title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew the Apostle was born between 5 and 10 AD in Bethsaida, in Galilee. The New Testament states that Andrew was the brother of Simon Peter, and likewise a son of Jonah. "The first striking characteristic of Andrew is his name: it is not Hebrew, as might have been expected, but Greek, indicative of a certain cultural openness in his family that cannot be ignored. We are in Galilee, where the Greek language and culture are quite present."


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Both he and his brother Peter were fishermen by trade, hence the tradition that Jesus called them to be his disciples by saying that he will make them "fishers of men" (). According to Mark 1:29, at the beginning of Jesus' public life, they occupied the same house at Capernaum.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In the Gospel of Matthew and in the Gospel of Mark Simon Peter and Andrew were both called together to become disciples of Jesus and "fishers of men". These narratives record that Jesus was walking along the shore of the Sea of Galilee, observed Simon and Andrew fishing, and called them to discipleship.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In the parallel incident in the Gospel of Luke Andrew is not named, nor is reference made to Simon having a brother. In this narrative, Jesus initially used a boat, solely described as being Simon's, as a platform for preaching to the multitudes on the shore and then as a means to achieving a huge trawl of fish on a night which had hitherto proved fruitless. The narrative indicates that Simon was not the only fisherman in the boat ("they signalled to their partners in the other boat …" but it is not until the next chapter that Andrew is named as Simon's brother. However, it is generally understood that Andrew was fishing with Simon on the night in question. Matthew Poole, in his "Annotations on the Holy Bible", stressed that 'Luke denies not that Andrew was there'.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The Gospel of John states that Andrew was a disciple of John the Baptist, whose testimony first led him, and another unnamed disciple of John the Baptist, to follow Jesus. Andrew at once recognized Jesus as the Messiah, and hastened to introduce him to his brother. The Byzantine Church honours him with the name "Protokletos", which means "the first called". Thenceforth, the two brothers were disciples of Christ. On a subsequent occasion, prior to the final call to the apostolate, they were called to a closer companionship, and then they left all things to follow Jesus.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Subsequently, in the gospels, Andrew is referred to as being present on some important occasions as one of the disciples more closely attached to Jesus. Andrew told Jesus about the boy with the loaves and fishes, and when certain Greeks went to see Jesus, they came to Philip, but Philip then had recourse to Andrew. Andrew was present at the Last Supper. Andrew was one of the four disciples who came to Jesus on the Mount of Olives to ask about the signs of Jesus' return at the "end of the age".


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Eusebius in his "Church History" 3.1 quoted Origen as saying that Andrew preached in Scythia. The Chronicle of Nestor adds that he preached along the Black Sea and the Dnieper river as far as Kiev, and from there he travelled to Novgorod. Hence, he became a patron saint of Ukraine, Romania and Russia. According to Hippolytus of Rome, Andrew preached in Thrace, and his presence in Byzantium is mentioned in the apocryphal Acts of Andrew. According to tradition, he founded the see of Byzantium (later Constantinople) in AD 38, installing Stachys as bishop.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew, along with Stachys, is recognized as the patron saint of the Patriarchate. Basil of Seleucia also knew of Apostle Andrew's missions in Thrace, Scythia and Achaea.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew is said to have been martyred by crucifixion at the city of Patras (Patræ) in Achaea, in AD 60. Early texts, such as the Acts of Andrew known to Gregory of Tours, describe Andrew as bound, not nailed, to a Latin cross of the kind on which Jesus is said to have been crucified; yet a tradition developed that Andrew had been crucified on a cross of the form called "crux decussata" (X-shaped cross, or "saltire"), now commonly known as a "Saint Andrew's Cross" — supposedly at his own request, as he deemed himself unworthy to be crucified on the same type of cross as Jesus had been. The iconography of the martyrdom of Andrew — showing him bound to an X-shaped cross — does not appear to have been standardized until the later Middle Ages.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The apocryphal Acts of Andrew, mentioned by Eusebius, Epiphanius and others, is among a disparate group of Acts of the Apostles that were traditionally attributed to Leucius Charinus, but it shows several signs of a mid-2nd-century origin. It describes the supposed travels of the title character, the miracles he performed during them, and finally a description of his martyrdom. Eusebius of Caesarea knew the work, which he dismissed as the product of a heretic and absurd. The Acts, as well as a "Gospel of St Andrew", appear among rejected books in the "Decretum Gelasianum" connected with the name of Pope Gelasius I. Dennis MacDonald posits the theory that the non-canonical Acts of Andrew was a Christian retelling of Homer's Odyssey.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Relics alleged to be those of the Apostle Andrew are kept at the Basilica of Saint Andrew in Patras, Greece; in Amalfi Cathedral (the Duomo di Sant'Andrea), Amalfi and in Sarzana Cathedral in Sarzana, Italy; St Mary's Roman Catholic Cathedral, Edinburgh, Scotland; and the Church of St Andrew and St Albert, Warsaw, Poland. There are also numerous smaller reliquaries throughout the world.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew's remains were preserved at Patras. According to one legend, Regulus (Rule), a monk at Patras, was advised in a dream to hide some of the bones. Shortly thereafter, most of the relics were transferred from Patras to Constantinople by order of the Roman emperor Constantius II around 357 and deposited in the Church of the Holy Apostles.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Regulus was said to have had a second dream in which an angel advised him to take the hidden relics "to the ends of the earth" for protection. Wherever he was shipwrecked, he was to build a shrine for them. St. Rule set sail, taking with him a kneecap, an upper arm bone, three fingers and a tooth. He sailed west, towards the edge of the known world, and was shipwrecked on the coast of Fife, Scotland. However, the relics were probably brought to Britain in 597 as part of the Augustine Mission, and then in 732 to Fife, by Bishop Acca of Hexham, a well-known collector of religious relics.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The skull of Saint Andrew, which had been taken to Constantinople, was returned to Patras by Emperor Basil I, who ruled from 867 to 886.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In 1208, following the sack of Constantinople, those relics of Saint Andrew and Saint Peter which remained in the imperial city were taken to Amalfi, Italy, by Cardinal Peter of Capua, a native of Amalfi. A cathedral was built, dedicated to Saint Andrew, as is the town itself, to house a tomb in its crypt where it is maintained that most of the relics of the apostle, including an occipital bone, remain.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Thomas Palaeologus was the youngest surviving son of Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos. Thomas ruled the province of Morea, the medieval name for the Peloponnese. In 1461, when the Ottomans crossed the Strait of Corinth, Palaeologus fled Patras for exile in Italy, bringing with him what was purported to be the skull of Saint Andrew. He gave the head to Pope Pius II, who had it enshrined in one of the four central piers of St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican and then in Pienza, Italy.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In September 1964, Pope Paul VI, as a gesture of goodwill toward the Greek Orthodox Church, ordered that the one relic of Saint Andrew held in Vatican City be returned to Patras. Cardinal Augustin Bea, head of the Vatican's Secretariat for Promoting Christian Unity, led a delegation that presented the skull to Bishop Constantine of Patras on 24 September 1964. The cross of Saint Andrew was taken from Greece during the Crusades by the Duke of Burgundy. It was kept in the church of St. Victor in Marseilles until it returned to Patras on 19 January 1980. The cross of the apostle was presented to the Bishop of Patras Nicodemus by a Catholic delegation led by Cardinal Roger Etchegaray. All the relics, which consist of the small finger, the skull (part of the top of the cranium of Saint Andrew), and the cross on which he was martyred, have been kept in the Church of St. Andrew at Patras in a special shrine and are revered in a special ceremony every 30 November, his feast day.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In 2006, the Catholic Church, again through Cardinal Etchegaray, gave the Greek Orthodox Church another relic of Saint Andrew.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The church tradition of Georgia regards Andrew as the first preacher of Christianity in the territory of Georgia and as the founder of the Georgian church. This tradition derives from Byzantine sources, particularly Nicetas of Paphlagonia (died c. 890) who asserts that "Andrew preached to the Iberians, Sauromatians, Taurians, and Scythians and to every region and city, on the Black Sea, both north and south." The version was adopted by the 10th–11th-century Georgian ecclesiastics and, refurbished with more details, was inserted in the Georgian Chronicles. The story of Andrew's mission in the Georgian lands endowed the Georgian church with apostolic origin and served as a defence argument to George the Hagiorite against the encroachments from the Antiochian church authorities on autocephaly of the Georgian church. Another Georgian monk, Ephraim the Minor, produced a thesis, reconciling Andrew's story with an earlier evidence of the 4th-century conversion of Georgians by Nino and explaining the necessity of the "second Christening" by Nino. The thesis was made canonical by the Georgian church council in 1103. The Georgian Orthodox Church marks two feast days in honour of Saint Andrew, on 12 May and 13 December. The former date, dedicated to Andrew's arrival in Georgia, is a public holiday in Georgia.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Cypriot tradition holds that a ship which was transporting Andrew went off course and ran aground. Upon coming ashore, Andrew struck the rocks with his staff at which point a spring of healing waters gushed forth. Using it, the sight of the ship's captain, who had been blind in one eye, was restored. Thereafter, the site became a place of pilgrimage and a fortified monastery, the Apostolos Andreas Monastery, stood there in the 12th century, from which Isaac Comnenus negotiated his surrender to Richard the Lionheart. In the 15th century, a small chapel was built close to the shore. The main monastery of the current church dates to the 18th century.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Other pilgrimages are more recent. The story is told that in 1895, the son of a Maria Georgiou was kidnapped. Seventeen years later, Andrew appeared to her in a dream, telling her to pray for her son's return at the monastery. Living in Anatolia, she embarked on the crossing to Cyprus on a very crowded boat. As she was telling her story during the journey, one of the passengers, a young Dervish priest, became more and more interested. Asking if her son had any distinguishing marks, he stripped off his clothes to reveal the same marks and mother and son were thus reunited.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Apostolos Andreas Monastery () is a monastery dedicated to Saint Andrew situated just south of Cape Apostolos Andreas, which is the north-easternmost point of the island of Cyprus, in Rizokarpaso in the Karpass Peninsula. The monastery is an important site to the Cypriot Orthodox Church. It was once known as 'the Lourdes of Cyprus', served not by an organized community of monks but by a changing group of volunteer priests and laymen. Both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities consider the monastery a holy place. As such, it is visited by many people for votive prayers.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: St. Andrew (Sant' Andrija) is the patron saint of Luqa. The patron saint's traditional feast is celebrated on the first Sunday of July, with the liturgical feast being celebrated on 30 November. A local niche dedicated to him is found in Luqa, which is two storeys high. The first reference regards the small chapel at Luqa dedicated to Andrew dates to 1497. This chapel contained three altars, one of them dedicated to Andrew. The painting showing "Mary with Saints Andrew and Paul" was painted by the Maltese artist Filippo Dingli. At one time, many fishermen lived in the village of Luqa, and this may be the main reason for choosing Andrew as patron saint. The statue of Andrew was sculpted in wood by Giuseppe Scolaro in 1779. This statue underwent several restoration works including that of 1913 performed by the Maltese artist Abraham Gatt. The "Martyrdom of Saint Andrew" on the main altar of the church was painted by Mattia Preti in 1687.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Saint Andrew is the patron saint of Romania. The official stance of the Romanian Orthodox Church is that Andrew preached the Gospel in the province of Dobruja (Scythia Minor) to the Daco-Romans, whom he is said to have converted to Christianity. Such a tradition was however not widely acknowledged until the 20th century.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: According to Hippolyte of Antioch, (died c. 250 C.E.) in his On Apostles, Origen in the third book of his "Commentaries on the Genesis" (254 C.E.), Eusebius of Caesarea in his Church History (340 C.E.), and other sources, such as Usaard's Martyrdom written between 845 and 865, and Jacobus de Voragine's "Golden Legend" (c. 1260), Andrew preached in Scythia, a possible reference to Scythia Minor, whose territory was integrated into Romania in the late 19th century.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: According to some modern Romanian scholars, the idea of early Christianisation is unsustainable. They take the idea to be a part of an ideology of protochronism which purports that the Orthodox Church has been a companion and defender of the Romanian people for its entire history, which was then used for propaganda purposes during the communist era.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Tradition regarding the early Christian history of Ukraine holds that the apostle Andrew preached on the southern borders of modern-day Ukraine, along the Black Sea. Legend has it that he travelled up the Dnieper River and reached the future location of Kyiv, where he erected a cross on the site where the Saint Andrew's Church of Kyiv currently stands, and where he prophesied the foundation of a great Christian city. Because of this connection to Kyiv, Andrew is considered to be the patron saint of the two East Slavic nations descended from the Kievan Rus: Ukraine and Russia, the latter country using the Saint Andrew's Cross on its naval ensign. The third East Slavic nation, Belarus, however, reveres Euphrosyne of Polotsk, a local saint, as its patron instead.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Several legends state that the relics of Andrew were brought by divine guidance from Constantinople to the place where the modern Scottish town of St Andrews stands today (Gaelic, "Cill Rìmhinn"). The oldest surviving manuscripts are two: one is among the manuscripts collected by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and willed to Louis XIV of France, now in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; the other is the Harleian Mss in the British Library, London. They state that the relics of Andrew were brought by one Regulus to the Pictish king Óengus mac Fergusa (729–761). The only historical Regulus (Riagail or Rule) whose name is preserved in the tower of St Rule was an Irish monk expelled from Ireland with Columba; his dates, however, are c. 573 – 600. There are good reasons for supposing that the relics were originally in the collection of Acca, bishop of Hexham, who took them into Pictish country when he was driven from Hexham (c. 732), and founded a see, not, according to tradition, in Galloway, but on the site of St Andrews.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: According to legendary accounts given in 16th-century historiography, Óengus II in AD 832 led an army of Picts and Scots into battle against the Angles, led by Æthelstan, near modern-day Athelstaneford, East Lothian. The legend states that he was heavily outnumbered and hence whilst engaged in prayer on the eve of battle, Óengus vowed that if granted victory he would appoint Andrew as the patron saint of Scotland. On the morning of battle white clouds forming an X shape in the sky were said to have appeared. Óengus and his combined force, emboldened by this apparent divine intervention, took to the field and despite being inferior in numbers were victorious. Having interpreted the cloud phenomenon as representing the "crux decussata" upon which Andrew was crucified, Óengus honoured his pre-battle pledge and duly appointed Andrew as the patron saint of Scotland. The white saltire set against a celestial blue background is said to have been adopted as the design of the flag of Scotland on the basis of this legend. However, there is evidence that Andrew was venerated in Scotland before this.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew's connection with Scotland may have been reinforced following the Synod of Whitby, when the Celtic Church felt that Columba had been "outranked" by Peter and that Peter's brother would make a higher-ranking patron. The 1320 Declaration of Arbroath cites Scotland's conversion to Christianity by Andrew, "the first to be an Apostle". Numerous parish churches in the Church of Scotland and congregations of other Christian churches in Scotland are named after Andrew. The former national church of the Scottish people in Rome, Sant'Andrea degli Scozzesi was dedicated to Saint Andrew.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: A local superstition uses the cross of Saint Andrew as a hex sign on the fireplaces in northern England and Scotland to prevent witches from flying down the chimney and entering the house to do mischief. By placing the Saint Andrew's cross on one of the fireplace posts or lintels, witches are prevented from entering through this opening. In this case, it is similar to the use of a witch ball, although the cross will actively prevent witches from entering, whereas the witch ball will passively delay or entice the witch, and perhaps entrap it.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: St. Andrew was the patron saint of the Dukes of Burgundy. A form of St. Andrew's cross called the Cross of Bourgogne was used as the flag of the Duchy of Burgundy, and after the Duchy was acquired by Spain, by the Spanish Crown, and later as a Spanish naval flag and finally as an army battle flag up until 1843. Today, it is still a part of various Spanish military insignia and forms part of the Coat of Arms of the king of Spain.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In Spain, Andrew is the patron of several locations: San Andrés (Santa Cruz de Tenerife), San Andrés y Sauces (La Palma), Navalmoral de la Mata (Cáceres), Éibar (Guipúzcoa), Baeza (Jaén), Pobladura de Pelayo García and Pobladura de Yuso (León), Berlangas de Roa (Burgos), Ligüerzana (Palencia), Castillo de Bayuela (Toledo), Almoradí (Alicante), Estella (Navarra), Sant Andreu de Palomar, (Barcelona), Pujalt (Catalonia), Adamuz (Córdoba) and in Cameros (La Rioja).


