually grow in the mountains where precipitation from the incoming moisture off the ocean is greater. The tallest and oldest trees are found in deep valleys and gullies, where year-round streams can flow, and fog drip is regular. The terrain also made it harder for loggers to get to the trees and to get them out after felling. The trees above the fog layer, above about , are shorter and smaller due to the drier, windier, and colder conditions. In addition, Douglas-fir, pine, and tanoak often crowd out redwoods at these elevations. Few redwoods grow close to the ocean, due to intense salt spray, sand, and wind. Coalescence of coastal fog accounts for a considerable part of the trees' water needs. Fog in the 21st century is, however, reduced from what it was in the prior century, which is a problem that may be compounded by climate change.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The northern boundary of its range is marked by two groves on mountain slopes along the north side of the Chetco River, which is on the western fringe of the Klamath Mountains, near the California-Oregon border. The northernmost grove is located within Alfred A. Loeb State Park and Siskiyou National Forest at the approximate coordinates 42°07'36"N 124°12'17"W. The southern boundary of its range is the Los Padres National Forest's Silver Peak Wilderness in the Santa Lucia Mountains of the Big Sur area of Monterey County, California. The southernmost grove is in the Southern Redwood Botanical Area, just north of the national forest's Salmon Creek trailhead and near the San Luis Obispo County line.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The largest and tallest populations are in California's Redwood National and State Parks (Del Norte and Humboldt counties) and Humboldt Redwoods State Park, with the overall majority located in the large Humboldt County.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The prehistoric fossil range of the genus is considerably greater, with a subcosmopolitan distribution including Europe and Asia until about 5 million years ago. During the last ice age, perhaps as recently as 10,000 years ago, redwood trees grew as far south as the Los Angeles area (coast redwood bark found in subway excavations and at La Brea Tar Pits).


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: This native area provides a unique environment with heavy seasonal rains up to annually. Cool coastal air and fog drip keep this forest consistently damp year round. Several factors, including the heavy rainfall, create a soil with fewer nutrients than the trees need, causing them to depend heavily on the entire biotic community of the forest, and making efficient recycling of dead trees especially important. This forest community includes coast Douglas-fir, Pacific madrone, tanoak, western hemlock, and other trees, along with a wide variety of ferns, mosses, mushrooms, and redwood sorrel. Redwood forests provide habitat for a variety of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles. Old-growth redwood stands provide habitat for the federally threatened spotted owl and the California-endangered marbled murrelet.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Coast redwoods are resistant to insect attack, fungal infection, and rot. These properties are conferred by concentrations of terpenoids and tannic acid in redwood leaves, roots, bark, and wood. Despite these chemical defenses, redwoods are still subject to insect infestations; none, however, are capable of killing a healthy tree. Redwoods also face herbivory from mammals: black bears are reported to consume the inner bark of small redwoods, and black-tailed deer are known to eat redwood sprouts.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The oldest known coast redwood is about 2,200 years old; many others in the wild exceed 600 years. The numerous claims of older redwoods are incorrect. Because of their seemingly timeless lifespans, coast redwoods were deemed the "everlasting redwood" at the turn of the century; in Latin, "sempervirens" means "ever green" or "everlasting". Redwoods must endure various environmental disturbances to attain such great ages. In response to forest fires, the trees have developed various adaptations. The thick, fibrous bark of coast redwoods is extremely fire-resistant; it grows to at least a foot thick and protects mature trees from fire damage. In addition, the redwoods contain little flammable pitch or resin. If damaged by fire, a redwood readily sprouts new branches or even an entirely new crown, and if the parent tree is killed, new buds sprout from its base. Fires, moreover, appear to actually benefit redwoods by causing substantial mortality in competing species while having only minor effects on redwood. Burned areas are favorable to the successful germination of redwood seeds. A study published in 2010, the first to compare post-wildfire survival and regeneration of redwood and associated species, concluded fires of all severity increase the relative abundance of redwood and higher-severity fires provide the greatest benefit.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Redwoods often grow in flood-prone areas. Sediment deposits can form impermeable barriers that suffocate tree roots, and unstable soil in flooded areas often causes trees to lean to one side, increasing the risk of the wind toppling them. Immediately after a flood, redwoods grow their existing roots upwards into recently deposited sediment layers. A second root system then develops from adventitious buds on the newly buried trunk and the old root system dies. To counter lean, redwoods increase wood production on the vulnerable side, creating a supporting buttress. These adaptations create forests of almost exclusively redwood trees in flood-prone regions.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The height of "S. sempervirens" is closely tied to fog availability; taller trees become less frequent as fog becomes less frequent. As "S. sempervirens"' height increases, transporting water via water potential to the leaves becomes increasingly difficult due to gravity. Despite the high rainfall that the region receives (up to 100 cm), the leaves in the upper canopy are perpetually stressed for water. This water stress is exacerbated by long droughts in the summer. Water stress is believed to cause the morphological changes in the leaves, stimulating reduced leaf length and increased leaf succulence. To supplement their water needs, redwoods utilize frequent summer fog events. Fog water is absorbed through multiple pathways. Leaves directly take in fog from the surrounding air through the epidermal tissue, bypassing the xylem. Coast redwoods also absorb water directly through their bark. The uptake of water through leaves and bark repairs and reduces the severity of xylem embolisms, which occur when cavitations form in the xylem preventing the transport of water and nutrients. Fog may also collect on redwood leaves, drip to the forest floor, and be absorbed by the tree's roots. This fog drip may form 30% of the total water used by a tree in a year.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Coast redwood reproduces both sexually by seed and asexually by sprouting of buds, layering, or lignotubers. Seed production begins at 10–15 years of age. Cones develop in the winter and mature by fall. In the early stages, the cones look like flowers, and are commonly called "flowers" by professional foresters, although this is not strictly correct. Coast redwoods produce many cones, with redwoods in new forests producing thousands per year. The cones themselves hold 90–150 seeds, but viability of seed is low, typically well below 15% with one estimate of average rates being 3 to 10 percent. The low viability may discourage seed predators, which do not want to waste time sorting chaff (empty seeds) from edible seeds. Successful germination often requires a fire or flood, reducing competition for seedlings. The winged seeds are small and light, weighing 3.3–5.0 mg (200–300 seeds/g; 5,600–8,500/ounce). The wings are not effective for wide dispersal, and seeds are dispersed by wind an average of only from the parent tree. Seedlings are susceptible to fungal infection and predation by banana slugs, brush rabbits, and nematodes. Most seedlings do not survive their first three years. However, those that become established grow rapidly, with young trees known to reach tall in 20 years.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Coast redwoods can also reproduce asexually by layering or sprouting from the root crown, stump, or even fallen branches; if a tree falls over, it generates a row of new trees along the trunk, so many trees naturally grow in a straight line. Sprouts originate from dormant or adventitious buds at or under the surface of the bark. The dormant sprouts are stimulated when the main adult stem gets damaged or starts to die. Many sprouts spontaneously erupt and develop around the circumference of the tree trunk. Within a short period after sprouting, each sprout develops its own root system, with the dominant sprouts forming a ring of trees around the parent root crown or stump. This ring of trees is called a "fairy ring". Sprouts can achieve heights of in a single growing season.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Redwoods may also reproduce using burls. A burl is a woody lignotuber that commonly appears on a redwood tree below the soil line, though usually within in depth from the soil surface. Coast redwoods develop burls as seedlings from the axils of their cotyledon, a trait that is extremely rare in conifers. When provoked by damage, dormant buds in the burls sprout new shoots and roots. Burls are also capable of sprouting into new trees when detached from the parent tree, though exactly how this happens is yet to be studied. Shoot clones commonly sprout from burls and are often turned into decorative hedges when found in suburbia.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Coast redwood is one of the most valuable timber species in the lumbering industry. In California, of redwood forest are logged, virtually all of it second growth. Though many entities have existed in the cutting and management of redwoods, perhaps none has had a more storied role than the Pacific Lumber Company (1863–2008) of Humboldt County, California, where it owned and managed over of forests, primarily redwood. Coast redwood lumber is highly valued for its beauty, light weight, and resistance to decay. Its lack of resin makes it absorb water and resist fire.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: In the recent great fire of San Francisco, that began April 18th, 1906, we succeeded in finally stopping it in nearly all directions where the unburned buildings were almost entirely of frame construction, and if the exterior finish of these buildings had not been of redwood lumber, I am satisfied that the area of the burned district would have been greatly extended.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Because of its impressive resistance to decay, redwood was extensively used for railroad ties and trestles throughout California. Many of the old ties have been recycled for use in gardens as borders, steps, house beams, etc. Redwood burls are used in the production of table tops, veneers, and turned goods.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The Yurok people, who occupied the region before European settlement, regularly burned off ground cover in redwood forests to bolster tanoak populations from which they harvested acorns, to maintain forest openings, and to boost populations of useful plant species such as those for medicine or basketmaking.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Extensive logging of redwoods began in the early nineteenth century. The trees were felled by ax and saw onto beds of tree limbs and shrubs to cushion their fall. Stripped of their bark, the logs were transported to mills or waterways by oxen or horse. Loggers then burned the accumulated tree limbs, shrubs, and bark. The repeated fires favored secondary forests of primarily redwoods as redwood seedlings sprout readily in burned areas. The introduction of steam engines let crews drag logs through long skid trails to nearby railroads, furthering the reach of loggers beyond the land nearby rivers previously used to transport trees. This method of harvesting, however, disturbed large amounts of soil, producing secondary-growth forests of species other than redwood such as Douglas-fir, grand fir, and western hemlock. After World War II, trucks and tractors gradually replaced steam engines, giving rise to two harvesting approaches: clearcutting and selection harvesting. Clearcutting involved felling all the trees in a particular area. It was encouraged by tax laws that exempted all standing timber from taxation if 70% of trees in the area were harvested. Selection logging, by contrast, called for the removal 25% to 50% of mature trees in the hopes that the remaining trees would allow for future growth and reseeding. This method, however, encouraged growth of other tree species, converting redwood forests into mixed forests of redwood, grand fir, Sitka spruce, and western hemlock. Moreover, the trees left standing were often felled by windthrow; that is, they were often blown over by the wind.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The coast redwood is naturalized in New Zealand, notably at Whakarewarewa Forest, Rotorua. Redwood has been grown in New Zealand plantations for more than 100 years, and those planted in New Zealand have higher growth rates than those in California, mainly because of even rainfall distribution through the year.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Other areas of successful cultivation outside of the native range include Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Haida Gwaii, middle elevations of Hawaii, Hogsback in South Africa, the Knysna Afromontane forests in the Western Cape, Grootvadersbosch Forest Reserve near Swellendam, South Africa and the Tokai Arboretum on the slopes of Table Mountain above Cape Town, a small area in central Mexico (Jilotepec), and the southeastern United States from eastern Texas to Maryland. It also does well in the Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia), far north of its northernmost native range in southwestern Oregon. Coast redwood trees were used in a display at Rockefeller Center and then given to Longhouse Reserve in East Hampton, Long Island, New York, and these have now been living there for over twenty years and have survived at .


