title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill scored Australia's only goal in their opening group match against Chile on 13 June 2014. He joined Portuguese star Cristiano Ronaldo, Mexican defender Rafael Márquez, Dutch players Robin van Persie and Arjen Robben, German player Miroslav Klose, and American Clint Dempsey as the only players to score at the 2006, 2010 and 2014 FIFA World Cups.


title: Tim Cahill

text: On 18 June, Cahill scored Australia's first goal against the Netherlands in their 3–2 defeat; a strike which has been considered by some experts as one of the best goals ever scored in a World Cup. Cahill's goal was later nominated for the best World Cup goal in the tournament but fell short to the eventual winner James Rodríguez with his goal against Uruguay.


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill was selected under manager Ange Postecoglou as part of his squad which competed in the 2015 AFC Asian Cup. A campaign in which Australia was the host nation with matches hosted across four cities including Canberra, Brisbane, Melbourne and Newcastle, Cahill competed well in what became his nation's inaugural Asian Cup title. He scored three goals in the tournament.


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill was chosen to start against Jordan in a top-of-the-group clash, in which he notched a brace on 29 March 2016. Cahill scored the winning goal for the Socceroos against the United Arab Emirates in a 1–0 away victory. He helped Australia reach the inter-confederation play-offs by scoring two goals, including the winning goal in the second half of extra time (in the 19th minute of extra time) in their 2–1 second leg victory against Syria (3–2 on aggregate). On 15 November 2017, he started in the 3–1 win over Honduras which saw Australia clinch a spot in the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Tim Cahill

text: In May 2018, Cahill was named in the World Cup squad by coach Bert van Marwijk and made a single appearance in the tournament, coming off the bench in the 63rd minute of the 2–0 loss against Peru.


title: Tim Cahill

text: On 16 July 2018, Cahill announced his retirement from international football, subsequently overturned with the decision to participate in one final home friendly against Lebanon in November 2018. He retired with 50 goals (a national team record) in 108 games (the second highest, and just three behind Mark Schwarzer).


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill became involved with two football academies in 2009, one based in Wollongong, Australia in partnership with Wollongong Police and Community Youth Club, and another in partnership with 'Elite Sporting Academy' in Dubai.


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill has featured in EA Sports' "FIFA" video game series, and has featured as a cover star on several editions of the game.


title: Tim Cahill

text: In 2010 Cahill married his childhood sweetheart Rebekah Greenhill in Las Vegas, en route to Sydney. The couple have four children, Kyah (son, born 2003), Shae (son, born 26 April 2005), Sienna (daughter, born 2007) and Cruz (son, born 2 September 2012). As of 2015, the Cahills owned homes in Sydney, Florida, New York, Shanghai, and England.


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill's business career is diverse across a range of industries. BRW quoted his net worth to be $28 million in 2014.


title: Tim Cahill

text: Cahill was officially announced as an ambassador for Australia's Securities Broker ACY Securities on 30 October 2019.


title: Tim Cahill

text: In the 2021 Australia Day Honours Cahill was appointed an Officer of the Order of Australia for " distinguished service to football as an elite player at the national and international level, and to charitable and sports organisations ".


title: Tim Cahill

text: In June 2013, the Cahill Expressway in Sydney was temporarily renamed the Tim Cahill Expressway in his honour ahead of the Socceroos' 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification match against Iraq. Football Federation Australia representatives suggested the name change should be made permanently should Cahill score the goal that led to Australia's qualification for the 2014 World Cup.


title: Karst

text: Karst is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite, and gypsum. It is characterized by underground drainage systems with sinkholes and caves. It has also been documented for more weathering-resistant rocks, such as quartzite, given the right conditions. Subterranean drainage may limit surface water, with few to no rivers or lakes. However, in regions where the dissolved bedrock is covered (perhaps by debris) or confined by one or more superimposed non-soluble rock strata, distinctive karst features may occur only at subsurface levels and can be totally missing above ground.


title: Karst

text: The study of "paleokarst" (buried karst in the stratigraphic column) is important in petroleum geology because as much as 50% of the world's hydrocarbon reserves are hosted in carbonate rock, and much of this is found in porous karst systems.


title: Karst

text: The English word "karst" was borrowed from German in the late 19th century, which entered German much earlier. According to one interpretation, the term is derived from the German name for a number of geological, geomorphological, and hydrological features found within the range of the Dinaric Alps. The range stretches from the northeastern corner of Italy above the city of Trieste, across the Balkan peninsula along the coast of the eastern Adriatic to Kosovo and North Macedonia, where the massif of the Šar Mountains begins. The karst zone is at the northwesternmost section, described in early topographical research as a plateau between Italy and Slovenia.


title: Karst

text: In the local South Slavic languages, all variations of the word are derived from a Romanized Illyrian base (yielding , ), later metathesized from the reconstructed form into forms such as and , . Languages preserving the older, non-metathesized form include , , and ; the lack of metathesis precludes borrowing from any of the South Slavic languages, specifically Slovene. The Slovene common noun was first attested in the 18th century, and the adjective form in the 16th century. As a proper noun, the Slovene form was first attested in 1177.


title: Karst

text: Ultimately, the word is of Mediterranean origin. It has been suggested that the word may derive from the Proto-Indo-European root "" 'rock'. The name may also be connected to the oronym "Kar(u)sádios oros" cited by Ptolemy, and perhaps also to Latin .


title: Karst

text: Johann Weikhard von Valvasor, a pioneer of the study of karst in Slovenia and a fellow of the Royal Society for Improving Natural Knowledge, London, introduced the word "karst" to European scholars in 1689, describing the phenomenon of underground flows of rivers in his account of Lake Cerknica.


title: Karst

text: Jovan Cvijić greatly advanced the knowledge of karst regions, so much that he became known as the "father of karst geomorphology". Primarily discussing the karstic regions of the Balkans, Cvijić's 1893 publication "Das Karstphänomen" describes landforms such as karren, dolines and poljes. In a 1918 publication, Cvijić proposed a cyclical model for karstic landscape development. Karst hydrology emerged as a discipline in the late 1950s and early 1960s in France. Previously, the activities of cave explorers, called speleologists, had been dismissed as more of a sport than a science, meaning that underground karstic caves and their associated watercourses were, from a scientific perspective, understudied.


title: Karst

text: Karst is most strongly developed in dense carbonate rock, such as limestone, that is thinly bedded and highly fractured. Karst is not typically well developed in chalk, because chalk is highly porous rather than dense, so the flow of groundwater is not concentrated along fractures. Karst is also most strongly developed where the water table is relatively low, such as in uplands with entrenched valleys, and where rainfall is moderate to heavy. This contributes to rapid downward movement of groundwater, which promotes dissolution of the bedrock, whereas standing groundwater becomes saturated with carbonate minerals and ceases to dissolve the bedrock.


title: Karst

text: The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes through Earth's atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO), which readily dissolves in the water. Once the rain reaches the ground, it may pass through soil that provides additional CO produced by soil respiration. Some of the dissolved carbon dioxide reacts with the water to form a weak carbonic acid solution, which dissolves calcium carbonate. The primary reaction sequence in limestone dissolution is the following:


title: Karst

text: In very rare conditions, oxidation can play a role. Oxidation played a major role in the formation of ancient Lechuguilla Cave in the US state of New Mexico and is presently active in the Frasassi Caves of Italy. The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation. As oxygen (O)-rich surface waters seep into deep anoxic karst systems, they bring oxygen, which reacts with sulfide present in the system (pyrite or hydrogen sulfide) to form sulfuric acid (HSO). Sulfuric acid then reacts with calcium carbonate, causing increased erosion within the limestone formation. This chain of reactions is:


title: Karst

text: The karstification of a landscape may result in a variety of large- or small-scale features both on the surface and beneath. On exposed surfaces, small features may include solution flutes (or rillenkarren), runnels, limestone pavement (clints and grikes), kamenitzas collectively called karren or lapiez. Medium-sized surface features may include sinkholes or cenotes (closed basins), vertical shafts, foibe (inverted funnel shaped sinkholes), disappearing streams, and reappearing springs. Large-scale features may include limestone pavements, poljes, and karst valleys. Mature karst landscapes, where more bedrock has been removed than remains, may result in karst towers, or haystack/eggbox landscapes. Beneath the surface, complex underground drainage systems (such as karst aquifers) and extensive caves and cavern systems may form.


title: Karst

text: Erosion along limestone shores, notably in the tropics, produces karst topography that includes a sharp makatea surface above the normal reach of the sea, and undercuts that are mostly the result of biological activity or bioerosion at or a little above mean sea level. Some of the most dramatic of these formations can be seen in Thailand's Phangnga Bay and at Halong Bay in Vietnam.


title: Karst

text: Calcium carbonate dissolved into water may precipitate out where the water discharges some of its dissolved carbon dioxide. Rivers which emerge from springs may produce tufa terraces, consisting of layers of calcite deposited over extended periods of time. In caves, a variety of features collectively called speleothems are formed by deposition of calcium carbonate and other dissolved minerals.


title: Karst

text: Farming in karst areas must take into account the lack of surface water. The soils may be fertile enough, and rainfall may be adequate, but rainwater quickly moves through the crevices into the ground, sometimes leaving the surface soil parched between rains.


