title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere. The comet was much less impressive to southern hemisphere observers than it had been in the northern hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the second half of 1997. The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months. The previous record had been set by the Great Comet of 1811, which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: The comet continued to fade as it receded, but was still tracked by astronomers. In October 2007, 10 years after the perihelion and at distance of 25.7 AU from Sun, the comet was still active as indicated by the detection of the CO-driven coma. Herschel Space Observatory images taken in 2010 suggest comet Hale–Bopp is covered in a fresh frost layer. Hale–Bopp was again detected in December 2010 when it was 30.7 AU away from the Sun, and in 2012, at 33.2 AU from the Sun. The James Webb Space Telescope observed Hale–Bopp in 2022, when it was 46.2 AU from the Sun.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: The comet likely made its previous perihelion 4,200 years ago, in July 2215 BC. The estimated closest approach to Earth was 1.4 AU, and it may have been observed in ancient Egypt during the 6th dynasty reign of the Pharaoh Pepi II (Reign: 2247 – c. 2216 BC). Pepi's pyramid at Saqqara contains a text referring to an "nhh-star" as a companion of the pharaoh in the heavens, where "" is the hieroglyph for long hair.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Hale–Bopp may have had a near collision with Jupiter in early June 2215 BC, which probably caused a dramatic change in its orbit, and 2215 BC may have been its first passage through the inner Solar System from the Oort cloud. The comet's current orbit is almost perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, so further close approaches to planets will be rare. However, in April 1996 the comet passed within 0.77 AU of Jupiter, close enough for its orbit to be measurably affected by the planet's gravity. The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of roughly 2,399 years, and it will next return to the inner Solar System around the year 4385. Its greatest distance from the Sun (aphelion) will be about 354 AU, reduced from about 525 AU.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: The estimated probability of Hale-Bopp's striking Earth in future passages through the inner Solar System is remote, about 2.5×10 per orbit. However, given that the comet nucleus is around 60 km in diameter, the consequences of such an impact would be apocalyptic. Weissman conservatively estimates the diameter at 35 km; an estimated density of 0.6 g/cm then gives a cometary mass of 1.3×10 g. At a probable impact velocity of 52.5 km/s, impact energy can be calculated as 1.9×10 ergs, or 4.4×10 megatons, about 44 times the estimated energy of the K-T impact event.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Over many orbits, the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations on comets with high orbital inclinations and small perihelion distances is generally to reduce the perihelion distance to very small values. Hale–Bopp has about a 15% chance of eventually becoming a sungrazing comet through this process. If such is the case, it could undergo huge mass loss, or break up into smaller pieces like the Kreutz sungrazers. It would also be extremely bright, due to a combination of closeness to the Sun and nuclei size, potentially exceeding Halley’s Comet in 837 AD.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Due to the massive size of its nucleus, Comet Hale–Bopp was observed intensively by astronomers during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations. The dust production rate of the comet was very high (up to 2.0 kg/s), which may have made the inner coma optically thick. Based on the properties of the dust grains—high temperature, high albedo and strong 10 μm silicate emission feature—the astronomers concluded the dust grains are smaller than observed in any other comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Hale–Bopp showed the highest ever linear polarization detected for any comet. Such polarization is the result of solar radiation getting scattered by the dust particles in the coma of the comet and depends on the nature of the grains. It further confirms that the dust grains in the coma of comet Hale–Bopp were smaller than inferred in any other comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail. In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale–Bopp also exhibited a faint sodium tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters. Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail. Hale–Bopp's sodium tail consisted of neutral atoms (not ions), and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: The source of the sodium appeared to be the inner coma, although not necessarily the nucleus. There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and "sputtering" of sodium from dust grains by ultraviolet light. It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale–Bopp's sodium tail, and the narrow and diffuse components of the tail may have different origins.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two. This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by radiation pressure.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: The abundance of deuterium in comet Hale–Bopp in the form of heavy water was found to be about twice that of Earth's oceans. If Hale–Bopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets, this implies that although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Deuterium was also detected in many other hydrogen compounds in the comet. The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in interstellar clouds, rather than in the solar nebula. Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that comet Hale–Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25–45 kelvins.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Spectroscopic observations of Hale–Bopp revealed the presence of many organic chemicals, several of which had never been detected in comets before. These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Hale–Bopp was the first comet where the noble gas argon was detected. Noble gases are chemically inert and vary from low to high volatility. Since different noble elements have different sublimation temperatures, and don't interact with other elements, they can be used for probing the temperature histories of the cometary ices. Krypton has a sublimation temperature of 16–20 K and was found to be depleted more than 25 times relative to the solar abundance, while argon with its higher sublimation temperature was enriched relative to the solar abundance. Together these observations indicate that the interior of Hale–Bopp has always been colder than 35–40 K, but has at some point been warmer than 20 K. Unless the solar nebula was much colder and richer in argon than generally believed, this suggests that the comet formed beyond Neptune in the Kuiper belt region and then migrated outward to the Oort cloud.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Comet Hale–Bopp's activity and outgassing were not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several specific jets. Observations of the material streaming away from these jets allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11 hours 46 minutes.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: In 1997 a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary nucleus to fully explain the observed pattern of comet Hale–Bopp's dust emission observed in October 1995. The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30 km, with the main nucleus being about 70 km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180 km. This analysis was confirmed by observations in 1996 using Wide-Field Planetary Camera 2 of the Hubble Space Telescope which had taken images of the comet that revealed the satellite.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Although observations using adaptive optics in late 1997 and early 1998 showed a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus, controversy still exists over whether such observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus. The discovery of the satellite was not confirmed by other observations. Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case had been found of a stable binary nucleus until the subsequent discovery of .


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: In November 1996, amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of Houston, Texas took a CCD image of the comet which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. His computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, so Shramek called the Art Bell radio program "Coast to Coast AM" to announce that he had discovered a "Saturn-like object" following Hale–Bopp. UFO enthusiasts, such as remote viewing proponent and Emory University political science professor Courtney Brown, soon concluded that there was an alien spacecraft following the comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Several astronomers, including Alan Hale, stated that the object was simply the 8.5-magnitude star SAO141894. They noted that the star did not appear on Shramek's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. Art Bell claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery. However, astronomers Olivier Hainaut and David Tholen of the University of Hawaii stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Thirty-nine members of the Heaven's Gate cult committed mass suicide in March 1997 with the intention of teleporting to a spaceship which they believed was flying behind the comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Nancy Lieder, who claims to receive messages from aliens through an implant in her brain, stated that Hale–Bopp was a fiction designed to distract the population from the coming arrival of "Nibiru" or "Planet X", a giant planet whose close passage would disrupt the Earth's rotation, causing global cataclysm. Her original date for the apocalypse was May 2003, which passed without incident, but various conspiracy websites continued to predict the coming of Nibiru, most of whom tied it to the 2012 phenomenon. Lieder and others' claims of the planet Nibiru have been repeatedly debunked by scientists.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that Hale–Bopp was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of Halley's Comet in 1986, and certainly seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances. For instance, 69% of Americans had seen Hale–Bopp by April 9, 1997.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Hale–Bopp was a record-breaking comet—the farthest comet from the Sun discovered by amateurs, with the largest well-measured cometary nucleus known after 95P/Chiron, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder. It was also brighter than magnitude 0 for eight weeks, longer than any other recorded comet.


title: Comet Hale–Bopp

text: Carolyn Shoemaker and her husband Gene, both famous for co-discovering comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, were involved in a car crash after photographing the comet. Gene died in the crash and his ashes were sent to the Moon aboard NASA's "Lunar Prospector" mission along with an image of Hale–Bopp, "the last comet that the Shoemakers observed together".