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: This fast-growing tree can be grown as an ornamental specimen in those large parks and gardens that can accommodate its massive size. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Fairly solid evidence indicates that coast redwoods were the world's largest trees before logging, with numerous historical specimens reportedly over . The theoretical maximum potential height of coast redwoods is thought to be limited to between , as evapotranspiration is insufficient to transport water to leaves beyond this range. Further studies have indicated that this maximum requires fog, which is prevalent in these trees' natural environment.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: A tree reportedly in length was felled in Sonoma County by the Murphy Brothers saw mill in the 1870s, another claimed to be and in diameter was cut down near Eureka in 1914, and the Lindsey Creek tree was documented to have a height of when it was uprooted and felled by a storm in 1905. A tree reportedly tall was felled in November 1886 by the Elk River Mill and Lumber Co. in Humboldt County, yielding 79,736 marketable board feet from 21 cuts. In 1893, a Redwood cut at Eel River, near Scotia, reportedly measured in length, and in girth. However, limited evidence corroborates these historical measurements.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Today, trees over are common, and many are over . The current tallest tree is the Hyperion tree, measuring . The tree was discovered in Redwood National Park during mid-2006 by Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor, and is thought to be the world's tallest living organism. The previous record holder was the Stratosphere Giant in Humboldt Redwoods State Park at (as measured in 2004). Until it fell in March 1991, the "Dyerville Giant" was the record holder. It, too, stood in Humboldt Redwoods State Park and was high and estimated to be 1,600 years old. This fallen giant has been preserved in the park.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: The largest known living coast redwood is Grogan's Fault, discovered in 2014 by Chris Atkins and Mario Vaden in Redwood National Park, with a main trunk volume of at least Other high-volume coast redwoods include Iluvatar, with a main trunk volume of , and the Lost Monarch, with a main trunk volume of .


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Albino redwoods are mutants that cannot manufacture chlorophyll. About 230 examples (including growths and sprouts) are known to exist, reaching heights of up to . These trees survive like parasites, obtaining food from green parent trees. While similar mutations occur sporadically in other conifers, no cases are known of such individuals surviving to maturity in any other conifer species. Recent research news reports that albino redwoods can store higher concentrations of toxic metals, going so far as comparing them to organs or "waste dumps".


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Heights of the tallest coast redwoods are measured yearly by experts. Even with recent discoveries of tall coast redwoods above , it is likely that no taller trees will be discovered.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Diameter is measured at above average ground level (at breast height). Details of the precise locations for most tallest trees were not announced to the general public for fear of causing damage to the trees and the surrounding habitat. The tallest coast redwood easily accessible to the public is the National Geographic Tree, immediately trailside in the Tall Trees Grove of Redwood National Park.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Calculating the volume of a standing tree is the practical equivalent of calculating the volume of an irregular cone, and is subject to error for various reasons. This is partly due to technical difficulties in measurement, and variations in the shape of trees and their trunks. Measurements of trunk circumference are taken at only a few predetermined heights up the trunk, and assume that the trunk is circular in cross-section, and that taper between measurement points is even. Also, only the volume of the trunk (including the restored volume of basal fire scars) is taken into account, and not the volume of wood in the branches or roots. The volume measurements also do not take cavities into account. Most coast redwoods with volumes greater than represent ancient fusions of two or more separate trees, which makes determining whether a coast redwood has a single stem or multiple stems difficult. Starting in 2014, more record-breaking coast redwood trees were discovered. The largest disclosed was a massive redwood called Grogan's Fault/Spartan, which has been measured to have a volume of 38,300 cubic feet.