title: Karst

text: A karst fenster (karst window) occurs when an underground stream emerges onto the surface between layers of rock, cascades some distance, and then disappears back down, often into a sinkhole. Rivers in karst areas may disappear underground a number of times and spring up again in different places, usually under a different name (like Ljubljanica, the river of seven names). An example of this is the Popo Agie River in Fremont County, Wyoming. At a site simply named "The Sinks" in Sinks Canyon State Park, the river flows into a cave in a formation known as the Madison Limestone and then rises again down the canyon in a placid pool. A turlough is a unique type of seasonal lake found in Irish karst areas which are formed through the annual welling-up of water from the underground water system.Water supplies from wells in karst topography may be unsafe, as the water may have run unimpeded from a sinkhole in a cattle pasture, through a cave and to the well, bypassing the normal filtering that occurs in a porous aquifer. Karst formations are cavernous and therefore have high rates of permeability, resulting in reduced opportunity for contaminants to be filtered. Groundwater in karst areas is just as easily polluted as surface streams. Sinkholes have often been used as farmstead or community trash dumps. Overloaded or malfunctioning septic tanks in karst landscapes may dump raw sewage directly into underground channels. Geologists are concerned with these negative effects of human activity on karst hydrology which, , supplied about 25% of the global demand for drinkable water.


title: Karst

text: The karst topography also poses difficulties for human inhabitants. Sinkholes can develop gradually as surface openings enlarge, but progressive erosion is frequently unseen until the roof of a cavern suddenly collapses. Such events have swallowed homes, cattle, cars, and farm machinery. In the United States, sudden collapse of such a cavern-sinkhole swallowed part of the collection of the National Corvette Museum in Bowling Green, Kentucky in 2014.


title: Karst

text: Interstratal karst is a karstic landscape which is developed beneath a cover of insoluble rocks. Typically this will involve a cover of sandstone overlying limestone strata undergoing solution. In the United Kingdom for example extensive doline fields have developed at Cefn yr Ystrad, Mynydd Llangatwg and Mynydd Llangynidr in South Wales across a cover of Twrch Sandstone which overlies concealed Carboniferous Limestone, the last-named having been declared a site of special scientific interest in respect of it.


title: Karst

text: Kegelkarst is a type of tropical karst terrain with numerous cone-like hills, formed by cockpits, mogotes, and poljes and without strong fluvial erosion processes. This terrain is found in Cuba, Jamaica, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Puerto Rico, southern China, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.


title: Karst

text: Pseudokarsts are similar in form or appearance to karst features but are created by different mechanisms. Examples include lava caves and granite tors—for example, Labertouche Cave in Victoria, Australia—and paleocollapse features. Mud Caves are an example of pseudokarst.


title: Karst

text: Salt karst (or 'halite karst') is developed in areas where salt is undergoing solution underground. It can lead to surface depressions and collapses which present a geo-hazard.


title: Karst

text: Paleokarst or palaeokarst is a development of karst observed in geological history and preserved within the rock sequence, effectively a fossil karst. There are for example palaeokarstic surfaces exposed within the Clydach Valley Subgroup of the Carboniferous Limestone sequence of South Wales which developed as sub-aerial weathering of recently formed limestones took place during periods of non-deposition within the early part of the period. Sedimentation resumed and further limestone strata were deposited on an irregular karstic surface, the cycle recurring several times in connection with fluctuating sea levels over prolonged periods.


title: Karst

text: Karst areas tend to have unique types of forests. The karst terrain is difficult for humans to traverse, so that their ecosystems are often relatively undisturbed. The soil tends to have a high pH, which encourages growth of unusual species of orchids, palms, mangroves, and other plants.


title: Karst

text: The world's largest limestone karst is Australia's Nullarbor Plain. Slovenia has the world's highest risk of sinkholes, while the western Highland Rim in the eastern United States is at the second-highest risk of karst sinkholes.


title: Karst

text: The South China Karst in the provinces of Guizhou, Guangxi, and Yunnan provinces is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Charles Addams

text: Charles Samuel Addams (January 7, 1912 – September 29, 1988) was an American cartoonist known for his darkly humorous and macabre characters, signing the cartoons as Chas Addams. Some of his recurring characters became known as the Addams Family, and were subsequently popularized through various adaptations.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams was born in Westfield, New Jersey. The son of Grace M. (née Spear; 1879–1943) and Charles Huey Addams (1873–1932), a piano company executive who had studied to be an architect, he was known as "something of a rascal around the neighborhood" as childhood friends recalled. Addams was distantly related to U.S. presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams, despite the different spellings of their last names, and was a first cousin twice removed to noted social reformer Jane Addams.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams would enjoy the Presbyterian Cemetery on Mountain Avenue in Westfield as a child, where – according to author, and Addams expert Ron MacCloskey – he would wonder what it was like to be dead. In the cartoons, his ghoulish creations lived on Cemetery Ridge with a dreadful view.


title: Charles Addams

text: A house on Elm Street, and another on Dudley Avenue into which police once caught him breaking and entering, are said to be the inspiration for the Addams Family mansion in his cartoons. College Hall, the oldest building on the current campus of the University of Pennsylvania, where Addams studied, was also an inspiration for the mansion. One friend said of him: "His sense of humor was a little different from everybody else's." He was also artistically inclined, "drawing with a happy vengeance", according to a biographer.


title: Charles Addams

text: His father encouraged him to draw, and Addams did cartoons for the Westfield High School yearbook, "Weathervane". He attended Colgate University in 1929 and 1930. At the corners of West Kendrick and Maple Avenues in Hamilton, is another home, and myth, that may have inspired the Addams Family house. He also attended the University of Pennsylvania in 1930 and 1931. He then studied at the Grand Central School of Art in New York City in 1931 and 1932.


title: Charles Addams

text: Charles Addams joined the layout department of "True Detective" magazine in 1933, where he retouched photos of corpses to remove the blood for appearance alongside magazine stories. Addams complained: "A lot of those corpses were more interesting the way they were."


title: Charles Addams

text: His first drawing for "The New Yorker", a sketch of a window washer, ran February 6, 1932, and his cartoons ran regularly in the magazine from 1937, when he drew the first in the series that came to be called "The Addams Family", until his death. Addams remained a freelancer throughout that time.


title: Charles Addams

text: During World War II, Addams served at the Signal Corps Photographic Center in New York, where he made animated training films for the U.S. Army.


title: Charles Addams

text: Television producer David Levy approached Addams with an offer to create "The Addams Family" television series, with a little help from the humorist. Addams gave his characters names as well as qualities for actors to use in portrayals; the series ran on ABC from 1964 to 1966.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams regularly had cartoons in "The New Yorker", and he also created the syndicated single-panel comic "Out of This World" between 1955 and 1957. Collections of his work include "Drawn and Quartered" (1942) and "Monster Rally" (1950), the latter with a foreword by John O'Hara. One cartoon shows two men standing in a patent attorney's office; one points a bizarre gun out the window toward the street, saying: "Death ray, fiddlesticks! Why, it doesn't even slow them up!".


title: Charles Addams

text: "Dear Dead Days" (1959) is a scrapbook-like compendium of vintage images (and occasional pieces of text) that appealed to the author's sense of the grotesque, including Victorian woodcuts, vintage medicine-show advertisements, and a boyhood photograph of Francesco Lentini, who had three legs.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams drew more than 1,300 cartoons over the course of his life. Beyond "The New Yorker" pages, his cartoons appeared in "Collier's" and "TV Guide", as well as books, calendars, and other merchandise.


title: Charles Addams

text: The 1957 album "Ghost Ballads", featuring folk songs with supernatural themes by singer-guitarist Dean Gitter, was packaged with cover art by Addams depicting a haunted house.


title: Charles Addams

text: The Mystery Writers of America honored Addams with a Special Edgar Award in 1961 for his body of work. The films "The Old Dark House" (1963) and "Murder by Death" (1976) feature title sequences illustrated by Addams.


title: Charles Addams

text: In 1946, Addams met science-fiction writer Ray Bradbury after having drawn an illustration for "Mademoiselle" magazine's publication of Bradbury's short story "Homecoming", the first in a series of tales chronicling a family of Illinois vampires named the Elliotts. The pair became friends and planned to collaborate on a book of the Elliott Family's complete history with Bradbury writing and Addams providing the illustrations, but it never materialized. Bradbury's stories about the "Elliott Family" were finally anthologized in "From the Dust Returned" in October 2001, with a connecting narrative and an explanation of his work with Addams, and Addams's 1946 "Mademoiselle" illustration used for the book's cover jacket. Although Addams's own characters were well-established by the time of their initial encounter, in a 2001 interview, Bradbury stated: "[Addams] went his way and created the Addams Family, and I went my own way and created my family in this book."


title: Charles Addams

text: Janet Maslin, in a review of an Addams biography for "The New York Times", wrote: "Addams's persona sounds cooked up for the benefit of feature writers ... was at least partly a character contrived for the public eye," noting that one outré publicity photo showed the humorist wearing a suit of armor at home, "but the shelves behind him hold books about painting and antiques, as well as a novel by John Updike."


title: Charles Addams

text: Filmmaker Alfred Hitchcock was a friend of Addams, and owned two pieces of original Addams art. Hitchcock references Addams in his 1959 film "North by Northwest". During the auction scene, Cary Grant discovers two of his adversaries with someone who he also thinks is against him and says: "The three of you together. Now that's a picture only Charles Addams could draw."


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams met first wife Barbara Jean Day in late 1942. While she purportedly resembled his cartoon character Morticia Addams, the marriage ended eight years later after Addams declined to have children (she later married "New Yorker" colleague John Hersey, author of the book "Hiroshima").


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams married second wife Barbara Barb (Estelle B. Barb) in 1954. A practicing lawyer, she "combined Morticia-like looks with diabolical legal scheming," by which she wound up controlling "The Addams Family" television and film franchises and persuaded her husband to give away other legal rights. At one point, she got her husband to take out a US $100,000 insurance policy. Addams consulted a lawyer on the sly, who later humorously wrote: "I told him the last time I had word of such a move was in a picture called "Double Indemnity" starring Barbara Stanwyck, which I called to his attention." In the movie, Stanwyck's character plotted her husband's murder. The couple divorced in 1956.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams was "sociable and debonair". A biographer described him as being "a well-dressed, courtly man with silvery back-combed hair and a gentle manner, he bore no resemblance to a fiend". Figuratively a "ladykiller", Addams accompanied women such as Greta Garbo, Joan Fontaine, and Jacqueline Kennedy on social occasions. For about a year after the death of Nelson Rockefeller, Addams dated Megan Marshack, the aide who was with the former US vice president when he died.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams married his third and final wife Marilyn Matthews Miller, best known as "Tee" (1926–2002), in a pet cemetery. The Addamses moved to Sagaponack, New York in 1985, where they named their estate "The Swamp".


