title: Chipko movement

text: Over the next five years, the movement spread to many districts in the region, and within a decade throughout the Uttarakhand Himalayas. Larger issues of ecological and economic exploitation of the region were raised. The villagers demanded that no forest-exploiting contracts should be given to outsiders and local communities should have effective control over natural resources like land, water, and forests. They wanted the government to provide low-cost materials to small industries and ensure development of the region without disturbing the ecological balance. The movement took up economic issues of landless forest workers and asked for guarantees of minimum wage. Globally Chipko demonstrated how environment causes, up until then considered an activity of the rich, were a matter of life and death for the poor, who were all too often the first ones to be devastated by an environmental tragedy. Several scholarly studies were made in the aftermath of the movement. In 1977, in another area, women tied sacred threads, called Rakhi, around trees destined for felling. According to the Hindu tradition of Raksha Bandhan, the Rakhi signifies a bond between brother and sisters. They declared that the trees would be saved even if it cost them their lives.


title: Chipko movement

text: Women's participation in the Chipko agitation was a very novel aspect of the movement. The forest contractors of the region usually doubled up as suppliers of alcohol to men. Women held sustained agitations against the habit of alcoholism and broadened the agenda of the movement to cover other social issues. The movement achieved a victory when the government issued a ban on felling of trees in the Himalayan regions for fifteen years in 1980 by then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, until the green cover was fully restored. One of the prominent Chipko leaders, Gandhian Sunderlal Bahuguna, took a 5,000 kilometre (3000 mile) trans-Himalaya foot march in 1981–83, spreading the Chipko message to a far greater area. Gradually, women set up cooperatives to guard local forests, and also organized fodder production at rates conducive to local environment. Next, they joined in land rotation schemes for fodder collection, helped replant degraded land, and established and ran nurseries stocked with species they selected.


title: Chipko movement

text: One of Chipko's most salient features was the mass participation of female villagers. As the backbone of Uttarakhand's Agrarian economy, women were most directly affected by environmental degradation and deforestation, and thus related to the issues most easily. How much this participation impacted or derived from the ideology of Chipko has been fiercely debated in academic circles.


title: Chipko movement

text: Despite this, both female and male activists did play pivotal roles in the movement including Gaura Devi, Sudesha Devi, Bachni Devi, Chandi Prasad Bhatt, Sundarlal Bahuguna, Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Shamsher Singh Bisht and Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs are still popular in the Himalayan region. Chandi Prasad Bhatt was awarded the Ramon Magsaysay Award in 1982, and Sunderlal Bahuguna was awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2009.


title: Chipko movement

text: In Tehri District, Chipko activists would go on to protest limestone mining in the Doon Valley in the 1980s, as the movement spread through the Dehradun district, which had earlier seen deforestation of its forest cover leading to heavy loss of flora and fauna. Finally quarrying was banned after years of agitation by Chipko activists, followed by a vast public drive for afforestation, which turned around the valley, just in time. Also in the 1980s, activists like Bahuguna protested against construction of the Tehri dam on the Bhagirathi River, which went on for the next two decades, before founding the "Beej Bachao Andolan", the Save the Seeds movement, that continues to the present day.


title: Chipko movement

text: Over time, as a United Nations Environment Programme report mentioned, Chipko activists started "working a socio-economic revolution by winning control of their forest resources from the hands of a distant bureaucracy which is only concerned with the selling of forestland for making urban-oriented products". The Chipko movement became a benchmark for socio-ecological movements in other forest areas of Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan and Bihar; in September 1983, Chipko inspired a similar, Appiko movement in Karnataka state of India, where tree felling in the Western Ghats and Vindhyas was stopped. In Kumaon region, Chipko took on a more radical tone, combining with the general movement for a separate Uttarakhand state, which was eventually achieved in 2001


title: Chipko movement

text: In recent years, the movement not only inspired numerous people to work on practical programmes of water management, energy conservation, afforestation, and recycling, but also encouraged scholars to start studying issues of environmental degradation and methods of conservation in the Himalayas and throughout India.


title: Chipko movement

text: On 26 March 2004, Reni, Laata, and other villages of the Niti Valley celebrated the 30th anniversary of the Chipko movement, where all the surviving original participants united. The celebrations started at Laata, the ancestral home of Gaura Devi, where Pushpa Devi, wife of late Chipko Leader Govind Singh Rawat, Dhoom Singh Negi, Chipko leader of Henwalghati, Tehri Garhwal, and others were celebrated. From here a procession went to Reni, the neighbouring village, where the actual Chipko action took place on 26 March 1974. This marked the beginning of worldwide methods to improve the present situation. Recently, by following the legacy of the Chipko movement, in 2017 rapid deforestation over the century-old trees, forming almost a canopy in Jessore Road of the district of North 24 Parganas, West Bengal, has also flicked off a huge movement in the form of the campaign of saving 4000 trees by the local masses.


title: Chipko movement

text: On 26 March 2018, a Chipko movement conservation initiative was marked by a Google Doodle on its 45th anniversary.


title: God in Christianity

text: God in Christianity is believed to be the eternal, supreme being who created and preserves all things. Christians believe in a monotheistic conception of God, which is both transcendent (wholly independent of, and removed from, the material universe) and immanent (involved in the material universe). Christian teachings on the transcendence, immanence, and involvement of God in the world and his love for humanity exclude the belief that God is of the same substance as the created universe (rejection of pantheism) but accept that God's divine nature was hypostatically united to human nature in the person of Jesus Christ, in a unique event known as "the Incarnation".


title: God in Christianity

text: Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline epistles and the early Christian creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus. Although some early sects of Christianity, such as the Jewish-Christian Ebionites, protested against the apotheosis of Jesus, the concept of Jesus being one with God was accepted by the majority of Gentile Christians. This formed one aspect of the split of early Christianity and Judaism, as Gentile Christian views of God began to diverge from the traditional Jewish teachings of the time.


title: God in Christianity

text: The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things". In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted. As time passed, Christian theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning. The Kingdom of God is a prominent phrase in the Synoptic Gospels, and while there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the teachings of Jesus, there is little scholarly agreement on its exact interpretation.


title: God in Christianity

text: Although the New Testament does not have a formal doctrine of the Trinity as such, "it does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit... in such a way as to compel a Trinitarian understanding of God". Around the year 200 AD, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus. This concept was later expanded upon at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD, and a later definitive form was produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381. The Trinitarian doctrine holds that God the Son, God the Father, and God the Holy Spirit are all different hypostases (Persons) of one substance, and is not traditionally held to be one of tritheism. Trinitarianism was subsequently practiced through Nicene Christianity thereafter, and forms a cornerstone of modern Christian understandings of God, though some Christian denominations hold Nontrinitarian views about God.


title: God in Christianity

text: Christians, in common with Jews and Muslims, identify with the biblical patriarch Abraham to whom God revealed himself. It is believed that Abraham was the first to affirm monotheism (one God) and had an ideal relationship with God. The Abrahamic religions believe that God continuously interacted with the descendants of Abraham over millennia; both Christians and Jews believe that this covenant is recorded in the Hebrew Bible, which most Christian denominations consider to be and refer to as the Old Testament. In the traditional interpretations of Christianity, God is always referred to with masculine grammatical articles only.


title: God in Christianity

text: Early Christian views of God (before the gospels were written) are reflected in the Apostle Paul's statement in 1 Corinthians 8:5–6, written , about twenty years after the crucifixion of Jesus, and 12–21 years before the earliest of the canonical gospels was written:


title: God in Christianity

text: Apart from asserting that there is one God, Paul's statement (which is likely based on pre-Pauline confessions) includes a number of other significant elements: he distinguishes Christian belief from the Jewish background of the time by referring to Jesus and the Father almost in the same breath, and by conferring on Jesus the title of divine honor "Lord", as well as calling him Christ.


title: God in Christianity

text: In the Book of Acts (Acts 17:24–27), during the Areopagus sermon given by Paul, he further characterizes the early Christian understanding:


title: God in Christianity

text: The Pauline epistles also include a number of references to the Holy Spirit, with the theme which appears in 1 Thessalonians 4:8 - "...God, the very God who gives you his Holy Spirit" - appearing throughout his epistles. In John 14:26, Jesus also refers to "the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my name".


title: God in Christianity

text: By the end of the 1st century, Clement of Rome had repeatedly referred to the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and linked the Father to creation in 1 Clement 19.2, stating: "let us look steadfastly to the Father and creator of the universe". By the middle of the 2nd century, in "Against Heresies", Irenaeus had emphasized (in Book 4, chapter 5) that the Creator is the "one and only God" and the "maker of heaven and earth". These preceded the formal presentation of the concept of Trinity by Tertullian early in the 3rd century.


title: God in Christianity

text: The period from the late 2nd century to the beginning of the 4th century (approximately 180–313) is generally called the "epoch of the Great Church" and also the Ante-Nicene Period, and witnessed significant theological development, and the consolidation and formalization of a number of Christian teachings.


title: God in Christianity

text: From the 2nd century onward, western creeds started with an affirmation of belief in "God the Father (Almighty)" and the primary reference of this phrase was to "God in his capacity as Father and creator of the universe". This did not exclude either the fact the "eternal father of the universe was also the Father of Jesus the Christ" or that he had even "vouchsafed to adopt [the believer] as his son by grace". Eastern creeds (those known to have come from a later date) began with an affirmation of faith in "one God" and almost always expanded this by adding "the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and invisible" or words to that effect.


title: God in Christianity

text: Augustine of Hippo, Thomas Aquinas, and other Christian theologians have described God with the Latin term , a phrase that translates roughly to "being itself". God's aseity makes the Christian God not "a being" but rather "being itself", and can be explained by phrases such as "that which is with no reliance on anything external for its being" or "the necessary condition for anything to exist at all".