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Andrew is the patron saint of several countries and cities, including Barbados, Romania, Russia, Scotland, Ukraine, Sarzana, Pienza and Amalfi in Italy, Esgueira in Portugal, Luqa in Malta, Parañaque in the Philippines and Patras in Greece. He was also the patron saint of Prussia and of the Order of the Golden Fleece. He is considered the founder and the first bishop of the Church of Byzantium and is consequently the patron saint of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The flag of Scotland (and consequently the Union Flag and those of some of the former colonies of the British Empire) feature Saint Andrew's saltire cross. The saltire is also the flag of Tenerife, the former flag of Galicia and the Russian Navy Ensign.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The feast of Andrew is observed on 30 November in both the Eastern and Western churches, and is a bank holiday in Scotland,


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: In the Catholic Church, Advent begins with First Vespers of the Sunday that falls on or closest to the feast of Saint Andrew. Andrew the Apostle is remembered in the Church of England with a Festival on 30 November.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: The Qur’anic account of the disciples of Jesus does not include their names, numbers, or any detailed accounts of their lives. Muslim exegesis, however, more or less agrees with the New Testament list and says that the disciples included Andrew.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Masaccio's 1426 "Saint Andrew" is a panel painting in tempora and gold leaf, once part of the Pisa Altarpiece It is now at the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California. Andrew appears as part of Carlo Crivelli's San Domenico Altarpiece (1476). This panel is now in the National Gallery in London.


title: Andrew the Apostle

text: Hans Holbein the Younger did a pen and ink drawing (c.1519) of the saint as a design for a stained glass window. It is in the Kunstmuseum Basel.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Learned helplessness is the behavior exhibited by a subject after enduring repeated aversive stimuli beyond their control. It was initially thought to be caused by the subject's acceptance of their powerlessness, by way of their discontinuing attempts to escape or avoid the aversive stimulus, even when such alternatives are unambiguously presented. Upon exhibiting such behavior, the subject was said to have acquired learned helplessness.


title: Learned helplessness

text: In humans, learned helplessness is related to the concept of self-efficacy; the individual's belief in their innate ability to achieve goals. Learned helplessness theory is the view that clinical depression and related mental illnesses may result from a real or perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation.


title: Learned helplessness

text: American psychologist Martin Seligman initiated research on learned helplessness in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania as an extension of his interest in depression. This research was later expanded through experiments by Seligman and others. One of the first was an experiment by Seligman & Overmier: In Part 1 of this study, three groups of dogs were placed in harnesses. Group 1 dogs were simply put in a harness for a period of time and were later released. Groups 2 and 3 consisted of "yoked pairs". Dogs in Group 2 were given electric shocks at random times, which the dog could end by pressing a lever. Each dog in Group 3 was paired with a Group 2 dog; whenever a Group 2 dog got a shock, its paired dog in Group 3 got a shock of the same intensity and duration, but its lever did not stop the shock. To a dog in Group 3, it seemed that the shock ended at random because it was their paired dog in Group 2 that was causing it to stop. Thus, for Group 3 dogs, the shock was "inescapable".


title: Learned helplessness

text: In Part 2 of the experiment, the same three groups of dogs were tested in a shuttle-box apparatus (a chamber containing two rectangular compartments divided by a barrier a few inches high). All of the dogs could escape shocks on one side of the box by jumping over a low partition to the other side. The dogs in Groups 1 and 2 quickly learned this task and escaped the shock. Most of the Group 3 dogs – which had previously learned that nothing they did had any effect on shocks – simply lay down passively and whined when they were shocked.