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams died on September 29, 1988, at the age of 76, at St. Clare's Hospital and Health Center in New York City, having suffered a heart attack after parking his automobile. An ambulance took him from his apartment to the hospital, where he died in the emergency room. As he had requested, a wake was held rather than a funeral; he had wished to be remembered as a "good cartoonist". In accordance with Addams's wishes, he was cremated, and his ashes were interred in the pet cemetery of "The Swamp" estate.


title: Charles Addams

text: The Charles Addams Fine Arts Hall in Philadelphia was named in his tribute by the University of Pennsylvania in 2001.


title: Charles Addams

text: On the occasion of his 100th birthday, January 7, 2012, Charles Addams was honored with a Google Doodle.


title: Charles Addams

text: On April 30, 2021, his macabre holiday illustration "Addams and Evil", a 1947 interior book cartoon from "The Addams Family Christmas", sold for $87,500, the author's world auction record, over seven times initial estimates.


title: Charles Addams

text: Addams also illustrated two books by other authors. First was "But Who Wakes the Bugler?" (Houghton & Mifflin, 1940) by Peter DeVries. The other was "Afternoon In the Attic" (Dodd, Mead, 1950) by John Kobler. He also provided the cover art for such books as "The Compleat Practical Joker" (Doubleday, 1953) by H. Allen Smith and "Here at The New Yorker" (Random House, 1975) by Brendan Gill.


title: 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification – AFC Third Round

text: The third round of AFC matches for the 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification was played from 2 September 2021 to 29 March 2022.


text: The twelve teams that advanced from the second round (the seven group winners excluding Qatar and the five best group runners-up) were divided into two groups of six teams to play home-and-away round-robin matches. The top two teams of each group qualified for the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and the two third-placed teams advanced to the fourth round. World Cup hosts Qatar won Group E in the second round (which meant they advanced to the 2023 AFC Asian Cup finals) but were not required to qualify for the World Cup.


text: The seeding for the draw was based on a special release of the FIFA Men's World Rankings for Asian teams on 18 June 2021 (shown in parentheses below).


text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Asia, FIFA announced on 12 August 2020 that the upcoming qualifying matches originally scheduled for 2020 were moved to 2021, and on 11 November, the AFC Competitions Committee also announced that the final round of the Asian qualifiers would begin in September 2021 and be finished by March 2022.


title: Doom (film)

text: Doom is a 2005 science fiction film directed by Andrzej Bartkowiak. Loosely based on the video game series of the same name by id Software, the film stars Karl Urban, Rosamund Pike, Razaaq Adoti, and Dwayne Johnson (credited as The Rock). In the film, marines are sent on a rescue mission to a facility on Mars, where they encounter demonic-like creatures.


title: Doom (film)

text: After film rights deals with Universal Pictures and Columbia Pictures expired, id Software signed a deal with Warner Bros. with the stipulation that the film would be greenlit within a year. Warner Bros. lost the rights, which were subsequently given back to Universal, which started production in 2004. The film was an international co-production of the United States, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, and Germany.


title: Doom (film)

text: "Doom" was theatrically released in the United States on October 21, 2005 to negative reviews. The film was a box office bomb, grossing $58.7 million worldwide against a production budget between $60–70 million. In 2019, Universal released a second live-action film direct-to-video titled "".


title: Doom (film)

text: In 2026, a wormhole portal, the Ark, to an ancient city on Mars is discovered deep below the Nevada desert. Twenty years later, the 85 personnel at the Union Aerospace Corporation (UAC) research facility on Mars are attacked by an unknown assailant. Following a distress call sent by Dr. Carmack, a squad of eight marines are sent to the research facility. The team includes squad leader Sgt. Asher "Sarge" Mahonin, "Duke", "Goat", "Destroyer", Portman, "Mac", a rookie ("Kid") and John "Reaper" Grimm. They are sent on a search-and-destroy mission to Mars, with UAC only concerned with the retrieval of computer data from their anthropology, archeology, and genetics experiments.


title: Doom (film)

text: The team uses the Ark to reach Mars, ordering the Earth site on lockdown. Arriving on Mars, they are met by UAC employee "Pinky". Reaper finds his twin sister, Dr. Sam Grimm, and escorts her to retrieve the data. He learns that a dig site, where their parents were accidentally killed years earlier, was reopened and ancient skeletons of a humanoid race genetically enhanced with an artificial 24th chromosome pair were discovered.


title: Doom (film)

text: While searching for survivors in the facility, the marines find a traumatized and injured Dr. Carmack and escort him to the medical lab for treatment, but he later disappears. The marines shoot at an unknown creature in the genetics lab that leads them down into the facility's sewer, where it attacks and kills Goat. They kill the creature and take it to the medical lab, where Sam performs an autopsy and discovers that its organs are human. She and Duke witness Goat resurrecting and killing himself by smashing his head against a reinforced window. The two are attacked by a creature, trap it, and soon deduce that it is a mutated Dr. Carmack.


title: Doom (film)

text: The squad methodically tracks down and destroys several of the creatures, though Mac, Destroyer, and Portman die in the process. An angered Sarge kills the mutated Dr. Carmack. Sam, Reaper, and Sarge learn that UAC was experimenting on humans using the extra Martian Chromosome (C24) harvested from the remains of the ancient skeletons, but the mutants got loose, leading to the outbreak. Sam and Reaper try to convince Sarge that the creatures are humans from the facility, mutated by the C24 serum and that not all of those infected will fully transform into the creatures. Sam hypothesizes that some of those injected with C24 will develop superhuman abilities but retain their humanity, while others with a predisposition for violent or psychotic behavior will become creatures, a pattern she believes also happened with the Martians, who built the Ark to escape.


title: Doom (film)

text: Some creatures use the Ark to reach Earth, where they slaughter or mutate the research staff. The marines, Sam, and Pinky follow, and Sarge orders the squad to sanitize the entire facility. When Kid informs Sarge that he found, but refuses to kill, a group of survivors, Sarge executes Kid for insubordination, leading to a standoff with an armed Pinky. The group is suddenly attacked by creatures who kill Duke and drag Sarge and Pinky away. Reaper is wounded by a ricocheting bullet. To prevent him from bleeding to death, Sam injects her brother with the C24 serum, despite his concern that his violent past predisposes him to transform into a creature.


title: Doom (film)

text: Reaper regains consciousness and finds his wounds have healed and that Sam has gone missing. Using his new C24 superhuman abilities, he fights his way through the facility, even battling a mutated and monstrous Pinky before finding an unconscious Sam with Sarge, who has become infected and has murdered the group of survivors Kid had previously found. Reaper and Sarge battle, both of them enhanced with superhuman powers. Reaper is able to gain the upper hand and throws Sarge through the Ark back to Mars along with a grenade, which destroys Sarge and the Mars facility. Reaper then carries his unconscious sister into the elevator and rides back up to the ground level in Nevada.


title: Doom (film)

text: Between 1994 and 1995, following the success of "Doom II", Hollywood began gaining interest in producing a live-action film adaptation of "Doom". Universal Pictures initially acquired the rights, which were later obtained by Columbia TriStar. Former CEO of id Software Todd Hollenshead stated that a number of factors prevented the project from moving forward such as the Columbine High School massacre, lack of producers, and poor scripts. The id Software team screened a presentation of "Doom 3" to agents from Creative Artists Agency (CAA) to see if they were interested in the property. Producers Lorenzo di Bonaventura and John Wells eventually obtained the rights.


title: Doom (film)

text: Di Bonaventura and Wells initially set development for the film at Warner Bros., however, the duo moved development of the project to Universal after Warner Bros. failed to move the project into production after 15 months. The terms of the deal with Universal included gross point royalties for the developer and rights holder. In 2004, Enda McCallion was attached to direct the film and David Callaham was named the screenwriter, with the script loosely adapting elements from "Doom 3". Callaham's early draft featured the Cacodemon, Arch-Vile, and other demons from the games but were cut due to time and budgetary reasons. That September, McCallion dropped out as director and Andrzej Bartkowiak joined the project. Edgar Wright and Simon Pegg were approached to polish the script's dialogue, but declined and Wesley Strick was hired instead. Production was scheduled to begin in Winter 2004 in Prague.


title: Doom (film)

text: Arnold Schwarzenegger was considered for the lead. Vin Diesel was offered the lead but turned it down. Dwayne Johnson was offered the role of "John Grimm" but turned it down in favor of "Sarge", stating, "For some reason I was drawn more to Sarge, I thought 'Sarge' was, to me, more interesting and had a darker side." In September 2004, Karl Urban and Rosamund Pike were cast as John and Samantha Grimm. The Rapid Response Tactical Squad actors underwent military training for two weeks under military advisor Tom McAdams.


title: Doom (film)

text: Monsters and creature effects for the film were created by Stan Winston Studios, supervised by John Rosengrant. The visual effects were supervised by Jon Farhat. The film included 350 effects shots, the work was shared between two companies, Framestore who focused on character animation and creature work in 130 shots, and Double Negative who worked on environments, dimensional effects and futuristic weapons in about 200 shots. Pictures of Johnson were taken to conceptualize his demon makeup. The second layer of prosthetics took two hours to apply on Johnson while the third level of prosthetics took three hours to apply. Acrylic paint was used to cover Johnson's tattoos. After the 2D concept art, the creatures were sculpted and body-cast. Brian Steele and Doug Jones underwent head and shoulder life casting and body casting to get an impression for their body frames. An earpiece was added into the suits so that Jones and Steele could receive directions from Rosengrant, however, their mics were not enabled for them to reply. The team drew upon forensic pathology books to give the creatures a repulsive nature.