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Cadillac Eldorado is a luxury car manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1952 until 2002 over twelve generations.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line. The original 1953 Eldorado convertible and the Eldorado Brougham models of 1957–1960 had distinct bodyshells and were the most expensive models that Cadillac offered those years. The Eldorado was never less than second in price after the Cadillac Series 75 limousine until 1966. Starting in 1967 the Eldorado retained its premium position in the Cadillac price structure, but was manufactured in high volumes on a unique, two-door personal luxury car platform.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972, and was a modern revival of the pre-war Cadillac V-12 and Cadillac V-16 roadsters and convertibles. It was the first Cadillac model to use a nameplate instead of previous Series model descriptions.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The nameplate "Eldorado" is a contraction of two Spanish words that translate as "the gilded (i.e., golden) one" — and also refers to El Dorado, the mythical Colombian "Lost City of Gold" that fascinated Spanish explorers.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Chosen in an internal competition for a 1952 concept vehicle celebrating Cadillac's golden anniversary, the name "Eldorado" was subsequently adopted for a limited-edition convertible for model year 1953.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Cadillac began using the nameplates "Eldorado Seville", after the city in southern Spain, and "Eldorado Biarritz" after the luxury seaside resort in southern France, to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models (respectively) while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively. The "Seville" name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued (1961), but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning in 1965, the Eldorado became the 'Fleetwood Eldorado'. 'Biarritz' returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1976 until 1991.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Cadillac Series 62 Eldorado joined the Oldsmobile 98 Fiesta, and Buick Roadmaster Skylark as top-of-the-line, limited-production specialty convertibles introduced in 1953 by General Motors to promote its design leadership. A special-bodied, low-production convertible (532 units in total), it was the production version of the 1952 El Dorado "Golden Anniversary" concept car. Along with borrowing bumper bullets from the 1951 GM Le Sabre show car, it featured a full assortment of deluxe accessories and introduced the wraparound windshield and a cut-down beltline to Cadillac standard production.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The expansive frontal glass and distinctive dip in the sheet metal at the bottom of the side windows (featured on one or both of GM's other 1953 specialty convertibles) were especially beloved by General Motors' styling chief Harley Earl and subsequently widely copied by other marques. Available in four unique colors; Aztec Red, Alpine White, Azure Blue and Artisan Ochre. Convertible tops were available in either black or white Orlon. AC was an option at US$620 ($ in dollars ), as were wire wheels for US$325 ($ in dollars ). The car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored "Eldorado" nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the rear deck, hid the convertible top when stored.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible and sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750 ($ in dollars ) as the all-new Packard Caribbean convertible.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The long, wide vehicle came with such standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows, and a heater. Only 532 were produced, comprising just 0.5% of Cadillac's 1953 sales.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price and see a substantial increase in sales. The Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fender breaks, and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear sides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum, and also appeared on a unique one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, and custom interior trimmings with the Cadillac crest embossed on the seat bolsters. A total of 2,150 Eldorado's were sold at a much more modest US$5,738 base price (equivalent to $ in dollars ), nearly four times as many as in 1953.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1955, the Eldorado's body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender, pointed tailfins. These contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings and twin round taillights halfway up the fenders. Sales nearly doubled to 3,950.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version was released, called the "Eldorado Seville", at which point the convertible was named the "Eldorado Biarritz". An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was further distinguished by twin hood ornaments. An extra feature on the Eldorado convertible was a ribbed chrome saddle molding extending from the windshield to the rear window pillar along the beltline. With the addition of the Seville, sales rose yet again to 6,050 of which 2,150 were Sevilles. Eldorados accounted for nearly 4% of all Cadillacs sold.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 1957 saw the Eldorado (in both Biarritz convertible and Seville hardtop body styles) receive new styling with an exclusive rear-end design featuring a low, downswept fenderline capped by pointed in-board fins. Just behind the open rear wheel housings the lower rear quarters were trimmed with broad, sculptured stainless steel beauty panels that visually blended into the split rear wraparound bumper assemblies. A form of this unique rear-end treatment first appeared (sans fins) on the Cadillac "Interceptor" prototype from the immediate post-war era. Series 62 Eldorados (as distinct from the Series 70 Eldorado Brougham) were further distinguished by the model name above a V-shaped rear deck ornament and on the front fenders. The three section front bumper was shared with the rest of the redesigned Cadillac model line, as in previous years the Eldorados came with a long list of standard features. Four specially-built 4-door hardtop Eldorado Sevilles were also built in 1957.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1958, the car received quad headlights as the front clip was again shared with this year's updated standard Cadillacs. GM was promoting their fiftieth year of production, and introduced Anniversary models for each brand; Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, and Chevrolet. The 1958 models shared a common appearance on the top models for each brand; Cadillac Eldorado Seville, Buick Limited Riviera, Oldsmobile Starfire 98, Pontiac Bonneville Catalina, and the all-new Chevrolet Bel-Air Impala.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: This year's revised front clip incorporated a new hood, a new front bumper with "dagmars" mounted lower and further apart combined with a full width jeweled grille. On the Biarritz and Seville, a V-shaped ornament and model identification script was asymmetrically mounted to the deck lid. Other styling updates included the addition of ten vertical chrome slashes ahead of the open rear wheel housings and crest medallions on the flank of the tailfins. The split rear bumper assemblies were each updated with a low-profile combined reverse light/grille unit that replaced the previous year's separate, round exhaust exits and reverse lights; the round brake/tail light units at the base of the fins remained unchanged. The rear license plate housing was now flanked on each side by five vertical hash marks.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Announced in December 1956 and released around March 1957, the "Series 70 Eldorado Brougham" was a distinct, hand-built four-door ultra-luxury vehicle, derived from the Park Avenue and Orleans show cars of 1953–54. Designed by Ed Glowacke, it featured the first appearance of quad headlights, which were at the time illegal in the United States, and totally unique trim. Like the later 1961 fourth-generation Lincoln Continental, it had rear doors that were rear-hinged (suicide doors); unlike the Continental the Brougham was a true pillarless hardtop as the doors latched onto a stub pillar that did not extend beyond the beltline


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: It cost US$13,074 ($ in dollars )—twice the price of a conventional 1957 Eldorado and more than competitors Rolls-Royce Silver Cloud, Facel Vega Excellence or Continental Mark II. Sales were 400 in 1957 and 304 in 1958. 1958 was the last year for the domestic production of the handbuilt Brougham at Cadillac's Detroit factory, as future manufacturing of the special bodies was transferred to Pininfarina of Turin, Italy. It was a marketing approach revival used in the early 1930s with the Cadillac V-16 with similar attention to detail and engineering pursuits as a halo car.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The car featured a roof trimmed in brushed stainless and self leveling air suspension. The exterior ornamentation included wide, polished lower rear quarter beauty panels extending along the rocker sills and rectangularly sculptured side body "cove" highlighted with five horizontal windsplits on the rear doors. Tail styling treatments followed the Eldorado pattern. It also had the first automatic two-position "memory" power seats, a dual four-barrel V-8, low-profile tires with thin white-walls, automatic trunk opener, cruise control, high-pressure cooling system, polarized sun visors, electric antenna, automatic-release parking brake, electric door locks and a dual heating system. Other unique features included an automatic starter with restart function, Autronic Eye, drum-type electric clock, power windows, forged aluminum wheels and air conditioning, six silver magnetic glovebox drink tumblers and finally, an Evans leather trimmed cigarette case and vanity kit containing a lipstick holder, ladies' powder puff with powder, comb, beveled mirror, coin holder, matching leather notebook, gold mechanical pencil, atomizer filled with Arpège Extrait De Lanvin perfume. Buyers of Broughams had a choice of 44 full-leather interior and trim combinations and could select such items as Mouton, Karakul or lambskin carpeting.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: There were serious difficulties with the air suspension, which proved troublesome in practice. Some owners found it cheaper to have it replaced with conventional coil springs.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1957 Eldorado Brougham joined the Sixty Special and the Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies although Fleetwood script or crests did not appear anywhere on the exterior of the car, and so this would also mark the first time in 20 years that a Fleetwood-bodied car was paired with the Brougham name.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1957-58 Eldorado Brougham also marked the return of the Cadillac Series 70, if only briefly. An all-transistor signal-seeking car radio was produced by GM's Delco radio and was first available for the 1957 Eldorado Brougham models, which was standard equipment and used 13 transistors in its circuitry.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado Brougham received minor changes for 1958. The interior upper door panels were finished in leather instead of the metal finish used in 1957. New wheel covers also appeared. Forty-four trim combinations were available, along with 15 special monotone paint colors.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Along with the rest of the General Motors divisions, the bulky, originally proposed 1959 styling was abandoned in favor of a significantly lower, longer and wider theme as an overdue response to Virgil Exner's striking redesign of the 1957 Chrysler products. The 1959 Cadillac is remembered for its huge sharp tailfins with dual bullet tail lights, two distinctive rooflines and roof pillar configurations, new jewel-like grille patterns and matching deck lid beauty panels.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1959 the Series 62 became the "Series 6200". De Villes and two-door Eldorados were moved from the Series 62 to their own series, the "Series 6300" and "Series 6400" respectively, though they all, including the four-door Eldorado Brougham (which was moved from the Series 70 to "Series 6900"), shared the same wheelbase. New mechanical items were a "scientifically engineered" drainage system and new shock absorbers. All Eldorados were characterized by a three-deck, jeweled, rear grille insert that replicated the texture of the front grille; this front/rear grille treatment was shared with the Fleetwood Sixty Special and would continue through 1966 with textures being revised each year. The Seville and Biarritz models had the Eldorado name spelled out behind the front wheel opening and featured broad, full-length body sill highlights that curved over the rear fender profile and back along the upper beltline region. Engine output was an even from the engine. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six way power seats, heater, fog lamps, remote control deck lid, radio and antenna with rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks and license frames. The Eldorado Brougham also came with air conditioning, automatic headlight dimmer, and cruise control standard over the Seville and Biarritz trim lines.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 1960 Cadillacs resemble 1959 Cadillacs, but with much lower tailfins and smoother, more restrained styling.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: General changes included a full-width grille, the elimination of pointed front bumper guards, increased restraint in the application of chrome trim, lower tailfins minus the twin bullet taillamps, oval shaped nacelles and front fender mounted directional indicator lamps. External variations on the Seville two-door hardtop and Biarritz convertible took the form of bright body sill highlights that extended across the lower edge of fender skirts and Eldorado block lettering on the sides of the front fenders, just behind the headlamps. Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual back-up lamps, windshield wipers, two-speed wipers, wheel discs, outside rearview mirror, vanity mirror, oil filter, power windows, six-way power seats, heater, fog lamps, Eldorado engine, remote control trunk lock, radio with antenna and rear speaker, power vent windows, air suspension, electric door locks, license frames, and five whitewall tires. Technical highlights were finned rear drums and an X-frame construction. Interiors were done in Chadwick cloth or optional Chambray cloth and leather combinations. The last Eldorado Seville was built in 1960.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1960 Cadillac Eldorado Biarritz 6467E is featured as Maurice Minnifield's vehicle in the 1990s television series "Northern Exposure".