title: God in Christianity

text: As time passed, theologians and philosophers developed more precise understandings of the nature of God and began to produce systematic lists of his attributes. These varied in detail, but traditionally the attributes fell into two groups: those based on "negation" (that God is impassible) and those positively based on "eminence" (that God is infinitely good). Ian Ramsey suggested that there are three groups, and that some attributes, such as "simplicity" and "perfection", have a different logical dynamic which from such attributes as "infinite goodness" since there are relative forms of the latter but not of the former.


title: God in Christianity

text: In Christian theology, the name of God has always held deeper significance than purely being a label, considered instead to have divine origin and be based upon divine revelation. The Bible usually uses the name of God in the singular (e.g., Exodus 20:7 or Psalms 8:1), generally using the terms in a very general sense rather than referring to any special designation of God. However, general references to the name of God may branch to other special forms which express his multifaceted attributes. The Old Testament reveals YHWH (often vocalized with vowels as "Yahweh" or "Jehovah") as the personal name of God, along with certain titles including El Elyon and El Shaddai. Jah or Yah is an abbreviation of Jahweh/Yahweh/Jehovah; it is often used by Christians in the interjection Hallelujah, meaning "Praise Jah", which is used to give God glory. In the New Testament, "Theos", "Kyrios", and "Pater" (, "father" in Greek) are additional words used to reference God.


title: God in Christianity

text: Respect for the name of God is one of the Ten Commandments, which is viewed not only as an avoidance of the improper use of the name of God, but also a commandment to exalt it, through both pious deeds and praise. This is reflected in the first petition in the Lord's Prayer addressed to God the Father: "Hallowed be thy Name".


title: God in Christianity

text: In the theology of the Early Church Fathers, the name of God was seen as representative of the entire system of "divine truth" revealed to the faithful "that believe in his name" or "walk in the name of the Lord our God" In Revelation 3:12, those who bear the name of God are "destined for Heaven". John 17:6 presents the teachings of Jesus as the manifestation of the name of God to his disciples.


title: God in Christianity

text: John 12:27 presents the sacrifice of Jesus the Lamb of God, and the ensuing salvation delivered through it as the glorification of the name of God, with the voice from Heaven confirming Jesus' petition ("Father, glorify thy name") by saying: "I have both glorified it, and will glorify it again", referring to the Baptism and crucifixion of Jesus.


title: God in Christianity

text: The theological underpinnings of the attributes and nature of God have been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity. In the 2nd century, Irenaeus addressed the issue and expounded on some attributes; for example, Book IV, chapter 19 of "Against Heresies" states: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things". Irenaeus based his attributes on three sources: Scripture, prevailing mysticism and popular piety. Today, some of the attributes associated with God continue to be based on statements in the Bible, such as the Lord's Prayer, which states that the Father is in Heaven, while other attributes are derived from theological reasoning.


title: God in Christianity

text: In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes for God in his "An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith" (Book 1, chapter 8). These eighteen attributes were divided into four groups based on time (such as being everlasting), space (such as being boundless), matter or quality and the list continues to be influential to date, partially appearing in some form in various modern formulations. In the 13th century, Thomas Aquinas focused on a shorter list of just eight attributes, namely "simplicity", "perfection", "goodness", "incomprehensibility", "omnipresence", "immutability", "eternity" and "oneness". Other formulations include the 1251 list of the Fourth Lateran Council, which was then adopted at Vatican I in 1870 and the Westminster Shorter Catechism in the 17th century.


title: God in Christianity

text: Two attributes of God that place him above the world, yet acknowledge his involvement in the world, are transcendence and immanence. Transcendence means that God is eternal and infinite, not controlled by the created world and beyond human events. Immanence means that God is involved in the world, and Christian teachings have long acknowledged his attention to human affairs. However, unlike pantheistic religions, in Christianity, God's being is not of the substance of the created universe.


title: God in Christianity

text: Traditionally, some theologians such as Louis Berkhof distinguish between the "communicable" attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the "incommunicable" attributes (those that belong to God alone). However, others such as Donald Macleod hold that all the suggested classifications are artificial and without basis.


title: God in Christianity

text: There is a general agreement among theologians that it would be a mistake to conceive of the essence of God existing by itself and independently of the attributes or of the attributes being an additional characteristic of the Divine Being. They are essential qualities which exist permanently in his very Being and are co-existent with it. Any alteration in them would imply an alteration in the essential being of God.


title: God in Christianity

text: Hick suggests that when listing the attributes of God, the starting point should be his "self-existence" ("aseity") which implies his eternal and unconditioned nature. Hick goes on to consider the following additional attributes: "Creator" being the source of all that composes his creation () and the sustainer of what he has brought into being; "personal"; "loving, good"; and "holy". Berkhof also starts with "self-existence" but moves on to "immutability"; "infinity", which implies "perfection" "eternity" and "omnipresence"; "unity". He then analyses a series of intellectual attributes: "knowledge-omniscience"; "wisdom"; "veracity" and then, the moral attributes of "goodness" (including love, grace, mercy and patience); "holiness" and "righteousness" before dealing finally with his "sovereignty".


title: God in Christianity

text: Gregory of Nyssa was one of the first theologians to argue, in opposition to Origen, that God is "infinite". His main argument for the infinity of God, which can be found in "Against Eunomius", is that God's goodness is limitless, and as God's goodness is essential, God is also limitless.


title: God in Christianity

text: Many early Christians believed that a number of verses within the Bible, were meant to apply not only to God, but to all attempts aiming to depict God. However, early Christian art, such as that of the Dura Europos church, displays the Hand of God, a theological symbol representing the right hand of God, and Christ himself, along with many saints, are depicted. The Dura Europos synagogue nearby has numerous instances of the Hand of God symbol throughout its extensive decorative scheme, and is the only ancient synagogue with an extant decorative scheme. Dating to the mid-3rd century, the symbol was likely adopted into Early Christian art from Jewish art.


title: God in Christianity

text: The Hand of God was common in Late Antique art in both the East and West, and remained the main way of symbolizing the actions or approval of God the Father in the West until the end of the Romanesque period. In art depicting specific Biblical scenes, such as the Baptism of Jesus, where a specific representation of God the Father was indicated, the Hand of God was used increasingly from the Carolingian period until the end of the Romanesque.


title: God in Christianity

text: The use of religious images in general continued to increase up to the end of the 7th century, to the point that in 695, upon assuming the throne, Byzantine emperor Justinian II put an image of Christ on the obverse side of his gold coins, resulting in a rift which ended the use of Byzantine coin types in the Islamic world. However, the increase in religious imagery did not include depictions of God the Father. For instance, while the eighty second canon of the Council of Trullo in 692 did not specifically condemn images of the Father, it suggested that icons of Christ were preferred over Old Testament shadows and figures.


title: God in Christianity

text: The beginning of the 8th century witnessed the suppression and destruction of religious icons as the Byzantine iconoclasm (literally, "image struggle" or "war on icons") began. Emperor Leo III (717–741) suppressed the use of icons by imperial edict of the Byzantine Empire, presumably due to a military loss which he attributed to the undue veneration of icons. The edict (which was issued without consulting the church) forbade the veneration of religious images, but did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or religious symbols such as the cross. Theological arguments against icons then began to appear with iconoclasts arguing that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of Jesus at the same time. In this atmosphere, no public depictions of God the Father were even attempted and such depictions only began to appear two centuries later.


title: God in Christianity

text: The Second Council of Nicaea in 787 effectively ended the first period of Byzantine iconoclasm and restored the honouring of icons and holy images in general. However, this did not immediately translate into large scale depictions of God the Father. Even supporters of the use of icons in the 8th century, such as John of Damascus, drew a distinction between images of God the Father and those of Christ.


title: God in Christianity

text: In his treatise "On the Divine Images", John of Damascus wrote: "In former times, God who is without form or body, could never be depicted. But now when God is seen in the flesh conversing with men, I make an image of the God whom I see". The implication is that insofar as God the Father or the Spirit did not become man, visible and tangible images and portrait icons would be inaccurate, and that what was true for the whole Trinity before Christ remains true for the Father and the Spirit, but not for the Word. John of Damascus wrote:


title: God in Christianity

text: If we attempt to make an image of the invisible God, this would be sinful indeed. It is impossible to portray one who is without body: invisible, uncircumscribed and without form.


title: God in Christianity

text: Around 790, Charlemagne ordered a set of four books that became known as the Libri Carolini ("Charles' books") to refute what his court mistakenly understood to be the iconoclast decrees of the Byzantine Second Council of Nicaea regarding sacred images. Although not well known during the Middle Ages, these books describe the key elements of the Catholic theological position on sacred images. To the Western Church, images were just objects made by craftsmen, to be utilized for stimulating the senses of the faithful, and to be respected for the sake of the subject represented, not in themselves.


title: God in Christianity

text: The Council of Constantinople (869) (considered ecumenical by the Western Church, but not the Eastern Church) reaffirmed the decisions of the Second Council of Nicaea and helped stamp out any remaining coals of iconoclasm. Specifically, its third canon required the image of Christ to have veneration equal with that of a Gospel book:


title: God in Christianity

text: We decree that the sacred image of our Lord Jesus Christ, the liberator and Savior of all people, must be venerated with the same honor as is given the book of the holy Gospels. For as through the language of the words contained in this book all can reach salvation, so, due to the action which these images exercise by their colors, all wise and simple alike, can derive profit from them.


title: God in Christianity

text: Images of God the Father were not directly addressed in Constantinople in 869. A list of permitted icons was enumerated at this Council, but symbols of God the Father were not among them. However, the general acceptance of icons and holy images began to create an atmosphere in which God the Father could be symbolized.