title: Doom (film)

text: The first person shooter sequence was completely directed by Farhat and was filmed in 14 days after a planning period of three months. While the scene is one continuous shot, multiple cuts, that Farhat called "hook-ups", were made during filming, Farhat stated, "you can do it by moving a camera, and passing something, and cutting. And then rolling the camera again on a subsequent date." Other hook-up styles were used by using a green screen or blue screen when a door opens or jump cutting by whipping an object. The gun was only used on-screen when it was needed due to its size affecting the aspect ratio.


title: Doom (film)

text: The film's score was composed by Clint Mansell, upon which he produced a remix of the Nine Inch Nails song "You Know What You Are?", which was used in the film's ending credits. The song "Switchback" by Celldweller was licensed for the trailers.


title: Doom (film)

text: "Doom" received negative reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of , based on reviews, with an average rating of . The site's critical consensus states: "The FPS sections are sure to please fans of the video game, but lacking in plot and originality to please other moviegoers." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average rating of 34 out of 100, based on reviews from 28 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B− on scale of A to F.


title: Doom (film)

text: Roger Ebert said, ""Doom" is like some kid came over and is using your computer and won't let you play." Rob Gonsalves gave it two stars, citing incoherent action sequences, flat and humorless characters, and poor acting: "Only Richard Brake, as the sleazy and duplicitous grunt Portman, gives a performance of any interest, and even that's on the level of caricature." Kim Newman of "Empire" magazine called it "Not quite as dreadful as "", but that's hardly a major achievement." Justin Chang of "Variety" gave the film a mixed review and was critical of Johnson’s performance but positive about the "tongue-in-cheek sensibility" and the faithful display of weapons from the game. In summary: "It's really not all that bad. Ultra-derivative bigscreen transplant of one of the most successful (and controversial) games ever made plays like a mutant cross between a biotech thriller and a zombie movie, with all the alien autopsies, blood-gushing protuberances and meaningless scientific jargon that come with the territory."


title: Doom (film)

text: Richard James Havis of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Plot, character development and dialogue are so sparse that the screenwriters are fortunate they're not paid by the word. But this basic approach doesn't render it ineffectual. There's so little to go wrong that those who like their entertainment mindless and violent will find little fault."


title: Doom (film)

text: Chris Carle at "IGN" gave it 3 out of 5 and called it "easily the best videogame-to-film adaptation yet", saying although it is not big on plot or characterization "it succeeds in the things it sets out to do".


title: Doom (film)

text: John Carmack (co-founder of id Software and co-creator of "Doom") spoke favorably of the film, stating, "I liked it. Nobody expects a video game movie to be Oscar material, but I thought it was a solid action movie with lots of fun nods to the gaming community." In 2009, Johnson described the film as an example of "trying and failing" to do a good video game adaptation, and that it was a cautionary tale of what "not to do". In 2021, Rosamund Pike expressed embarrassment for not familiarizing herself with the source material, commenting, "I feel partly to blame in that respect because I think I failed just through ignorance and innocence to understand, to fully get a picture of what "Doom" meant to fans at that point. I wasn’t a gamer. I didn’t understand. If I knew what I knew now, I would have dived right into all of that and got fully immersed in it like I do now. And I just didn’t understand. I feel embarrassed, really."


title: Doom (film)

text: "Doom" was released on VHS, UMD, and DVD on February 7, 2006, HD DVD on April 26, 2006, and on Blu-ray Disc on February 10, 2009. The DVD, HD DVD, and Blu-ray releases only feature the unrated extended cut, with no options for the theatrical cut. The extended cut runs 113 minutes. In the United States and Canada, the DVD earned $29.2 million in domestic video sales. The extended cut was released on 4K Blu-ray on August 9, 2022.


title: Doom (film)

text: In an October 2005 interview, executive producer John Wells stated that a second film would be put into production if the first was a box office success. In April 2018, Universal Pictures announced plans for a new "Doom" film. "" was released direct-to-video on October 1, 2019.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Katherine Lee (born September 14, 1981) is an American cookbook author, television food critic, and novelist born in West Virginia. She has worked in several restaurants and published two cookbooks. She served as a contributor to several magazines and TV shows, including "Iron Chef America," an American cooking show competition, where she was a judge in 2007. She is a co-host of Food Network's talk show "The Kitchen", and the host of Cooking Channel's "Beach Bites with Katie Lee".


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee was raised in Milton, West Virginia. Lee studied journalism and food science at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, where she graduated in 2003. While there she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta. She spent a semester abroad in Florence, Italy at The British Institute.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee met Billy Joel at the rooftop bar at The Peninsula hotel while visiting New York City for a weekend. After dating for a year, she and Joel married at his home in Oyster Bay, Long Island, on October 2, 2004. Alexa Ray Joel, Billy Joel's daughter from his marriage to Christie Brinkley, served as maid of honor.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: On March 22, 2018, Lee got engaged to television producer Ryan Biegel at La Réserve Hotel and Spa in Paris. They were married on September 1, 2018, at Lo Tommaso Allo Scoglio in the seaside village of Marina del Cantone on Italy's Amalfi Coast.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: On February 26, 2020, Lee announced on Instagram that she was expecting her first child. On September 2, 2020, Lee gave birth to a daughter.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee has worked in several restaurants and gourmet food and wine stores. In 2003, she helped to open Jeff and Eddy's Restaurant where she served as the house fishmonger.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: In July 2005, Lee created the foodie website OliveAndPeach.com with partner Aleishall Girard. The web site ceased updating in September 2006.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: In 2006, she hosted the first season of Bravo's "Top Chef". Subsequently, Bravo replaced her with Padma Lakshmi. She later returned as a guest judge on "Top Chef All Stars", Episode 2 ("Night at the Museum") in 2010.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee's first cookbook, "The Comfort Table", was published by Simon & Schuster. In October 2009, Simon & Schuster released Katie's second cookbook "The Comfort Table: Recipes for Everyday Occasions"


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: In June 2011, Lee released her first novel, "Groundswell", about a woman recovering from divorce who finds the healing power of surfing.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee served as a food and lifestyle contributor for "The Early Show" and has appeared on "Extra" as a special correspondent. Additionally, she is a contributing editor to "Gotham" magazine, and her culinary and lifestyle column, "Katie's Kitchen", is published weekly in its sister magazine "Hamptons". Lee has also appeared on "Paula's Party", "Martha", "Today", "The Early Show", "The Nate Berkus Show", "Rachael Ray Show", and "Fox News". In 2007, she was a judge on "Iron Chef America".


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee is a member of the Feeding America Entertainment Council. She previously sat on the council of Chefs for Humanity, a group that provides humanitarian aid worldwide. She has also volunteered for Les Dames d'Escoffier, an organization that educates and mentors women in the culinary profession.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee has been a guest judge on "Beat Bobby Flay" many times, including on July 21, 2016, for a special "Ladies Night" episode.


title: Katie Lee (chef)

text: Lee is a co-host of Food Network's talk show "The Kitchen", and the Cooking Channel's "Beach Bites with Katie Lee". Lee has also appeared as a judge on Food Network's Halloween Baking Championship.


title: Baloch people

text: The Baloch or Baluch () are an Iranian people who live mainly in the Balochistan region, located at the southeasternmost edge of the Iranian plateau, encompassing the countries of Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan. There are also Baloch diaspora communities in neighbouring regions, including in India, Turkmenistan, and the Arabian Peninsula.


title: Baloch people

text: The Baloch people mainly speak Balochi, a Northwestern Iranian language, despite their contrasting location on the southeastern side of the Persosphere. The majority of Baloch reside within Pakistan. About 50% of the total ethnic Baloch population live in the Pakistani province of Balochistan, while 40% are settled in Sindh and a significant albeit smaller number reside in Pakistani Punjab. They make up nearly 3.6% of Pakistan's total population, and around 2% of the populations of both Iran and Afghanistan.


title: Baloch people

text: Some writers suggest a derivation from Sanskrit words "bal", meaning strength, and "och" meaning high or magnificent. An earliest Sanskrit reference to the Baloch might be the Gwalior inscription of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Mihira Bhoja (r. 836–885), which says that the dynasty's founder Nagabhata I repelled a powerful army of "Valacha Mlecchas", translated as "Baluch foreigners" by D. R. Bhandarkar. The army in question is that of the Umayyad Caliphate after the conquest of Sindh.


title: Baloch people

text: According to Baloch lore, their ancestors hail from Aleppo in what is now Syria. They claim to be descendants of Ameer Hamza, uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, who settled in Halab (present-day Aleppo). After the fight against second Umayyad Caliph Yazid I at Karbala (in which Ameer Hamza's descendants supported and fought alongside Husayn ibn Ali) in 680, descendants of Ameer Hamza migrated to east or southeast of the central Caspian region, specially toward Sistan, Iran.


title: Baloch people

text: Dayaram Gidumal writes that a Balochi legend is backed up by the medieval Qarmatians. The fact that the Karmatians were ethnic Baluchis is also confirmed by the Persian historian in the 16th century Muhammad Qasim Ferishta. According to another historian "Ali Sher Kanei", the author of Tuhfatul Kiram, in his history written in 1774 A.D, he believes that only the Rind tribe from Jalal Khan, a descendant of Muhammad ibn Harun, nicknamed Makurani, is a direct descendant of Hamza. Based on an analysis of the linguistic connections of the Balochi language, which is one of the Western Iranian languages, the original homeland of the Balochi tribes was likely to the east or southeast of the central Caspian region. The Baloch began migrating towards the east in the late Sasanian period. The cause of the migration is unknown but may have been as a result of the generally unstable conditions in the Caspian area. The migrations occurred over several centuries.