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For model years 1959 and 1960, the Eldorado Brougham became longer, lower and wider. The Brougham featured narrow taillights integrated into low tailfins; an angular rear roofline with rear ventiplanes that contrasted to the rounded roofline; and the dual rocket-like taillights and tall fins of the standard 1959 models. Front and rear bumper assemblies were shared with the standard Cadillacs.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Designed in-house, Cadillac contracted with Pininfarina of Turin, Italy for the manufacture of the low-volume model. The Eldorado Broughams were among the first Cadillacs to be hand-built in Italy; concept cars were also hand built as needed. Cadillac chassis were sent by boat to the port of Savona, Italy where they were then delivered to the factory in Turin at Grugliasco, mated with the body and sent back to Detroit by boat.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Priced at $13,075 ($ in dollars ), the Brougham cost $1 more than their older siblings and did not sell as well as their forebears.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A vertical crest medallion with Brougham script plate appeared on the front fenders and a single, thin molding ran from the front to rear along the mid-sides of the body. The Brougham did not have Eldorado front fender letters or Eldorado-specific body edge highlight trim. For 1960 new standard model bumpers were incorporated and a fin-like crest or skeg ran from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car on the lower bodyside with the crest medallions relocated to the trailing edge of the rear fenders. The standard equipment list matched those of other Eldorados, plus Cruise Control, Autronic Eye, air conditioning and E-Z Eye glass.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado Brougham was moved to its own unique Series 6900 from Series 70 for its remaining two years.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: All Cadillacs were restyled and re-engineered for 1961. The Eldorado Biarritz convertible (6367) was technically reclassified as a subseries of the De Ville (Series 6300), a status it would keep through 1964. An Eldorado convertible would remain in the Cadillac line through 1966, but its differences from the rest of the line would be generally more modest. The new convex jewelled grille slanted back towards both the bumper and the hood lip, along the horizontal plane, and sat between dual headlamps. New rear-slanting front pillars with a reverse-curved base as first used on the 1959-60 Broughams with a somewhat less expansive windshield was incorporated. The Eldorado Biarritz featured front series designation scripts and a lower body "skeg" trimmed with a thin three quarter length spear molding running from behind the front wheel opening to the rear of the car.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Standard equipment included power brakes, power steering, automatic transmission, dual reverse lights, vanity mirror, power windows, 6-way power bench seat, power vent windows. whitewall tires. Options; bucket seats, RH outside rearview mirror remote control trunk lock and a trumpet horn.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Rubber-isolated front and rear coil springs replaced the trouble prone air suspension system. Four-barrel induction systems were now the sole power choice and dual exhaust were no longer available. With the Seville and Brougham gone, sales fell to 1,450.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A mild facelift characterized Cadillac styling trends for 1962. A flatter, upright grille with a thicker horizontal center bar and more delicate cross-hatched insert appeared. Ribbed chrome trim panel, seen ahead of the front wheel housings in 1961, were now replaced with cornering lamps and front fender model and series identification badges were eliminated. More massive front bumper end pieces appeared and housed rectangular parking lamps. At the rear tail lamps were now housed in vertically oriented rectangular nacelles designed with an angled peak at the center. A vertically ribbed rear beauty panel replicating the grille treatment appeared on the deck lid latch panel. Cadillac script also appeared on the lower left side of the grille. Standard equipment included all of last year's equipment plus remote controlled outside rearview mirror, heater and defroster and front cornering lamps. Cadillac refined the ride and quietness, with more insulation in the floor and behind the firewall.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1963, the Eldorado Biarritz joined the Cadillac Sixty Special and the Cadillac Series 75 as the only Cadillac models with Fleetwood bodies, thus acquiring the Fleetwood wreath and crest on its rear quarters and Fleetwood rocker panel moldings. The 1963 Eldorado was also the first Fleetwood bodied convertible since the Cadillac Series 75 stopped offering four- and two-door convertible body styles and production of the Cadillac Series 90 (V16) ceased in 1941. In overall terms the 1963 Cadillac was essentially the same as the previous year. The completely redesigned body imparted a bolder and more angular look. The front fenders projected 4.625 inches further forward than in 1962 while the tailfins were trimmed down somewhat to provide a lower profile. Body side sculpturing was eliminated in favor of smooth, flatter slab sides. The slightly V-shaped radiator grille was taller and now incorporated outer extensions that swept below the dual headlamps and housed small circular front parking lamps. The Eldorado also had a rectangular front and rear grille pattern that it again shared with the Fleetwood Sixty Special. A total of 143 options including bucket seats with wool, leather or nylon upholstery fabrics and wood veneer facings on dash, doors and seatbacks, set an all-time record for interior appointment choices. Standard equipment was the same as the previous year. The engine was entirely changed, though the displacement and output remained the same, and .