title: God in Christianity

text: Prior to the 10th century, no attempt was made to use a human figure to symbolize God the Father in Western art. Yet, Western art eventually required some way to illustrate the presence of the Father, so through successive representations a set of artistic styles for symbolizing the Father using a man gradually emerged around the 10th century. A rationale for the use of a human figure is the belief that God created the soul of Man in the image of his own (thus allowing humanity to transcend the other animals).


title: God in Christianity

text: It appears that when early artists designed to represent God the Father, fear and awe restrained them from a usage of the whole human figure. Typically only a small part would be used as the image, usually the hand, or sometimes the face, but rarely a whole human figure. In many images, the figure of the Son supplants the Father, so a smaller portion of the person of the Father is depicted.


title: God in Christianity

text: By the 12th century depictions of God the Father had started to appear in French illuminated manuscripts, which as a less public form could often be more adventurous in their iconography, and in stained glass church windows in England. Initially the head or bust was usually shown in some form of frame of clouds in the top of the picture space, where the Hand of God had formerly appeared; the Baptism of Christ on the famous baptismal font in Liège of Rainer of Huy is an example from 1118 (a Hand of God is used in another scene). Gradually the amount of the human symbol shown can increase to a half-length figure, then a full-length, usually enthroned, as in Giotto's fresco of c. 1305 in Padua.


title: God in Christianity

text: In the 14th century the Naples Bible carried a depiction of God the Father in the Burning bush. By the early 15th century, the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry has a considerable number of symbols, including an elderly but tall and elegant full-length figure walking in the Garden of Eden, which show a considerable diversity of apparent ages and dress. The "Gates of Paradise" of the Florence Baptistry by Lorenzo Ghiberti, begun in 1425 use a similar tall full-length symbol for the Father. The Rohan Book of Hours of about 1430 also included depictions of God the Father in half-length human form, which were now becoming standard, and the Hand of God becoming rarer. At the same period other works, like the large Genesis altarpiece by the Hamburg painter Meister Bertram, continued to use the old depiction of Christ as "Logos" in Genesis scenes. In the 15th century there was a brief fashion for depicting all three persons of the Trinity as similar or identical figures with the usual appearance of Christ.


title: God in Christianity

text: In an early Venetian school Coronation of the Virgin by Giovanni d'Alemagna and Antonio Vivarini, (c. 1443) The Father is depicted using the symbol consistently used by other artists later, namely a patriarch, with benign, yet powerful countenance and with long white hair and a beard, a depiction largely derived from, and justified by, the near-physical, but still figurative, description of the Ancient of Days.


title: God in Christianity

text: In the "Annunciation" by Benvenuto di Giovanni in 1470, God the Father is portrayed in the red robe and a hat that resembles that of a Cardinal. However, even in the later part of the 15th century, the symbolic representation of the Father and the Holy Spirit as "hands and dove" continued, e.g. in Verrocchio's Baptism of Christ in 1472.


title: God in Christianity

text: In Renaissance paintings of the adoration of the Trinity, God may be depicted in two ways, either with emphasis on The Father, or the three elements of the Trinity. The most usual depiction of the Trinity in Renaissance art depicts God the Father using an old man, usually with a long beard and patriarchal in appearance, sometimes with a triangular halo (as a reference to the Trinity), or with a papal crown, specially in Northern Renaissance painting. In these depictions, the Father may hold a globe or book (to symbolize God's knowledge and as a reference to how knowledge is deemed divine). He is behind and above Christ on the Cross in the Throne of Mercy iconography. A dove, the symbol of the Holy Spirit may hover above. Various people from different classes of society, e.g. kings, popes or martyrs may be present in the picture. In a Trinitarian pietà, God the Father is often symbolized using a man wearing a papal dress and a papal crown, supporting the dead Christ in his arms. They are depicted as floating in heaven with angels who carry the instruments of the Passion.


title: God in Christianity

text: Representations of God the Father and the Trinity were attacked both by Protestants and within Catholicism, by the Jansenist and Baianist movements as well as more orthodox theologians. As with other attacks on Catholic imagery, this had the effect both of reducing church support for the less central depictions, and strengthening it for the core ones. In the Catholic Church, the pressure to restrain religious imagery resulted in the highly influential decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563. The Council of Trent decrees confirmed the traditional Catholic doctrine that images only represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person, not the image. The Council also reserved the right of bishops, and in cases of new artistic novelties, the Pope, to suppress images deemed non-canonical or heretical.


title: God in Christianity

text: Traditional artistic depictions of God the Father which followed the conventions of the church were relatively uncontroversial in Catholic art thereafter, but less common, unusual depictions of the Trinity were condemned. In 1745 Pope Benedict XIV explicitly supported the Throne of Mercy depiction, referring to the "Ancient of Days", but in 1786 it was still necessary for Pope Pius VI to issue a papal bull condemning the decision of an Italian church council to remove all images of the Trinity from churches, including standard canonical ones.


title: God in Christianity

text: God the Father is symbolized in several Genesis scenes in Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling, most famously "The Creation of Adam" (whose image of near touching hands of God and Adam is iconic of humanity, being a reminder that Man is created in the Image and Likeness of God ()).God the Father is depicted as a powerful figure, floating in the clouds in Titian's "Assumption of the Virgin" in the Frari of Venice, long admired as a masterpiece of High Renaissance art. The Church of the Gesù in Rome includes a number of 16th century depictions of God the Father. In some of these paintings the Trinity is still alluded to in terms of three angels, but Giovanni Battista Fiammeri also depicted God the Father as a man riding on a cloud, above the scenes.


title: God in Christianity

text: In several of his painting, such as the "Last Judgment", Rubens depicted God the Father using the image that by then had become widely accepted—a bearded patriarchal figure above the fray. While representations of God the Father were growing in Italy, Spain, Germany and the Low Countries, there was resistance elsewhere in Europe, even during the 17th century. In 1632 most members of the Star Chamber court in England (except the Archbishop of York) condemned the use of the images of the Trinity in church windows, and some considered them illegal. Later in the 17th century Sir Thomas Browne wrote that he considered the representation of God the Father using an old man "a dangerous act" that might lead to, in his words, "Egyptian symbolism". In 1847, Charles Winston was still critical of such images as a "Romish trend" (a derisive term used to refer to Roman Catholics) that he considered best avoided in England.


title: God in Christianity

text: In 1667 the 43rd chapter of the Great Moscow Council specifically included a ban on a number of symbolic depictions of God the Father and the Holy Spirit, which then also resulted in a whole range of other icons being placed on the forbidden list, mostly affecting Western-style depictions which had been gaining ground in Orthodox icons. The Council also declared that the person of the Trinity who was the "Ancient of Days" was Christ, as "Logos", not God the Father. However some icons continued to be produced in Russia, as well as Greece, Romania, and other Orthodox Christian-majority countries.


title: God in Christianity

text: the notion of the "Kingship of God", whose origins go back to the Old Testament, and may be seen as a consequence of the creation of the world by God. The "enthronement psalms" (Psalms , , ,


title: God in Christianity

text: ) provide a background for this view with the exclamation "The Lord is King". However, in later Judaism a more "national" view was assigned to God's Kingship in which the awaited Messiah may be seen as a liberator and the founder of a new state of Israel.


title: God in Christianity

text: The term "Kingdom of God" does not appear in the Old Testament, although "his Kingdom" and "your Kingdom" are used in some cases when referring to God. However, the Kingdom of God (the Matthean equivalent being "Kingdom of Heaven") is a prominent phrase in the Synoptic Gospels (appearing 75 times), and there is near unanimous agreement among scholars that it represents a key element of the teachings of Jesus. Yet, R. T. France points out that while the concept of "Kingdom of God" has an intuitive meaning to lay Christians, there is hardly any agreement among scholars about its meaning in the New Testament. Some scholars see it as a Christian lifestyle, some as a method of world evangelization, some as the rediscovery of charismatic gifts, others relate it to no present or future situation, but the world to come. France states that the phrase Kingdom of God is often interpreted in many ways to fit the theological agenda of those interpreting it.


title: God in Christianity

text: Interpretations of the term Kingdom of God have given rise to wide-ranging eschatological debates among scholars with diverging views, yet no consensus has emerged among scholars. From Augustine to the Protestant Reformation the arrival of the Kingdom had been identified with the formation of the Christian Church, but this view was later abandoned and by the beginning of the 20th century the apocalyptic interpretation of the Kingdom had gained ground. In this view (also called the "consistent eschatology") the Kingdom of God did not start in the 1st century, but is a future apocalyptic event that is yet to take place.


title: God in Christianity

text: By the middle of the 20th century, realized eschatology, which in contrast viewed the Kingdom as non-apocalyptic but as the manifestation of divine sovereignty over the world (realized by the ministry of Jesus), had gathered a scholarly following. In this view the Kingdom is held to be available in the present. The competing approach of Inaugurated eschatology was later introduced as the "already and not yet" interpretation. In this view the Kingdom has already started, but awaits full disclosure at a future point. These diverging interpretations have since given rise to a good number of variants, with various scholars proposing new eschatological models that borrow elements from these.


title: God in Christianity

text: refers to "God the Judge of all", and the notion that all humans will eventually "be judged" is an essential element of Christian teachings. A number of New Testament passages (e.g., and ) and later credal confessions indicate that the task of judgement is assigned to Jesus. states that "neither does the Father judge any man, but he has given all judgment unto the Son". refers to the resurrected Jesus as: "he who is ordained of God to be the Judge of the living and the dead." The role played by Jesus in the judgement of God is emphasized in the most widely used Christian confessions, with the Nicene Creed stating that Jesus "sits on the right hand of the Father; shall come again, with glory, to judge the living and the dead; whose kingdom shall have no end". The Apostles' Creed includes a similar confession.


title: God in Christianity

text: A number of gospel passages warn against sin and suggest a path of righteousness to avoid the judgement of God. For instance, the Sermon on the Mount in teaches the avoidance of sin and the Parables of the Kingdom () state that at the moment of judgement the angels will "sever the wicked from among the righteous and shall cast them into the furnace of fire". Christians can thus enjoy forgiveness that lifts them from the judgement of God by following the teachings of Jesus and through a personal fellowship with him.