title: Learned helplessness

text: In a second experiment later that year with new groups of dogs, Maier and Seligman ruled out the possibility that, instead of learned helplessness, the Group 3 dogs failed to avert in the second part of the test because they had learned some behavior that interfered with "escape". To prevent such interfering behavior, Group 3 dogs were immobilized with a paralyzing drug (curare) and underwent a procedure similar to that in Part 1 of the Seligman and Overmier experiment. When tested as before in Part 2, these Group 3 dogs exhibited helplessness as before. This result serves as an indicator for the ruling out of the interference hypothesis.


title: Learned helplessness

text: From these experiments, it was thought that there was to be only one cure for helplessness. In Seligman's hypothesis, the dogs do not try to escape because they expect that nothing they do will stop the shock. To change this expectation, experimenters physically picked up the dogs and moved their legs, replicating the actions the dogs would need to take in order to escape from the electrified grid. This had to be done at least twice before the dogs would start willfully jumping over the barrier on their own. In contrast, threats, rewards, and observed demonstrations had no effect on the "helpless" Group 3 dogs.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Later experiments have served to confirm the depressive effect of feeling a lack of control over an aversive stimulus. For example, in one experiment, humans performed mental tasks in the presence of distracting noise. Those who could use a switch to turn off the noise rarely bothered to do so, yet they performed better than those who could not turn off the noise. Simply being aware of this option was enough to substantially counteract the noise effect. In 2011, an animal study found that animals with control over stressful stimuli exhibited changes in the excitability of certain neurons in the prefrontal cortex. Animals that lacked control failed to exhibit this neural effect and showed signs consistent with learned helplessness and social anxiety.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Research has found that a human's reaction to feeling a lack of control differs both between individuals and between situations, i.e. learned helplessness sometimes remains specific to one situation but at other times generalizes across situations. Such variations are not explained by the original theory of learned helplessness, and an influential view is that such variations depend on an individual's attributional or explanatory style. According to this view, how someone interprets or explains adverse events affects their likelihood of acquiring learned helplessness and subsequent depression. For example, people with pessimistic explanatory style tend to see negative events as permanent ("it will never change"), personal ("it's my fault"), and pervasive ("I can't do anything correctly"), and are likely to suffer from learned helplessness and depression.


title: Learned helplessness

text: In 1978, Lyn Yvonne Abramson, Seligman, Paul and John D. Teasdale reformulated Seligman's & Paul's work, using attribution theory. They proposed that people differed in how they classified negative experiences on three scales, from internal to external, stable to unstable, and from global to specific. They believed that people who were more likely to attribute negative events to internal, stable, and global causes were more likely to become depressed than those attributed things to causes at the other ends of the scales.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Bernard Weiner proposed a detailed account of the attributional approach to learned helplessness in 1986. His attribution theory includes the dimensions of globality/specificity, stability/instability, and internality/externality:


title: Learned helplessness

text: Research has shown that those with an internal, stable, and global attributional style for negative events can be more at risk for a depressive reaction to failure experiences.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Research has shown that increased 5-HT (serotonin) activity in the dorsal raphe nucleus plays a critical role in learned helplessness. Other key brain regions that are involved with the expression of helpless behavior include the basolateral amygdala, central nucleus of the amygdala and


title: Learned helplessness

text: bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Activity in medial prefrontal cortex, dorsal hippocampus, septum and hypothalamus has also been observed during states of helplessness.


title: Learned helplessness

text: In the article, "Exercise, Learned Helplessness, and the Stress-Resistant Brain", Benjamin N. Greenwood and Monika Fleshner discuss how exercise might prevent stress-related disorders such as anxiety and depression. They show evidence that running wheel exercise prevents learned helplessness behaviors in rats. They suggest that the amount of exercise may not be as important as simply exercising at all. The article also discusses the neurocircuitry of learned helplessness, the role of serotonin (or 5-HT), and the exercise-associated neural adaptations that may contribute to the stress-resistant brain. However, the authors finally conclude that "The underlying neurobiological mechanisms of this effect, however, remain unknown. Identifying the mechanisms by which exercise prevents learned helplessness could shed light on the complex neurobiology of depression and anxiety and potentially lead to novel strategies for the prevention of stress-related mood disorders".


title: Learned helplessness

text: In developmental psychology the order of various stages of neurobiological development is important. From this perspective there are two different kinds of "helplessness" that appear at different stages of development. In early development, the infant is naturally helpless and must learn "helpfulness" toward mature neurophysiology. The "helplessness" that appears after maturation is what is properly termed "learned helplessness", although some researchers conflate this infantile form of "helplessness" with the pathological, adult, form.


title: Learned helplessness

text: People who perceive events as uncontrollable show a variety of symptoms that threaten their mental and physical well-being. They experience stress, they often show disruption of emotions demonstrating passivity or aggressivity, and they can also have difficulty performing cognitive tasks such as problem-solving. They are less likely to change unhealthy patterns of behavior, causing them, for example, to neglect diet, exercise, and medical treatment.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Abnormal and cognitive psychologists have found a strong correlation between depression-like symptoms and learned helplessness in laboratory animals. Steven Maier, a professor from the University of Colorado, states that a model of depression could be caused by "impaired medial prefrontal cortical inhibitory control over stress-responsive limbic and brainstem structures." Comorbidity between psychological disorders and learned helplessness may be due to stressful events. Maier also mentions depression may not be the only mental illness that this involves, which could link to other mental illnesses. Similarly, the National Institute of Health, in 2021, looked at a wide range of depressive models. It highlights the Learned helplessness model. The model allows one to predict depressive symptoms because of its high rates of overlap with post-traumatic stress disorder and major depressive disorder, which is the leading research in the article, "Overlapping neurobiology of learned helplessness and conditioned defeat: Implications for PTSD and mood disorders."


title: Learned helplessness

text: Young adults and middle-aged parents with a pessimistic explanatory style often suffer from depression. They tend to be poor at problem-solving and cognitive restructuring and demonstrate poor job satisfaction and interpersonal relationships in the workplace. Those with a pessimistic style can have weakened immune systems. It includes increased vulnerability to minor ailments (e.g., cold, fever) and major illnesses (e.g., heart attack, cancers). It can also cause poorer recovery from health problems.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Social problems resulting from learned helplessness may seem unavoidable to those entrenched. However, there are various ways to reduce or prevent it. When induced in experimental settings, learned helplessness has been shown to resolve itself with the passage of time. People can be immunized against the perception that events are uncontrollable by increasing their awareness of previous experiences, when they were able to affect the desired outcome. Cognitive therapy can be used to show people that their actions do make a difference and bolster their self-esteem. Seeking out these types of treatment options can be extremely helpful for people stuck in a rut when it comes to learned helplessness. While it may initially feel hard to escape, with the proper time and help it can get better.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Cognitive scientist and usability engineer Donald Norman used learned helplessness to explain why people blame themselves when they have a difficult time using simple objects in their environment.


title: Learned helplessness

text: The UK educationalist Phil Bagge describes it as a learning avoidance strategy caused by prior failure and the positive reinforcement of avoidance such as asking teachers or peers to explain and consequently do the work. It shows itself as sweet helplessness or aggressive helplessness often seen in challenging problem solving contexts, such as learning to use a new computer programming language.


title: Learned helplessness

text: The US sociologist Harrison White has suggested in his book "Identity and Control" that the notion of learned helplessness can be extended beyond psychology into the realm of social action. When a culture or political identity fails to achieve desired goals, perceptions of collective ability suffer.


title: Learned helplessness

text: In a political setting, learned helplessness is involved when a voter votes for a candidate and that candidate does not win. If this happens over time, it can lead to learned helplessness. When this does occur, it can often lead to having fewer voters in the future. However, Wollman & Stouder (1991) found that there was not a significant finding between situation-specific efficacy and predictive behavior of voting.


title: Learned helplessness

text: Studies on learned helplessness served as the basis for developing enhanced interrogation techniques, otherwise known as torture. In CIA interrogation manuals, learned helplessness is characterized as "apathy" which may result from prolonged use of coercive techniques which result in a "debility-dependency-dread" state in the subject, "If the debility-dependency-dread state is unduly prolonged, however, the arrestee may sink into a defensive apathy from which it is hard to arouse him."


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Robert Weston Smith (January 21, 1938July 1, 1995), known as Wolfman Jack, was an American disc jockey active from 1960 till his death in 1995. Famous for his gravelly voice, he credited it for his success, saying, "It's kept meat and potatoes on the table for years for Wolfman and Wolfwoman. A couple of shots of whiskey helps it. I've got that nice raspy sound."


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Smith was born in Brooklyn on January 21, 1938, the younger of two children of Anson Weston Smith, an Episcopal Sunday school teacher, writer, editor, and executive vice president of "Financial World", and his wife Rosamond Small. He lived on 12th Street and 4th Avenue and went to Manual Training High School in the Park Slope section. His parents divorced while he was a child. To help keep him out of trouble, his father bought him a large Trans-Oceanic radio, and Smith became an avid fan of R&B music and the disc jockeys who played it, including Douglas "Jocko" Henderson of Philadelphia, New York's "Dr. Jive" (Tommy Smalls), the "Moon Dog" from Cleveland, Alan Freed, and Nashville's "John R." Richbourg, who later became his mentor. After selling encyclopedias and Fuller brushes door-to-door, Smith attended the National Academy of Broadcasting in Washington, D.C.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: After graduating from NAB in 1960, Smith began working as "Daddy Jules" at WYOU in Newport News, Virginia. When the station format changed to "beautiful music", he became known as "Roger Gordon and Music in Good Taste". In 1962, Smith moved to country music station KCIJ/1050 in Shreveport, Louisiana, as the station manager and morning disc jockey, "Big Smith with the Records". He married Lucy "Lou" Lamb in 1961, and they had two children.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Freed had originally called himself the "Moon Dog" after New York City street musician Moondog. Freed both adopted this name and used a recorded howl to give his early broadcasts a unique character. Smith's adaptation of the Moondog theme was to call himself Wolfman Jack and add his own sound effects. The character was based in part on the manner and style of bluesman Howlin' Wolf. At KCIJ, he first began to develop his famous alter ego, Wolfman Jack. According to author Philip A. Lieberman, Smith's "Wolfman" persona "derived from Smith's love of horror films and his shenanigans as a 'wolfman' with his two young nephews. The 'Jack' nickname was taken from the 'hipster' lingo of the 1950s, as in 'Take a page from my book, Jack,' or the more popular, 'Hit the road, Jack.'"