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado received a minor facelift for 1964. The main visual cue indicating an Eldorado Biarritz rather than a De Ville convertible was simply the lack of fender skirts. New up front was a bi-angular grille that formed a V-shape along both its vertical and horizontal planes bisected by a central body-colored horizontal bar. Outer grille extension panels again housed the parking and cornering lamps. It was the 17th consecutive year for the Cadillac tailfins with a new fine-blade design carrying on the tradition. Performance improvements including a larger 429 cubic inch V8 engine were the dominant changes for the model run. Equipment features were same as in 1963 for the most part. Comfort Control, a completely automatic heating and air conditioning system controlled by a dial thermostat on the instrument panel, was introduced as an industry first. The engine was bumped to , with available. Performance gains from the new engine showed best in the lower range, at traffic driving speeds. A new technical feature was the Turbo-Hydramatic transmission, also used in the De Ville and the Sixty Special. Series 62, 75. and the Commercial Chassis continued with the old Hydra-Matic until 1965.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1965, the Eldorado gained Cadillac's Fleetwood designation, marketed as the Fleetwood Eldorado, in a similar fashion to the Fleetwood Series 75 and the Fleetwood Sixty Special. The Biarritz nomenclature was finally dropped from sales literature, probably because there was no need to distinguish the convertible from the long defunct Eldorado Seville and Brougham (The Biarritz nameplate would be revived in 1976 as a trim option for the Eldorado coupe). This was the last generation Eldorado to be equipped with rear wheel drive.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The redesigned Eldorado still rode on the same wheelbase. The elevated tailfins were removed, with fins planed flat, and sharp, distinct body lines replaced the rounded look. Also new were a straight rear bumper and vertical lamp clusters. The headlight pairs switched from horizontal to vertical, thus permitting a wider grille. Curved frameless side windows appeared with a tempered glass backlight. New standard features included lamps for luggage and glove compartments and front and rear safety belts. Power was still supplied by the 340 horsepower V8. Perimeter frame construction allowed repositioning the engine six inches forward in the frame, thus lowering the transmission hump and increasing interior room.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1966, changes included a somewhat coarser mesh for the radiator grille insert, which was now divided by a thick, bright metal horizontal center bar housing rectangular parking lamps at the outer ends. Separate rectangular side marker lamps replaced the integral grille extension designs. There was generally less chrome on all Cadillac models this year. Cadillac "firsts" this season included variable ratio power steering and optional front seats with carbon cloth heating pads built into the cushions and seatbacks. Comfort and convenience innovations were headrests, reclining seats and an AM/FM stereo system. Automatic level control was available. Engineering improvements made to the perimeter frame increased ride and handling ease. Newly designed piston and oil rings and a new engine mounting system and patented quiet exhaust were used.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado was radically redesigned for 1967 as a front-wheel drive hardtop coupe, becoming the brand's first entry to capitalize on the era's burgeoning personal luxury car market. Promoted as a "personal" Cadillac, it shared the E-body with the second-generation Buick Riviera and the first-generation Oldsmobile Toronado, which had been introduced the previous year.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: To enhance its distinctiveness, Cadillac adapted the Toronado's front-wheel drive "unified powerplant package", mating a Cadillac 429 V8 to a Turbo-Hydramatic 425 automatic transmission. Disc brakes were optional, and new standard safety equipment included an energy absorbing steering column and generously padded instrument panel.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1967 Eldorado was a great departure from previous generations, which shared styling with Cadillac's De Ville and Series 62, the exceptions being the rare 1953 model, and the even more rare 1957-60 Eldorado Brougham. The front drive Eldorado's crisp styling, initiated by GM styling chief Bill Mitchell, was distinctive and unique, more angular than the streamlined Riviera and Toronado. The rear end was inspired by the GM-X Stiletto concept car. This was the only production Cadillac to be equipped with concealed headlights behind vacuum operated doors.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Performance was 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in less than nine seconds and a top speed of 120 mph (192 km/h). Roadability and handling were highly praised by contemporary reviews, and sales were excellent despite high list prices. Its sales of 17,930 units, nearly three times the previous Eldorado high, helped give Cadillac its best year ever.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1968, the Eldorado received Cadillac's new (SAE gross) Cadillac 472 V8 (7.7 L) V8, and disc brakes became standard. Only slight exterior changes were made to comply with new federal safety legislation. Sales set another record at 24,528, with Eldorados accounting for nearly 11% of all Cadillacs sold.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1969, hidden headlamps were eliminated, a halo vinyl roof was available as an option, as was a rim-blow steering wheel – the only year Cadillac offered it.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1970, the Eldorado featured the new Cadillac 500 V8 (8.2 L) V8 engine, Cadillac's largest-ever regular production V8, rated SAE gross and , and would remain exclusive to the Eldorado until it became the standard engine in all full size Cadillacs for the 1975-76 model years. A power sunroof was a newly available option for 1970. Styling changes for 1970 included a longer hood, a new grille with '8.2 Litre' notification and new taillamp bezels with thin lenses.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1971 Eldorado was substantially redesigned, growing two inches in length, six in wheelbase and featuring standard fender skirts, all of which gave the car a much heavier appearance than the previous generation. The 500 cu in (8.2 L) V8 engine remained an Eldorado exclusive.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A convertible Eldorado was also offered for 1971, the first in the line since 1966. Door glass remained frameless, and the hardtop rear quarter windows were deleted, replaced by a fixed "opera window" in the widened "C" pillar. A stand-up wreath and crest hood ornament was new this year.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Inside, there was a new curved instrument panel and redesigned seats. A fiber-optic "lamp monitor" system, which displayed the functionality of the headlamps, taillamps, parking lamps, turn signals and brakelights was mounted on each front fender and the shelf below the rear window. This wheelbase version Eldorado would run through 1978, receiving major facelifts in 1973, 1974 and 1975. Sales in 1971 set a new record at 27,368.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Changes were minimal for 1972; the most noticeable exterior change was a new 'Eldorado' script, replacing the block 'Eldorado' lettering on the front fenders a trunk lid. Sales for 1972 increased to 40,074.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1973, the Eldorado was removed from the Fleetwood series and reestablished as its own series. The 1973 models received a major facelift, featuring a massive egg-crate grille, new front and rear bumpers, decklid, rear fenders and taillamps. Interiors featured new "soft pillow" door panels, with larger, sturdier pull-straps. The rear "lamp monitor" display which showed the driver the function of the turn signal, brake and taillamps, was relocated (except on the convertible) from the rear shelf, to the headliner just above the rear glass.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Cadillac Eldorado was chosen as the official pace car for the Indianapolis 500 in 1973. Cadillac produced 566 of these special pace car convertibles. Thirty-three were used at the track during the race week, with the remainder distributed to U.S. Cadillac dealers one per dealership. Sales of the Eldorado coupe and convertible soared to 51,451 the highest total for the model during the 1970s and over a sixth of all Cadillac sales for 1973.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The lengthened wheelbase reduced performance relative to contemporary premium personal luxury cars, but offered comfortable seating for six adults rather than just four.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 1974 Eldorados featured a redesigned rear bumper with vertical ends, housing sidemarker lamps. This new bumper was designed to meet the new 5 mile impact federal design regulation. Other styling changes included new horizontal taillamps placed beneath the trunk lid, a new fine mesh grille with Cadillac script on the header and new standard wheel covers. Inside, there was a redesigned two-tier instrument panel, marketed in sales literature as "space age" and shared with all 1974 Cadillacs.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A new, quartz controlled digital clock, an "information band" of warning lights and the fuel gauge ran horizontally along the upper tier of this new instrument panel.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1975, the Eldorado was given rectangular headlamps, a new egg-crate grille, full rear wheel openings sans fender skirts and sharper, crisper lines resulting in a sleeker appearance reminiscent of the 1967–70 models.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 1976 was to be the final year for the Eldorado convertible and the car was heavily promoted by General Motors as "the last American convertible". Some 14,000 would be sold, many purchased as investments. The final 200 convertibles were designated as "Bicentennial Edition" commemorating America's 200th birthday. All 200 of these cars were identical, painted white with a dual red/blue pinstripe along the upper bodyside and inside, a commemorative plaque was mounted on the dashboard. When Cadillac reintroduced the Eldorado convertible for the 1984 model year, several customers who had purchased 1976 Eldorado convertibles as investments, felt they had been deceived and launched an unsuccessful class action lawsuit against General Motors.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Having received a major facelift the previous year, the Eldorado for 1976 received only minor styling changes, including a new grille, a small Cadillac script on the hood face, revised taillamp lenses and new black painted wheel covers.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1977, the Eldorado again received a new grille with a finer crosshatch pattern. New vertical taillamps were relocated to the chrome bumper-fender extensions. New 'Eldorado' block-lettering appeared on the hood face and new rectangular side marker lights with 'Eldorado' block-lettering replaced the 'Eldorado' script on the rear fenders. The convertible was dropped (although Custom Coach of Lima, Ohio converted a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles using salvaged parts from earlier models). The mammoth 500 cu in. (8.2L) V8 of 1970–76 was replaced by a new 425 cu in. (7L) V8 with available in all 1977 Cadillacs, except the Seville.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A new grille was the only visible change for 1978; the Eldorado would be completely redesigned and downsized for 1979.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Unlike the Fleetwood Brougham and De Ville, which both boasted the opulent "d'Elegance" trim luxury package, Cadillac did not offer a similar option for the Eldorado until the 1976 model year with the introduction of the "Biarritz" (a name last used for the 1964 Eldorado convertible) package. The car featured unique exterior trim and the rear half of the cabriolet roof was covered with a heavily padded landau vinyl top accented with large "opera" lights. Body colored wheel covers were also featured. The 1977–1978 interior featured "pillowed"-style, "tufted" leather seating, while the 1976 interior did not. As with other Cadillac models, special order contrasting upholstery piping and exterior colors were available.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1978 "Biarritz" option packages consisted of the Eldorado Custom "Biarritz" ($1,865); with Astroroof ($2,946); with sunroof ($2,746) and Eldorado Custom "Biarritz" Classic ($2,466); with Astroroof ($3,547); with sunroof ($3,347).


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 2000 Eldorado Custom "Biarritz" Classics were produced for 1978 only, in two-tone Arizona beige/demitasse brown consisting of 1,499 with no Astroroofs or no sunroofs; 475 with Astroroofs; 25 with sunroofs and one was produced with a power sliding T-top. Only nine of the latter are known to have been retrofitted by the American Sunroof Company under the direction of General Motors' Cadillac Motor Car Division.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The "Biarritz" option was available on the Eldorado through the 1991 model year and was replaced with the touring coupe (ETC) option for 1992. Some of the original "Biarritz" styling cues vanished after 1985, such as the brushed stainless steel roofing (1979–85) and the plush "pillowed" interior seating designs, but the "Biarritz" remained unique.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The tenth generation Eldorado debuted in 1979, continuing as a rebadged variant of the Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado. This model was successful in terms of annual production totals compared with the ninth and eleventh generations. The model set an all-time Eldorado sales record in 1984 of 77,806 (coupes and convertibles), accounting for about 26% of all Cadillacs sold.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Independent rear suspension was adopted for the first time, helping retain rear-seat and trunk room in the smaller body. The most notable styling touch was an extreme notchback roofline. The Eldorado "Biarritz" model featured a stainless-steel roof, similar to the 1957–1958 Eldorado Brougham. The Eldorado featured frameless door glass, and rear quarter windows, similar to those from 1967 to 1970, without a thick "B" pillar. The Eldorado and the redesigned 1980 Cadillac Seville shared front wheel drive platforms. The cars were not true hardtops, as the rear quarter windows were fixed.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Cadillac Trip Computer was available on the 1979 Eldorado. First offered on the 1978 Cadillac Seville, it provided electronic digital (LED) readouts for the speedometer, remaining fuel gallons, clock, and radio. No digital instrumentation was available for the 1980 Eldorado, apart from the climate control system. In 1981, full electronic "digital" instrumentation was an available option on the Eldorado and Seville. In addition to the digital electronic climate control that was standard on all Cadillacs, the standard analog speedometer and fuel gauges could be replaced with digital displays with features displaying gallons of remaining fuel and approximate range.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The tenth generation Eldorado was sold with multiple "malaise era" V8 engine variants, while offering a six cylinder for the first time in company history, a 4.1 L V6 sourced from Buick:


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado was fitted with both gasoline engines – all of which operated on regular fuel – and a single diesel:


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A smaller, more fuel efficient, Oldsmobile 350 ci (5.7 L) gasoline V8 replaced the 425 ci (7.0 L) engine from 1978.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1980, the standard engine became the Cadillac 368 ci V8 engine except in California, where the Oldsmobile 350 was still used. In both the 1980 Eldorado and Seville (which now shared frames) the 368s came with DEFI throttle body fuel injection.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1982, Cadillac unveiled the 4.1 L "High Technology" HT-4100. The performance was modest relative to older generations of the Eldorado. It possessed powering the car to a top speed of and a 0-60 time of 13.8 sec, with fuel economy of