title: God in Christianity

text: In early Christianity, the concept of salvation was closely related to the invocation of the "Father, Son and Holy Spirit". Since the 1st century, Christians have called upon God with the name "Father, Son and Holy Spirit" in prayer, baptism, communion, exorcism, hymn-singing, preaching, confession, absolution and benediction. This is reflected in the saying: "Before there was a 'doctrine' of the Trinity, Christian prayer invoked the Holy Trinity".


title: God in Christianity

text: The term "Trinity" does not explicitly appear in the Bible, but Trinitarians believe the concept as later developed is consistent with biblical teachings. The New Testament includes a number of the usages of the three-fold liturgical and doxological formula, e.g., stating: "he that establisheth us with you in Christ, and anointed us, is God; who also sealed us, and gave [us] the earnest of the Spirit in our hearts". Christ receiving "authority and co-equal divinity" is mentioned in : "All authority hath been given unto me in heaven and on earth" as well as , , . And the Spirit being both "of God" and "of Christ" appears in , the Book of Acts (), and .


title: God in Christianity

text: The general concept was expressed in early writings from the beginning of the 2nd century forward, with Irenaeus writing in his "Against Heresies" ():


title: God in Christianity

text: Around AD 213 in "Adversus Praxeas" () Tertullian provided a formal representation of the concept of the Trinity, i.e., that God exists as one "substance" but three "Persons": The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. In defense of the coherence of the Trinity Tertullian wrote (): "The Unity which derives the Trinity out of its own self is so far from being destroyed, that it is actually supported by it." Tertullian also discussed how the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.


title: God in Christianity

text: The First Council of Nicaea in AD 325 and later the First Council of Constantinople in AD 381 defined the dogma "in its simplest outlines in the face of pressing heresies" and the version used thereafter dates to 381. In the 5th century, in the west, Augustine of Hippo expanded on the theological development in his "On the Trinity", while the major development in the east was due to John of Damascus in the 8th century. The theology eventually reached its classical form in the writings of Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century.


title: God in Christianity

text: Bernhard Lohse (1928-1997) states that the doctrine of the Trinity does not go back to non-Christian sources such as Plato or Hinduism and that all attempts at suggesting such connections have floundered. The majority of Christians are now Trinitarian and regard belief in the Trinity as a test of true orthodoxy of belief.


title: God in Christianity

text: The doctrine of the Trinity is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith. It can be summed up as:


title: God in Christianity

text: Strictly speaking, the doctrine is a mystery that can "neither be known by unaided human reason", nor "cogently demonstrated by reason after it has been revealed"; even so "it is not contrary to reason" being "not incompatible with the principles of rational thought".


title: God in Christianity

text: The doctrine was expressed at length in the 4th-century "Athanasian Creed" of which the following is an extract:


title: God in Christianity

text: But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, is all one; the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.


title: God in Christianity

text: To Trinitarian Christians (which include Catholic Christians, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and most Protestant denominations), God the Father is not at all a separate god from the Son and the Holy Spirit, the other hypostases ("Persons") of the Christian Godhead.


title: God in Christianity

text: While "Father" and "Son" implicitly invoke masculine sex, the gender of God in Christianity has historically been treated as metaphorical, and not as representing the real nature of God.


title: God in Christianity

text: The 20th century witnessed an increased theological focus on the doctrine of the Trinity, partly due to the efforts of Karl Barth in his four volume "Church Dogmatics". This theological focus relates the revelation of the Word of God to the Trinity, and argues that the doctrine of Trinity is what distinguishes the "Christian concept of God" from all other religions.


title: God in Christianity

text: The emergence of Trinitarian theology of God the Father in early Christianity was based on two key ideas: first the shared identity of the Yahweh of the Old Testament and the God of Jesus in the New Testament, and then the self-distinction and yet the unity between Jesus and his Father. An example of the unity of Son and Father is : "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge of Father and Son.


title: God in Christianity

text: The concept of fatherhood of God does appear in the Old Testament, but is not a major theme. While the view of God as the Father is used in the Old Testament, it only became a focus in the New Testament, as Jesus frequently referred to it. This is manifested in the Lord's prayer which combines the earthly needs of daily bread with the reciprocal concept of forgiveness. And Jesus' emphasis on his special relationship with the Father highlights the importance of the distinct yet unified natures of Jesus and the Father, building to the unity of Father and Son in the Trinity.


title: God in Christianity

text: The paternal view of God as the Father extends beyond Jesus to his disciples, and the entire church, as reflected in the petitions Jesus submitted to the Father for his followers at the end of the "Farewell Discourse", the night before his crucifixion. Instances of this in the Farewell Discourse are as Jesus addresses the disciples: "I am in my Father, and you in me, and I in you" and in as he prays to the Father: "I have given them the glory that you gave me, that they may be one as we are one."


title: God in Christianity

text: In Trinitarian theology, God the Father is the "arche" or "principium" ("beginning"), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, and is considered the eternal source of the Godhead. The Father is the one who eternally begets the Son, and the Father eternally breathes the Holy Spirit. The Son is eternally born from God the Father, and the Spirit eternally proceeds from the Father, and, in the Western tradition, also from the Son.


title: God in Christianity

text: Yet, notwithstanding this difference as to origin, Father is one with, co-equal to, co-eternal, and con-substantial with the Son and the Holy Spirit, each Person being the one eternal God and in no way separated, who is the creator: all alike are uncreated and omnipotent. Thus, the Divine Unity consists of God the Father, with his Son and his Spirit distinct from God the Father and yet perfectly united together in him. Because of this, the Trinity is beyond reason and can only be known by revelation.


title: God in Christianity

text: Trinitarians believe that God the Father is not pantheistic, in that he is not viewed as identical to the universe, but exists outside of creation, as its Creator. He is viewed as a loving and caring God, a Heavenly Father who is active both in the world and in people's lives. He created all things visible and invisible in love and wisdom, and man for his own sake.


title: God in Christianity

text: Since early Christianity, a number of titles have been attributed to Jesus, including, Messiah (Christ) and the Son of God. Theologically, these are different attributions: Messiah refers to his fulfilling the expected Old Testament prophecies, while Son of God refers to a paternal relationship. God the Son is distinct from both Messiah and Son of God and its theology as part of the doctrine of the Trinity was formalized well over a century after those.


title: God in Christianity

text: According to the Gospels, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. The Biblical accounts of Jesus' ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and healing. The narrative of the gospels place significant emphasis on the death of Jesus, devoting about one third of the text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem. The core Christian belief is that through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. The belief in the redemptive nature of Jesus' death predates the Pauline letters and goes back to the earliest days of Christianity and the Jerusalem church. The Nicene Creed's statement that "for our sake he was crucified" is a reflection of this core belief.


title: God in Christianity

text: The two Christological concerns as to how Jesus could be truly God while preserving faith in the existence of one God and how the human and the divine could be combined in one person were fundamental concerns from well before the First Council of Nicaea (325). However, the theology of "God the Son" was eventually reflected in the statement of the Nicene Creed of the 4th century.


title: God in Christianity

text: The Chalcedonian Definition of 451, accepted by the majority of Christians, holds that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. The Third Council of Constantinople in 680 then held that both divine and human wills exist in Jesus, with the divine will having precedence, leading and guiding the human will.


title: God in Christianity

text: In mainstream Christianity, Jesus Christ as God the Son is the second Person of the Holy Trinity, due to his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father). He is considered coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit and is all God and all human: the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David.


title: God in Christianity

text: More recently, discussions of the theological issues related to God the Son and its role in the Trinity were addressed in the 20th century in the context of a "Trinity-based" perspective on divine revelation.


title: God in Christianity

text: In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit is one of the three divine persons of the Trinity who make up the single substance of God; that is, the Spirit is considered to act in concert with and share an essential nature with God the Father and God the Son (Jesus). The New Testament has much to say about the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit's presence was especially felt following the ascension of Christ, although not to the exclusion of an early presence as attested by the Old Testament and throughout the New Testament. The Christian theology of the Holy Spirit, or pneumatology (from Greek "pneuma" or "spirit"), was the last piece of Trinitarian theology to be fully explored and developed, and there is thus greater theological diversity among Christian understandings of the Spirit than there is among understandings of the Son and the Father. Within Trinitarian theology, the Holy Spirit is usually referred to as the "Third Person" of the triune God—with the Father being the First Person and the Son the Second Person.


title: God in Christianity

text: Reflecting the Annunciation in , the early Apostles' Creed states that Jesus was "conceived by the Holy Spirit". The Nicene Creed refers to the Holy Spirit as "the Lord and Giver of Life" who with the Father and the Son together is "worshiped and glorified". While in the act of the Incarnation, God the Son became manifest as the Son of God, the same did not take place for "God the Holy Spirit" which remained unrevealed. Yet, as in God the Spirit continues to dwell in bodies of the faithful.


title: God in Christianity

text: In Christian theology Holy Spirit is believed to perform specific divine functions in the life of the Christian or the church. The action of the Holy Spirit is seen as an essential part of the bringing of the person to the Christian faith. The new believer is "born again of the Spirit".


title: God in Christianity

text: The Holy Spirit enables Christian life by dwelling in the individual believers and enables them to live a righteous and faithful life. He acts as Comforter or Paraclete, one who intercedes, or supports or acts as an advocate, particularly in times of trial. He acts to convince unredeemed persons both of the sinfulness of their actions and thoughts, and of their moral standing as sinners before God. The Holy Spirit both "inspired" the writing of the scriptures and now "interprets" them to the Christian and church.