title: Sequoia sempervirens

text: Details of the precise locations for most tallest trees were not announced to the general public for fear of causing damage to the trees and the surrounding habitat. The largest coast redwood easily accessible to the public is Iluvatar, which stands prominently about 5 meters (16 ft) to the southeast of the Foothill Trail of Prairie Creek Redwoods State Park.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. () is a French luxury automobile manufacturer and luxury brand for hyper sports cars. The company was founded in 1998 as a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group and is based in Molsheim, Alsace, France. The Bugatti name was first made famous by Ettore Bugatti (1881–1947), who established the original Bugatti automobile brand in 1909 at Molsheim and built sports, racing and luxury cars.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In November 2021, the company became part of Bugatti Rimac, a joint venture between Rimac Group and Porsche AG. Since November 1, 2021, the company has been led by Mate Rimac as chief executive officer of Bugatti Rimac.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: On December 22, 1998, Volkswagen AG, a German automotive manufacturer now controlled by Porsche SE, established Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. as a French-registered, wholly-owned subsidiary. On the same day, the company took over the design and naming rights to Bugatti from Italian businessman Romano Artioli, who built supercars (such as the EB 110 and EB 112) with Bugatti SpA in Italy between 1987 and 1998. Since 2000, the Bugatti automobile brand has officially existed as Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S., still abbreviated to Bugatti. Since then, the company's headquarters have once again been located in Molsheim, France.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: On 22 December 2000, Volkswagen officially incorporated Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S., with former VW drivetrain chief Karl-Heinz Neumann as president. The company purchased the 1856 Château Saint Jean, formerly Ettore Bugatti's guest house in Dorlisheim, near Molsheim, and began refurbishing it to serve as the company's headquarters. The original factory was still in the hands of Snecma, who were unwilling to part with it. At the Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance in August 2000, VW announced that they would instead build a new modern "atelier" (factory) next to and south of the château. The "atelier" was officially inaugurated on 3 September 2005.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In September 2020, it was announced that Volkswagen was preparing to sell its Bugatti automobile brand, and talks began with the Croatian company Rimac Automobili. Around 700 Bugatti cars had been sold since 2005, but Volkswagen Group CEO Herbert Diess saw the unprofitable brand as ballast, the company said.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In 2020, Bugatti delivered 77 vehicles to customers. In January 2021, Bugatti announced that it had increased its operating profit for the third year in a row. This marked the most successful year in the company's history.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In July 2021, it was announced that Bugatti Automobiles and the sports car operations of Rimac Automobili will be merged to form Bugatti Rimac, a joint venture between Rimac Group and Porsche AG. The newly formed Rimac Group will be the majority shareholder with a 55% stake in Bugatti Rimac, while Porsche AG will hold the remaining 45% stake, as well as a 24% stake in Rimac Group. The formation of Bugatti Rimac d.o.o. took place in the fourth quarter of 2021.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: After years of building one-offs and limited edition models, in December 2021, Bugatti officially created its own bespoke division – Sur Mesure. The phrase means 'tailored' in French.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Volkswagen commissioned Italdesign's Giorgetto Giugiaro to design a series of concept cars to return the marque to prominence. The first example, the EB 118, was a two-door coupé and was introduced at the Paris Motor Show in 1998. It was followed by the four-door EB 218 touring sedan, introduced at the Geneva Motor Show in 1999. Later that year, the 18/3 Chiron was shown at the IAA in Frankfurt.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Volkswagen designed the final Bugatti concept, the EB 18/4 GT in-house. Bugatti introduced the EB 18/4 at the 1999 Tokyo Motor Show.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: All of these early concepts featured a 18-cylinder engine. This was the first-ever W-configuration engine on a passenger vehicle, with three blocks of 6 cylinders each. It shared many components with Volkswagen's modular engine family.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The 16C Galibier was unveiled during the Celebration of the Centenary of the Marque in Molsheim. The presentation was only for Bugatti customers. The car show in Molsheim showed the car in blue carbon fibre and aluminum parts. One year later Bugatti showed the world the 16C Galibier Concept at "VW Group Night" at the Geneva Auto Show in a new black and aluminum color combination.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The Galibier, a 1020 HP sedan, was first shown as a concept in 2010 and when they planned to put it into production in 2015, it would have cost about $1.4 million. It would use the same 16-cylinder 8.0-litre engine as the Veyron but instead of four turbos, the 16C Galibier would instead use two superchargers to deliver better torque. Production would require new facilities in Molsheim, France, to be refitted, which pushed back potential deliveries until 2015.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In 2013, it was announced that the car will never be produced as they wish to focus on a Veyron replacement.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In the 1980s the Bugatti brand was brought back as Bugatti Automobili S.p.A. in Italy. The company produced the EB110 in the 1990s, which put Bugatti back on the modern super-car scene. The company was then bought by Volkswagen at the end of the 20th century.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In 2000, the company introduced a new engine concept. At the Paris, Geneva, and Detroit auto shows, Bugatti presented the EB 16/4 Veyron concept car, an all-wheel-drive 16-cylinder car with an engine output of . The EB 16/4 Veyron has an 8.0-liter engine with four turbochargers. It reached a top speed of . At the time, the Veyron was the most potent and fastest supercar ever built. In acceleration tests, it reached a speed of after 2.5 s, after 7.3 s, and after 16.8 s.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Development initially lasted until 2001; the EB 16/4 Veyron was given "advanced concept" status in advertising. At the end of 2001, Bugatti announced that the car was now officially called the Bugatti Veyron 16.4. The combination of numbers means 16 cylinders and a fourth design study. Initially, production was scheduled to start in 2003. Technical difficulties with the dual-clutch transmission and the unusual, extreme requirements at speeds well over 300 km/h led to several delays. Finally, production began in September 2005, and annual production was increased to 70 units due to long waiting times.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: On June 26, 2010, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 Super Sport set the world speed record for road-legal production sports cars with a top speed of . In August of the same year, this vehicle with was presented for the first time in Pebble Beach (U.S.). In April 2013, the Veyron 16.4 Grand Sport Vitesse reached , the fastest speed ever recorded for a roadster. The Vitesse World Record Car Edition, limited to eight units, was subsequently presented to the world public for the first time at the Auto Shanghai trade show and sold out shortly after that.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: At the 2015 IAA, the company unveiled a show car of its Vision Gran Turismo project. With the Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo, the luxury manufacturer presented a possible new super sports car following the sale of all 450 Veyron. The Bugatti Vision Gran Turismo design is intended to recall the racing tradition of the 1920s and 1930s. The color scheme represents the brand's victories in the Le Mans 24-hour race. On November 6, 2015, the first showrooms in Bugatti's new CI look were opened simultaneously.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: On November 30, 2015, Bugatti announced that the successor to the Veyron would be called the Chiron. The name is dedicated to the Monegasque racing driver Louis Chiron, who began his racing career on a Bugatti Type 35 and won several Grand Prix races. On February 29, 2016, Bugatti unveiled its new Chiron hypercar at the Geneva Motor Show. It continues to be powered by an 8.0-liter 16-cylinder with four turbochargers, but now with and 1,600 Newton meters of torque. The Chiron accelerates to in 2.4 seconds from a standstill, reaches in 6.1 seconds, and in 13.1 seconds. The top speed is . Bugatti is the only automaker to build a W16 engine that produces over 1,500 hp. Since 2016, the Chiron has been home to the first mass-produced 3-D printed component, a small console on the transmission oil duct.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: This makes the Chiron the fastest hypercar globally, and its base price is 2.4 million euros net. Production in Molsheim is limited to 500 vehicles, and the first production car was delivered to customers in March 2017. The Chiron made its debut on the US market in April 2016. On August 21, 2016, Bugatti unveiled the Vision Gran Turismo concept car, a real-life study of the vehicle in the Gran Turismo Sport video game. On September 11, 2017, the Chiron set a new world record. From 0 to and back to , the coupé took just 42 seconds.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The BBC's TopGear magazine named the Chiron "hypercar of the year" on November 27, 2017, and a month later, the Chiron also received the award from Evo magazine in the UK.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: At the Geneva Motor Show on March 6, 2018, Bugatti unveiled the Chiron Sport, a hypercar optimized for lateral acceleration. It takes 5 seconds off the Chiron on the Nardò handling circuit thanks to numerous changes, such as the increased use of new materials (the first production car with windshield wipers made of carbon), the resulting weight saving of 18 kilograms, and the new Dynamic Torque Vectoring function. The engine remains untouched, producing and 1,600 Newton-meters of torque, as in the Chiron. In June 2018, Lego Technic recreated a Chiron with Lego bricks.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In November 2018, Lego collaborated with Bugatti to design a 1:1 scale Chiron made of Lego bricks. The Lego Technic Chiron produces 5.3 horsepower and travels at speeds of up to 20 mph.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In 2019, Bugatti ringed in its 110th anniversary with the unique "110ans" edition of the Chiron Sport. The hypercar adorns the Tricolore inside and out as a nod to France. The powertrain remains the 8-liter 16-cylinder with four turbochargers and 1,103 kW/1,500 hp. The vehicle was first shown at the Geneva Motor Show.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In September 2019, Bugatti will break the 300-mile barrier with a modified Chiron, breaking the top speed record. Ex-racing driver and test driver Andy Wallace reached on the VW test track in Ehra-Lessien. The Chiron thus becomes the first production car to exceed .