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: This lightweight engine, used in all full-size 1982 Cadillacs (except limousines) was an in-house design that mated cast-iron heads to an aluminum block. Many HT-4100s were replaced under warranty because it was prone to failure of the intake manifold gasket due to scrubbing of the bi-metal interface, aluminum oil pump failure, cam bearing displacement, weak aluminum block castings and bolts pulling the aluminum threads from the block.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Oldsmobile 350 ci diesel engine was available as an option. It possessed powering the car to a top speed of and a 0-60 time of 17.3 sec, with fuel economy of 25 mpg.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For 1981 only, the Eldorado was powered by Cadillac's V8-6-4 variable displacement variant of the 368 engine, which was designed to deactivate two or four cylinders when full power was not needed, helping meet GM's government fuel economy (CAFE) averages. It was a reduced bore version of the 1968 model-year 472, sharing that engine's stroke and also that of the model-years 1977–1979 425.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1981-2 the Buick LC4 V6 was available. It came with a 4-barrel carburetor, had an 8.0:1 compression ratio, and produced at 4,000 rpm and at 2,000 rpm.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: From 1982 through 1985, Cadillac offered the Eldorado "Touring Coupe", with heavier duty "touring" suspension, aluminum alloy wheels, larger blackwall white-letter tires, cloisonné hood ornament, body-colored headlamp and taillamp bezels, wide-ribbed rocker moldings and available only with saddle leather interior and three exterior colors. These Eldorados were marketed as "drivers' cars" and included reclining front bucket seats with lumbar support, leather wrapped steering wheel, a center console and standard digital instrument cluster.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Late in the 1985 model year, an optional "Commemorative Edition" package was announced, in honor of the last year of production for this version of the Eldorado. Exclusive features included gold-tone script and tail-lamp emblems, specific sail panel badges, gold-background wheel center caps, and a "Commemorative Edition" badge on the steering wheel horn pad. Leather upholstery (available in dark blue or white, or a two-tone with dark blue and white) was included in the package, along with a dark blue dashboard and carpeting. Exterior colors were cotillion white or commodore blue.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: In 1984, eight years after Cadillac built its last convertible, the division temporarily resumed production of a convertible version of the Eldorado Biarritz. This car was not an aftermarket conversion, but a Cadillac division built convertible offered for the 1984-85 model years. The car was 200 pounds (91 kg) heavier, featuring the same interior as the Eldorado Biarritz coupe. The 1985 model year was also the last for the aftermarket Eldorado convertible made by the American Sunroof Corporation.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Prior to the "official" 1984 and 1985 Eldorado convertibles marketed by Cadillac, some 1979–1983 Eldorados were made into coach convertibles by independent coachbuilders e.g. ASC inc., Custom Coach (Lima, Ohio—this coachbuilder turned a few 1977 and 1978 Eldorados into convertibles) and Hess & Eisenhardt. The same coach-builders also offered Buick Riviera and Oldsmobile Toronado convertibles.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Based on a consultant's prediction that by 1986 gasoline in the U.S. would reach $3 per gallon and that smaller luxury cars would be in demand, the 11th generation Eldorado was substantially downsized — by in length and in weight — along with GM's badge engineered variants, the Oldsmobile Toronado, Buick Riviera, as well as the four-door Cadillac Seville.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The higher fuel prices did not materialize, and with the 11th generation carrying a base price of $24,251, nearly 16% higher than the 1985 model, annual sales plummeted 72% from the last year of the previous generation. Observers noted the 11th generation was too small for Cadillac's traditional customers, yet still unable to attract buyers from the targeted competitors, e.g., BMW and Mercedes-Benz.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Buick and Oldsmobile's variants used Buick's 3.8 liter V6 engine, while the Eldorado continued to use the 4.1 liter V8. Rear suspension used a single fiberglass transverse leaf spring for its fully independent rear end. Four wheel disc brakes were standard, as was electronic leveling. The interior featured a fully digital display, bucket seats with lumbar support, and cruise control. The optional Biarritz trim featured an upgraded interior.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: 1985's convertible body style was dropped to make way for the new Cadillac Allanté roadster. For the first time, the Eldorado no longer featured a hardtop body style, instead using framed door glass. Despite its smaller exterior size, the Eldorado's interior volume remained comparable to the previous generation.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Aside from a longer, 5 year/50,000 mile warranty, the Eldorado was virtually unchanged for 1987, though with a price drop, to $23,740 ($ in dollars ). The standard suspension, with new taller 75 series (previously 70) tires and hydro-elastic engine mounts, was slightly retuned for a softer ride, while the optional ($155) "touring suspension" ($ in dollars ), with deflected-disc strut valves and 15-inch alloy wheels, remained for those desiring a firmer ride. As part of a federal requirement to discourage "chop-shop" thieves, major body panels were etched with the VIN. Also new, a combination cashmere cloth with leather upholstery, and locking inertia seat belt reels for rear seat passengers, which allowed for child-seat installation in the outboard seating positions in back. The formal cabriolet roof was added this year. Available for $495 on the base Eldorado, it featured a padded covering over the rear half of the roof, and turned the rear side glass into smaller opera windows. One of the Eldorado's most expensive standalone options was the Motorola cellular telephone mounted inside the locking center arm rest. Priced at $2,850 ($ in dollars ), it had been reworked this year for easier operation, and featured a microphone mounted between the sun visors for hands-free operation. Additionally, the telephone featured a radio mute control: activated when the telephone and radio were in use at the same time, it automatically decreased the rear speaker's audio volume, and over-rode the front music speakers to be used for the hands-free telephone. The rectangular marker lamp, located on the bumper extension molding just behind the rear wheel well on 1986 and 1987 Eldorado models, reappeared on the 1990 and 1991 Sevilles (base models only) and Eldorado T"ouring Coupés".


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The Eldorado received a facelift for 1988 and sales nearly doubled from the previous year, up to 33,210. Essentially, the revision lengthened the vehicles end caps, making the Eldorado longer than in 1987; the wheelbase, doors, roof, and glass remained relatively unchanged and body panels were revised. Standard equipment included Cadillac's new 155 horsepower 4.5 liter V8. A comprehensive anti-lock braking system, developed by Teves, was newly available. Both front and rear fenders featured creased blade elements that rose slightly proud of the adjacent sheetmetal. Revisions included a new grille above the revamped front bumper, slightly protruding three-sided tail lamps and a revised rear bumper and trunk lid. Bladed 14-inch aluminum wheels remained standard, while an optional 15-inch snowflake-pattern alloy wheel was included with the touring suspension option.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The 1988 interior featured wider front seat headrests and swing-away door pull handles, replacing pull straps. New upholstery patterns, along with shoulder belts for outboard rear-seat passengers, appeared for both base and Biarritz models, with the latter returning to the tufted-button design – last seen in the 1985 Eldorado Biarritz. A new vinyl roof option, covering the full rooftop, featured a band of body color above the side door and windows – similar to the style used until 1978. This replaced the "cabriolet roof" option, which covered the rear half of the roof, introduced just a year earlier. With the Biarritz option package, the padded vinyl roof covered just the rear quarter of the rooftop, behind the rear side windows. Biarritz also included slender vertical opera lamps, as in 1986 and 1987, but now added a spear molding (similar to the style used on the 1976–1985 Eldorado Biarritz) that ran from the base of the rooftop, continuing horizontally along the door, and down to the front fender tip. The standard power antenna was moved from the front passenger fender to the rear passenger fender. Nineteen shades of exterior paint were available (two more than the previous year). Pricing went up this year – to $24,891 ($ in dollars ). This 1988 facelift would be the last until the Eldorado was completely redesigned for 1992.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: For this model year, the optional automatic rearview mirror transitioned from an electrically operated mechanical tilting mechanism to the new electrochromic style, using a clear fluid filled between the mirror and a thin sheet of glass, which tints on activation. A new exterior color, White Diamond, brought the color choices up to 18. Gone were the 14-inch wheels, as the previously optional 15-inch "snowflake"-style aluminum wheel, introduced the previous year, was made standard for the base Eldorado. A compact disc player, available only with the Delco Bose Gold Series music system, was a new option this year, as were reversible floor mats, and gold-plated ornamentation ("Cadillac" grille and trunk scripts, sail panel ornaments, deck lid engine plaque, trunk lock cover, tail lamp emblems, and available wire wheel cover wreath and crest). New standard items included an express-down module for the driver's window, electronic oil-life indicator, a more powerful Delco Freedom II battery, a revised factory warranty, and GM's PASS (Passive Automotive Security System) KEY theft-deterrent system, which activated the fuel system based upon a coded pellet within the ignition key. Previously optional items that were now added as standard equipment included a cassette player with graphic equalizer, remote fuel filler door release, and a front license plate mounting. To deplete existing warehouse stock, the brushed chrome lower bodyside accent molding, optional through last year, was added as standard equipment for 1989 (revamped moldings would appear in 1990). New high-gloss Birdseye Maple trim (replacing the satin-finished American walnut used from 1986 to 1988) on the instrument panel and console was standard on Eldorado Biarritz, and available (for $245) on the base Eldorado. The optional full cabriolet roof, roughly simulating a convertible top, was offered in limited colors. Pricing rose again, now at $26,738 ($ in dollars ). Production slipped slightly to 27,807 (including 7,174 Biarritz models). The dip in sales was partly due to competition from GM's own Buick Riviera, which grew 11 inches this year in a dramatic restyle, and had a production increase from 8,625 units in 1988 to 21,189 in 1989.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A driver's side airbag was introduced as standard equipment, deleting the telescoping steering column was discontinued (although the tilt feature remained). Where cruise controls had been mounted on the center of the steering wheel, the air bag required a smaller diameter steering wheel, and controls moved to the turn signal stalk. A "Touring Coupe" trim level was introduced later in the model year. A new multi-point fuel injection replaced the throttle-body style from the previous model year, and horsepower rose from 155 to 180, requiring premium fuel. The front suspension stabilizer shaft was revised; "Snowflake" alloy wheel were standard, with an optional cast aluminum wheel design, not available with the touring suspension package; and the tire jack received a dedicated carpeted storage compartment in the trunk.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Interior revisions included new molded seat trim panels, additional lateral and lumbar support, French seams, and revised front headrests. Full leather upholstery (formerly leather and cloth) became standard on the Biarritz trim level, and the base model lost seat-back map pockets. The cellular telephone was nolonger available, and the vinyl center armrest was revised The electronic climate control received three automatic and two manual settings. The optional leather upholstery package for the base model now included a power passenger seat recliner. 1990 models incorporated 1980's "Eldorado option package" as standard equipment, including revised carpeted floor mats, body-color door edge guards, illuminated driver and passenger visor, trunk mat, and an illuminated entry system.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Other previously optional equipment also became standard equipment, including the rear window defogger with heated outside mirrors and bodyside accent striping. New options included a central-unlocking feature (from the outside door locks using the key) added to the automatic door locks. For model year 1990, the rear deck lid carried a port fuel injection emblem, featured a chrome handle above the license plate opening and rear safety reflectors moved from the bumper onto the panel below the decklid. A charcoal-color vinyl strip accented the chrome bumper and bodyside moldings, while the front bumper guards changed from body-color to charcoal.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: MSRP for 1990 base model was $28,885 ($ in dollars ) and for the Biarritz trim level an additional $3,180 ($ in dollars ). Production dropped to 22,291 units, about 1/3 of which were the Biarritz trim and 1,507 were Eldorado touring coupe trim.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: As the final year for the eleventh generation, the 1991 Eldorado featured Cadillac's new 4.9 liter port fuel injection V-8 engine with GM's 4T60-E electronically controlled four-speed transmission. The Cadillac-exclusive "viscous converter clutch" provided smoother shifting under hard acceleration. Engine controls were monitored by the GMP4 powertrain control module (PCM), an on-board 64-kilobyte computer. A new exhaust set-up with a wider catalytic converter reduced restriction by 38% from last year, while the 0-60 mph speed went from 9 seconds in 1990 to 8.2 for 1991. Revised engine mounts decreased cabin noise and vibration. Adaptive suspension, marketed as Computer Command Ride (CCR), automatically adapted the suspension mode to vehicle speed for better handling and ride comfort; the system, optional on most other Cadillac models, was standard on Eldorado. The Bosch II anti-lock braking system, previously a $925 option, was made standard, as well as a more powerful 140-amp alternator.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: A $309 electrically heated windshield was newly optional, as was the "security package" ($480 on base Eldorado, no charge on Biarritz or touring coupe) which now included remote keyless entry along with automatic door locks with central unlocking. A theft-deterrent system was optional, $480 on base Eldorado, no charge on Biarritz or touring coupe. The windshield washer system was revised.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Base price was $31,245 ($ in dollars ), a $2,400 increase from 1990. Several items became no-charge options on the base Eldorado, including a full vinyl roof covering or full-cabriolet (convertible-look) roof (an otherwise $1,095 option), leather upholstery with power passenger recliner, and the Delco-Bose sound system, with choice of CD or cassette. For 1991, the $2,050 touring coupe and the $3,180 Biarritz trim packages included a power moon roof and Delco-Bose stereo at no additional charge. 1991 was the final year for the Eldorado Biarritz. Production dropped to 16,212 (including 2,249 touring coupe models), the lowest for any Eldorado model since 1966.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: The twelfth and final generation Eldorado introduced for 1992 was longer and wider than the previous generation, featuring frameless window glass. Marketed in either ESC (Eldorado Sport Coupe) and ETC (Eldorado Touring Coupe) trim, the former featured a stand-up hood ornament, Cadillac crests on the rear roof pillar, 16-inch multi-spoke alloy wheels, and concealed exhausts.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Shortly after introduction Cadillac's new Northstar V8 became available in both 270 and variants, replacing the previous generation's 4.9 L L26.