title: God in Christianity

text: In Eastern Orthodox theology, essence of God being that which is beyond human comprehension and can not be defined or approached by human understanding. Roman Catholic teachings are somewhat similar in considering the mysteries of the Trinity as being beyond human reason. However, differences exist in that in Roman Catholic theology and teaching, God the Father is the eternal source of the Son (begot the Son by an eternal generation) and of the Holy Spirit (by an eternal procession from the Father and the Son) and the one who breathes the Holy Spirit with and through the Son, but the Eastern Orthodox consider the Spirit to proceed from the Father alone.


title: God in Christianity

text: Most Protestant denominations and other traditions arising since the Reformation hold general Trinitarian beliefs and theology regarding God the Father similar to that of Roman Catholicism. This includes churches arising from Anabaptism, Anglicanism, Baptist, Lutheranism, Methodism, Moravianim, Plymouth Brethren, Quakerism and Reformed Christianity. Likewise, "The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church" describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology". However, a precise representative view of Protestant Trinitarian theology regarding "God the Father", etc., is more difficult to provide, given the diverse and less centralized nature of the various Protestant churches.


title: God in Christianity

text: Some Christian traditions reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and are called nontrinitarian. These groups differ from one another in their views, variously depicting Jesus as a divine being second only to God the Father, Yahweh of the Old Testament in human form, God (but not eternally God), prophet, or simply a holy man. Some broad definitions of Protestantism categorise these nontrinitarian traditions as Protestant, but most definitions do not.


title: God in Christianity

text: Nontrinitarianism goes back to the early centuries of Christian history and groups such as the Arians, Ebionites, Gnostics, and others. These nontrinatarian views were rejected by many bishops such as Irenaeus and subsequently by the Ecumenical councils. The Nicene Creed raised the issue of the relationship between Jesus' divine and human natures. After it was rejected by the Council of Nicea, nontrinitarianism was rare among Christians for many centuries, and those rejecting the doctrine of the Trinity faced hostility from other Christians, but the 19th century saw the establishment of a number of groups in North America and elsewhere.


title: God in Christianity

text: In Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs, only God the Father is the one almighty God, even over his Son Jesus Christ. While the Witnesses acknowledge Christ's pre-existence, perfection, and unique "Sonship" with God the Father, and believe that Christ had an essential role in creation and redemption, and is the Messiah, they believe that only the Father is without beginning.


title: God in Christianity

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that the Godhead is a divine unity of three distinct beings: Elohim (the Father), Jehovah (the Son, or Jesus), and the Holy Ghost. In Latter-day Saint theology, the Father and the Son both possess glorified, perfected, physical bodies "as tangible as man's," whereas the Holy Ghost has a body of spirit only. Latter-day Saints recognize the divinity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and understand that these beings are "one in every significant and eternal aspect imaginable except believing Them to be three persons combined in one substance..." which Latter-day Saints believe is "...a Trinitarian notion never set forth in the scriptures because it is not true." Latter-day Saints believe that God is omniscient, omnipotent, and omni-benevolent.


title: God in Christianity

text: Oneness Pentecostals advance a form of Modalistic Monarchianism that states that there is one God, a singular divine Spirit, who manifests himself in many ways, including as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Stjepan Hauser (; born 15 June 1986), known professionally as HAUSER, is a Croatian cellist. He is a member of 2CELLOS, along with Luka Šulić.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser was born in Pula, Croatia, into a musical family, where he began his musical education. His mother plays percussion. His sister is a journalist in Pula.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser finished secondary school in Rijeka. He studied in Zagreb but completed his undergraduate studies with Natalia Pavlutskaya at Trinity College of Music (now Trinity Laban) London. He completed his postgraduate studies with Ralph Kirshbaum as a Dorothy Stone Scholar at RNCM in Manchester and with Bernard Greenhouse in USA.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser has performed in more than 40 countries including debuts in Wigmore Hall, Royal Albert Hall, Amsterdam Concertgebouw, Southbank Centre and many more.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In October 2006, Hauser was chosen to perform at the gala at Palazzo Vecchio in Florence for the late Mstislav Rostropovich. Following this appearance, Hauser has been invited to perform in numerous festivals in Europe. At the International Holland Music Sessions 2009, he was chosen to participate in the "New Masters on Tour" concert series, presenting young artists in prestigious concert venues all over the continent.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In December 2007, Hauser played the Kol Nidre with the Metropolitan Sinfonia at a Gala Tribute Concert dedicated to Mstislav Rostropovich. Subsequently, Hauser went on to perform and record as a solo artist including his recording of British composer Christopher Ball's First Concerto for Cello, written by the composer specifically for him. The album, "Christopher Ball: Music for Cello", was recorded at the first live performance of the concerto in 2010, and features former Greenwich Trio member, Yoko Misumi, on piano.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: On 11 June 2009, Hauser launched his channel on YouTube, which had since reached over 680 million views by September 2022. In January 2011, Hauser, along with friend and fellow cellist Luka Šulić, performed a cover of Michael Jackson's "Smooth Criminal" which was played solely on cello. In just a few days, the music video became a YouTube sensation.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: The album "Hauser Classic" was released on 7 February 2020, in which he plays alongside the London Symphony Orchestra. The album was produced by Nick Patrick.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: During the COVID-19 quarantine, unable to tour in support of his solo album, Hauser released three performances via live streaming. The first, "Hauser: Alone Together", released on 27 April 2020 was performed at the Arena Pula, in Stjepan's hometown of Pula, Croatia, on the Istrian peninsula. The second, also titled "Hauser: Alone Together", was performed at Krka National Park, at the Krka Waterfalls in central Croatia. The second video was released on 15 June 2020, to celebrate the artist's 34th birthday. The third, again titled "Hauser: Alone Together", was recorded at Fort Lovrijenac in Dubrovnik, Croatia, recognisable to many fans from the HBO series, "Game of Thrones". A special 2 disc edition of "Hauser Classic" is scheduled for October 2020 release. It includes a DVD of the three "Hauser: Alone Together" videos.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser has worked with cellists such as Mstislav Rostropovich, Bernard Greenhouse, Heinrich Schiff, Frans Helmerson, Arto Noras, Ralph Kirshbaum, Valter Despalj, Philippe Muller, Thomas Demenga, Young-Chang Cho, Reinhard Latzko, Karine Georgian, Roel Dieltiens, and Alexander Ivashkin, to mention a few.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In early 2011, Hauser recorded an album with fellow Croatian Damir Urban. The album, the self-titled "Urban and Hauser", was released in the summer of 2011. Also in the spring of 2011, he recorded an album with Croatian pop star Oliver Dragojević. The album, "Noć nek' tiho svira", was released in October 2011. Also in 2011, they performed together in Pula. That fall, along with fellow 2CELLOS member Luka Šulić, he began touring as a member of the Elton John band. Since then, he has performed with the band hundreds of times, on tour all around the world, and in Las Vegas, Nevada, in the Million Dollar Piano concert performance at the Coliseum at Caesar's Palace. In November 2011, he released another classical album: "Brahms, Beethoven & Bruch for Clarinet, Cello & Piano", again with Ms. Misumi, and clarinettist Leslie Craven.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In 2018 and 2019, Hauser released a series of videos with Uzbek-American pianist Lola Astanova on social media.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Together with the Slovenian violinist Lana Trotovsek and Japanese pianist Yoko Misumi, Hauser was a member of the Greenwich Trio, described by cellist Bernard Greenhouse as the "New Beaux Arts Trio". The Trio won a series of first prizes in the international chamber music competitions in the UK, Belgium and Italy. The Greenwich Trio had masterclasses with Amadeus Quartet, Alban Berg Quartet, Guarneri Quartet, Beaux Arts Trio, Trio Fontenay, Menahem Pressler, Bernard Greenhouse, Ivry Gitlis, Stephen Kovacevich, Ralf Gothoni, Niklas Schmidt, Arnold Steinhardt, Valentin Erben, and Eberhard Feltz. In March 2008, they performed Beethoven's Triple Concerto with conductor Barry Wordsworth and in September the same year they played in the sold out opening festival at King's Place, London.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Under the name 2CELLOS, Hauser and Šulić recorded an album with Sony Music Entertainment, which was released in July 2011.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In January 2012, they appeared as the special musical guests on Fox's hit TV series "Glee" where they performed "Smooth Criminal" in the Michael Jackson tribute episode. This was the first time that an instrumental duo had performed on the show in this guest spot. 2CELLOS' arrangement of the song, which featured actors Grant Gustin and Naya Rivera, debuted at #10 on the Billboard Hot 100 Digital Songs Chart and landed their debut album in the Top 100.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: After the release of the second album, Hauser spent several years touring, either as a member of 2CELLOS or with Elton John. A third album was released in early 2015 called "Celloverse," just prior to a 38-city US tour.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: From 2014 through 2016, Hauser performed with Oliver Dragojević on at least five occasions, including the 2014 Split Festival, with Luka Šulić appearing briefly to join them, in free concerts in Rakalj and on Korčula, also in 2014, and as a guest at 2CELLOS' 5th anniversary free concert in Tomislav Square in Zagreb in 2016. His final performance in Las Vegas with Elton John was in October 2015.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: 2CELLOS' fourth album, "Score," a collection of movie music, was recorded with the London Symphony Orchestra and released in 2017. The first live performance was held in December 2016, at the Sydney (Australia) Opera House and is available on DVD. 2CELLOS' fifth album, "Let There Be Cello," was released in 2018.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: After 2CELLOS' 2019 US tour, the duo took a one-year break, to work on solo classical albums for Sony Music and to tour individually.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser is laureate of international competitions and awards such as the PLG Young Artists Auditions 2009, the J & A Beare Solo Bach Competition 2009, NYOS Staffa Award 2009, the Philharmonia Orchestra – Martin Musical Scholarship Fund 2009 and 2008, the Eastbourne Symphony Orchestra Young Soloist Competition 2009 and 2007, the Tunbridge Wells International Young Concert Artists Competition 2008 and 2006, the Computers in Personnel International Concerto Competition 2008, the Frankopan Fund Award 2006, and the MBF Music Education Award 2006 and 2005. He has also won international cello competitions and awards such as the Adam International Cello Festival and Competition in New Zealand 2009, and the VTB Capital Prize for Young Cellists 2009. Altogether, Hauser collected a total of 21 first prizes at national and international competitions and, as a consequence, he was invited to perform twice on Gala concerts for HRH Prince Charles at Buckingham Palace and St. James's Palace.