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Bugatti celebrated its 110th birthday with customers and friends of the brand at the Grand Fête in Molsheim in September 2019 and unveiled the Chiron Super Sport 300+ as part of the celebration. The car, which has been boosted to 1,600 hp, has a body optimized for top speed and was limited to 30 units. One vehicle cost 3.5 million euros.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The French introduced another derivative, the Chiron Pur Sport, in March 2020. The new model was developed and designed with lateral dynamics in mind. To achieve this, the engineers modified the chassis, engine, transmission, and aerodynamics. A new transmission improved with a 15 percent shorter overall ratio; total power is available at . The Chiron Pur Sport accelerates from 0 to in 2.3 seconds instead of 2.4 seconds, and 0 to now takes 5.9 seconds instead of 6.1 seconds. The vehicle's top speed is electronically governed at , and the maximum gearshift speed is 6,900 rpm. At the rear, the Chiron Pur Sport carries a 1.90-meter-wide rear wing for massive downforce. A new chassis set-up with stiffer springs at the front and back, a control strategy for the adaptive dampers designed for performance, and modified camber values ensured more dynamic handling and greater agility in corners. The Chiron Pur Sport is limited to 60 vehicles and costs 3 million euros each. The first vehicle was delivered in August 2020.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In September, Bugatti presented the special Chiron Sport model "Les Légendes du Ciel." Limited to 20 units, the edition is dedicated to Bugatti's legendary pilots and works drivers. Each vehicle costs 2.88 million euros net.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In July 2018, Bugatti announced that it would build the Divo hypercar, limited to 40 units. The cars, at a net unit price of €5 million, were sold within days. In August 2018, the Divo was shown to the public for the first time at "The Quail: A Motorsports Gathering" as part of Monterey Car Week. With the Divo, Bugatti began modern coachbuilding.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The La Voiture Noire ("The Black Car") was a special edition car built and sold by Bugatti in 2019. It was presented at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show. The car pays homage to the legendary 'missing' Bugatti Type 57 SC Atlantic of Jean Bugatti. Only 1 of these cars was built and sold for a price of $12.5 million; making it the most expensive new car ever sold.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In August 2019, Bugatti presented the "Centodieci" (Italian for 110) at "The Quail: A Motorsports Gathering" as part of Monterey Car Week. The hypercar "reinterprets the historic EB 110." It is based on the Bugatti Chiron with its 8.0-liter W16 engine, but in the Centodieci, it produces at 7,000 rpm. An additional air intake in the area of the oil cooler regulates the temperature of the performance-enhanced engine. In purely arithmetical terms, the Centodieci will sprint from 0 to in 2.4 seconds, to in 6.1 seconds and in 13.1 seconds, with the top speed, electronically capped at . Visually, its wedge shape is based on the EB 110. The small series, limited to ten vehicles at a unit price of eight million euros, was sold immediately.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The Bolide is Bugatti's first track-only hyper-car, digitally unveiled in October 2020. Built around Bugatti's existing 8.0-liter Bugatti W16 engine, the engineers designed only a minimum of bodywork. The result is the smallest possible shell. Although the concept version boasted a power output of 1,361 kW (1,825 hp; 1,850 PS), this was achieved using 110-octane racing fuel. The production version will have a power output of 1,177 kW (1,578 hp; 1,600 PS) with a torque figure of 1,600 N⋅m (1,180 lbf⋅ft) at 2,250 rpm using 98 RON gas. The top speed is expected to be over . As part of its Monterey Car Week announcement, Bugatti has said that it will build 40 production-spec Bolide models. Currently, the hypercar is being pushed through the final stages of its development programme, but Bugatti aims to commence deliveries in 2024. Prices will start from €4 million (around £3.3 million).


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: The Mistral was unveiled on 19 August 2022 and is claimed by Bugatti to be the fastest roadster in the world.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Although the Mistral is based on the Chiron platform the Mistral is not a cabriolet model for the Bugatti Chiron, but a unique roadster model for Bugatti that marks the last vehicle to use the W16 engine that was introduced with the Bugatti Veyron in 2005.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: In 2019, the French manufacturer unveiled a titanium brake caliper, the largest printed titanium component ever in the world.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Bugatti retrospectively received three design awards in December 2019 for its exhibition stands in Geneva: Automotive Brand Contest and Iconic Awards. At the German Design Award, Bugatti became "Winner" in the category "Excellent Architecture - Fair and Exhibition." At the Top Gear Award, the Bugatti Super Sport 300+ won the 2019 "Physics Lesson of the year" category. At the Auto Bild Sportscars Award in the same year, the car was judged the best sports car of the year in the "Super Sports Car Import" category.


title: Bugatti Automobiles

text: Bugatti changed its corporate design in February 2020. The first showroom with the new look opened in Paris. The partner was Groupe Schumacher, founded in 1947 and specializing in supercars and hypercars. In the same month, Bugatti reported that 250 vehicles of the Chiron had now been built, exactly half the planned number.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Joseph Thomas "Joe" Elliott (born 1 August 1959) is an English–Irish rock singer, best known as the lead singer and one of the founding members of the hard rock band Def Leppard. He has also been the lead singer of the David Bowie tribute band the Cybernauts and the Mott the Hoople cover band Down 'n' Outz. He is one of the two original members of Def Leppard still in the band and one of the three to perform on every Def Leppard album. Elliott is known for his distinctive and wide ranging raspy singing voice.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Joseph Thomas Elliott was born in Sheffield to Joseph William Elliott (1930–2011) and Cynthia Gibson. He was educated at King Edward VII School. Elliott met Pete Willis (a member of a local band called Atomic Mass) in November 1977 after missing a bus. Upon finding out that they were both musicians, Willis invited Elliott to meet the rest of the Atomic Mass members. The band spent hours talking and listening to records in Elliott's bedroom. Elliott tried out as a guitarist and, though the band had not heard Elliott sing, they were impressed by "his attitude and his ideas about being in a band" and he became the band's vocalist instead. The other members also took Elliott's suggestion to change their name to "Deaf Leopard." Elliott had invented the name for a band in his youth. Tony Kenning suggested they change the band name to "Def Leppard" to distinguish them from contemporary punk bands like The Flying Lizards and Boomtown Rats. The band claims that any apparent similarity of the name Led Zeppelin to Def Leppard was unintentional. Elliott soon became an integral part of the band while also contributing his songwriting skills.


title: Joe Elliott

text: As a songwriter, Elliott has drawn from his eclectic tastes in music (ranging from pop-rock to folk) as sources of inspiration. He has noted that the lyrics to Def Leppard's music are rarely personal; they are meant to be easily accessible to the listener. He also plays guitar and drums as well as piano and keyboard.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott has worked with several side projects through his career such as participating in numerous tributes to other artists like Freddie Mercury, Alice Cooper, Mick Ronson, Ian Hunter and David Bowie. He appeared alongside guitarists Brian May and Slash along with the other members of Def Leppard at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in 1992 to perform "Tie Your Mother Down".