title: Cadillac Eldorado

text: Standard equipment included cloth upholstery, Zebrano wood trim, 6-way power front bucket seats, climate control, digital instrumentation, column-mounted gear selector, and three-position electronically adjustable "Speed-Sensitive Suspension". The ETC featured a grille-mounted Cadillac wreath and crest, "Touring Coupe" scripts on the doors, integrated fog lamps, flat-face 16-inch alloy wheels, and quad exhaust outlets. Its standard equipment included gathered leather seating areas, marketed as "Nuance" leather; 12-way power seats; Zebrano-trimmed floor console with gear selector, analog instrumentation, and specially tuned suspension.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Christopher Adam Daughtry (; born December 26, 1979) is an American singer, musician, and actor. He is the lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist for the rock band Daughtry, which he formed after placing fourth on the fifth season of "American Idol". Released by RCA Records, Daughtry's self-titled debut album became the fastest selling debut rock album in Nielsen SoundScan history, selling more than one million copies within five weeks of release. The album was recorded before the band was officially formed, making him the only official member present on the album.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In its ninth week of release, "Daughtry" reached number one on the "Billboard" chart. Chris Daughtry is the third most successful "American Idol" contestant in terms of record sales, behind Kelly Clarkson and Carrie Underwood, who both won their respective seasons. At the 50th Grammy Awards, the band was nominated for Best Rock Song for the single "It's Not Over".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Since the band's first album, Chris Daughtry has collaborated with several artists, including Slash, Sevendust, Theory of a Deadman, Chad Kroeger, Brad Arnold, Vince Gill, and Carlos Santana. He is known for his powerful vocal belting technique and wide vocal range.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Chris Daughtry was born in Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina on December 26, 1979, and raised in Lasker, North Carolina, until he was 14. His parents, Sandra and James "Pete" Daughtry, reside in Palmyra, Virginia, where Daughtry grew up before he relocated to McLeansville, outside of Greensboro. Daughtry attended Fluvanna County High School in Palmyra, graduating in 1998.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: At age 16, Daughtry started taking singing seriously as a musician. He took guitar lessons from blues rock guitarist Matt Jagger at Stacy's Music store in Charlottesville and Mark Ebert from Laurinburg, North Carolina. He sought advice from Andy Waldeck (frontman for Earth to Andy) who is credited first on his debut album. He performed with rock bands during his time in high school at local venues, opening for his future bandmate Brian Craddock's band My Dog Lucy and Matt Jagger. During high school, he appeared in two stage productions: "The Wiz" and "Peter Pan".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry's high school band went by the name of Cadence. He sang lead vocals and played rhythm guitar. They produced one album, "All Eyes on You" (1999), a rarity that can sometimes be found on eBay.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: The band Absent Element consisted of Daughtry on lead vocals and guitar, Mark Perry on lead guitar, Scott Crawford on drums and Ryan Andrews on bass. Absent Element released "Uprooted" in 2005. This release contains the songs "Conviction" and "Breakdown", which Daughtry later combined and re-recorded as the song "Breakdown" for the album "Daughtry".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In 2005, Chris Daughtry auditioned for the CBS singing contest "". He did not make the cut for the live performances. Former Daughtry drummer Joey Barnes was at the same audition and made the cut only to drop out of the running due to disagreements regarding the contract.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry auditioned for "American Idol" in Denver, Colorado, with The Box Tops' "The Letter"; he was portrayed as a young rocker with Southern and hard rock influences. He passed the audition by a split decision: approved by Paula Abdul and Randy Jackson, disapproved by Simon Cowell. Simon felt that Daughtry at that time was too robotic. After being given a Golden Ticket to Hollywood, he performed "The First Cut Is the Deepest", and sang "Emotion" during his trio performance with Ace Young and Bobby Bullard. The song for Daughtry's a cappella performance remained unknown until "American Idol Rewind" aired Season 5 Hollywood week, when it was shown that he sang Elton John's 'Your Song'.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry eventually made it to the Top 24. On March 1, 2006, Daughtry's "raw" performance of Fuel's "Hemorrhage (In My Hands)" received critical acclaim by all three judges. On March 3, 2006, Jackson stated in an interview that Daughtry had been offered the opportunity to become Fuel's new lead singer, as the band was at the time without a lead singer. At a welcome home party, Daughtry said he had declined the offer, but, he said, "he'd still like to work with them somewhere down the road."