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In 1963, Smith took his act to the border when Inter-American Radio Advertising's Ramon Bosquez hired him and sent him to the studio and transmitter site of XERF-AM at Ciudad Acuña in Mexico, a station across the U.S.-Mexico border from Del Rio, Texas, whose high-powered border blaster signal could be picked up across much of the United States. In an interview with writer Tom Miller, Smith described the reach of the XERF signal: "We had the most powerful signal in North America. Birds dropped dead when they flew too close to the tower. A car driving from New York to L.A. would never lose the station." Most of the border stations broadcast at 250,000 watts, five times the U.S. limit, meaning that their signals were picked up all over North America, and at night as far away as Europe and the Soviet Union. At XERF, Smith developed his signature style (with phrases such as, "Who's this on the Wolfman telephone?") and widespread fame. The border stations made money by renting time to Pentecostal preachers and psychics, and by taking 50% of the profit from anything sold by mail order. The Wolfman did pitches for dog food, weight-loss pills, weight-gain pills, rose bushes, and baby chicks. Even a pill called Florex, which was supposed to enhance one's sex drive, was sold. "Some zing for your ling nuts", the Wolfman would say.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: That sales pitch was typical of Wolfman Jack's growling, exuberant on-air style. In the spirit of his character name, he punctuated his banter with howls, while urging his listeners to "get naked" or "lay your hands on the radio and squeeze my knobs". Part of the persona was his nocturnal anonymity; listeners from coast to coast had no idea who the face was behind the voice that said things such as, "Wolfman plays the best records in the business, and then he eats 'em!"


title: Wolfman Jack

text: XERB was the original call sign for the border blaster station in Rosarito Beach, Mexico, which was branded as The Mighty 1090 in Hollywood, California. The station boasted "50,000 watts of Boss Soul Power". That station continues to broadcast under the call sign XEPRS-AM. XERB also had an office in the rear of a small strip mall on Third Avenue in Chula Vista, California. It was not unlike the small broadcast studio depicted in the film "American Graffiti" (filmed at KRE in Berkeley). It was located just 10 minutes from the Tijuana–San Diego border crossing. The Wolfman was rumored to actually broadcast from this location during the early to mid-1960s. Smith left Mexico after eight months and moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, to run station KUXL. Though Smith was managing a Minneapolis radio station, he was still broadcasting as Wolfman Jack on XERF via taped shows that he sent to the station. Missing the excitement, however, he returned to border radio to run XERB, and opened an office on Sunset Boulevard in the Los Angeles area in January 1966. The Wolfman recorded his shows in Los Angeles and shipped his tapes across the border into Mexico, where they would then be beamed across the U.S. During his time broadcasting on XERB, Smith met Don Kelley, who became his personal manager and business partner for more than 20 years. Kelley saw the potential for Wolfman Jack to become more than a radio personality. Kelley started to work on a strategy to transform Smith from a cult figure to a mainstream entertainer in film, recordings, and television. He promoted Smith to the major media and formed enduring relationships with key journalists.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In 1971, the Mexican government decided that its overwhelmingly Roman Catholic citizens should not be subjected to proselytizing and banned the Pentecostal preachers from the radio, taking away 80% of XERB's revenue. Smith then moved to station KDAY 1580 in Los Angeles, which could only pay him a fraction of his former XERB income. Smith capitalized on his fame, though, by editing his old XERB tapes and selling them to radio stations everywhere, becoming one of the first rock-and-roll syndicated programs (as the tapes began to age, they were eventually marketed to oldies stations). He also appeared on Armed Forces Radio from 1970 to 1986. At his peak, Wolfman Jack was heard on more than 2,000 radio stations in 53 countries. He was heard as far off as the Wild Coast, Transkei, on Capital Radio 604 based there. In a deal promoted by Don Kelley, the Wolfman was paid handsomely to join WNBC in New York in August 1973, the same month that "American Graffiti" premiered, and the station did a huge advertising campaign in local newspapers stating that the Wolfman would propel their ratings over those of their main competitor, WABC, which had "Cousin Brucie" (Bruce Morrow). The advertisements proclaimed, "Cousin Brucie's Days Are Numbered", and thousands of small, tombstone-shaped paperweights were distributed that said, "Cousin Brucie is going to be buried by Wolfman Jack". After less than a year, WNBC hired Cousin Brucie, and Wolfman Jack went back to California to concentrate on his syndicated radio show, which was carried on KRLA-Pasadena (Los Angeles) from 1984 to 1987. He moved to Belvidere, North Carolina, in 1989, to be closer to his extended family. In the 1980s, he did a brief stint at XEROK 80, another border-blaster station that was leased by Dallas investors Robert Hanna, Grady Sanders, and John Ryman. He also hosted a TV show at Little Darlin's Rock n’ Roll Palace, which was eventually renamed Wolfman Jack's Rock'n'Roll Palace. Ryman then moved Smith to Scott Ginsburg-owned Y95 in Dallas, Texas.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Recordings of Wolfman Jack's old shows were reintroduced to syndication a decade after his death and remain available to local stations, through Talent Farm as of mid-2020.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In his early days, Wolfman Jack made sporadic public appearances, usually as a master of ceremonies for rock bands at Los Angeles clubs. At each appearance, he looked a little different because he had not decided what the Wolfman should look like. Early pictures show him with a goatee, but sometimes he combed his straight hair forward and added dark makeup to look somewhat "ethnic." Other times he had a big afro wig and large sunglasses. The ambiguity of his race contributed to the controversy of his program. His audience finally got a good look at him when he appeared in the 1969 film "A Session with the Committee", a montage of skits by the comedy troupe The Committee.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Wolfman Jack started his recording career in Minneapolis while working at KUXL Radio in 1965 with George Garrett, who helped record the album "Boogie with the Wolfman" by Wolfman Jack and the Wolfpack on the Bread Label. He was also responsible for engineering, producing, and assembling the band. Wolfman Jack also released "Wolfman Jack" (1972) and "Through the Ages" (1973) on the Wooden Nickel label.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In 1973, he appeared as himself in George Lucas's second feature film "American Graffiti". Lucas gave him a fraction of a "point", the division of the profits from a film, and the extreme financial success of "American Graffiti" provided him with a regular income for life. He also appeared in the film's 1979 sequel "More American Graffiti", though only through voice-overs. In 1978, he appeared as Bob "The Jackal" Smith in a made-for-TV movie "Deadman's Curve" based on the musical careers of Jan Berry and Dean Torrence of Jan and Dean. Smith appeared in several television shows as Wolfman Jack, including "The Odd Couple", "What's Happening!!", "Vega$", "Hollywood Squares", "Married... with Children", "Emergency!", "The New Adventures of Wonder Woman", and "Galactica 1980". He was the regular announcer and occasional host for "The Midnight Special" on NBC from 1973 to 1981. He was the host of his variety series "The Wolfman Jack Show", which was produced in Canada by CBC Television in 1976 and syndicated to stations in the U.S. He also voiced the chief of the Rama Lama tribe on the TV special "Garfield in Paradise" in 1986.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Jim Morrison's lyrics for "The WASP (Texas Radio and the Big Beat)" were influenced by Wolfman Jack's broadcasting. He is also mentioned in the Grateful Dead song "Ramble On Rose". He furnished his voice in The Guess Who's top-10 hit single "Clap for the Wolfman". Wolfman Jack was regularly parodied on "The Hilarious House of Frightenstein" as "The Wolfman," an actual werewolf disc jockey with a look inspired by the original "The Wolf Man" movies. A few years earlier, Todd Rundgren recorded the tribute "Wolfman Jack" on the album "Something/Anything?"; the single version of the track includes a shouted talk-over introduction by the Wolfman, but on the album version, Rundgren performs that part himself. Canadian band The Stampeders also released a cover of "Hit the Road Jack" in 1975 featuring Wolfman Jack. From 1975 to 1980, Wolfman Jack hosted Halloween Haunt at Knott's Berry Farm, which transforms itself into Knott's Scary Farm each year for Halloween. It was the most successful special event of any theme park in the country, and often sold out.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In 2012, the estate of Wolfman Jack released a hip-hop single featuring Wolfman Jack clips as the vocals. In 2016, clips from the Wolfman Jack Radio Program were used in the Rob Zombie film "31".


title: Wolfman Jack

text: When the one surviving ship in what had originally been a pirate radio network of Radio Caroline North and Radio Caroline South sank in 1980, a search began to find a replacement. Because of the laws passed in the UK in 1967, the sales operation needed to be situated in the U.S. For a time, Don Kelley, Wolfman Jack's business partner and personal manager, acted as the West Coast agent for the planned new Radio Caroline, but the deal eventually fell apart.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: As a part of this process, Wolfman Jack was set to deliver the morning shows on the new station. To that end, he recorded a number of programs that never aired, because the station did not come on air according to schedule. (It eventually returned in 1983 from a new ship, which remained at sea until 1990.) Today, those tapes are traded among collectors of his work.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: On July 1, 1995, Smith died from a heart attack at his house in Belvidere, North Carolina, shortly after finishing a weekly broadcast. He is buried at a family cemetery in Belvidere.


title: Wolfman Jack

text: Wolfman Jack is portrayed by Jack Black in the 2022 satirical biopic "". He is portrayed as a rival of Dr. Demento (played in the film by Rainn Wilson).


title: Wolfman Jack

text: In 1978, there was an animatronic band called the "Wolf Pack 5." The leader of the band was an anthropomorphic wolf who was modeled after Jack. He's voiced by Aaron Fecther.


title: McLaren P1

text: The McLaren P1 is a limited-production mid-engine plug-in hybrid sports car produced by British automobile manufacturer McLaren Automotive. Debuted at the 2012 Paris Motor Show, sales of the P1 began in the United Kingdom in October 2013 and all 375 units were sold out by November. Production ended in early December 2015. The United States accounted for 34% of the units and Europe for 26%.