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott also has worked on several projects including guitarist Ronnie Wood's solo album "Slide on This", Lori Spee's "Those Faces", Ricky Warwick and The Almighty.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott and fellow Def Leppard member Phil Collen once had a side project together called Cybernauts. The project was short-lived, and the internet album that was available online has been deleted since its 2001 release.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Released in September 2003 through Sanctuary Records, Ricky Warwick's "Tattoos & Alibis" was produced by Elliott.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott sang the vocals in the Mott the Hoople cover band, Down 'n' Outz on their album "My ReGeneration Vol. 1".


title: Joe Elliott

text: In 2012, Elliott went on tour with the Rock N Roll All Stars, a band that consisted of many of rock's most recognized performers. The band downsized and became the Kings of Chaos. The primary members with Elliott are Duff McKagan (Guns N' Roses, Velvet Revolver and Loaded), Matt Sorum (Guns N' Roses and Velvet Revolver), Gilby Clarke (Guns N' Roses), and Steve Stevens (Billy Idol's band). Others who rounded out the group were: Glenn Hughes (Deep Purple) and Sebastian Bach (formerly of Skid Row). The band released the cover song "Never Before" by Deep Purple.


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott currently lives in Stepaside, Dublin, Ireland and also has a residence in Los Angeles. He maintains a recording studio in his Dublin home called Joe's Garage in which he has recorded and produced many major artists. Other artists have also recorded there while he has been on the road with Def Leppard. Elliott is also a Sheffield United fan, having contributed music to the Sheffield-based film "When Saturday Comes".


title: Joe Elliott

text: Elliott's first marriage was to Karla Ramdhani in 1989; they divorced in 1996. Elliott met Kristine Wunschel in 2003 while she was working on the crew for the X album tour, and they were married on 1 September 2004. Their first child, Finlay, was born in December 2009 and are also parents to a daughter, Lyla, born July 2016. He announced on SiriusXM in March 2022 that he and his wife Kristine had another daughter named Harper who was born in February 2020.


title: Joe Elliott

text: During a performance on 7 September 1983 in Tucson, Arizona, Elliott attempted to rile the crowd during the "Rock of Ages" crowd sing-along. He told the crowd: "Last night, we played in El Paso, that place with all the greasy Mexicans, and they made a lot more noise than that." Then, on 30 September, he apologised on an El Paso radio station for the racial slur he made while referring to the city on 7 September. The band later followed up the apology with donations to Hispanic charities.


title: Joe Elliott

text: In 2008, Def Leppard performed live on stage at a Detroit Red Wings ice hockey game. Midway through the set, Red Wing forward Darren McCarty drove a motorcycle across the stage with the Stanley Cup on the back. Another Detroit player, Kyle Quincey, handed the cup to Elliott, who unintentionally placed the Cup upside-down on its stand. Upon realizing his error, Elliott quipped to the crowd, "Oh it's upside down. Well never mind. We're soccer boys, what do we know?" The incident angered many ice hockey fans. Elliott later said, "[E]very other sporting cup I've ever seen, was wider at the top than the base [...] Like most of my fellow Brits, I'd never seen it before until it was handed to me sideways by which time I had a 50/50 chance of getting it right." Coincidentally, Elliott had previously co-owned a Sheffield sports bar with Tim Cranston, a Canadian ice hockey player for the local Steelers.


title: Joe Elliott

text: In 2010, Elliott criticised the British music press, which he accused of ignoring his band and narrowing popular taste:


title: Joe Elliott

text: Before a July 2019 show in Hamilton, Ontario, Elliott was recorded on video saying that the city's FirstOntario Centre "stinks like 10,000 asses". The video surfaced in January 2020.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Uncle Buck is a 1989 American comedy film written, directed by John Hughes, and starring John Candy and Amy Madigan with supporting roles by Jean Louisa Kelly (in her film debut), Macaulay Culkin, Gaby Hoffmann, Garrett M. Brown and Elaine Bromka. The film tells the story of a bachelor who babysits his brother's rebellious teenage daughter and her younger brother and sister while the parents are away.


title: Uncle Buck

text: "Uncle Buck" was released in theaters on August 16, 1989, by Universal Pictures and grossed $79.2 million against a $15 million budget. The film was met with mixed reviews.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Bob and Cindy Russell and their three children, teen Tia, 8-year-old Miles, and 6-year-old Maizy, have recently moved from Indianapolis to the Chicago suburbs due to Bob's promotion.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Bob's brother Buck, on the other hand, lives in a small apartment in Wrigleyville with no responsibilities. He drinks, smokes, has rarely held down a job, and drives a dilapidated car. Buck's girlfriend of eight years, Chanice, wants to get married and start a family, but Buck is resistant to change. To appease her, he grudgingly agreed to work at her tire shop.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Cindy's aunt in Indianapolis calls at midnight, informing them that her father has had a heart attack. So Bob and Cindy want to leave immediately to be with him. When Tia hears the news, bitter about being forced to move, blames Cindy saying she had abandoned her father. Bob suggests asking Buck to come and watch the children, to which Cindy objects as she considers him to be unsuitable.


title: Uncle Buck

text: As neither parent finds another alternative, they end up calling Buck. He cheerfully accepts then, when he informs Chanice that he cannot start the job yet due to the family emergency, she assumes Buck is lying to get out of work.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Upon arriving, Buck deals with Cindy's coldness and finds himself cropped out of Bob and Cindy's wedding picture. Nevertheless, he quickly befriends Miles and Maizy, but Tia is brash and hostile as they engage in a battle of wills. When Buck meets her boyfriend Bug, he warns her that he is only interested in one thing and repeatedly thwarts her plans to sneak off with him.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Over the next few days, Buck takes the kids bowling, makes enormous pancakes for Miles' birthday, removes the drunk party clown from the property, berates Maisy's school's assistant principal for criticizing her behavior in class, and microwaves the laundry when the washing machine does not work.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Eventually, Tia exacts revenge on Buck for meddling in her relationship by interfering in his. She tricks Chanice into thinking that he is cheating on her with a neighbor named Marcie. The next day, Chanice comes over to confront Buck about what she heard, but is furious to find Buck dancing with Marcie in the living room, so she dumps him.


title: Uncle Buck

text: The following weekend, concerned after Tia sneaks out to a party, Buck decides to find her rather than go to the track for a sure win. He begs Chanice to watch Miles and Maizy as he searches for Tia.


title: Uncle Buck

text: At the party, believing Bug is taking advantage of her in a bedroom, Buck forces the door open by drilling out the lock but walks in on Bug with another girl. Finding Tia wandering the streets, she tearfully apologizes to him and acknowledges he was right about Bug. Buck then reveals that he is bound and gagged, in the trunk of his car. After intimidating him, Buck lets him out to apologize to her. When Bug is finally released, he threatens to sue Buck and retracts his apology, but flees in fear after Buck strikes him with a golf ball.


title: Uncle Buck

text: At home, Tia helps Buck reconcile with Chanice by admitting her lie and telling her that Buck would be a good husband and father. Buck also agrees to start his job at the garage, and he and Chanice reunite.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Cindy's father recovers and she and Bob return home from Indianapolis. Upon entering the house, Tia surprises her mother with a hug. The entire Russell family says farewell to Buck and Chanice as they leave for Chicago, with Buck and Tia exchanging a loving wave goodbye.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Additional voices by Granville Ames, Patricia Arquette, Jack Blessing, Garin Bouble, Ramey Ellis, Leigh French, Tim Hoskins, Laura Jacoby, Todd Larson, Devon Odessa, Julie Payne, and Arnold F. Turner.