title: Baloch people

text: By the 9th century, Arab writers refer to the Baloch as living in the area between Kerman, Khorasan, Sistan, and Makran in what is now eastern Iran. Although they kept flocks of sheep, the Baloches also engaged in plundering travelers on the desert routes. This brought them into conflict with the Buyids, and later the Ghaznavids and the Seljuqs. Adud al-Dawla of the Buyid dynasty launched a punitive campaign against them and defeated them in 971–972. After this, the Baloch continued their eastward migration towards what is now the Balochistan province of Pakistan, although some remained behind and there are still Baloch in the eastern parts of the Iranian Sistan-Baluchestan and Kerman provinces. By the 13th–14th centuries, waves of Baloch were moving into Sindh, and by the 15th century into the Punjab. According to Dr. Akhtar Baloch, professor at University of Karachi, the Balochis migrated from Balochistan during the Little Ice Age and settled in Sindh and Punjab. The Little Ice Age is conventionally defined as a period extending from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, or alternatively, from about 1300 to about 1850. although climatologists and historians working with local records no longer expect to agree on either the start or end dates of this period, which varied according to local conditions. According to Professor Baloch, the climate of Balochistan was very cold and the region was not inhabitable during the winter so the Baloch people migrated in waves and settled in Sindh and Punjab.


title: Baloch people

text: The area where the Baloch tribes settled was disputed between the Persian Safavids and the Mughal emperors. Although the Mughals managed to establish some control over the eastern parts of the area, by the 17th century, a tribal leader named Mir Hasan established himself as the first "Khan of the Baloch". In 1666, he was succeeded by Mir Aḥmad Khan Qambarani who established the Balochi Khanate of Kalat under the Ahmadzai dynasty. Originally in alliance with the Mughals, the Khanate lost its autonomy in 1839 with the signing of a treaty with the British colonial government and the region effectively became part of the British Raj.


title: Baloch people

text: Gold ornaments such as necklaces and bracelets are an important aspect of Baloch women's traditions and among their most favoured items of jewellery are "dorr", heavy earrings that are fastened to the head with gold chains so that the heavy weight will not cause harm to the ears. They usually wear a gold brooch ("tasni") that is made by local jewellers in different shapes and sizes and is used to fasten the two parts of the dress together over the chest. In ancient times, especially during the pre-Islamic era, it was common for Baloch women to perform dances and sing folk songs at different events. The tradition of a Baloch mother singing lullabies to her children has played an important role in the transfer of knowledge from generation to generation since ancient times. Apart from the dressing style of the Baloch, indigenous and local traditions and customs are also of great importance to the Baloch.


title: Baloch people

text: Baloch Culture Day is celebrated by the Balochi people annually on 2 March with festivities to celebrate their rich culture and history.


title: Baloch people

text: Traditionally, Jalal Khan was the ruler and founder of the first Balochi confederacy in 12th century. (He may be the same as Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu the last ruler of the Khwarezmian Empire.) Jalal Khan left four sons – Rind Khan, Lashar Khan, Hoth Khan, Kora Khan and a daughter, Bibi Jato, who married his nephew Murad.


title: Baloch people

text: As of 2008 it was estimated that there were between eight and nine million Baloch people living in Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. They were subdivided between over 130 tribes. Some estimates put the figure at over 150 tribes, though estimates vary depending on how subtribes are counted. The tribes, known as "taman", are led by a tribal chief, the tumandar. Subtribes, known as paras, are led by a muquaddam.


title: Baloch people

text: Five Baloch tribes derive their names from Khan's children. Many, if not all, Baloch tribes can be categorized as either Rind or Lashari based on their actual descent or historical tribal allegiances that developed into cross-generational relationships. This basic division was accentuated by a war lasting 30 years between the Rind and Lashari tribes in the 15th century.


title: Baloch people

text: There are 180,000 Bugti based in Dera Bugti District. They are divided between the Rahija Bugti, Masori Bugti, Kalpar Bugti, Marehta Bugti and other sub-tribes.


title: Baloch people

text: Nawab Akbar Khan Bugti led the Bugti as Tumandar until his death in 2006. Talal Akbar Bugti was the tribal leader and President of the Jamhoori Watan Party from 2006 until his death in 2015.


title: Baloch people

text: There are 98,000 Marri based in Kohlo district, who further divide themselves into Gazni Marri, Bejarani Marri, and Zarkon Marri.


title: Baloch people

text: Violent intertribal competition has prevented any credible attempt at creating a nation-state. A myriad of militant secessionist movements, each loyal to their own tribal leader, threatens regional security and political stability.


title: Baloch people

text: For most Balochs, haplogroup R1a is the most common paternal clade, while haplogroup L-M20 is the most common paternal clade in Makran.


title: Baloch people

text: The majority of the Baloch people in Pakistan are Sunni Muslims, with 64.78% belonging to the Deobandi movement, 33.38% to the Barelvi movement, and 1.25% to the Ahl-i Hadith movement. Shia Muslims comprise 0.59% of Balochs. 800,000 Pakistani Balochis are estimated to follow the Zikri sect. Although Baloch leaders, backed by traditional scholarship, have held that the Baloch people are secular, Christine Fair and Ali Hamza found during their 2017 study that, when it comes to Islamism, "contrary to the conventional wisdom, Baloch are generally indistinguishable from other Pakistanis in Balochistan or the rest of Pakistan". There are virtually no statistically significant or substantive differences between Balochi Muslims and other Muslims in Pakistan in terms of religiosity, support for a sharia-compliant Pakistan state, liberating Muslims from oppression, etc.


title: Baloch people

text: A small number of Balochs are non-Muslims, particularly in the Bugti clan which has Hindu and Sikh members. There are a few Hindus in the Bugti, Bezenjo, Marri, Rind and other Baloch tribes. The Bhagnaris are a Hindu Baloch community living in India who trace their origin to southern Balochistan but migrated to India during the Partition.


title: Liberty

text: Liberty is the ability to do as one pleases, or a right or immunity enjoyed by prescription or by grant (i.e. privilege). It is a synonym for the word freedom.


title: Liberty

text: In modern politics, liberty is understood as the state of being free within society from control or oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. In theology, liberty is freedom from the effects of "sin, spiritual servitude, [or] worldly ties".


title: Liberty

text: Sometimes liberty is differentiated from freedom by using the word "freedom" primarily, if not exclusively, to mean the ability to do as one wills and what one has the power to do; and using the word "liberty" to mean the absence of arbitrary restraints, taking into account the rights of all involved. In this sense, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Thus liberty entails the responsible use of freedom under the rule of law without depriving anyone else of their freedom. Liberty can be taken away as a form of punishment. In many countries, people can be deprived of their liberty if they are convicted of criminal acts.


title: Liberty

text: Liberty originates from the Latin word , derived from the name of the goddess Libertas, who, along with more modern personifications, is often used to portray the concept, and the archaic Roman god Liber. The word "liberty" is often used in slogans, such as in "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness" and ""Liberté, égalité, fraternité"".


title: Liberty

text: Philosophers from the earliest times have considered the question of liberty. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD) wrote:


title: Liberty

text: John Locke (1632–1704) rejected that definition of liberty. While not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke:


title: Liberty

text: John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), in his work, "On Liberty", was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion.


title: Liberty

text: In his book "Two Concepts of Liberty", Isaiah Berlin formally framed the differences between two perspectives as the distinction between two opposite concepts of liberty: positive liberty and negative liberty. The latter designates a negative condition in which an individual is protected from tyranny and the arbitrary exercise of authority, while the former refers to the liberty that comes from self-mastery, the freedom from inner compulsions such as weakness and fear.


title: Liberty

text: The modern concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was not to have a master, to be independent from a master (to live as one likes). That was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it:


title: Liberty

text: This applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative.


title: Liberty

text: The populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given the same rights and had the same freedom of religion, women had the same rights as men, and slavery was abolished (550 BC). All the palaces of the kings of Persia were built by paid workers in an era when slaves typically did such work.


title: Liberty

text: In the Maurya Empire of ancient India, citizens of all religions and ethnic groups had some rights to freedom, tolerance, and equality. The need for tolerance on an egalitarian basis can be found in the Edicts of Ashoka the Great, which emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war also appears to have been condemned by Ashoka. Slavery also appears to have been non-existent in the Maurya Empire. However, according to Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, "Ashoka's orders seem to have been resisted right from the beginning."


title: Liberty

text: Roman law also embraced certain limited forms of liberty, even under the rule of the Roman Emperors. However, these liberties were accorded only to Roman citizens. Many of the liberties enjoyed under Roman law endured through the Middle Ages, but were enjoyed solely by the nobility, rarely by the common man. The idea of inalienable and universal liberties had to wait until the Age of Enlightenment.


title: Liberty

text: The social contract theory, most influentially formulated by Hobbes, John Locke and Rousseau (though first suggested by Plato in "The Republic"), was among the first to provide a political classification of rights, in particular through the notion of sovereignty and of natural rights. The thinkers of the Enlightenment reasoned that law governed both heavenly and human affairs, and that law gave the king his power, rather than the king's power giving force to law. This conception of law would find its culmination in the ideas of Montesquieu. The conception of law as a relationship between individuals, rather than families, came to the fore, and with it the increasing focus on individual liberty as a fundamental reality, given by "Nature and Nature's God," which, in the ideal state, would be as universal as possible.


title: Liberty

text: In "On Liberty", John Stuart Mill sought to define the "...nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual," and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control".


title: Liberty

text: England (and, following the Act of Union 1707, Great Britain), laid down the cornerstones of the concept of individual liberty.