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: In May 2012, Hauser won four Porin awards, two with Luka Šulić (2Cellos), and the other two for his collaboration with Damir Urban on their album "Urban & Hauser".


title: Stjepan Hauser

text: Hauser subsequently won an additional Porin award, for Best Video Release, along with Luka Šulić (2CELLOS) and Dušan Kranjc (drummer) for their Arena Zagreb DVD.


title: Ben Stein

text: Benjamin Jeremy Stein (born November 25, 1944) is an American writer, lawyer, actor, comedian, and commentator on political and economic issues. He began his career as a speechwriter for U.S. presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford before entering the entertainment field as an actor, comedian, and game show host. He is best known on screen as the economics teacher in "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", as the host of "Win Ben Stein's Money", and as Dr. Arthur Neuman in "The Mask" and "Son of the Mask". Stein also co-wrote and starred in the 2008 propaganda film "" promoting pseudoscientific intelligent design creationist claims of persecution. Stein is the son of economist and writer Herbert Stein, who worked at the White House under President Nixon. As a character actor he is well known for his droning, monotonous delivery. In comedy, he is known for his deadpan delivery.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein was born in Washington, D.C., the son of Mildred (née Fishman), a homemaker, and Herbert Stein, a writer, economist, and presidential adviser. He is Jewish and grew up in the Woodside Forest neighborhood of Silver Spring, Maryland. Stein graduated from Montgomery Blair High School in 1962 along with classmate journalist Carl Bernstein (class of 1960); actress Goldie Hawn (class of 1963) was one year behind. Actor Sylvester Stallone was a schoolmate at Montgomery Hills Junior High School. He went on to major in economics at Columbia University's Columbia College, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi and the Philolexian Society. After graduating with honors from Columbia in 1966, Stein went to Yale Law School, graduating as valedictorian in June 1970.


title: Ben Stein

text: He was first a poverty lawyer in New Haven, Connecticut, and Washington, D.C. before becoming a trial lawyer for the Federal Trade Commission.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein's first teaching stint was as an adjunct professor, teaching about the political and social content of mass culture at American University in Washington, D.C. He subsequently taught classes at the University of California, Santa Cruz on political and civil rights under the United States Constitution. At Pepperdine University Stein taught libel law and United States securities law and its ethical aspects. He was a professor of law and economics at Pepperdine University Law School from about 1990 to 1997.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein writes a regular column in the conservative media outlets "The American Spectator" and "Newsmax". He has also written for numerous publications, including "The Wall Street Journal", "The New York Times", "New York Magazine", "Penthouse", "Los Angeles Magazine", and "Barron's Magazine". He wrote a regular biweekly column for "Yahoo! Finance" online, with his last article dated August 7, 2009. His bestselling books (with investment advisor Phil DeMuth) include "Yes, You Can Retire Comfortably"; "Can America Survive?"; and "Yes, You Can Time the Market". In 2009, he published a collection of essays, "The Real Stars".


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein was fired from his position as a Sunday Business columnist at "The New York Times" in August 2009 owing to a policy prohibiting writers from making product endorsements or advertising. Stein had recently become an advertising spokesman for credit information company Freescore.com and, according to a "Times" statement, had assumed there would be no conflict provided that he did not discuss credit scoring in general or FreeScore.com itself in his column. However, the publication felt that it would be inappropriate for him to write for them while he was involved in advertising and terminated his contract. Writing in "The Spectator", Stein states his belief that the real reasons for his firing were budget cuts at the "Times", his criticism of Obama, and pressure from those critical of "Expelled", who "bamboozled some of the high pooh-bahs at the "Times" into thinking there was a conflict of interest".


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein began his political career as a speechwriter and lawyer for President Richard Nixon, and later for President Gerald Ford. On May 3, 1976, "Time" magazine speculated on the possibility of Stein having actually been Deep Throat. Stein responded over the years not only by denying he was Deep Throat but by going further and accusing journalist Bob Woodward of falsifying the famous secret source. In the May 14–21, 1998, edition of the "Philadelphia City Paper", Stein is quoted as saying, "Oh, I don't think there was a Deep Throat. That was a fake. I think there were several different sources and some they just made up." After Mark Felt's identity as Deep Throat was revealed, Stein stated that Nixon would have prevented the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge if he had not been forced to resign. For his actions leading to that resignation, Stein said:


title: Ben Stein

text: In 2005, Stein said in the "American Spectator":Can anyone even remember now what Nixon did that was so terrible? He ended the war in Vietnam, brought home the POWs, ended the war in the Mideast, opened relations with China, started the first nuclear weapons reduction treaty, saved Eretz Israel's life, started the Environmental Protection Agency. Does anyone remember what he did that was bad?


title: Ben Stein

text: Oh, now I remember. He lied. He was a politician who lied. How remarkable. He lied to protect his subordinates who were covering up a ridiculous burglary that no one to this date has any clue about its purpose. He lied so he could stay in office and keep his agenda of peace going. That was his crime. He was a peacemaker and he wanted to make a world where there was a generation of peace. And he succeeded.


title: Ben Stein

text: That is his legacy. He was a peacemaker. He was a lying, conniving, covering up peacemaker. He was not a lying, conniving drug addict like JFK, a lying, conniving war starter like LBJ, a lying, conniving seducer like Clinton—a lying, conniving peacemaker.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein acted as the monotonous economics teacher in the 1986 movie "Ferris Bueller's Day Off". In one scene, he lectures on the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930 and the then-current debate over supply-side economics.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein played similarly bland and unemotional characters. He had a recurring role in the TV series "The Wonder Years" (as science teacher Mr. Cantwell, who would narrate 16mm films in monotone) and played himself in "Dave".


title: Ben Stein

text: He appeared in several television advertisements, such as for Clear Eyes eye drops throughout the 1990s and 2000s, Godfather's Pizza in 1987, a bland science teacher in 1990 for Sprinkled Chips Ahoy! cookies, and in 2013 for small business accounting service firm 1-800Accountant.


title: Ben Stein

text: From 1997 to 2003, Stein hosted the Comedy Central game show "Win Ben Stein's Money" along with co-host Jimmy Kimmel (replaced by Nancy Pimental and later by Sal Iacono). True to its name, the money that contestants won on the show was subtracted from the $5,000 pay that Stein earned per episode (in addition to his salary). The show won five Daytime Emmy Awards before ending its run in 2003.


title: Ben Stein

text: In 1999, Stein also hosted the Comedy Central talk show "Turn Ben Stein On". One of the mainstays of the show was Stein's dog, Puppy Wuppy, who had free run of the set. In 2001, Stein appeared on a celebrity episode of "The Weakest Link" entitled "TV Hosts Edition" alongside other television hosts and was voted off in round 6 despite being that round's Strongest Link. Anne Robinson's quip was that while he "might win Ben's money; you're NOT taking ours!".


title: Ben Stein

text: Other movies and television shows in which Stein has appeared include "Charles in Charge"; "Seinfeld"; "Full House"; "Casper"; ""; "Casper Meets Wendy"; "The Mask" and its sequel, "Son of the Mask" as well as the television show, ""; "Earthworm Jim"; "Star Search"; "MacGyver"; "Tales from the Crypt"; "Richie Rich"; "Game Show Moments Gone Bananas"; "Cavuto on Business"; "The O'Reilly Factor"; "CBS News Sunday Morning"; "Planes, Trains and Automobiles"; "Family Guy";the 1998-2004 version of "Hollywood Squares"; the Michael Berger-hosted version of "Match Game"; "The Fairly OddParents"; "Duckman"; "Married... with Children"; "The Emperor's New School"; "My Girl 2"; "Ghostbusters II"; and the intelligent design documentary "".


title: Ben Stein

text: In addition, Stein's voice roles include The Pixies, magical creatures on the animated series "The Fairly OddParents"; Mr. Purutu on the animated series "The Emperor's New School"; Professor Wisenstein in "Bruno the Kid"; the birthday party clown, Mr. Giggles, on ""; a bingo caller on "Rugrats"; and Pip on "Animaniacs". Futterman in "Freakazoid". Stein also voiced a psychiatrist, again named after himself, in the USA TV series "Duckman"; he once appeared in the sitcom "Married... with Children" as a receptionist in the animal afterlife. He also made a cameo appearance in the comic book "Young Justice", as Ali Ben Styn. Another cameo appearance was as Rabbi Goldberg in the "Family Guy" episodes "When You Wish Upon a Weinstein" and "Family Goy". Stein also voiced the character Sam Schmaltz in the 1996 computer adventure game "Toonstruck".


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein has written for the television industry, including outlines for the TV movie "Murder in Mississippi" and for the lengthy ABC miniseries "Amerika". He has also contributed to the creation of the talk show parody series "Fernwood 2 Night".