title: Uncle Buck

text: The film was the first one directed, written, and produced by John Hughes under a multi-picture agreement deal with Universal. Filming began on January 4, 1989, in Chicago. The company decided to keep the production facilities and locations as close as possible. The vacant New Trier High School in Northfield, Illinois, was chosen for the production facility. Three of its gyms were converted into sound stages on which several sets were constructed including the two-leveled interior of the Russell House, Buck's bedroom, and smaller sets. The school was also equipped to suit the needs of the cast and crew behind-the-scenes, classrooms for the young actors, offices, dressing rooms, wardrobe department, editing facilities, a special effects shop, equipment storage areas, and a projection booth. Production designer John Corso began designing the sets in October 1988 and within seven weeks his construction crew of twelve carpenters and five painters began work on the two levels of the Russell house. The elementary school corridor, the boys' restroom, the principal's office, and a classroom were filmed at Wilmette's Romona Elementary School. A colonial-style house in Evanston was chosen for the exterior of the Russell house. The exteriors and practical locations were shot in Chicago, Cicero, Skokie, Northbrook, Wilmette, Winnetka, Glencoe, and Riverwoods.


title: Uncle Buck

text: The film earned $8.8 million on its opening weekend in 1,804 theaters and was placed No. 1 at the box office. The film stayed in first place for three more weeks before being bumped down to second by "Sea of Love". Its US earnings were 18th in 1989, and the film has earned nearly $80 million worldwide since its release.


title: Uncle Buck

text: Upon release, the film received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes has given it a "Fresh" score of 62%, based on 26 reviews, with an average rating of 5.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads: ""Uncle Buck" has its ups and downs, but there's undeniable comedic magic that comes from uniting John Hughes, John Candy, and a house full of precocious kids." On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 51 out of 100 based on 12 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert of "The Chicago Sun-Times" gave the movie 1.5 stars out of a possible 4, writing that "Uncle Buck" was unusually bitter and angry for a Hughes movie: "...Hughes is usually the master of the right note, the right line of dialogue, and this time there's an uncomfortable undercurrent in the material."


title: Uncle Buck

text: A television series was broadcast on CBS in 1990. It starred Kevin Meaney as Buck, a slob who drinks and smokes. When Bob and Cindy die in a car accident, he is named as the guardian of Tia, Miles, and Maizy. The show was not received well by TV critics. After it was moved to Friday, in an attempt by CBS to establish a comedy night there, its ratings quickly plummeted and it was cancelled.


title: Uncle Buck

text: In June 2016, ABC premiered a second television adaptation featuring an African-American cast with Mike Epps in the title role, James Lesure as his brother, and Nia Long as Buck's sister-in-law. It suffered a similar fate as the previous TV adaptation, as it was poorly received by critics and then canceled after only eight episodes.


title: Uncle Buck

text: The film was released on VHS and Laserdisc in 1989, and on DVD in 1998 and 2003. On August 26, 2008, it appeared on the DVD box-set "John Candy Comedy Favourites Collection", along with "The Great Outdoors" (1988) and "Going Berserk" (1983). In 2011, it was released on Blu-ray Disc for the first time on February 8, and released again on June 28, on Blu-ray with a DVD and a digital copy.


title: Learning management system

text: A learning management system (LMS) is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation, and delivery of educational courses, training programs, materials or learning and development programs. The learning management system concept emerged directly from e-Learning. Learning management systems make up the largest segment of the learning system market. The first introduction of the LMS was in the late 1990s. Learning management systems have faced a massive growth in usage due to the emphasis on remote learning during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Learning management system

text: Learning management systems were designed to identify training and learning gaps, using analytical data and reporting. LMSs are focused on online learning delivery but support a range of uses, acting as a platform for online content, including courses, both asynchronous based and synchronous based. In the higher education space, an LMS may offer classroom management for instructor-led training or a flipped classroom. Modern LMSs include intelligent algorithms to make automated recommendations for courses based on a user's skill profile as well as extract metadata from learning materials to make such recommendations even more accurate.


title: Learning management system

text: An LMS delivers and manages all types of content, including video, courses, workshops and documents. In the education and higher education markets, an LMS will include a variety of functionality that is similar to corporate but will have features such as rubrics, teacher and instructor-facilitated learning, a discussion board, and often the use of a syllabus. A syllabus is rarely a feature in the corporate LMS, although courses may start with heading-level index to give learners an overview of topics covered.


title: Learning management system

text: The first LMS was created in 1924 when Sidney Pressey invented the first ‘teaching machine’. This machine similar to a type writer with the window showing the questions. From then on continuous technological development has contributed to vast changes to LMS with the latest update in 2012 where the LMS is hosted in a cloud, hence freeing companies from the burden of maintaining in-house systems.


title: Learning management system

text: The first known document of correspondence teaching dates back to 1723, through the advertisement in the "Boston Gazette" of Caleb Phillips, professor of shorthand, offering teaching materials and tutorials. The first testimony of a bi-directional communication organized correspondence course comes from England, in 1840, when Isaac Pitman initiated a shorthand course, wherein he sent a passage of the Bible to students, who would send it back in full transcription. The success of the course resulted in the foundation of the phonographic correspondence society in 1843. The pioneering milestone in distance language teaching was in 1856 by Charles Toussaint and Gustav Langenscheidt, who began the first European institution of distance learning. This is the first known instance of the use of materials for independent language study.


title: Learning management system

text: The concept of e-learning began developing in the early 20th century, marked by the appearance of audio-video communication systems used for remote teaching. In 1909, E.M. Forster published his story 'The Machine Stops' and explained the benefits of using audio communication to deliver lectures to remote audiences.


title: Learning management system

text: In 1924, Sidney L. Pressey developed the first teaching machine which offered multiple types of practical exercises and question formats. Nine years later, University of Alberta's Professor M.E. Zerte transformed this machine into a problem cylinder able to compare problems and solutions.


title: Learning management system

text: This, in a sense, was "multimedia", because it made use of several media formats to reach students and provide instruction. Later, printed materials would be joined by telephone, radio broadcasts, TV broadcasts, audio, and videotapes.


title: Learning management system

text: The earliest networked learning system was the Plato Learning Management system (PLM) developed in the 1970s by Control Data Corporation.


title: Learning management system

text: In the 1980s, modern telecommunications started to be used in education. Computers became prominent in the daily use of higher education institutions, as well as instruments to student learning. Computer aided teaching aimed to integrate technical and educational means. The trend then shifted to video communication, as a result of which Houston University decided to hold telecast classes to their students for approximately 13–15 hours a week. The classes took place in 1953, while in 1956, Robin McKinnon Wood and Gordon Pask released the first adaptive teaching system for corporate environments SAKI. The idea of automating teaching operations also inspired the University of Illinois experts to develop their Programmed Logic for Automated Teaching Operations (PLATO) which enabled users to exchange content regardless of their location. In the period between 1970 and 1980, educational venues were rapidly considering the idea of computerizing courses, including the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute from California that introduced the first accredited online-taught degree.


title: Learning management system

text: The history of the application of computers to education is filled with broadly descriptive terms such as computer-managed instruction (CMI), and integrated learning systems (ILS), computer-based instruction (CBI), computer-assisted instruction (CAI), and computer-assisted learning (CAL). These terms describe drill-and-practice programs, more sophisticated tutorials, and more individualized instruction, respectively. The term is currently used to describe a number of different educational computer applications. FirstClass by SoftArc, used by the United Kingdom's Open University in the 1990s and 2000s to deliver online learning across Europe, was one of the earliest internet-based LMSs.