title: McLaren P1

text: It is considered by the automotive press to be the successor to the McLaren F1, utilising hybrid power and Formula One technology, but does not have the same three-seat layout. It was later confirmed that the Speedtail served as the actual successor to the McLaren F1. The P1 has a mid-engine, rear wheel drive design that used a carbon fibre monocoque and roof structure safety cage concept called MonoCage, which is a development of the MonoCell first used in the MP4-12C and then in subsequent models. Its main competitors are the LaFerrari and the 918 Spyder. They are all similar in specifications and performance, and in a race around Silverstone circuit they were all within half a second of each other, the P1 finishing first at 58.24 seconds and the LaFerrari finishing last at 58.58 seconds; the 918 was in-between with 58.46 seconds.


title: McLaren P1

text: 58 units of the track-oriented P1 GTR and 5 units of its road legal counterpart, the P1 LM were produced after the initial run of 375 cars.


title: McLaren P1

text: 13 experimental Prototype 'XP', 5 Validation Prototypes 'VP' and 3 Pre-Production 'PP' cars were produced by McLaren before the production of the P1 started, a number of which have been refurbished, modified and sold to customers.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 features a twin-turbocharged V8 engine. The twin turbos boost the petrol engine at to deliver at 7,500 rpm and of torque at 4,000 rpm, combined with an in-house-developed electric motor producing and of torque. The electric motor and the petrol engine in the P1, produce a combined power output of and of torque. The electric motor can be deployed manually by the driver or left in automatic mode, whereby the car's ECUs 'torque fill' the gaps in the petrol engine's output, which is considered turbo lag. This gives the powertrain an effective powerband of almost 7,000 rpm. The car has rear-wheel-drive layout and is equipped with a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission developed by Graziano Trasmissioni.


title: McLaren P1

text: Power for the electric motor is stored in a 324-cell lithium-ion high-density battery pack located behind the cabin, developed by Johnson Matthey Battery Systems. The battery can be charged by the engine or through a plug-in equipment and can be fully charged in two hours. The car can be operated using either the petrol engine, the electric motor or with a combination of the two. The P1 has an all-electric range of at least on the combined European drive cycle. Under the EPA cycle, the range in EV mode is . During EV mode the P1 has a petrol consumption of 4.8g/100 mile, and as a result, EPA's all-electric range is rated as zero. The total range is . The P1 combined fuel economy in EV mode was rated by the EPA at 18 MPGe (13 L petrol equivalent/100 km; 22 mpg-imp petrol equivalent), with an energy consumption of 25 kW-hrs/100 mi and petrol consumption of 4.8 gal/100 mi. The combined fuel economy when running only with petrol is , for city driving, and in highway.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 has Formula 1 derived features such as the Instant Power Assist System (IPAS), which gives an instant boost in acceleration via the electric motor, a Drag Reduction System (DRS) which operates the car's rear wing, thereby increasing straight line speed, and a KERS. Both of these features (IPAS, DRS) are operated via two buttons on the steering wheel. It also generates a downforce of 600 kg at and it boasts of a drag coefficient of only .


title: McLaren P1

text: According to McLaren the P1 accelerates from in 2.8 seconds, in 6.8 seconds, and in 16.5 seconds, making it a full 5.5 seconds faster than the F1, and a standing quarter mile is claimed in 9.8 seconds at . "Autocar" tested mph in 2.8 seconds, mph in 6.9 seconds, the standing quarter mile in 10.2 seconds at , and the standing kilometre in 18.2 seconds at . In electric only mode 0-60 mph in 10 seconds. The P1 is electronically limited to a top speed of . The P1 has a dry weight of , giving it a power-to-weight ratio of 656 PS/tonne. It has a kerb weight of which translates to 601 PS/ tonne. The P1 also features bespoke Pirelli P-Zero Corsa tyres and specially developed carbon-ceramic rotor, caliper and brake pads from Akebono. According to McLaren it takes 6.2 seconds to brake from to standstill, during which the car will cover 246 metres. From , it will cover 30.2 metres.


title: McLaren P1

text: The production version of the McLaren P1 was unveiled at the 2013 Geneva Motor Show. Production was strictly limited to 375 units which, according to McLaren, is to maintain exclusivity.


title: McLaren P1

text: In August 2013 McLaren announced that the production allocation destined to the Americas, Asia-Pacific and the Middle East was sold out. The cars destined for Europe were sold out by mid November 2013. The United States accounted for 34% of the limited production run, and Europe for 26%.


title: McLaren P1

text: After some delays, production began in October 2013. Hand-assembled by a team of 61 engineers, at a production rate of one car per day McLaren production was planned for fifty cars by the end of 2013. The first delivery to a retail customer took place at the company's headquarters in Woking, England, in October 2013, with 12 units manufactured by mid November 2013. The first P1 delivery in the U.S. occurred in May 2014. The production run ended in December 2015.


title: McLaren P1

text: According to JATO Dynamics, only twenty units had been registered worldwide during the first nine months of 2014. A total of 12 P1s were registered in Switzerland during 2014, and an additional five units between January and August 2015. About 59 units were delivered in the U.S. in 2014, and sales in the American market totalled about 127 units delivered through December 2015.


title: McLaren P1

text: As of 2022, the following are the approximate number of McLaren P1s (all variants) in the most-popular countries among purchasers:


title: McLaren P1

text: On 11 December 2015, the NHTSA issued a recall for 132 McLaren P1 cars manufactured 1 March 2013, to 31 October 2015 since the bonnet might open while driving.


title: McLaren P1

text: Celebrating 20 years since their victory in the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans, McLaren announced that they would resurrect the GTR name by launching a track-only version of the P1, the P1 GTR.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 GTR was initially only available to P1 owners. The concept car made its debut at the 2014 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance in August 2014. The P1 GTR production model was officially unveiled at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show. This price includes a worldwide owners track day series; later cars were offered for less money, for those P1 owners who had no interest in the track series but still wanted to purchase the GTR variant. In total 58 cars were made.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 GTR went into production in 2015, after all the 375 standard P1s had been built, as a homage to its race-winning ancestor, the McLaren F1 GTR and were built, maintained and run by McLaren Special Operations.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 GTR's hybrid engine is rated at , representing an increase over the standard production P1, although McLaren did not disclose whether the power increase was from electrical boost or tuning the twin-turbocharged 3.8-litre V8. Performance figures remain unconfirmed. The weight of the P1 GTR was reduced by , achieving a power-to-weight ratio of per . This equates to a weight-to-power ratio of per horsepower. The car also featured slick tyres, and had greater levels of performance, grip, aerodynamics and downforce in comparison to the road car. Featuring a new fixed ride height on race-prepared suspension, a fixed rear wing capable of using DRS, and a new exclusively designed exhaust made of titanium and inconel. Due to its fixed rear wing, the GTR generates 10% more downforce than the road legal P1. The P1 GTR has a kerb weight of which includes the weight of the batteries.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 GTR can accelerate from 0-97 km/h (60 mph) in under 2.8 seconds, and will go on to reach a limited top speed of . Additionally, the P1 GTR will brake from to 0 in , and can corner at 1.54 G long with pulling a lateral acceleration of 2.5 g on the skidpad.


title: McLaren P1

text: In late 2015, historic racing team and McLaren F1 specialists Lanzante started undergoing road conversions of P1 GTRs for owners who wanted to drive their cars on the road. Thus far, 27 P1 GTRs have been converted for road use by Lanzante. The road legal version of the P1 GTR has a claimed top speed of 225 mph and a 0-60 mph time of 2.4 seconds.


title: McLaren P1

text: To celebrate 40 years since James Hunt won the Formula 1 Driver’s Championship, McLaren has decided to dress up a P1 GTR in a special livery set to be showcased at the Goodwood Festival of Speed. The track machine is going to wear a body finish inspired by Hunt’s race helmet, with a black base color combined with red, yellow and blue stripes based on his Wellington College colors. The car is going to be driven over the weekend by none other than Bruno Senna, the official McLaren P1 GTR Driver Program Mentor.


title: McLaren P1

text: It is a limited version of P1 with hand-laid carbon fibre body in Lio Blue tinted lacquer, gloss black wheels, retrim of the interior with carbon black Alcantara and contrasting blue stitching, a 24-carat gold exhaust heatshield.


title: McLaren P1

text: With the production run of the P1 GTR complete, and prompted by their efforts in converting track-only P1 GTRs to road-legal specification, Lanzante Motorsport commissioned McLaren Special Operations' Bespoke division to build a further total of 6 new P1 GTRs for them to develop into road-legal P1 LM variants. Of this production run, five P1 LMs were sold and the sixth, the prototype P1 LM codenamed 'XP1 LM', was retained and is now being used for development and testing of future models. In order to convert the cars into the P1 LM specification, Lanzante Motorsport made changes to the drivetrain hardware (to increase power output), employed a modified rear wing and larger front splitter along with dive planes (to improve downforce), removed the air-jack system and installed Inconel catalytic converter pipes and exhaust headers, lightweight fabricated charge coolers, Lexan windows, lighter seats (similar to those used in the F1 GTR) and a titanium exhaust system, bolts and fixings (to save weight). The result is a weight reduction of as compared to the McLaren P1 GTR as well as a 40 percent increase in downforce. The P1 LM also features a larger twin-turbocharged V8 engine than the P1 and P1 GTR at with an 8,500 rpm red line.


title: McLaren P1

text: The P1 LM has a total power output of and of torque, with being delivered at 7,250 rpm and an additional from its electric motor. The top speed is limited to . The tyre specifications are 275/30/19 for the front tyres and 335/30/20 for the rear tyres.


title: McLaren P1

text: At the 2016 Goodwood Festival of Speed, the prototype P1 LM, 'XP1 LM', set the fastest ever time for a road car up the Goodwood hillclimb, with a time of 47.07 seconds, driven by Kenny Bräck.