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry's March 21 performance caused controversy when he sang a minor-key rendition of Johnny Cash's "I Walk the Line", based on a cover of the song by the band Live originally recorded for the 2001 tribute album "Good Rockin' Tonight: The Legacy of Sun Records". Neither Daughtry nor the judges (who uniformly praised the performance) noted the Live version, making it appear to some viewers and critics that Daughtry was trying to pass off the arrangement as his own. In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", Daughtry defended himself, saying "It wasn't my doing. You say a lot of things in the [pretaped] interview, and when editing gets involved, things get cut out for time constraints. I did mention in my interview that I'm doing a different version from a band I totally respect. The lead singer of Live, Ed Kowalczyk, called me to say, 'Man, don't listen to that.'...It was really cool to get that kind of respect." On August 2, 2008, at the Tom's River Fest in Tom's River NJ, Daughtry, Kowalczyk, and Live performed Live's rendition of "I Walk the Line" together.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Chris Daughtry was in the final four on May 10, 2006, and found himself in the bottom two with Katharine McPhee. When asked by host Ryan Seacrest who should be leaving, Cowell expressed that he believed that McPhee should be eliminated. Seacrest then announced that Daughtry was eliminated, which shocked almost everyone. Seacrest asked Daughtry if he was surprised. An obviously stunned Daughtry could only utter, "A little, yeah." The media grabbed hold of the surprise elimination and there was some controversy regarding the accuracy of the vote count on the night Daughtry was eliminated. The vote-tallying website DialIdol, however, predicted that Daughtry was the lowest vote-getter for the week. In an interview after his elimination, Daughtry said that he thought he got voted off because his fans were "overconfident" that he would be safe, so they did not call and vote. Later, he stated the best piece of advice he ever received was, "Don't believe your own hype," a possible nod toward his surprise "American Idol" elimination.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: During the Season Five finale on May 24, 2006, at the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood, Daughtry performed the song "Mystery" with the band Live. Live's version of the song was later available for download on the band's MySpace.com profile with Chris Daughtry performing backup vocals.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: After leaving "American Idol", Daughtry traveled the talk show circuit, which has become commonplace for non-winners as "American Idol" progressed through the years. He made appearances on "The Tonight Show", "Total Request Live", and "The Today Show". He also appeared on "Live with Regis and Kelly" and "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", in which he performed "Wanted Dead or Alive". In a later episode of the show in which Ellen interviewed former presidents Bill Clinton and George H. W. Bush, who were collaborating on the Bush-Clinton Katrina fund, she even jokingly asked if anything could be done about Chris Daughtry's elimination. Chris Daughtry was asked to audition as the lead vocalist for Fuel and, though incredibly flattered, he declined the offer in order to form his own band.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On December 18, 2019, he was named the runner-up on the second season of "The Masked Singer" where he competed as "Rottweiler".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: For the week of June 10, 2006, Chris Daughtry's cover of "Wanted Dead or Alive" charted at number 43 on the Billboard Hot 100, being named the Hot Shot Debut of the week. On July 10, 2006, it was announced that Daughtry had signed with 19 Entertainment and RCA Records and began working on an album that was to be released in November. It was also announced that, like season 4 rocker Constantine Maroulis, he would be forming his own band. His band was formed under the name Daughtry, after the singer's last name. The band currently consists of Chris Daughtry, guitarists Josh Steely and Brian Craddock (the latter replaced former guitarist Jeremy Brady in 2007), bassist Andy Waldeck replacing Josh Paul at the end of 2012 (formerly of Suicidal Tendencies), and drummer Robin Diaz (who replaced former drummer Joey Barnes in 2010). In 2012, Elvio Fernandes joined Daughtry playing keyboard and singing backup vocals. Daughtry's debut album was released on November 21, 2006. Chris Daughtry reportedly told "US Weekly" that the band's album "would not be... pop." The first single off "Daughtry", "It's Not Over", was released November 21, 2006. The album reached number one in Billboard Charts with his debut album. He joins Carrie Underwood, Kelly Clarkson, Clay Aiken, Scotty McCreery, and Ruben Studdard as the only contestants to reach number one in Billboard 200. The album featured Velvet Revolver and former Guns N' Roses guitarist Slash, who performed the guitar solo on the eventual single "What I Want".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Beginning on March 14, 2007, on every episode of "American Idol"'s sixth season's results show, Daughtry's song "Home" was played every time a participant was knocked out of the competition, as each of the losing contestants was asked to look at their own journeys. Additionally, on the final competition on May 22, 2007, Daughtry performed the song live at the end of the show. It also became the song for the eliminating home team for the 2007 NBA Playoffs. In March, Daughtry performed during the Final Four round of the 2007 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament. On May 27, 2007, Daughtry performed at the 2007 Indianapolis 500.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On September 19, 2007, on ABC, Viva Las Vegas premiered, which was a tribute to Elvis Presley's career in Las Vegas. Daughtry performed an acoustic version of "Suspicious Minds". On November 18, 2007, the band was the winner of multiple awards at the "2007 American Music Awards" (ABC Television). The winning categories were: 1) Pop or Rock: Favorite Album – Daughtry; 2) Adult Contemporary Music: Favorite Artist; 3) Favorite Breakthrough Artist. On December 6, 2007, the band was nominated for four 50th Annual Grammy Awards: Best Rock Album for "Daughtry", Best Rock Song for "It's Not Over", Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocal for "Home", and Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals for "It's Not Over".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On May 6, 2009, Daughtry performed "No Surprise", the debut single for their forthcoming album, on "American Idol". Chris Daughtry wrote the song with Nickelback vocalist Chad Kroeger. The album on which "No Surprise" appears, Daughtry's second album titled "Leave This Town", was released on July 14, 2009. Chris Daughtry made history with its release by becoming the first "American Idol" alumnus to have two consecutive number one albums. "Leave This Town" was the first Daughtry album that they wrote and recorded as a band, as their self-titled album was recorded before the band was officially formed and featured only Chris Daughtry as an official member.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On July 2, 2009, Daughtry performed an acoustic cover of Lady Gaga's "Poker Face" and has received over 25 million views on YouTube.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry kicked off a tour with Lifehouse and Cavo on August 2, 2009, in Orlando, Florida. The final show of the tour was in Tempe, Arizona on October 13, 2009. The band played a show in Chris Daughtry's hometown of Greensboro, North Carolina on November 12, 2009.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On December 31, 2010, Daughtry tweeted that the band will be working on a new album soon. On March 7, 2011, he tweeted that the album sounds nothing like the previous two and will feature a song titled "Spaceship." There will be another song on the record called "Rescue Me", which the band has performed on stage in New Jersey. The album would be released on November 21, 2011, according to Daughtry's Twitter.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry has written and recorded a song for the soundtrack to the video game "". On September 5, 2011, Daughtry tweeted that the song "Drown In You" is exclusive to the soundtrack and will not be featured on his upcoming album.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: On September 15, 2011, Daughtry posted a new song "Renegade" on his official website. The newest single "Crawling Back to You" was posted on the website and released on September 19, 2011, from the album "Break the Spell."


title: Chris Daughtry

text: The band started working on their sixth studio album in late 2019. The album was meant to release in 2020, but the production was slowed down by the COVID-19 pandemic. The work, "Dearly Beloved", was eventually released on September 17, 2021.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In 2008, Chris Daughtry provided vocals on a Sevendust track entitled "The Past" on their album "". He had previously stated he had become friends with the members of the band. Alter Bridge members Myles Kennedy and Mark Tremonti appear on the same album. In the same year, Chris Daughtry also provides vocals on the Theory of a Deadman song "By the Way", which is featured on their third album "Scars & Souvenirs". Still in 2008, he appeared on the song "Slow Down" on the album "Revelation" by Christian rock band Third Day. In 2009, the band Daughtry collaborated with Timbaland on their song "Long Way Down" from the album "Shock Value II". During this time, Chris Daughtry has also co-written three songs with band Day of Fire for their 2010 album "Losing All", including the track "Hello Heartache".


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In 2010, he and Jason Wade performed a duet on Lifehouse's fifth studio album "Smoke & Mirrors" on the song "Had Enough". Chris Daughtry also co-wrote the song "Send Me All Your Angels" for "American Idol" season 8 winner Kris Allen's debut album. He later performed lead vocals on the cover Def Leppard's song "Photograph" with Carlos Santana on Santana's album called "". It was released on September 21, 2010, with a performance on the "Dancing with the Stars" results show that day.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In March 2015, it was announced that Daughtry would play a rocker with a drug addiction and write original music for a new dramedy, "Studio City", though it was announced in May 2015 that the show was not picked up by Fox.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: He next portrayed Judas Iscariot in the Biblical live version of "The Passion," which aired on March 20, 2016.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry portrayed Hugo Strange in the Batman fan film, "Batman: Dying Is Easy", released on YouTube on March 10, 2021.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry has a longtime interest in drawing comics and is a fan of Batman. In 2016, Daughtry's first published comic book art appeared as a variant cover to "Batman" (Volume 2) #50.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In a segment on the 2006 season of "American Idol" (before singing "Broken" by Seether), Daughtry revealed that he is balding and made the decision to shave his head completely in order to retain an aesthetically pleasing appearance. He has been married to Deanna Daughtry since November 11, 2000. He has four children: two stepchildren, Hannah (died November 2021) and Griffin and twins, Adalynn Rose and Noah James. In a December 2007 interview with "Gibson Lifestyle", Daughtry said, "I used to call [my wife] and just quickly throw in the towel. But I've found that the less I say and the more I actually listen to her, and just be there without actually being there, is the best thing I can do. As a man, I always feel like I need to say something. Sometimes I have to stop myself because all I want to do is call and tell her about how much awesome stuff is going on in my life, and, you know, her day is sucking hard. I could write a book on it, I'm serious."