title: Learning management system

text: The first fully-featured Learning Management System (LMS) was called "EKKO", developed and released by Norway's NKI Distance Education Network in 1991. Three years later, New Brunswick's NB Learning Network presented a similar system designed for DOS-based teaching, and devoted exclusively to business learners.


title: Learning management system

text: An LMS can be either hosted locally or by a vendor. A vendor-hosted cloud system tends to follow a SaaS (software as a service) model. All data in a vendor-hosted system is housed by the supplier and accessed by users through the internet, on a computer or mobile device. Vendor-hosted systems are typically easier to use and require less technical expertise. An LMS that is locally hosted sees all data pertaining to the LMS hosted internally on the users′ internal servers. Locally hosted LMS software will often be open-source, meaning users will acquire (either through payment or free of charge) the LMS software and its code. With this, the user is able to modify and maintain the software through an internal team. Individuals and smaller organizations tend to stick with cloud-based systems due to the cost of internal hosting and maintenance.


title: Learning management system

text: There are a variety of integration strategies for embedding content into LMSs, including AICC, xAPI (also called 'Tin Can'), SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) and LTI (Learning Tools Interoperability).


title: Learning management system

text: Through an LMS, teachers may create and integrate course materials, articulate learning goals, align content and assessments, track studying progress, and create customized tests for students. An LMS allows the communication of learning objectives, and organize learning timelines. An LMS perk is that it delivers learning content and tools straight to learners, and assessment can be automated. It can also reach marginalized groups through special settings. Such systems have built-in customizable features including assessment and tracking. Thus, learners can see in real time their progress and instructors can monitor and communicate the effectiveness of learning. One of the most important features of LMS is trying to create a streamline communication between learners and instructors. Such systems, besides facilitating online learning, tracking learning progress, providing digital learning tools, managing communication, and maybe selling content, may be used to provide different communication features.


title: Learning management system

text: Learning management systems may be used to create professionally structured course content. The teacher can add, text, images, videos, pdfs, tables, links and text formatting, interactive tests, slideshows etc. Moreover, they can create different types of users, such as teachers, students, parents, visitors and editors (hierarchies). It helps control which content a student can access, track studying progress and engage student with contact tools. Teachers can manage courses and modules, enroll students or set up self-enrollment.


title: Learning management system

text: An LMS can enable instructors to create automated assessments and assignments for learners, which are accessible and submitted online. Most platforms allow a variety of different question types such as: one/multi-line answer; multiple choice answer; ordering; free text; matching; essay; true or false/yes or no; fill in the gaps; agreement scale and offline tasks.


title: Learning management system

text: Students' exchange of feedback both with teachers and their peers is possible through LMS. Teachers may create discussion groups to allow students feedback, share their knowledge on topics and increase the interaction in course. Students' feedback is an instrument which help teachers to improve their work, helps identify what to add or remove from a course, and ensures students feel comfortable and included.


title: Learning management system

text: Students can either learn asynchronously (on demand, self-paced) through course content such as pre-recorded videos, PDF, SCORM (Sharable Content Object Reference Model) or they can undertake synchronous learning through mediums such as Webinars.


title: Learning management system

text: Learning management systems will often incorporate dashboards to track student or user progress. They can then report on key items such as completion rates, attendance data and success likelihood. Utilising these metrics can help facilitators better understand gaps in user knowledge.


title: Learning management system

text: In the relatively new LMS market, commercial providers for corporate applications and education range from new entrants to those that entered the market in 1990. In addition to commercial packages, many open-source solutions are available.


title: Learning management system

text: In the U.S. higher education market as of spring 2021, the top three LMSs by a number of institutions were Canvas (38%), Blackboard (25%), and Moodle (15%). Worldwide, the picture was different, with Moodle having over 50% of the market share in Europe, Latin America, and Oceania.


title: Learning management system

text: Many users of LMSs use an authoring tool to create content, which is then hosted on an LMS. In some cases, LMSs that do use a standard include a primitive authoring tool for basic content manipulation. More modern systems, in particular SaaS solutions have decided not to adopt a standard and have rich course authoring tools. There are several standards for creating and integrating complex content into an LMS, including AICC, SCORM, xAPI, and Learning Tools Interoperability. However, using SCORM or an alternative standardized course protocol is not always required and can be restrictive when used unnecessarily.


title: Learning management system

text: Evaluation of LMSs is a complex task and significant research supports different forms of evaluation, including iterative processes where students' experiences and approaches to learning are evaluated.


title: Learning management system

text: The suspension of in-school learning caused by the COVID-19 pandemic started a dramatic shift in the way teachers and students at all levels interact with each other and learning materials. UNESCO estimated that as of May 25, 2020, approximately 990,324,537 learners, or  56.6% of the total enrolled students have been affected by COVID-19 related school closures. In many countries, online education through the use of Learning Management Systems became the focal point of teaching and learning. For example, statistics taken from a university’s LMS during the initial school closure period (March to June 2020) indicate that student submissions and activity nearly doubled from pre-pandemic usage levels.


title: Learning management system

text: Student satisfaction with LMS usage during this period is closely tied to the information quality contained within LMS modules and maintaining student self-efficacy. From the teacher perspective, a study of K-12 teachers in Finland reported high levels of acceptance for LMS technology, however, training support and developing methods for maintaining student engagement are key to long-term success. In developing nations, the transition to LMS usage faced many challenges, which included a lower number of colleges and universities using LMSs before the pandemic, technological infrastructure limitations, and negative attitudes toward technology amongst users.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: ' ("from the earlier") and ' ("from the later") are Latin phrases used in philosophy to distinguish types of knowledge, justification, or argument by their reliance on empirical evidence or experience. knowledge is independent from current experience (e.g., as part of a new study). Examples include mathematics, tautologies, and deduction from pure reason. knowledge depends on empirical evidence. Examples include most fields of science and aspects of personal knowledge.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The terms originate from the analytic methods found in "Organon", a collection of works by Aristotle. Prior analytics () is about deductive logic, which comes from definitions and first principles. Posterior analytics () is about inductive logic, which comes from observational evidence.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Both terms appear in Euclid's "Elements" and were popularized by Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason", an influential work in the history of philosophy. Both terms are primarily used as modifiers to the noun "knowledge" (i.e. " knowledge"). can be used to modify other nouns such as "truth". Philosophers may use "apriority", "apriorist", and "aprioricity" as nouns referring to the quality of being .


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Consider the proposition: "If George V reigned at least four days, then he reigned more than three days." This is something that one knows "a priori" because it expresses a statement that one can derive by reason alone.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Consider the proposition: "George V reigned from 1910 to 1936." This is something that (if true) one must come to know "a posteriori" because it expresses an empirical fact unknowable by reason alone.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Several philosophers, in reaction to Immanuel Kant, sought to explain "a priori" knowledge without appealing to, as Paul Boghossian explains, "a special faculty [intution]…that has never been described in satisfactory terms." One theory, popular among the logical positivists of the early 20th century, is what Boghossian calls the "analytic explanation of the a priori." The distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions was first introduced by Kant. While his original distinction was primarily drawn in terms of conceptual containment, the contemporary version of such distinction primarily involves, as American philosopher W. V. O. Quine put it, the notions of "true by virtue of meanings and independently of fact."