title: Liberty

text: According to the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence, all people have a natural right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". But this declaration of liberty was troubled from the outset by the institutionalization of legalized Black slavery. Slave owners argued that their liberty was paramount since it involved property, their slaves, and that Blacks had no rights that any White man was obliged to recognize. The Supreme Court, in the Dred Scott decision, upheld this principle. It was not until 1866, following the Civil War, that the US Constitution was amended to extend limited rights to persons of color, and not until 1920 that voting rights were extended to women.


title: Liberty

text: By the later half of the 20th century, liberty was expanded further to prohibit government interference with personal choices. In the United States Supreme Court decision "Griswold v. Connecticut", Justice William O. Douglas argued that liberties relating to personal relationships, such as marriage, have a unique primacy of place in the hierarchy of freedoms. Jacob M. Appel has summarized this principle:


title: Liberty

text: In modern America, various competing ideologies have divergent views about how best to promote liberty. Liberals in the original sense of the word see equality as a necessary component of freedom. Progressives stress freedom from business monopoly as essential. Right-wing libertarians disagree, and see economic and individual freedom as best. The Tea Party movement sees the "big government" as the enemy of freedom. Other major participants in the modern American right-wing libertarian movement include the Libertarian Party, the Free State Project, and the Mises Institute.


title: Liberty

text: France supported the Americans in their revolt against English rule and, in 1789, overthrew their own monarchy, with the cry of "Liberté, égalité, fraternité". The bloodbath that followed, known as the reign of terror, soured many people on the idea of liberty. Edmund Burke, considered one of the fathers of conservatism, wrote "The French had shewn themselves the ablest architects of ruin that had hitherto existed in the world."


title: Liberty

text: According to the "Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics", liberalism is "the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice". But they point out that there is considerable discussion about how to achieve those goals. Every discussion of freedom depends on three key components: who is free, what they are free to do, and what forces restrict their freedom. John Gray argues that the core belief of liberalism is toleration. Liberals allow others freedom to do what they want, in exchange for having the same freedom in return. This idea of freedom is personal rather than political. William Safire points out that liberalism is attacked by both the Right and the Left: by the Right for defending such practices as abortion, homosexuality, and atheism, and by the Left for defending free enterprise and the rights of the individual over the collective.


title: Liberty

text: According to the "Encyclopædia Britannica", libertarians hold liberty as their primary political value. Their approach to implementing liberty involves opposing any governmental coercion, aside from that which is necessary to prevent individuals from coercing each other.


title: Liberty

text: Libertarianism is guided by the principle commonly known as the Non-Aggression Principle (NAP). The Non-Aggression Principle asserts that aggression against an individual or an individual's property is always an immoral violation of one's life, liberty, and property rights. Utilizing deceit instead of consent to achieve ends is also a violation of the Non-Aggression principle. Therefore, under the framework of the Non-Aggression principle, rape, murder, deception, involuntary taxation, government regulation, and other behaviors that initiate aggression against otherwise peaceful individuals are considered violations of this principle. This principle is most commonly adhered to by libertarians. A common elevator pitch for this principle is, "Good ideas don't require force."


title: Liberty

text: According to republican theorists of freedom, like the historian Quentin Skinner or the philosopher Philip Pettit, one's liberty should not be viewed as the absence of interference in one's actions, but as non-domination. According to this view, which originates in the Roman Digest, to be a "liber homo", a free man, means not being subject to another's arbitrary will, that is to say, dominated by another. They also cite Machiavelli who asserted that you must be a member of a free self-governing civil association, a republic, if you are to enjoy individual liberty.


title: Liberty

text: The predominance of this view of liberty among parliamentarians during the English Civil War resulted in the creation of the liberal concept of freedom as non-interference in Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan.


title: Liberty

text: Socialists view freedom as a concrete situation as opposed to a purely abstract ideal. Freedom is a state of being where individuals have agency to pursue their creative interests unhindered by coercive social relationships, specifically those they are forced to engage in as a requisite for survival under a given social system. Freedom thus requires both the material economic conditions that make freedom possible alongside social relationships and institutions conducive to freedom.


title: Liberty

text: The socialist conception of freedom is closely related to the socialist view of creativity and individuality. Influenced by Karl Marx's concept of alienated labor, socialists understand freedom to be the ability for an individual to engage in creative work in the absence of alienation, where "alienated labor" refers to work people are forced to perform and un-alienated work refers to individuals pursuing their own creative interests.


title: Liberty

text: For Karl Marx, meaningful freedom is only attainable in a communist society characterized by superabundance and free access. Such a social arrangement would eliminate the need for alienated labor and enable individuals to pursue their own creative interests, leaving them to develop and maximize their full potentialities. This goes alongside Marx's emphasis on the ability of socialism and communism progressively reducing the average length of the workday to expand the "realm of freedom", or discretionary free time, for each person. Marx's notion of communist society and human freedom is thus radically individualistic.


title: Liberty

text: While many anarchists see freedom slightly differently, all oppose authority, including the authority of the state, of capitalism, and of nationalism. For the Russian revolutionary anarchist Mikhail Bakunin, liberty did not mean an abstract ideal but a concrete reality based on the equal liberty of others. In a positive sense, liberty consists of "the fullest development of all the faculties and powers of every human being, by education, by scientific training, and by material prosperity." Such a conception of liberty is "eminently social, because it can only be realized in society," not in isolation. In a negative sense, liberty is "the revolt of the individual against all divine, collective, and individual authority."


title: Liberty

text: Some authors have suggested that a virtuous culture must exist as a prerequisite for liberty. Benjamin Franklin stated that "only a virtuous people are capable of freedom. As nations become corrupt and vicious, they have more need of masters." Madison likewise declared: "To suppose that any form of government will secure liberty or happiness without any virtue in the people, is a chimerical idea." John Adams acknowledged: "Our constitution was made only for a moral and religious people. It is wholly inadequate to the government of any other."


title: Keri Hilson

text: Keri Lynn Hilson (born December 5, 1982) is an American R&B singer, songwriter and actress. She was born and raised in Decatur, Georgia and spent most of her youth working with producer Anthony Dent as a songwriter and background vocalist for several R&B and hip hop artists. By the age of 14, Hilson had secured a record deal with the girl group D'Signe, which later disbanded. She attended Oxford College of Emory University in Georgia while she continued writing songs for artists including Britney Spears, The Pussycat Dolls, and Mary J. Blige, with the production and songwriting team The Clutch. In 2006, Hilson signed with American producer and rapper Timbaland's record label Mosley Music. Her breakthrough came in 2007 after appearing on Timbaland's single "The Way I Are", which topped charts around the world.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson's music style is R&B, hip hop, and pop; womanhood, sexual intimacy, and love are the typical themes. Her musical influences come from her father's side of the family. Hilson's debut studio album, "In a Perfect World...", was released in 2009, and debuted at number four on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, eventually being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The album spawned the hit singles "Knock You Down" (featuring Kanye West and Ne-Yo), "Turnin Me On" (featuring Lil Wayne), and "I Like". It also earned Hilson two Grammy Award nominations for Best New Artist and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Knock You Down". Her second studio album, "No Boys Allowed", was released in 2010 and was somewhat less successful than its predecessor; however, it did include the platinum single "Pretty Girl Rock" (featuring Kanye West). As of 2022, Hilson's next album has yet to be released, and for the past twelve years Hilson has not released any new music of her own.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson has also contributed to various charities and pursued a career in acting, and she continues to record and perform music. She has contributed in the fight against HIV and AIDS, helped various relief efforts for natural disasters, and become involved with several educational organizations. In 2012, Hilson made her acting debut in the romantic comedy film "Think Like a Man". Her achievements include a BET Award, MOBO Award, NAACP Image Award and two Soul Train Music Awards.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Keri Lynn Hilson was born on December 5, 1982, in Decatur, Georgia. Hilson's mother owns and runs a day care center and her father was a developer who served in the Army. She was raised in a middle class family and an African-American neighborhood. Her brother is Kip and her sisters are Kelsee, Kye and Kaycee. Hilson and her siblings did not attend a school within the neighborhood, stating that "they shipped us off for an hour to get to school every day. It was just that important for us to maintain the life that they had created". From the age of 12, Hilson wanted to pursue a musical career, after watching television talent shows, "Star Search" and "Showtime at the Apollo". Her mother then hired a piano teacher to give her piano lessons; however, Hilson wanted to become a singer and therefore "converted those sessions into vocal lessons, accompanying the teacher on piano". By the age of 14, Hilson had secured a record deal with the girl group D'Signe, who later disbanded.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson's first official work as a songwriter was "Jump", written for a Japanese R&B singer 's debut album "I Do" (2002). Hilson spent most of her teenage years working with producer Anthony Dent as a songwriter and background vocalist for the likes of Usher, Ludacris, Kelly Rowland, Toni Braxton, Ciara and Polow da Don. After graduating from Tucker High School in the DeKalb County School District, Hilson attended Oxford College of Emory University and Emory University in Atlanta for three years and studied a course in theater. She continued working as a songwriter and background vocalist during her schooling years. Hilson eventually stopped working with Dent, and began working more with Polow da Don. She also became a member of the songwriting and production team, The Clutch. Together, they wrote Mary J. Blige's "Take Me as I Am" (2006), Omarion's "Ice Box" (2006), Ciara's "Like a Boy" (2006), The Pussycat Dolls' "Wait a Minute" (2006) and Britney Spears' "Gimme More" (2007). In 2006, Polow introduced Hilson to American rapper and producer Timbaland, who then signed her to his record label, Mosley Music Group. In November 2006, Hilson was featured on American rapper Lloyd Banks' single "Help" for his album "Rotten Apple" (2006).


title: Keri Hilson

text: The following year, Hilson was featured on three singles; in June, on Timbaland's song "The Way I Are", the second single from his album "Shock Value" (2007); on Rich Boy's "Good Things" with Polow da Don; and thereafter, in December, on Timbaland's song "Scream" with Nicole Scherzinger, the fifth single from "Shock Value". Out of the three singles, "The Way I Are" achieved the most success, topping nine charts around the world.