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry and fellow "Idol" contestant Ace Young have been friends since they met at the show's Denver auditions, and even periodically shared an apartment as finalists. Young said they clicked because they shared similar upbringings and were both "big on family." Ryan Seacrest had also dubbed them "the Ben Affleck and Matt Damon of the season" when the two were placed in the "bottom 2" together upon Young's elimination. In the final episode of the season, a clip of them in a "Best Male Bonding" segment was also shown.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: In 2019, Daughtry was on the second season of "The Masked Singer" as "The Rottweiler" and was named the runner-up. He also played for the "Home" roster during the NBA All-Star Celebrity Game.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Daughtry's stepdaughter, Hannah, died on November 12, 2021. In January 2022, Daughtry and his wife said that the cause of death was suicide.


title: Chris Daughtry

text: Chris Daughtry's musical influences include Creed, Bush, Live, Pearl Jam, Alice in Chains, Soundgarden, Stone Temple Pilots, Journey, Bon Jovi, and Fuel. He states that he grew up on rock and hard rock music.


title: Ichthys

text: The ichthys or ichthus (), from the Greek (, 1st cent. AD Koine Greek pronunciation: , "fish") is (in its modern rendition) a symbol consisting of two intersecting arcs, the ends of the right side extending beyond the meeting point so as to resemble the profile of a fish. It has been speculated that the symbol was adopted by early Christians as a secret symbol; a shibboleth to determine if another was indeed Christian. It is now known colloquially as the "sign of the fish" or the "Jesus fish".


title: Ichthys

text: The first appearances of the ichthys in Christian art and literature dates to the 2nd century. The symbol's use among Christians had become popular by the late 2nd century, and its use spread widely in the 3rd and 4th centuries.


title: Ichthys

text: In early Christian history, the ichthys symbol held "the most sacred significance." It has been claimed that Christians used it to recognize churches and other believers during a time when they faced persecution in the Roman Empire. The ichthys symbol is also a reference to "the Holy Eucharist, with which the miracle of the multiplication of the loaves and fishes had such intimate connection both in point of time and significance." Depicted in the Catacombs of Saint Sebastian and of the Catacomb of Priscilla, the symbol is also mentioned in the Latin text titled "Oracula Sibillina" which dates back to the 1st-2nd century.


title: Ichthys

text: (), or also with a lunate sigma, is an acronym or acrostic for "Ἰησοῦς Χρῑστός Θεοῦ Υἱός Σωτήρ", ; contemporary Koine, which translates into English as 'Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior'.


title: Ichthys

text: Augustine quotes an ancient text from the Sibylline oracles whose verses are an acrostic of the generating sentence.


title: Ichthys

text: A fourth century adaptation of "ichthys" uses a round shape to represent the letters in the eight lines that bisect the shape. Most often, this shape has been interpreted as an eight-spoked wheel, but it has also been proposed that the round symbol represents a loaf of bread.


title: Ichthys

text: Fish are mentioned and given symbolic meaning several times in the Gospels. Several of Jesus' 12 Apostles were fishermen. He commissions them with the words "I will make you fishers of men". (Mark 1: 16-18)


title: Ichthys

text: At the feeding of the five thousand, a boy is brought to Jesus with "five small loaves and two fish". The question is asked, "But what are they, among so many?" Jesus multiplies the loaves and fish to feed the multitude.


title: Ichthys

text: In Matthew 13:47-50, the Parable of Drawing in the Net, Jesus compares the angels separating the righteous from the wicked at the end of this world to fishers sorting out their catch, keeping the good fish and throwing the bad fish away.


title: Ichthys

text: In John 21:11, it is related that the disciples fished all night but caught nothing. Jesus instructed them to cast the nets on the other side of the boat, and they drew in 153 fish. When they return to shore with their catch, Jesus is waiting for them and has cooked some fish for them to eat.


title: Ichthys

text: In Matthew 17:24-27, upon being asked if his Teacher pays the temple (or two-drachma) tax, Simon Peter answers yes. Christ tells Peter to go to the water and cast a line, saying that a coin sufficient for both of them will be found in the fish's mouth. Peter does this and finds the coin.


title: Ichthys

text: The fish is also used by Jesus to describe "the Sign of Jonah". (Matthew 12:38-45) This is symbolic of Jesus's resurrection, upon which the entire Christian faith is based. (1 Corinthians 15:1-58)


title: Ichthys

text: In the Deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, by Raphael the Archangel's order, the young cousin and future spouse of Sarah captures a fish while it tries to swallow his feet, washing in the river Tigris. Then he is instructed how to offer it, in order to be saved from the daemon Asmodeus.


title: Ichthys

text: According to tradition, ancient Christians, during their persecution by the Roman Empire in the first few centuries after Christ, used the fish symbol to mark meeting places and tombs, or to distinguish friends from foes:


title: Ichthys

text: There are several other hypotheses as to why the fish was chosen. Some sources indicate that the earliest literary references came from the recommendation of Clement of Alexandria to his readers (Paedagogus, III, xi) to engrave their seals with the dove or fish. However, it can be inferred from Roman monumental sources such as the Cappella Greca and the Sacrament Chapels of the catacomb of St. Callistus that the fish symbol was known to Christians much earlier.


title: Ichthys

text: In the 1970s the "Jesus Fish" started to be used as an icon of modern Christianity. In 1973 the symbol and message was taken to the Aquarius Rock Festival in Nimbin, Australia. Today, it can be seen as a decal or emblem on the rear of automobiles or as pendants or necklaces as a sign that the owner is a Christian. Versions of this include an Ichthys with "Jesus" or "ΙΧΘΥΣ" in the centre, or simply the Ichthys outline by itself. According to one writer, while many Christians hang a cross necklace or rosary inside their vehicles, "the fish sticker on the car is a more conscious symbol of a witnessing Christian—significantly, unlike the former, it is on the outside of the car for everyone to see."


title: Ichthys

text: The Ichthus Music Festival is an annual large outdoor Christian music festival held in mid-June in Wilmore, Kentucky. It is the oldest Christian music festival in the United States, starting in 1970.


title: Ichthys

text: The idea that the Ichthys was used as a secret symbol is based on an argument from silence brought forward by Robert Mowat. Both the Licinia Amia Epitaph and the Abercius inscription show the Ichthys without mention of Jesus Christ, while featuring clear attestations to Christian beliefs and themes. From this Mowat speculates, they were purposely avoiding outing themselves as Christians. As none of the early Christian sources link the Ichthys to Christian persecution, this connection has now mostly fallen out of favor (Rasimus compiles a list of early Christian references to the Ichthys, none of which point towards the persecution hypothesis and instead link it to baptism, the Eucharist, and the story of the feeding of the multitude). The idea is prominently featured and likely popularized by the 1951 movie "Quo Vadis".


title: Berlin Blockade

text: The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift () from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population. American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons of supplies daily. By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons. Among these, candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment. On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total), totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade. The French also supported but only to provide for their military garrison.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun. British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the Airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation. A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans, mostly due to non-flying accidents.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers, and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: From 17 July to 2 August 1945, the victorious Allies reached the Potsdam Agreement on the fate of postwar Europe, calling for the division of defeated Germany, west of the Oder-Neisse line, into four temporary occupation zones each one controlled by one of the four occupying Allied powers: the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union (thus re-affirming principles laid out earlier by the Yalta Conference). These zones were located roughly around the then-current locations of the allied armies. As the seat of the Allied Control Council, Berlin was also divided into four occupation zones, despite the city's location, which was fully located inside Soviet-controlled eastern Germany. The United States, United Kingdom, and France controlled western portions of the city, while Soviet troops controlled the eastern sector.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: In the eastern zone, the Soviet authorities forcibly unified the Communist Party of Germany and Social Democratic Party (SPD) in the Socialist Unity Party ("SED"), claiming at the time that it would not have a Marxist–Leninist or Soviet orientation. The SED leaders then called for the "establishment of an anti-fascist, democratic regime, a parliamentary democratic republic" while the Soviet Military Administration suppressed all other political activities. Factories, equipment, technicians, managers and skilled personnel were removed to the Soviet Union.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: In a June 1945 meeting, Stalin informed German communist leaders that he expected to slowly undermine the British position within their occupation zone, that the United States would withdraw within a year or two and that nothing would then stand in the way of a united Germany under communist control within the Soviet orbit. Stalin and other leaders told visiting Bulgarian and Yugoslavian delegations in early 1946 that Germany must be both Soviet and communist.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: A further factor contributing to the Blockade was that there had never been a formal agreement guaranteeing rail and road access to Berlin through the Soviet zone. At the end of the war, western leaders had relied on Soviet goodwill to provide them with access. At that time, the western allies assumed that the Soviets' refusal to grant any cargo access other than one rail line, limited to ten trains per day, was temporary, but the Soviets refused expansion to the various additional routes that were later proposed.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: The Soviets also granted only three air corridors for access to Berlin from Hamburg, Bückeburg, and Frankfurt. In 1946 the Soviets stopped delivering agricultural goods from their zone in eastern Germany, and the American commander, Lucius D. Clay, responded by stopping shipments of dismantled industries from western Germany to the Soviet Union. In response, the Soviets started a public relations campaign against American policy and began to obstruct the administrative work of all four zones of occupation.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: Until the blockade began in 1948, the Truman Administration had not decided whether American forces should remain in West Berlin after the establishment of a West German government, planned for 1949.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: Berlin quickly became the focal point of both US and Soviet efforts to re-align Europe to their respective visions. As Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov noted, "What happens to Berlin, happens to Germany; what happens to Germany, happens to Europe." Berlin had suffered enormous damage; its prewar population of 4.3 million people was reduced to 2.8 million.


title: Berlin Blockade

text: After harsh treatment, forced emigration, political repression and the particularly hard winter of 1945–1946, Germans in the Soviet-controlled zone were hostile to Soviet endeavours. Local elections in 1946 resulted in a massive anti-communist protest vote, especially in the Soviet sector of Berlin. Berlin's citizens overwhelmingly elected non-Communist members to its city government.