title: McLaren P1

text: On 27 April 2017, the prototype P1 LM, XP1 LM, continued its success on track, beating the road car lap record time at the Nürburgring "Nordschleife", with a time of 6:43.22 using road legal Pirelli P Zero Trofeo R tyres but without a front number plate required for a car to be road legal. This lap time was once again set by Kenny Bräck, and announced on 26 May 2017.


title: McLaren P1

text: In April 2020, Lanzante Motorsport revealed that it would do six more road legal conversions of the P1 GTR. This conversion uses the same Longtail bodywork found on the one-off P1 GT as well as a modified rear wing, a larger front splitter, and louvers for an increase in downforce. P1 GTR-18 chassis #1 (GTR chassis #11) is painted in the ‘Gulf Team Davidoff’ no. 028R livery with its wheels finished in no. 028R’s trademark orange shade.


title: McLaren P1

text: In June 2022 at the Goodwood Festival of Speed, Lanzante unveiled the P1 Spider. The company is offering 5 conversions to the open-top P1 for €2.4m.


title: McLaren P1

text: At the 2018 Goodwood Festival of Speed, Lanzante Motorsport, who had previously modified McLaren P1 GTRs to road legal specifications and developed the P1 LM, introduced a new special based on the P1 GTR. The new car, called the P1 GT, was commissioned by two different McLaren VIP customers; one from the United Arab Emirates and one from Japan. Only two were built. The P1 GT is inspired by the McLaren F1 GT homologation special from the 1990s, including more aggressive bodywork than the standard car. Exterior modifications include a longer rear section, a larger rear wing, a longer front splitter, vented front fenders, removal of front canards, quad exhaust system in place of the original dual outlet design and a modified rear diffuser. The interior features fixed sports seats and Alcantara upholstery in tan and green colour along with a racing steering wheel and carbon fibre bits while the exterior features Silverstone green bodywork paying homage to the original homologation special. Powertrain modifications and performance figures remain unknown but are likely to have been increased as compared to the standard car owing to the extensive modifications.


title: McLaren P1

text: Also called 'Beco', it is a bespoke version of McLaren P1 GTR commemorating 30th anniversary of Ayrton Senna securing his first Formula 1 World Championship. It includes a tailwing inspired by the McLaren-Honda MP4/4 race car, Marlboro liveries.


title: McLaren P1

text: McLaren announced a sub-seven minute lap of the Nürburgring "Nordschleife", which equates to an average speed in excess of , but did not publish the exact time. However, the P1 LM, which wasn't road legal during the run, beat the road car's record time at the "Nordschleife" with a time of 6:43.22.


title: McLaren P1

text: Mattel's Hot Wheels 1:64 die-cast P1 model car in Volcano Orange and Supernova Silver body, Lego Speed Champions series Volcano Yellow McLaren P1 model kit, Scalextric Volcano Yellow and Volcano Orange P1 slot car, Maisto radio-controlled 1:14 scale McLaren P1, Minichamps and Tecnomodel 1:43 P1 model car, Amalgam Fine Model Cars 1:8 scale McLaren P1 went on sale in 2015.


title: McLaren P1

text: As part of McLaren Automotive's development of a pure electric vehicle for its Ultimate Series, a miniature version of electric ride on McLaren P1 in Volcano Yellow body colour went on sale at the end of October 2016 at selected McLaren Automotive retailers, followed by recognised global toy retailers.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Dirty Grandpa is a 2016 American comedy film about a lawyer who drives his grandfather to Florida during spring break. The film was directed by Dan Mazer and written by John Phillips. It stars Robert De Niro and Zac Efron with Aubrey Plaza and Zoey Deutch in supporting roles.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Filming began on January 19, 2015, in Atlanta and ended on May 9. "Dirty Grandpa" was theatrically released on January 22, 2016, by Lionsgate. It grossed $105.2 million against a production budget of $25 million, but it was met with negative critical reception, and several critics called it the worst film they had ever seen.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Jason Kelly is a corporate lawyer in Atlanta who works for his father's law firm. Jason's grandmother dies, and after the funeral, his U.S. Army veteran grandfather, Lt. Colonel Richard "Dick" Kelly, asks Jason to drive him to Boca Raton, Florida, due to his driver’s license being suspended. Jason is marrying his controlling fiancée, Meredith, in one week, but decides to take his grandfather despite his apprehension.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: At a diner they meet Jason's old photography classmate, Shadia, along with her friends Lenore and Bradley. After learning that Lenore wants to have sex with a college professor, Dick tells them that he is a university professor and that Jason is a photographer for "Time". They initially go their separate ways, but Dick convinces Jason that they should meet the girls at Daytona Beach because Dick wants to have sex with Lenore. The two go to a golf course, where Dick flirts with two women much to Jason's annoyance.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: At Daytona, they meet up with the girls and their friends, Cody and Brah, with whom they compete in beer chugging. Dick secretly slips Xanax into Jason's beer. That night, a drunk Jason, wearing nothing but a hornet fanny pack, parties and accidentally smokes crack cocaine from a drug dealer named Pam. He steals a motorcycle and wakes up the next day on the beach. During an awkward FaceTime session with Meredith and his family, a toddler grabs the fanny pack and takes it off; the boy's father calls the police who promptly arrest Jason. Dick bails him out, and Jason attempts to leave Dick with his old Army friend Stinky in a nursing home but they learn he is dying. Dick persuades Jason to stay in Daytona until he is able to sleep with Lenore.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: They enter into a muscle flexing contest with Cody and Brah; but Jason quits out of fear of being photographed. Dick alters a T-shirt cannon to fire a beer at Cody and Brah, hospitalizing them. After Dick reveals to Jason that he was a Green Beret, the two go to a nightclub with the girls. Dick gets into a fight with some men after they bully Bradley for his homosexuality. The next day, Jason bonds with Shadia and she tells him that she is going to live on a ship for a year. That night, the group does karaoke with the men from the night before. After singing a duet, Jason realizes he has feelings for Shadia and plans on telling her the truth, but before he can, Cody does an online search using information he saw on Dick's (still valid) driver's license, and tells Shadia that Jason is already engaged. Jason then gets caught with drugs which were planted by Cody and Brah, and is thrown into jail again. The next day, Dick bails him out and tells Jason that his real reason for the trip was to convince Jason not to go through with the wedding. A disgusted and furious Jason leaves Dick and drives back home.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: During his wedding rehearsal, Dick hacks into the computer system, revealing embarrassing photos of Jason. Jason says that he cannot marry Meredith, who reveals that she had an affair with his cousin, though Jason does not hear this information due to poor acoustics; his cousin instead quickly telling him that Meredith has told him to do what he wants to do. He, Dick, and Pam, with David (Dick's son and Jason's father), use Pam's ice cream truck to catch up with the bus that Shadia is on as she is leaving. Jason and Shadia kiss, and he gets on the bus with her, while David and Dick, previously estranged, reconnect. Dick goes to his house in Boca Raton and finds Lenore there waiting for him, and they have sex. Dick and Lenore get married and have a baby boy named Richard Jr., and Jason and Shadia are named the godparents.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: The film's script was featured in the 2011 edition of the Black List, an annual listing of well received but unproduced scripts in circulation. Prior to De Niro's casting, Jeff Bridges and Michael Douglas were considered for the starring role.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: De Niro's casting along with that of Zac Efron was confirmed September 2014. Zoey Deutch joined as the female lead, followed that January by the casting of Adam Pally and Aubrey Plaza. Plaza said that she was inspired by the role because it was different from the characters she normally played, and was also inspired by the fact that the role let her engage in physical comedy.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Principal photography began in Atlanta, Georgia on January 5, 2015. On February 4, filming took place in McDonough. On February 9–10, filming took place at The Grand Atrium at 200 Peachtree in Atlanta. Preliminary shooting of the film ended on February 13, 2015, in Hampton, Georgia.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: After filming officially ended, it was again scheduled to resume from April 27 to May 5, with the cast and crew filming spring break scenes on Tybee Island, Georgia. On April 27, filming resumed, with Efron preparing for his scenes. Production officially ended on May 9, 2015.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: On October 29, 2015, Lionsgate released the film's first poster and trailer. The first poster was a parody of the poster for Mike Nichols' 1967 film "The Graduate".


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: The film was initially set for a Christmas 2015 release, but was pushed to an August 12, 2016, date. It was then brought up to February 26, 2016, before finally being moved to January 22, 2016.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: "Dirty Grandpa" grossed $35.5 million in the United States and Canada and $69.6 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $105.2 million, against a production budget of $11.5-25 million.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: The film was released in North America on January 22, 2016, alongside "The 5th Wave" and "The Boy", and was projected to gross $10–13 million from 2,912 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $4.3 million on its first day and went on to debut to $11.1 million, finishing 4th at the box office.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 10% based on 137 reviews and an average rating of 3.10/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Like a Werther's Original dropped down a sewer drain, "Dirty Grandpa" represents the careless fumbling of a classic talent that once brought pleasure to millions." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 21 out of 100 based on 27 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: "Dirty Grandpa" received negative reviews for its gross-out and shock humor that was also considered sexist, homophobic and racist. Frank Scheck of "The Hollywood Reporter" said that even though humor is subjective "It can be definitively stated that Dirty Grandpa is utterly unfunny." Scheck is especially critical of the uneven tone of the film, and says it "doesn't even have the courage of its anarchic convictions, frequently abandoning its tasteless humor to indulge in sentimental scenes". Nick Schager of "Variety" wrote: "This contemptible fiasco is not only comfortable courting laughs through ugly mockery of minorities, but also doesn't even have the courage of its own crass-as-I-wannabe convictions." Mike Ryan of Uproxx said: ""Dirty Grandpa" is the worst movie I've ever seen in a movie theater. Burn it." He later also picked it as the worst film he had both reviewed and seen. Pete Hammond of "Deadline Hollywood" said: ""Dirty Grandpa", is not just the worst movie [De Niro] has ever been in, but it may be the worst movie "anyone" has ever been in." Glenn McDonald of "Indy Week" said: "The awful, ugly "Dirty Grandpa" is the comedy equivalent of torture porn ... In fact, in the dizzying moments after being bludgeoned by this miserable specimen, I was convinced it's among the worst movies ever made." Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film zero stars, and wrote: "If "Dirty Grandpa" isn't the worst movie of 2016, I have some serious cinematic torture in my near future."