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein hosted a show on VH1 called "America's Most Smartest Model". The show aimed to find the smartest among 14 models through a series of challenges.


title: Ben Stein

text: On May 14, 2006, during an appearance on the Fox News program "Your World with Neil Cavuto", Stein called for a tax increase of 3.5% for wealthy Americans, to be earmarked for soldiers and military initiatives. Stein wrote an editorial for "The New York Times" critical of those who would rather make money in the world of finance than fight terrorism.


title: Ben Stein

text: On December 28, 2009, Stein appeared on CNN's "Larry King Live" with Ron Paul to discuss the attempted bombing of an American plane on Christmas Day 2009. Stein said that Paul's stance that the United States were "occupiers" in Iraq and Afghanistan was antisemitic. The comment started a shouting match between the two men. Two days later, Stein clarified that "if Rep. Paul says he is... not an anti-Semite, I believe him".


title: Ben Stein

text: In the period preceding the late-2000s recession, Stein made frequent and vehement claims that the economy was not in recession, and that the issues in the housing market would not affect the broader economy. On March 18, 2007, in a column for the online version of "CBS News Sunday Morning", Stein proclaimed at the beginning of the subprime mortgage crisis that the foreclosure problem would "blow over and the people who buy now, in due time, will be glad they did," the economy was "still very strong," and the "smart money" was "now trying to buy—not sell—as much distressed merchandise" in mortgages as possible.


title: Ben Stein

text: In an August 12, 2007 column in "The New York Times", titled "Chicken Little's Brethren, on the Trading Floor", Stein, while acknowledging "I don't know where the bottom is on subprime. I don't know how bad the problems are at Bear (Bear Stearns)" claimed that "subprime losses are wildly out of all proportion to the likely damage to the economy from the subprime problems," and "(t)his economy is extremely strong. Profits are superb. The world economy is exploding with growth. To be sure, terrible problems lurk in the future: a slow-motion dollar crisis, huge Medicare deficits and energy shortages. But for now, the sell-off seems extreme, not to say nutty. Some smart, brave people will make a fortune buying in these days, and then we'll all wonder what the scare was about."


title: Ben Stein

text: On August 18, 2007, on Fox News Channel's "Cavuto on Business", Stein appeared with other financial experts dismissing worries of a coming credit crunch. Thirteen months later, in the global financial crisis in September 2008, global stock markets crashed, Lehman Brothers went bankrupt, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac were taken over by the US government, AIG was bailed out by the Federal Reserve, Merrill Lynch was sold to Bank of America Corporation, and Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs confirmed that they would become traditional bank holding companies.


title: Ben Stein

text: In a Yahoo! Finance article written on October 17, 2008, Stein explained that his understanding of debt obligations based on real estate loans was less than the "staggeringly large" amount of obligations that were created through trading in derivatives of those, and so why it wasn't as similar to collapse of junk bond empire in early 1990s as he thought it would be: "Where I missed the boat was not realizing how large were the CDS [credit default swaps] based on the junk mortgage bonds."


title: Ben Stein

text: Business commentator Henry Blodget wrote a piece for "Business Insider" in January 2008 entitled "Ben Stein is an Idiot", stating that Stein's criticism of those with bearish views and positions on the market was either "delusional" or a deliberate and "shrewd" attempt to create false controversy and drive up web traffic.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein is married to entertainment lawyer Alexandra Denman. They were married in 1968 and divorced in 1974. They reconciled and in 1977 they were married again. Stein lives with Denman in Beverly Hills and Malibu, California. He also has a summer home in Sandpoint, Idaho, and an apartment in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., which he inherited from his parents. In 2014, performance artist Tanya Ma claimed that a financial arrangement between her and Stein had turned inappropriate. Stein said of the incident that he only expected "hugging and kissing" and that he often gets "mad crushes" on women that "last about ten minutes."


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein is a supporter of the criminalization of abortion and was given an anti-abortion award in 2003 by the National Right to Life Educational Trust Fund.


title: Ben Stein

text: In 2007, Stein chastised the police and the GOP leadership for their response to the Larry Craig scandal. Stein said that Craig's sexuality should not be an issue: "A party that believes in individual rights should be rallying to his defense, not making him walk the plank."


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein has criticized the United States Internal Revenue Code for being too lenient on the wealthy. He has repeated the observation made by Warren Buffett, one of the richest individuals in the world (who pays mostly capital gains tax), that Buffett pays a lower overall tax rate than his secretaries (who pay income taxes and payroll taxes). Stein has advocated increasing taxation on the wealthy. Stein objected to Obama's proposal in 2010 not to extend tax cuts for the highest earning taxpayers in the midst of the recession, saying that


title: Ben Stein

text: There is no known economic theory under which raising my taxes in the midst of a severe recession will help the economy recover. It isn't part of any well known monetarist or Keynesian theory. So if it does no good to raise our taxes, I assume we are being punished. But for what? I don't own slaves. I employ a lot of people full- and part-time and they are all happy with their pay. When charity calls, I almost always write out a check...Maybe when the economy recovers, raising my taxes makes sense, but for now, it's just punishment.


title: Ben Stein

text: In 2012, Stein stated that due to the tremendous amount of national debt, he agreed with Obama's proposal to increase taxes on the wealthy and that ultimately everyone's taxes should be raised to avoid defaulting on the debt.


title: Ben Stein

text: When the head of the International Monetary Fund, Dominique Strauss-Kahn, was arrested for sexual assault and attempted rape in 2011, Stein published an editorial in "The American Spectator" in which he closely scrutinized Strauss-Kahn's accuser and cited Strauss-Kahn's education, wealth, and position as reasons to believe he was unlikely to have committed the crime.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein's editorial was criticized by a number of media outlets. Jon Stewart dedicated an entire segment on "The Daily Show" to his response. All charges against Dominique Strauss-Kahn were formally dismissed by a judge on 23 August 2011.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein has denounced the scientific theory of evolution, which he and other intelligent design advocates call "Darwinism", declaring it to be "a painful, bloody chapter in the history of ideologies", "the most compelling argument yet for Imperialism", and the inspiration for the Holocaust. Stein does not say belief in evolution alone leads to genocide, but that scientific materialism is a necessary component. He co-wrote and stars in "", a film that aims to persuade viewers that evolution was instrumental to the rise of the eugenics movement, Nazi Germany, and the Holocaust, and portrays advocates of intelligent design as victims of intellectual discrimination by the scientific community, which has rejected intelligent design as creationist pseudoscience. In the trailer for the film, Stein said that his aim was to expose "people out there who want to keep science in a little box where it can’t possibly touch God."


title: Ben Stein

text: Many critics point out that Stein selectively used and edited quotes by Charles Darwin to make his case in "Expelled", also noting that scenes shot at Pepperdine University, in which Stein gives a speech to an auditorium full of students, in fact used a large number of extras, hired to respond favorably to Stein's speech, to fill the room.


title: Ben Stein

text: The media response to the film has been largely unfavorable. It received an 11% meta-score from Rotten Tomatoes. Multiple reviews, including those of "USA Today" and "Scientific American", have described the film as propaganda.


title: Ben Stein

text: In a Trinity Broadcasting Network interview with Paul Crouch Jr. regarding the movie, Stein claimed that "[religion] leads you to a very glorious place, and science leads you to killing people".


title: Ben Stein

text: The Anti-Defamation League issued a statement condemning the film's misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery, "Using the Holocaust in order to tarnish those who promote the theory of evolution is outrageous and trivializes the complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry".


title: Ben Stein

text: At the University of Vermont, Stein was invited to receive an honorary degree and be the commencement speaker for the graduating class of 2009. University President Dan Fogel received complaints about Stein's planned appearance, due to Stein's views on evolution. Stein declined his commencement invitation.


title: Ben Stein

text: At the private, Christian Liberty University 2009 graduation, Stein was awarded an honorary degree and, according to the university, "spoke extensively about his work on "Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed"".


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein is a staunch supporter of Israel. On "Larry King Live" in 2009, in a heated exchange with then-Congressman Ron Paul, he referred to Paul as anti-semitic for referring to the U.S. as "occupiers" in the Arabian peninsula.


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein endorsed John McCain for president in 2008, calling him "an impressive guy". That year, he also stated that he would vote for Ralph Nader. In January 2012, Stein appeared in political advertisements sponsored by Associated Industries of Florida supporting legislation that would create three resort casinos in South Florida. He claimed in late 2014 that President Barack Obama was the most racist president in American history, saying Obama "made everything about race".


title: Ben Stein

text: In 2016, Stein reprised the famous attendance scene from "Ferris Bueller" in a campaign ad for Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley. In it, Stein intoned the last name of Grassley's opponent (Patty Judge) to silence, while facts about her missed votes and absences from state board meetings were listed. Stein then calls out "Grassley," which gets a response; Stein mutters, "He's always here."


title: Ben Stein

text: Stein initially supported Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, but retracted his support in October 2016, writing, "But it's time for Donald Trump to go back to Trump Tower. Time for Mike Pence to move to the top of the ticket." However, Stein went on to vote for Trump.


title: Meta

text: Meta (from the Greek μετά, "meta", meaning "after" or "beyond") is a prefix meaning "more comprehensive" or "transcending".


title: Meta

text: In modern nomenclature, "meta"- can also serve as a prefix meaning self-referential, as a field of study or endeavor (metatheory: theory about a theory, metamathematics: mathematical theories about mathematics, meta-axiomatics or meta-axiomaticity: axioms about axiomatic systems, metahumor: joking about the ways humor is expressed, etc.).


title: Meta

text: In Greek, the prefix "meta-" is generally less esoteric than in English; Greek "meta-" is equivalent to the Latin words "post-" or "ad-". The use of the prefix in this sense occurs occasionally in scientific English terms derived from Greek. For example: the term "Metatheria" (the name for the clade of marsupial mammals) uses the prefix "meta-" in the sense that the "Metatheria" occur on the tree of life adjacent to the "Theria" (the placental mammals).