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Analytic propositions are thought to be true in virtue of their meaning alone, while "a posteriori" propositions are thought to be true in virtue of their meaning "and" of certain facts about the world. According to the analytic explanation of the "a priori", all "a priori" knowledge is analytic; so "a priori" knowledge need not require a special faculty of pure intuition, since it can be accounted for simply by one's ability to understand the meaning of the proposition in question. More simply, proponents of this explanation claimed to have reduced a dubious metaphysical faculty of pure reason to a legitimate linguistic notion of analyticity.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The analytic explanation of "a priori" knowledge has undergone several criticisms. Most notably, Quine argues that the analytic–synthetic distinction is illegitimate:But for all its a priori reasonableness, a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn. That there is such a distinction to be drawn at all is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith.While the soundness of Quine's critique is highly disputed, it had a powerful effect on the project of explaining the "a priori" in terms of the analytic.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The metaphysical distinction between "necessary" and "contingent" truths has also been related to "a priori" and "a posteriori" knowledge.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: A proposition that is necessarily true is one in which its negation is self-contradictory. Furthermore, it is said to be true in every possible world. For example, considering the proposition "all bachelors are unmarried:" its negation (i.e. the proposition that some bachelors are married) is incoherent due to the concept of being unmarried (or the meaning of the word "unmarried") being tied to part of the concept of being a bachelor (or part of the definition of the word "bachelor"). To the extent that contradictions are impossible, self-contradictory propositions are necessarily false as it is impossible for them to be true. The negation of a self-contradictory proposition is, therefore, supposed to be necessarily true.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: By contrast, a proposition that is contingently true is one in which its negation is not self-contradictory. Thus, it is said "not" to be true in every possible world. As Jason Baehr suggests, it seems plausible that all necessary propositions are known "a priori", because "[s]ense experience can tell us only about the actual world and hence about what is the case; it can say nothing about what must or must not be the case."


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Following Kant, some philosophers have considered the relationship between "aprioricity", "analyticity", and "necessity" to be extremely close. According to Jerry Fodor, "positivism, in particular, took it for granted that "a priori" truths must be necessary." However, since Kant, the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions has slightly changed. Analytic propositions were largely taken to be "true by virtue of meanings and independently of fact," while synthetic propositions were not—one must conduct some sort of empirical investigation, looking to the world, to determine the truth-value of synthetic propositions.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Aprioricity, analyticity, and necessity have since been more clearly separated from each other. American philosopher Saul Kripke (1972), for example, provides strong arguments against this position, whereby he contends that there are necessary "a posteriori" truths. For example, the proposition that water is HO (if it is true): According to Kripke, this statement is both "necessarily true", because water and HO are the same thing, they are identical in every possible world, and truths of identity are logically necessary; and "a posteriori", because it is known only through empirical investigation. Following such considerations of Kripke and others (see Hilary Putnam), philosophers tend to distinguish the notion of aprioricity more clearly from that of necessity and analyticity.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Kripke's definitions of these terms, however, diverge in subtle ways from those of Kant. Taking these differences into account, Kripke's controversial analysis of naming as contingent and "a priori" would, according to Stephen Palmquist, best fit into Kant's epistemological framework by calling it "analytic a posteriori." Aaron Sloman presented a brief defence of Kant's three distinctions (analytic/synthetic, apriori/empirical, and necessary/contingent), in that it did not assume "possible world semantics" for the third distinction, merely that some part of "this" world might have been different.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The relationship between aprioricity, necessity, and analyticity is not found to be easy to discern. However, most philosophers at least seem to agree that while the various distinctions may overlap, the notions are clearly not identical: the "a priori"/"a posteriori" distinction is epistemological; the analytic/synthetic distinction is linguistic; and the necessary/contingent distinction is metaphysical.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The term "a priori" is Latin for 'from what comes before' (or, less literally, 'from first principles, before experience'). In contrast, the term "a posteriori" is Latin for 'from what comes later' (or 'after experience').


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: They appear in Latin translations of Euclid's "Elements", a work widely considered during the early European modern period as the model for precise thinking.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: An early philosophical use of what might be considered a notion of "a priori" knowledge (though not called by that name) is Plato's "theory of recollection", related in the dialogue "Meno", according to which something like "a priori" knowledge is knowledge inherent, intrinsic in the human mind.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The early modern Thomistic philosopher John Sergeant differentiates the terms by the direction of inference regarding proper causes and effects. To demonstrate something "a priori" is to "Demonstrate Proper Effects from Proper Efficient Causes" and likewise to demonstrate "a posteriori" is to demonstrate "Proper Efficient Causes from Proper Effects", according to his 1696 work "The Method to Science" Book III, Lesson IV, Section 7.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: G. W. Leibniz introduced a distinction between "a priori" and "a posteriori" criteria for the possibility of a notion in his (1684) short treatise "Meditations on Knowledge, Truth, and Ideas". "A priori" and "a posteriori" arguments for the existence of God appear in his "Monadology" (1714).


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: George Berkeley outlined the distinction in his 1710 work "A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge" (para. XXI).


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: The 18th-century German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1781) advocated a blend of rationalist and empiricist theories. Kant says, "Although all our cognition begins with experience, it does not follow that it arises from [is caused by] experience." According to Kant, "a priori" cognition is transcendental, or based on the "form" of all possible experience, while "a posteriori" cognition is empirical, based on the "content" of experience: It is quite possible that our empirical knowledge is a compound of that which we receive through impressions, and that which the faculty of cognition supplies from itself sensuous impressions [sense data] giving merely the "occasion" [opportunity for a cause to produce its effect]. Contrary to contemporary usages of the term, Kant believes that "a priori" knowledge is not entirely independent of the content of experience. Unlike the rationalists, Kant thinks that "a priori" cognition, in its pure form, that is without the admixture of any empirical content, is limited to the deduction of the conditions of possible experience. These "a priori", or transcendental conditions, are seated in one's cognitive faculties, and are not provided by experience in general or any experience in particular (although an argument exists that "a priori" intuitions can be "triggered" by experience).


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: Kant nominated and explored the possibility of a transcendental logic with which to consider the deduction of the "a priori" in its pure form. Space, time and causality are considered pure "a priori" intuitions. Kant reasoned that the pure "a priori" intuitions are established via his transcendental aesthetic and transcendental logic. He claimed that the human subject would not have the kind of experience that it has were these "a priori" forms not in some way constitutive of him as a human subject. For instance, a person would not experience the world as an orderly, rule-governed place unless time, space and causality were determinant functions in the form of perceptual faculties, i. e., there can be no experience in general without space, time or causality as particular determinants thereon. The claim is more formally known as Kant's transcendental deduction and it is the central argument of his major work, the "Critique of Pure Reason". The transcendental deduction argues that time, space and causality are ideal as much as real. In consideration of a possible logic of the "a priori", this most famous of Kant's deductions has made the successful attempt in the case for the fact of subjectivity, what constitutes subjectivity and what relation it holds with objectivity and the empirical.


title: A priori and a posteriori

text: After Kant's death, a number of philosophers saw themselves as correcting and expanding his philosophy, leading to the various forms of German Idealism. One of these philosophers was Johann Fichte. His student (and critic), Arthur Schopenhauer, accused him of rejecting the distinction between "a priori" and "a posteriori" knowledge:


title: Dragonball Evolution

text: Dragonball Evolution is a 2009 American science fantasy superhero-martial arts film directed by James Wong, produced by Stephen Chow, and written by Ben Ramsey. It is based on the Japanese "Dragon Ball" manga series created by Akira Toriyama, and stars Justin Chatwin, Emmy Rossum, James Marsters, Jamie Chung, Chow Yun-fat, Joon Park, and Eriko Tamura. In "Dragonball Evolution", the young Goku reveals his past and sets out to fight the evil alien warlord Lord Piccolo who wishes to gain the powerful Dragon Balls and use them to take over Earth.