title: Keri Hilson

text: In 2008, Hilson appeared in the music videos for Usher's single "Love in This Club" and Ne-Yo's single "Miss Independent". Her debut studio album, "In a Perfect World...", was released on March 24, 2009. The album contained pop-oriented R&B songs. It was initially planned to be released the previous year; however, the album was delayed several times because Hilson wanted to make sure it came out to her liking, stating "I'm just a perfectionist. I have had many [release dates], but it's all for a good cause. The label wants to make sure the album has its proper release, and I'm thankful for that. Very grateful, even though fans look at it like it's a bad thing." In the United States, "In a Perfect World..." debuted at number four on the "Billboard" 200 chart, and number one on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 94,000 copies. By October 2009, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Its first single, "Energy", released in May 2008, peaked at number 78 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and number 21 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It reached the top 50 in the United Kingdom, and peaked the highest in New Zealand at number two, and was certified gold in that country. Hilson also featured on three singles in 2008; in June, on rapper Nas' song "Hero"; in September, on Kardinal Offishall's "Numba 1 (Tide Is High)"; and thereafter, in October, on Chris Brown's song "Superhuman".


title: Keri Hilson

text: "Return the Favor", featuring Timbaland, served as the second international single from Hilson's "In a Perfect World..." album, while "Turnin Me On" featuring Lil Wayne, was released as the second US single. The latter achieved commercial success, reaching number 15 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, and number two on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, eventually being certified platinum in the United States. "Turnin Me On" spent 10 weeks on the Hot 100. Hilson and Lil Wayne performed the song on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" on March 27, 2009. The next single, "Knock You Down" featuring Kanye West and Ne-Yo, achieved more success, reaching number three on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, eventually being certified two times platinum. The song spent 31 weeks on the Hot 100 and 30 weeks on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. It also reached the top ten in Canada, Ireland, The Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Hilson and West performed "Knock You Down" on the "Late Show with David Letterman" on May 4, 2009. "Make Love", "Slow Dance", and "Change Me" featuring Akon, were released as the album's fourth, fifth and sixth US singles, respectively. Hilson performed "Slow Dance" with The Roots on "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" on September 18, 2009.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson, along with Gym Class Heroes, Gorilla Zoe and T-Pain, were supporting acts on Lil Wayne's I Am Music Tour in North America. At the 2009 BET Awards, she was nominated in four categories, including Best New Artist, Best Female R&B Artist, as well as Viewer's Choice and Best Collaboration for "Turnin Me On" with Lil Wayne. She eventually won the Best New Artist category. In 2009, Hilson was featured on five singles; "Number One" with R. Kelly, "She Don't Wanna" with Asher Roth, "Everything, Everyday, Everywhere" with Fabolous, "Medicine" with Plies, and on the remix of Sean Paul's song, "Hold My Hand". Hilson was nominated for Breakthrough Artist and Favorite Soul/R&B Female Artist at the 2009 American Music Awards. The re-released edition of "In a Perfect World...", in January 2010, included the single "I Like", which reached number one in Germany, Poland and Slovakia, and peaked within the top ten in Austria, Norway and Switzerland. At the 52nd Grammy Awards, Hilson was nominated for Best New Artist and Best Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Knock You Down" with Kanye West and Ne-Yo.


title: Keri Hilson

text: During the first half of 2010, Hilson guest featured on rapper Trina's single "Million Dollar Girl", and on T.I.'s single "Got Your Back". In April 2010, it was made known that she had replaced Jennifer Hudson as the new face of the cosmetics and personal care products company Avon. "Breaking Point" was released as the first single from Hilson's second studio album, "No Boys Allowed", in September 2010; it only appeared on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart at number 44, and spent two weeks on the chart. On December 2, 2010, Hilson was one of the many female artists who performed at the VH1 Divas Salute the Troops concert, where she sang "Turnin Me On", "Knock You Down", "Pretty Girl Rock", and a duet with American country music duo Sugarland on the Aretha Franklin song "Think". "No Boys Allowed" was released on December 21, 2010. Described as a "girl power album", "No Boys Allowed" was primarily of the R&B and pop genres. Despite the album's title, Hilson stated "it's not about excluding men. It's more about women understanding that there comes a time in your life when you want a man. A real man. A grown up. Not a boy. And that's not a bad thing." Speaking of the songs on the album, she explained "I write from a female perspective, but I'm also telling men what women are really thinking and feeling about them". In the United States, "No Boys Allowed" debuted at number 11 on the "Billboard" 200, and number seven on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, with first-week sales of 102,000 copies. Although the album sold 8,000 copies more than Hilson's debut album "In a Perfect World...", it failed to match that album's debut chart position of number four on the "Billboard" 200, due to "No Boys Allowed" being released during the festive season with several Christmas albums debuting inside the top-ten. As of February 2011, the album has sold 205,500 copies in the United States.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson achieved success with the album's second single, "Pretty Girl Rock", which reached number 24 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number four on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart, eventually being certified platinum. The song spent 14 weeks on the Hot 100 and four weeks on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs Chart. It reached the top twenty in Germany and New Zealand, and top 30 in Austria and Slovakia. Hilson promoted "Pretty Girl Rock" with live performances on televised shows, including "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", the "Late Show with David Letterman" and "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". "One Night Stand" featuring Chris Brown, and "Lose Control (Let Me Down)" featuring Nelly, were released as the album's third and fourth singles, respectively. In 2011, she was featured on British rapper Chipmunk's single "In the Air", for his album "Transition" (2011). In April 2011, Hilson, along with many other R&B and hip hop acts, traveled to Australia to be part of its biggest urban music festival, Supafest. At the 2011 BET Awards, Hilson was nominated for Best Female R&B Artist and Video of the Year for "Pretty Girl Rock". In July 2011, she was a supporting act on the second leg of Lil Wayne's I Am Still Music Tour in North America, before embarking on her first headlining European tour in October. Hilson made her acting debut in the romantic comedy film "Think Like a Man", released on April 20, 2012. She also appeared alongside Vin Diesel in the sci-fi action film "Riddick" (2013), in a brief role as a prisoner allowed to escape to make room for Riddick.


title: Keri Hilson

text: During an interview on "106 & Park" on October 25, 2011, Hilson revealed that she has already begun recording her third studio album. She explained, "There's some people in the world that aren't gon' like this album coming from me. As I was experiencing the world, there were things that I was also experiencing on a personal front, and in my music it's coming out. There's a specific few people who ain't gon' like to listen to this album. Very emotional, I'll say that." She further explained in an interview with "The Boombox" that she's working on a new sound for the album, and described it as a mixture of her first two albums with some surprising elements thrown in. Hilson also said a release date had not been confirmed yet, saying "I just write about my experiences and keep the release dates far, far from me. When I feel that I have [good material] is when I will give it to the label. But I'm not quite there yet. I'm still working." After a five-year musical hiatus for Hilson, it was leaked on March 14, 2016, that the album would be named "L.I.A.R.", an acronym for "Love Is a Religion". "L.I.A.R." will have contributions from Chris Brown, Danja, Timbaland and Polow Da Don. In July 2017, Hilson was featured on Zambian singer Tiwah Hillz's single "Beautiful".


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson announced that she will be releasing new music in summer 2019, nine years after her previous album. She is performing on Femme It Forward Tour in summer 2019 alongside Mya, Brandy, Ashanti, Monica and Amerie. In October 2019, Hilson referred to the album as untitled but said that it was in the final stages of mixing and production.


title: Keri Hilson

text: In April 2020, Keri was featured on Ghanaian musician Stonebwoy's song "Nominate". She later recommended Rihanna for a future collaboration with the Ghanaian dancehall musician.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson's music is generally R&B, hip hop and pop. Her debut album, "In a Perfect World...", consists of a pop/R&B style, with elements of electro music. Many of the album's themes deal with relationships, physical attraction and lovemaking. Hilson said, "lyrically it's a very vulnerable album. You know, I definitely didn't want to paint myself as perfect on this project. Instead, I wanted it to be something that was very relatable, especially to women".


title: Keri Hilson

text: Her second album, "No Boys Allowed", displays a wide variety of styles, including pop, R&B, hip hop, soul, acoustic, electronic and reggae. Hilson describes the album as "more self-assured. It's a lot more aggressive". Kristin Macfarlane of "The Daily Post" noted that the album is "pure girl power and about being sexually confident, and confident as a woman; not putting up with crap relationships and getting your way".