title: Meta

text: In epistemology, and often in common use, the prefix "meta-" is used to mean "about (its own category)". For example, metadata are data about data (who has produced them, when, what format the data are in and so on). In a database, metadata are also data about data stored in a data dictionary and describe information (data) about database tables such as the table name, table owner, details about columns, etc. – essentially describing the table. In psychology, metamemory refers to an individual's knowledge about whether or not they would remember something if they concentrated on recalling it. The modern sense of "an X about X" has given rise to concepts like "meta-cognition" (cognition about cognition), "meta-emotion" (emotion about emotion), "meta-discussion" (discussion about discussion), "meta-joke" (joke about jokes) and "metaprogramming" (writing programs that write programs). In a rule-based system, a metarule is a rule governing the application of other rules.


title: Meta

text: "Metagaming" accordingly, means games about games. However, it has a different meaning depending on the type of game. In role-playing games, this means that someone with a higher level of knowledge is playing, i.e. that the player incorporates factors that are outside the actual framework of the game. The player has knowledge that was not acquired through the play and experience in the game, but was obtained from external sources. This type of metagaming is often frowned upon in many role-playing game communities because it impairs game balance and equality of opportunity. Metagaming can also refer to a game that is used to create or change the rules while playing a game. One can play this kind of metagame and choose which rules apply during the game itself. Therefore one has the possibility, among other things, to adjust or increase the level of difficulty. Such metagame include campaign role-playing games like Halo 3. Complex card or board games, e.g. poker or chess, are also referred to as metagames.  According to Nigel Howard, this kind of metagame is defined as a decision-making process that is derived from the analysis of possible outcomes in relation to external variables that change a problem.


title: Meta

text: Any subject can be said to have a "metatheory", a theoretical consideration of its properties – such as its foundations, methods, form, and utility – on a higher level of abstraction. In linguistics, a grammar is considered as being expressed in a metalanguage: language operating on a higher level to describe properties of the plain language (and not itself).


title: Meta

text: The prefix comes from the Greek preposition and prefix "meta-" (μετα-), from μετά, which meant "after", "beside", "with", "among" Other meanings include "beyond", "adjacent" and "self", and it is also used in the forms μετ- before vowels and μεθ- "meth-" before aspirated vowels.


title: Meta

text: The earliest form of the word "meta" is the Mycenaean Greek "me-ta", written in Linear B syllabic script. The Greek preposition is cognate with the Old English preposition "mid" "with", still found as a prefix in "midwife". Its use in English is the result of back-formation from the word "metaphysics". In origin "Metaphysics" was just the title of one of the principal works of Aristotle; it was so named (by Andronicus of Rhodes) because in the customary ordering of the works of Aristotle it was the book following "Physics"; it thus meant nothing more than "[the book that comes] after [the book entitled] "Physics"". However, even Latin writers misinterpreted this as entailing metaphysics constituted "the science of what is beyond the physical". Nonetheless, Aristotle's "Metaphysics" enunciates considerations of natures above physical realities, which one can examine through this particular part of philosophy – for example, the existence of God. The use of the prefix was later extended to other contexts, based on the understanding of metaphysics as meaning "the science of what is beyond the physical".


title: Meta

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" cites uses of the "meta-" prefix as "beyond, about" (such as meta-economics and meta-philosophy) going back to 1917. However, these formations are parallel to the original "metaphysics" and "metaphysical", that is, as a prefix to general nouns (fields of study) or adjectives. Going by the "OED" citations, it began being used with specific nouns in connection with mathematical logic sometime before 1929. (In 1920 David Hilbert proposed a research project in what was called "metamathematics.")


title: Meta

text: A notable early citation is W. V. O. Quine's 1937 use of the word "metatheorem", where meta- has the modern meaning of "an X about X".


title: Meta

text: Douglas Hofstadter, in his 1979 book "Gödel, Escher, Bach" (and in the 1985 sequel, "Metamagical Themas"), popularized this meaning of the term. The book, which deals with self-reference and strange loops, and touches on Quine and his work, was influential in many computer-related subcultures and may be responsible for the popularity of the prefix, for its use as a solo term, and for the many recent coinages which use it. Hofstadter uses meta as a stand-alone word, as an adjective and as a directional preposition ("going meta," a term he coins for the old rhetorical trick of taking a debate or analysis to another level of abstraction, as when somebody says "This debate isn't going anywhere"). This book may also be responsible for the association of "meta" with strange loops, as opposed to just abstraction. According to Hofstadter, it is about self-reference, which means a sentence, idea or formula refers to itself. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary describes it as "showing or suggesting an explicit awareness of itself or oneself as a member of its category: cleverly self-referential". The sentence "This sentence contains thirty-six letters," and the sentence which embeds it, are examples of "metasentences" referencing themselves in this way. As maintained in the book, Gödel, Escher, Bach a strange loop is given if different logical statements or theories are put together in contradiction and thus distorted in meaning and generate logical paradoxes. One example is the liar paradox. A liar's paradox is a paradox in philosophy or logic that arises when a sentence claims its own falsehood (or untruth), for instance: "This sentence is not true." Until the beginning of the 20th century, this kind of paradoxes were a considerable problem for a philosophical theory of truth. Alfred Tarski solved this difficulty by proving that such paradoxes do not exist with a consistent separation of object language and metalanguage. "For every formalized language, a formally correct and factually applicable definition of the true statement can be constructed in the metalanguage with the sole help of expressions of a general-logical character, expressions of the language itself and of terms from the morphology of the language, but on the condition that the metalanguage is of a higher order than the language that is the subject of the investigation."


title: Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington

text: Kathleen Agnes Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (' Kennedy; February 20, 1920 – May 13, 1948), also known as "Kick" Kennedy, was an American socialite. She was the second daughter of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Kennedy as well as a sister of U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. "Ted" Kennedy and the wife of the Marquess of Hartington, heir apparent to the 10th Duke of Devonshire.


text: When her father was serving as United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Kathleen made many friends in London and was the "debutante of 1938". Working with the Red Cross, she began a romantic relationship with Lord Hartington, whom she married in May 1944. He was killed on active service in Belgium only four months later. Kathleen died in a plane crash in 1948, flying to the south of France while on vacation with her new partner, the 8th Earl Fitzwilliam.


text: Kathleen Agnes Kennedy was born at home at 83 Beals Street in Brookline, Massachusetts on February 20, 1920, the fourth child and second daughter of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald. She was nicknamed "Kick" because of her "irrepressible nature". Kathleen was especially close to her older brother, John F. Kennedy, known as "Jack". Her other siblings were Joseph Jr., Rosemary, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean and Ted.


text: Kathleen was educated at Riverdale Country School in the Riverdale section of the Bronx, New York City. She also attended Noroton Convent of the Sacred Heart in Noroton, Connecticut, and the Holy Child Convent in Neuilly, France. While the Kennedy daughters were not raised to have political ambitions like their brothers, they were nonetheless provided with many of the same educational and social opportunities, owing to their father's powerful financial and political connections and influence. This was particularly the case when President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Joseph as United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom in 1938.


text: As a child, Kathleen was very athletic and played football with her brothers. Her optimism and high spirits attracted many suitors, some of whom were Jack's closest friends. When Kathleen attended the Riverdale Country School, her mother did not approve of the male attention she attracted, and sent her to the all-girls Noroton Convent of the Sacred Heart. Eventually, Kathleen started to date, and had her first serious relationship with, Peter Grace, an heir to W. R. Grace and Company.


text: Kathleen's time in Britain during her father's term as Ambassador dramatically influenced the remainder of her life. While living in England, she was educated in London at Queen's College and quickly cultivated a wide circle of friends, both male and female, in British high society. She dated David Rockefeller and was declared the "debutante of 1938" by the English media when she made her debut at the Queen Charlotte's Ball.


text: Following the German invasion of Poland and the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, Kick, who was staying at the family home in the south of France, had to rush to England with her friend Janey Kenyon Slaney. The Kennedy family, to save Joseph and daughter Rosemary, returned to the United States. Kathleen, having become very fond of England and the many friends she had made during her two years there, petitioned her parents to remain in London in spite of the coming danger. However, she was overruled by her father, and sailed back home in the early fall of 1939.


text: After returning to the U.S., Kennedy enrolled at the Finch School for a time, and then attended Florida Commercial College. In addition to her studies, she also began volunteering work for the American Red Cross. In 1941, she decided to leave school, and began working as a research assistant for Frank Waldrop, the executive editor for the "Washington Times-Herald". She later teamed with Inga Arvad, who wrote the "Did You Happen to See..." column, and was eventually given her own column where she reviewed films and plays.


text: In 1943, seeking a way to return to England, Kathleen signed up to work in a center for servicemen set up by the Red Cross. During her time in England, both before and particularly during the war, she grew increasingly more independent from her family and the Roman Catholic Church to which they belonged. During this time, Kennedy began a romantic relationship with politician William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington (usually known to his family and friends as Billy Hartington). He was the eldest son and heir apparent of the 10th Duke of Devonshire.


text: The two had met and begun a friendship when she moved to England when her father was appointed American Ambassador. Despite objections from her mother, Kennedy and Lord Hartington reunited upon her return to England. Rose especially rejected their relationship because she saw that their marriage would break the laws of the Roman Catholic Church by allowing Kathleen's children to be raised in the Church of England (Anglican Communion) rather than the Roman Catholic Church. Rose even tried to manipulate their relationship by keeping Kathleen away from Hartington and postponing a possible wedding. Regardless, Kathleen stubbornly married Hartington on May 6, 1944, in a civil ceremony at the Caxton Hall Register Office. Kathleen's eldest brother Joseph P. Kennedy Jr., an officer in the United States Navy, to whom she had grown close during the last year of his life, as he was serving in Britain, was the only member of the family to attend the ceremony. Her second eldest brother, John, was still hospitalized due to a back injury incurred on the motor torpedo patrol boat "PT-109" in the South Pacific Ocean, while her younger brother, Robert F. Kennedy, was in naval training. On August 12, 1944, Joe Jr. was killed when his plane exploded over the English Channel during a top-secret bombing mission in Europe.