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Mark Kermode, on his BBC Radio 5 Live show, said, "after "Dirty Grandpa" I did feel genuinely unclean, I wanted to go and have a shower, because it's just so revolting. Somewhere in hell there is a multiplex playing this on a double bill, with "Movie 43" and "Entourage"." He would later go on to brand it his least favorite film of 2016. Glenn Kelly of "RogerEbert.com" said: "The actor Bela Lugosi appeared in some landmark, perhaps even great, films at the beginning of his Hollywood career in the 1930s. ... Lugosi's final film was 1959's "Plan 9 From Outer Space", frequently cited as the worst film ever made. The cinematic landmarks of De Niro's career include films such as Coppola's "The Godfather, Part II" and Scorsese's "Raging Bull". He has been featured in a good number of very bad films in the years since. But this? This might just be his own "Plan 9"."


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Jesse Hassenger of "The A.V. Club" gave the a grade C- and called the film tired, was critical of the writing and direction. Hassenger was positive about Plaza's performance and said "she and De Niro appear ready to run away together into a better movie." He concludes "There's a certain perverse brilliance ... to a movie that creates a longing for a foulmouthed Aubrey Plaza/Robert De Niro romcom."


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Kate Taylor of "The Globe and Mail" gave the film 2 out of 4 and wrote: "It's the direction, not the script, that really kills the picture, as Mazer limps along from the chugging contest to the half-naked conga line to the car chase without ever raising the laughs he needs from the comic set pieces or the tension he needs from the dramatic developments." Taylor says the film is not sweet enough, or raunchy enough, and "seems unlikely to satisfy any audience" and concludes that De Niro's fans will be left pleading for better.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film 2 out of 5, and said it offered "Some laughs – and some unintentional eeeuuuwwws." Bradshaw wrote: "This grossout comedy takes De Niro fans into a new emotional phase that I can only call 'post-despair'. We are past being astonished and horrified. ... We are just numbly resigned to the great man continuing to do things like this".


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: At the 37th Golden Raspberry Awards, it received five nominations, for Worst Picture, Worst Actor (De Niro), Worst Supporting Actress (Julianne Hough and Aubrey Plaza) and Worst Screenplay, but did not win in any category.


title: Dirty Grandpa

text: "Dirty Grandpa" received a DVD and Blu-ray release on May 17, 2016. The Blu-ray edition featured an unrated version of the film, including an audio commentary, a making-of, a gag reel, and three featurettes. It was released on 4K UHD Blu-Ray on June 12, 2018.


title: Miss World 2021

text: Miss World 2021 was the 70th edition of the Miss World pageant, held at the Coca-Cola Music Hall in San Juan, Puerto Rico on 16 March 2022. The coronation was originally scheduled to be held on 16 December 2021 at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum. However, the pageant was rescheduled to 16 March 2022 due to the COVID-19 outbreak in Puerto Rico.


title: Miss World 2021

text: Contestants from 97 countries and territories competed in this year's pageant, featuring the smallest number of candidates at the pageant since 2003. The pageant was hosted by Peter Andre for the second time, and Fernando Allende. Don Omar, Gente de Zona, Victor Manuel, Pedro Capó, and the Puerto Rico Philharmonic Orchestra ("Filarmónica de Puerto Rico") conducted by Angel Velez with guest conductor Mike Dixon performed in this year's pageant.


title: Miss World 2021

text: At the end of the event, Toni-Ann Singh of Jamaica crowned Karolina Bielawska of Poland as Miss World 2021. It is the second victory of Poland in the history of the pageant after their victory in 1989.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The edition was initially set at the end of 2020 but was postponed indefinitely due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. On 8 March 2021, the Miss World Organization confirmed that the competition will take place at the Coca-Cola Music Hall in San Juan, Puerto Rico on 16 December 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The threat of the Omicron variant had already detected in some parts of the world during the pre-pageant activities, as the disease started to ravage and swept across the island. On 14 December Miss World Indonesia Pricilia Carla Yules tested positive for COVID-19. As a precaution, her roommate Miss World India Manasa Varanasi and five others were classified as suspected cases. Miss World Organization chairwoman Julia Morley confirmed that the delegates are currently isolated and in quarantine and that they will not be on stage for the final show if they do not produce a negative PCR test.


title: Miss World 2021

text: On 15 December, Puerto Rico Department of Health confirmed that 17 positive cases for COVID-19 related to the Miss World pageant activities, includes contestants and technical personnel.


title: Miss World 2021

text: An official statement stating that Miss World Malaysia Lavanya Sivaji tested positive for COVID-19 by her national director via "Miss World Malaysia" Instagram on 16 December 2021. She will be required to be isolated for 10 days and will not be permitted on the stage during the finals as part of Puerto Rico Department of Health and Miss World guidelines. The finale, originally slated 16 December, was later postponed and will be held on an unspecified date but within 90 days in Puerto Rico.


title: Miss World 2021

text: On 16 December, epidemiologist Melissa Marzán confirmed that 15 staff and 23 contestants were positive cases associated with Miss World during the Puerto Rico Department of Health press conference. She added that pageant organizers decided to postpone, not the island's authorities.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The rescheduled 70th Miss World pageant would take place on 16 March 2022 via "Miss World" social media accounts on 22 December and would be held at Puerto Rico's Coca-Cola Music Hall instead of the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum, and 40 semifinalists had returned to Puerto Rico from 9 to 11 March 2022 for the rescheduled event.


title: Miss World 2021

text: On 15 December, the government of Sint Maarten officially denounced the participation of Lara Mateo at Miss World 2021 as dutch territory representative. The current franchise holder of the Miss and Mr World license for Sint Maarten did not select Lara Mateo for her participation; they are currently under investigation by the government. Prime Minister Silveria Jacobs said the government discovered that Lara Mateo was wrong registered by Guadeloupe's franchise holder to represent Sint Maarten. The local government issued an official letter stating that they did not endorse Lara Mateo to Miss World. She added that Collectivité de Saint-Martin, neither their Tourism Department nor the Culture Department, did not know or acknowledge the candidate and reassured that their winners would solely compete at Miss France.


title: Miss World 2021

text: On 28 February 2022, Del Valle took to Instagram to announce she would no longer be hosting the pageant's 70th edition, claiming "It is contrary to my ethics and moral principles to continue working with an organization that has acted in a defamatory, frivolous and unfair manner; solely for the purpose of causing harm." Puerto Rico with a Purpose's lawsuit against Del Valle and Del Valle's countersuit are still active.


title: Miss World 2021

text: 15 contestants earned their spot in the semi-finals via various challenges and the remaining 25 semi-finalists were officially announced via "Miss World" Facebook page on 21 January 2022. There was a tie for the Top 12 placements on the coronation night, which increased the placements to Top 13 which include the Digital Media Challenge Winner. Shree Saini of United States was awarded as Beauty With A Purpose Ambassador and she will accompany the new Miss World, Karolina Bielawska of Poland during her reign.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The contestants were officially assigned to their grouping via "Miss World" YouTube Channel on 24 November 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The winner of each group will compete at the head-to-head final in the Capitol of Puerto Rico on 9 December. The eight semi-finalists were officially announced via "Miss World" YouTube Channel on 24 November 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: Talent finals was held on 4 December 2021 The winner were officially announced via "Miss World" Facebook page on 13 December 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: Miss Cote D'Ivoire, Olivia Yacé, won Top Model Competition and become the first quarter-finalist of Miss World 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: Sports event was initially held on 1 December 2021. Miss Norway, Amine Storrød, had an asthma attack during the event which had to delay the rest of the competition. The winners were officially announced via "Miss World" Facebook page on 13 December 2021.


title: Miss World 2021

text: The finalists were officially announced via "Miss World" Facebook page on 13 December 2021. The Top 6 finalists were announced as winners. The 18 other semifinalists were later announced via "Miss World" Facebook page through contestants' personal profiles.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Jurisprudence, or legal theory, is the theoretical study of the propriety of law. Scholars of jurisprudence seek to explain the nature of law in its most general form and they also seek to achieve a deeper understanding of legal reasoning and analogy, legal systems, legal institutions, and the proper application of law, the economic analysis of law and the role of law in society.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Modern jurisprudence began in the 18th century and it was based on the first principles of natural law, civil law, and the law of nations. General jurisprudence can be divided into categories both by the type of question scholars seek to answer and by the theories of jurisprudence, or schools of thought, regarding how those questions are best answered. Contemporary philosophy of law, which deals with general jurisprudence, addresses problems internal to law and legal systems and problems of law as a social institution that relates to the larger political and social context in which it exists.


title: Jurisprudence

text: This article addresses three distinct branches of thought in general jurisprudence. Ancient natural law is the idea that there are rational objective limits to the power of legislative rulers. The foundations of law are accessible through reason, and it is from these laws of nature that human laws gain whatever force they have. Analytic jurisprudence (Clarificatory jurisprudence) rejects natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. It espouses the use of a neutral point of view and descriptive language when referring to aspects of legal systems. It encompasses such theories of jurisprudence as legal positivism, holds that there is no necessary connection between law and morality and that the force of law comes from basic social facts; and "legal realism", which argues that the real-world practice of law determines what law is, the law having the force that it does because of what legislators, lawyers, and judges do with it. Unlike experimental jurisprudence, which seeks to investigate the content of folk legal concepts using the methods of social science, the traditional method of both natural law and analytic jurisprudence is philosophical analysis. Normative jurisprudence is concerned with "evaluative" theories of law. It deals with what the goal or purpose of law is, or what moral or political theories provide a foundation for the law. It not only addresses the question "What is law?", but also tries to determine what the proper function of law should be, or what sorts of acts should be subject to legal sanctions, and what sorts of punishment should be permitted.