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson sings with "smooth vocals". Following the release of her debut album, Sophie Bruce of BBC Music expressed that, "there's no denying Hilson has a great voice, but it lacks the feisty edge of [Nicole] Scherzinger, [Mary J.] Blige or [Beyoncé] Knowles". Mark Nero of About.com commented, "Keri's voice, while strong, isn't particularly distinctive or memorable". Hilson has stated that her musical influences come from her father's side of the family. "My grandmother would sing in the choir; while my dad—while he was in college—sang and recorded with a quartet. ... it was definitely my dad's Southern side that impacted on me musically". Hilson's father also introduced her to artists such as Sade, Anita Baker, The Blind Boys of Alabama, Lisa Stansfield, Take 6 and Stevie Wonder. In addition, she cites Michael Jackson, Lauryn Hill and late singer Aaliyah as inspirations.


title: Keri Hilson

text: Besides her career in music, Hilson has also been involved with several charities. In January 2010, she teamed up with Akon on the charity single "Oh Africa". All proceeds of the single benefited underprivileged African youth. The following month, Hilson joined the extended list of artists during the recording session of the single, "We Are the World 25 for Haiti", to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake. On May 25, 2010, she performed at the Virginia Stand Up! A Call to Action benefit concert, organized by Chris Brown to help with continued relief efforts in Haiti. On October 21, 2010, Hilson attended Collins Academy High School in Chicago as part of the Get Schooled National Challenge and Tour, a "program aimed at increasing high school and college graduation rates and promoting the importance of education". A year later, she received a Get Schooled Award for her involvement with the program. In 2011, Hilson contributed in the fight against AIDS by posing in retail-clothing company H&M's celebrity-driven collection for Fashion Against AIDS. 25% of all sales from the collection were donated to the Designers Against Aids charity. Hilson contributed to the It Gets Better Project, a project which aims to prevent suicide among LGBT youth.


title: Keri Hilson

text: In June 2011, Hilson became an ambassador for MTV Staying Alive, a foundation which raises awareness and prevention of HIV and AIDS. In September 2011, she lent her support to US First Lady Michelle Obama's Let's Move! campaign, which aims to combat childhood obesity. She made T-shirts for the campaign that read "Pretty Girls Sweat", and exercised with the young women at The Educational Alliance's Sirovich Senior Center in New York City on September 24. During Hilson's visit in Africa in November 2011, she stopped by an orphanage to visit her young fans who had lost their families during the 2010–2011 Ivorian crisis. She gave each orphan a "care" package, which consisted of bookbags, T-shirts, sunglasses, notebooks and an electric keyboard. In April 2012, Hilson worked with DoSomething.org to encourage young people to take part in the nationwide Epic Book Drive by bringing books to local people in need. In a press release, she stated: "Joining DoSomething.org's newest effort to provide for people in need with Epic Book Drive was the easiest decision ever!. I truly believe providing access to those who want to learn is the key to bettering lives around the country. And helping kids find healthy outlets, such as books, has always been a passion of mine. So my involvement here is a natural fit."


title: Keri Hilson

text: Hilson has also become an active opponent of 5G wireless technology, and was criticized for falsely claiming it caused the coronavirus pandemic.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Residency or postgraduate training is specifically a stage of graduate medical education. It refers to a qualified physician (one who holds the degree of MD, DO, MBBS, MBChB), veterinarian (DVM or VMD) , dentist (DDS or DMD) or podiatrist (DPM) who practices medicine, veterinary medicine , dentistry, or podiatry, respectively, usually in a hospital or clinic, under the direct or indirect supervision of a senior medical clinician registered in that specialty such as an attending physician or consultant. In many jurisdictions, successful completion of such training is a requirement in order to obtain an unrestricted license to practice medicine, and in particular a license to practice a chosen specialty. In the meantime they practice "on" the license of their supervising physician. An individual engaged in such training may be referred to as a resident, registrar or trainee depending on the jurisdiction. Residency training may be followed by fellowship or sub-specialty training.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Whereas medical school teaches physicians a broad range of medical knowledge, basic clinical skills, and supervised experience practicing medicine in a variety of fields, medical residency gives in-depth training within a specific branch of medicine.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: A "resident physician" is more commonly referred to as a "resident", "senior house officer" (in Commonwealth countries), or alternatively, a "senior resident medical officer" or "house officer". Residents have graduated from an accredited medical school and hold a medical degree (MD, DO, MBBS, MBChB). Residents are, collectively, the "house staff" of a hospital. This term comes from the fact that resident physicians traditionally spend the majority of their training "in house" (i.e., the hospital).


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Duration of residencies can range from three years to seven years, depending upon the program and specialty. A year in residency begins between late June and early July depending on the individual program and ends one calendar year later.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In the United States, the first year of residency is known as an "internship" with those physicians being termed "interns". Depending on the number of years a specialty requires, the term "junior resident" may refer to residents that have not completed half their residency. "Senior residents" are residents in their final year of residency, although this can vary. Some residency programs refer to residents in their final year as "chief residents" (typically in surgical branches). Alternatively, a "chief resident" may describe a resident who has been selected to extend his or her residency by one year and organize the activities and training of the other residents (typically in internal medicine and pediatrics). In dermatology generally one of the final year residents is chosen as chief, to add administrative duties to the normal learning in the last year.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: If a physician finishes a residency and decides to further his or her education in a fellowship, they are referred to as a "fellow". Physicians who have fully completed their training in a particular field are referred to as "attending physicians," or "consultants" (in Commonwealth countries). However, the above nomenclature applies only in educational institutes in which the period of training is specified in advance. In privately owned, non-training hospitals, in certain countries, the above terminology may reflect the level of responsibility held by a physician rather than their level of education.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Residency as an opportunity for advanced training in a medical or surgical specialty evolved in the late 19th century from brief and informal programs for extra training in a special area of interest. The first formal residency programs were established by Sir William Osler and William Stewart Halsted at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Residencies elsewhere then became formalized and institutionalized for the principal specialties in the early 20th century. But even mid-century, residency was not seen as necessary for general practice and only a minority of primary care physicians participated. By the end of the 20th century in North America though, very few new doctors went directly from medical school into independent, unsupervised medical practice, and more state and provincial governments began requiring one or more years of postgraduate training for medical licensure.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Residencies are traditionally hospital-based, and in the middle of the twentieth century, residents would often live (or "reside") in hospital-supplied housing. "Call" (night duty in the hospital) was sometimes as frequent as every second or third night for up to three years. Pay was minimal beyond room, board, and laundry services. It was assumed that most young men and women training as physicians had few obligations outside of medical training at that stage of their careers.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: The first year of practical patient-care-oriented training after medical school has long been termed "internship". Even as late as the middle of the twentieth century, most physicians went into primary care practice after a year of internship. Residencies were separate from internship, often served at different hospitals, and only a minority of physicians did residencies.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Afghanistan, the residency (Dari, "تخصص") consists of a three to seven years of practical and research activities in the field selected by the candidate. The graduate medical students do not need to complete the residency because they study medicine in six years (three years for clinical subjects, three years clinical subjects in hospital) and one-year internship and they graduate as general practitioner. Most students do not complete residency because it is too competitive.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Argentina, the residency (Spanish, "residencia") consists of a three to four years of practical and research activities in the field selected by both the candidate and already graduated medical practitioners. Specialized fields such as neurosurgery or cardio-thoracic surgery require longer training. Through these years, consisting of internships, social services, and occasional research, the resident is classified according to their residency year as an R1, R2, R3 or R4. After the last year, the "R3 or R4 Resident" obtains the specialty ("especialidad") in the selected field of medicine.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Australia, specialist training is undertaken as a registrar; The term 'resident' is used synonymously with 'hospital medical officer' (HMO), and refers to unspecialised postgraduate medical practitioners prior to specialty training.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Entry into a specialist training program occurs after completing one year as an intern (post-graduate year 1 or "PGY1"), then, for many training programs, an additional year as a resident (PGY2 onward).


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Canada, Canadian medical graduates (CMGs), which includes final-year medical students and unmatched previous-year medical graduates, apply for residency positions via the Canadian Resident Matching Service (CaRMS). The first year of residency training is known as "Postgraduate Year 1" (PGY1).


title: Residency (medicine)

text: CMGs can apply to many post-graduate medical training programs including family medicine, emergency medicine, internal medicine, pediatrics, general surgery, obstetrics-gynecology, neurology, and psychiatry, amongst others.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: Some residency programs are direct entry (family medicine, dermatology, neurology, general surgery, etc.), meaning that CMGs applying to these specialties do so directly from medical school. Other residencies have sub-specialty matches (internal medicine and pediatrics) where residents complete their first 2–3 years before completing a secondary match (Medicine subspecialty match (MSM) or Pediatric subspecialty match (PSM)). After this secondary match has been completed, residents are referred to as fellows. Some areas of subspecialty matches include cardiology, nephrology, gastroenterology, immunology, respirology, infectious diseases, rheumatology, endocrinology and more. Direct entry specialties also have fellowships, but they are completed at the end of residency (typically 5 years).


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Colombia, fully licensed physicians are eligible to compete for seats in residency programs. To be fully licensed, one must first finish a medical training program that usually lasts five to six years (varies between universities), followed by one year of medical and surgical internship. During this internship a national medical qualification exam is required, and, in many cases, an additional year of unsupervised medical practice as a social service physician. Applications are made individually program by program, and are followed by a postgraduate medical qualification exam. The scores during medical studies, university of medical training, curriculum vitae, and, in individual cases, recommendations are also evaluated. The acceptance rate into residencies is very low (~1–5% of applicants in public university programs), physician-resident positions do not have salaries, and the tuition fees reach or surpass US$10,000 per year in private universities and $2,000 in public universities. For the reasons mentioned above, many physicians travel abroad (mainly to Argentina, Brazil, Spain and the United States) to seek postgraduate medical training. The duration of the programs varies between three and six years. In public universities, and some private universities, it is also required to write and defend a medical thesis before receiving a specialist degree.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In France, students attending clinical practice are known as "externes" and newly qualified practitioners training in hospitals are known as "internes". The residency, called "Internat", lasts from three to six years (it depends on the speciality) and follows a competitive national ranking examination. It is customary to delay submission of a thesis. As in most other European countries, many years of practice at a junior level may follow.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: French residents are often called "doctor" during their residency. Literally speaking, they are still students and become M.D. only at the end of their residency and after submitting and defending a thesis before a jury.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In Greece, licensed physicians are eligible to apply for a position in a residency program. To be a licensed physician, one must finish a medical training program which in Greece lasts for six years. A one-year obligatory rural medical service (internship) is necessary to complete the residency training. Applications are made individually in the prefecture where the hospital is located, and the applicants are positioned on first-come, first-served basis. The duration of the residency programs varies between three and seven years.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: In India, after completing MBBS degree and one year of integrated internship, doctors can enroll in several types of postgraduate training programs:


title: Residency (medicine)

text: D.M. (DOCTOR OF MEDICINE) in: Cardiology, Endocrinology, Medical Gastroenterology, Nephrology, and Neurology.


title: Residency (medicine)

text: M.Ch. (MASTER OF CHIRURGIE) in: Cardio vascular & Thoracic Surgery, Urology, Neurosurgery, Paediatric Surgery, Plastic Surgery.