title: Jurisprudence

text: The English word is derived from the Latin, "iurisprudentia". "Iuris" is the genitive form of "ius" meaning law, and "prudentia" meaning prudence (also: discretion, foresight, forethought, circumspection). It refers to the exercise of good judgment, common sense, and caution, especially in the conduct of practical matters. The word first appeared in written English in 1628, at a time when the word "prudence" meant knowledge of, or skill in, a matter. It may have entered English via the French "jurisprudence", which appeared earlier.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Ancient Indian jurisprudence is mentioned in various Dharmaśāstra texts, starting with the Dharmasutra of Bhodhayana.


title: Jurisprudence

text: In Ancient China, the Daoists, Confucians, and Legalists all had competing theories of jurisprudence.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Jurisprudence in Ancient Rome had its origins with the ("periti")—experts in the "jus" "mos maiorum" (traditional law), a body of oral laws and customs.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Praetors established a working body of laws by judging whether or not singular cases were capable of being prosecuted either by the edicta, the annual pronunciation of prosecutable offense, or in extraordinary situations, additions made to the edicta. An iudex would then prescribe a remedy according to the facts of the case.


title: Jurisprudence

text: The sentences of the iudex were supposed to be simple interpretations of the traditional customs, but—apart from considering what traditional customs applied in each case—soon developed a more equitable interpretation, coherently adapting the law to newer social exigencies. The law was then adjusted with evolving "institutiones" (legal concepts), while remaining in the traditional mode. Praetors were replaced in the 3rd century BC by a laical body of "prudentes". Admission to this body was conditional upon proof of competence or experience.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Under the Roman Empire, schools of law were created, and practice of the law became more academic. From the early Roman Empire to the 3rd century, a relevant body of literature was produced by groups of scholars, including the Proculians and Sabinians. The scientific nature of the studies was unprecedented in ancient times.


title: Jurisprudence

text: After the 3rd century, "juris prudentia" became a more bureaucratic activity, with few notable authors. It was during the Eastern Roman Empire (5th century) that legal studies were once again undertaken in depth, and it is from this cultural movement that Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis was born.


title: Jurisprudence

text: In its general sense, natural law theory may be compared to both state-of-nature law and general law understood on the basis of being analogous to the laws of physical science. Natural law is often contrasted to positive law which asserts law as the product of human activity and human volition.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Another approach to natural-law jurisprudence generally asserts that human law must be in response to compelling reasons for action. There are two readings of the natural-law jurisprudential stance.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Notions of an objective moral order, external to human legal systems, underlie natural law. What is right or wrong can vary according to the interests one is focused on. John Finnis, one of the most important of modern natural lawyers, has argued that the maxim "an unjust law is no law at all" is a poor guide to the classical Thomist position.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Strongly related to theories of natural law are classical theories of justice, beginning in the West with Plato's Republic.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Aristotle is often said to be the father of natural law. Like his philosophical forefathers Socrates and Plato, Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right ("dikaion physikon", "δικαίον φυσικόν", Latin "ius naturale"). His association with natural law is largely due to how he was interpreted by Thomas Aquinas. This was based on Aquinas' conflation of natural law and natural right, the latter of which Aristotle posits in Book V of the "Nicomachean Ethics" (Book IV of the "Eudemian Ethics"). Aquinas's influence was such as to affect a number of early translations of these passages, though more recent translations render them more literally.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Aristotle's theory of justice is bound up in his idea of the golden mean. Indeed, his treatment of what he calls "political justice" derives from his discussion of "the just" as a moral virtue derived as the mean between opposing vices, just like every other virtue he describes. His longest discussion of his theory of justice occurs in "Nicomachean Ethics" and begins by asking what sort of mean a just act is. He argues that the term "justice" actually refers to two different but related ideas: general justice and particular justice. When a person's actions toward others are completely virtuous in all matters, Aristotle calls them "just" in the sense of "general justice"; as such, this idea of justice is more or less coextensive with virtue. "Particular" or "partial justice", by contrast, is the part of "general justice" or the individual virtue that is concerned with treating others equitably.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Aristotle moves from this unqualified discussion of justice to a qualified view of political justice, by which he means something close to the subject of modern jurisprudence. Of political justice, Aristotle argues that it is partly derived from nature and partly a matter of convention. This can be taken as a statement that is similar to the views of modern natural law theorists. But it must also be remembered that Aristotle is describing a view of morality, not a system of law, and therefore his remarks as to nature are about the grounding of the morality enacted as law, not the laws themselves.


title: Jurisprudence

text: The best evidence of Aristotle's having thought there was a natural law comes from the "Rhetoric", where Aristotle notes that, aside from the "particular" laws that each people has set up for itself, there is a "common" law that is according to nature. The context of this remark, however, suggests only that Aristotle thought that it could be rhetorically advantageous to appeal to such a law, especially when the "particular" law of one's own city was adverse to the case being made, not that there actually was such a law. Aristotle, moreover, considered certain candidates for a universally valid, natural law to be wrong. Aristotle's theoretical paternity of the natural law tradition is consequently disputed.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Thomas Aquinas is the foremost classical proponent of natural theology, and the father of the Thomistic school of philosophy, for a long time the primary philosophical approach of the Roman Catholic Church. The work for which he is best known is the "Summa Theologiae". One of the thirty-five Doctors of the Church, he is considered by many Catholics to be the Church's greatest theologian. Consequently, many institutions of learning have been named after him.


title: Jurisprudence

text: "... this is the first precept of the law, that good is to be done and promoted, and evil is to be avoided. All other precepts of the natural law are based on this ..."


title: Jurisprudence

text: The desires to live and to procreate are counted by Aquinas among those basic (natural) human values on which all other human values are based.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Francisco de Vitoria was perhaps the first to develop a theory of "ius gentium" (the rights of peoples), and thus is an important figure in the transition to modernity. He extrapolated his ideas of legitimate sovereign power to international affairs, concluding that such affairs ought to be determined by forms respecting of the rights of all and that the common good of the world should take precedence before the good of any single state. This meant that relations between states ought to pass from being justified by force to being justified by law and justice. Some scholars have upset the standard account of the origins of International law, which emphasises the seminal text "De iure belli ac pacis" by Hugo Grotius, and argued for Vitoria and, later, Suárez's importance as forerunners and, potentially, founders of the field. Others, such as Koskenniemi, have argued that none of these humanist and scholastic thinkers can be understood to have founded international law in the modern sense, instead placing its origins in the post-1870 period.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Francisco Suárez, regarded as among the greatest scholastics after Aquinas, subdivided the concept of "ius gentium". Working with already well-formed categories, he carefully distinguished "ius inter gentes" from "ius intra gentes". "Ius inter gentes" (which corresponds to modern international law) was something common to the majority of countries, although, being positive law, not natural law, it was not necessarily universal. On the other hand, "ius intra gentes", or civil law, is specific to each nation.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Writing after World War II, Lon L. Fuller defended a secular and procedural form of natural law. He emphasised that the (natural) law must meet certain formal requirements (such as being impartial and publicly knowable). To the extent that an institutional system of social control falls short of these requirements, Fuller argued, we are less inclined to recognise it as a system of law, or to give it our respect. Thus, the law must have a morality that goes beyond the societal rules under which laws are made.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Sophisticated positivist and natural law theories sometimes resemble each other and may have certain points in common. Identifying a particular theorist as a positivist or a natural law theorist sometimes involves matters of emphasis and degree, and the particular influences on the theorist's work. The natural law theorists of the distant past, such as Aquinas and John Locke made no distinction between analytic and normative jurisprudence, while modern natural law theorists, such as John Finnis, who claim to be positivists, still argue that law is moral by nature. In his book "Natural Law and Natural Rights" (1980, 2011), John Finnis provides a restatement of natural law doctrine.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Analytic, or "clarificatory", jurisprudence means taking a neutral point of view and using descriptive language when referring to various aspects of legal systems. This was a philosophical development that rejected natural law's fusing of what law is and what it ought to be. David Hume argued, in "A Treatise of Human Nature", that people invariably slip from describing what the world "is" to asserting that we therefore "ought" to follow a particular course of action. But as a matter of pure logic, one cannot conclude that we "ought" to do something merely because something "is" the case. So analysing and clarifying the way the world "is" must be treated as a strictly separate question from normative and evaluative questions of what "ought" to be done.


title: Jurisprudence

text: The most important questions of analytic jurisprudence are: "What are laws?"; "What is "the" law?"; "What is the relationship between law and power/sociology?"; and "What is the relationship between law and morality?" Legal positivism is the dominant theory, although there is a growing number of critics who offer their own interpretations.


title: Jurisprudence

text: Historical jurisprudence came to prominence during the debate on the proposed codification of German law. In his book "On the Vocation of Our Age for Legislation and Jurisprudence", Friedrich Carl von Savigny argued that Germany did not have a legal language that would support codification because the traditions, customs, and beliefs of the German people did not include a belief in a code. Historicists believe that law originates with society.


title: Jurisprudence

text: An effort to systematically inform jurisprudence from sociological insights developed from the beginning of the twentieth century, as sociology began to establish itself as a distinct social science, especially in the United States and in continental Europe. In Germany, Austria and France, the work of the "free law" theorists (e.g. Ernst Fuchs, Hermann Kantorowicz, Eugen Ehrlich and Francois Geny) encouraged the use of sociological insights in the development of legal and juristic theory. The most internationally influential advocacy for a "sociological jurisprudence" occurred in the United States, where, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Roscoe Pound, for many years the Dean of Harvard Law School, used this term to characterise his legal philosophy. In the United States, many later writers followed Pound's lead or developed distinctive approaches to sociological jurisprudence. In Australia, Julius Stone strongly defended and developed Pound's ideas. In the 1930s, a significant split between the sociological jurists and the American legal realists emerged. In the second half of the twentieth century, sociological jurisprudence as a distinct movement declined as jurisprudence came more strongly under the influence of analytical legal philosophy; but with increasing criticism of dominant orientations of legal philosophy in English-speaking countries in the present century, it has attracted renewed interest. Increasingly, its contemporary focus is on providing theoretical resources for jurists to aid their understanding of new types of regulation (for example, the diverse kinds of developing transnational law) and the increasingly important interrelations of law and culture, especially in multicultural Western societies.