title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At Wimbledon, the quartet formed the top four seeds at a major for the first time since 2014. Nadal, Murray and Djokovic all lost before the semifinals. Federer, however, won the title without dropping a set by beating Marin Čilić in the final. Federer's run marked a record-breaking eleventh Wimbledon final and eighth title. This led to the "Big Four" being the ATP top four again. Djokovic announced in July that he would skip the rest of the 2017 season to recover from an elbow injury, and Murray did not play another tournament in 2017 as well due to a hip injury. At the Montreal Masters, Federer reached the final but sustained a severe back injury there, which took him out of contention for the US Open and the No. 1 ranking. Although Nadal did not reach the semifinals of either North American Masters event, he returned to world No. 1 over the inactive Murray. Nadal then defeated Kevin Anderson in the US Open final. This was the fourth time that Nadal and Federer had won all four majors in the same year, following their sweeps in 2006, 2007, and 2010. Additionally, on 11 September 2017, Nadal and Federer were ranked No. 1 and No. 2, respectively, the first time since 20 March 2011 that they held the top two rankings spots. Federer then returned to Shanghai and won his second title there, defeating Nadal in the final. This was his fourth win out of four meetings with Nadal in 2017, as well as his fifth consecutive.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: In 2017, Nadal had his best year since 2013, winning two majors and four other titles. Federer finished the year at world No. 2 behind Nadal and overall had his best year since 2007, with his highest number of titles won since that year, winning two majors for the first time since 2009, and ending the year with a winning percentage of 91%, his highest since 2006. Djokovic and Murray both finished with their lowest year-end rankings since 2006, at No. 12 and 16 respectively.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the start of 2018, Murray underwent hip surgery for the injury that had sidelined him since the previous summer. Djokovic and Nadal lost early at the Australian Open. Federer, however, went on to defend his title in a five-set final against Marin Čilić, thus equaling Djokovic and Roy Emerson's record of six Australian Open titles, and becoming the first man to win 20 major titles. Soon after, by reaching the semifinals in Rotterdam, Federer overtook returned to world No. 1. In doing so, he became the oldest-ever player to top the ATP rankings (since 1973).


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Federer reached the final of Indian Wells, but lost to Juan Martín del Potro. Federer's early loss in Miami resulted in the loss of the No. 1 ranking with Nadal overtaking him by 100 points. Federer announced that he would again skip the entire clay-court season. Nadal won his eleventh title in Monte Carlo, then claimed an 11th Barcelona title, winning both without dropping a set. Nadal's loss to Dominic Thiem in the Madrid quarterfinals returned the No. 1 ranking back to Federer for one week until Nadal won the title in Rome.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Following Djokovic's early exit from the Australian Open, he underwent surgery for the wrist injury that had been causing him issues for the previous year. He returned to the tour at Indian Wells and struggled much with form, failing to reach the quarterfinals of any of his first five tournaments after surgery. He showed promise by reaching the semifinals of Rome, losing to Nadal in two tight sets. He reached the quarterfinals of the French Open, but lost to unseeded Marco Cecchinato. Nadal went on to win the tournament, defeating Dominic Thiem in the final to claim a record-extending 11th French Open title and his 17th major overall. Federer returned to the tour for Stuttgart and won the title there, which saw him return to the No. 1 ranking for a 310th week.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At 2018 Wimbledon, Federer lost to Kevin Anderson in the quarterfinals despite holding a two-sets-to-love lead and holding a match point in the third set, having suffered a hand injury at the start of the grass season. Djokovic and Nadal, meanwhile, made the semifinals, where twetlfth-seeded Djokovic defeated world No. 1 Nadal in five sets to reach his first major final in nearly two years. He then defeated Anderson in the final to win his fourth Wimbledon title and 13th major title overall.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the 2018 US Open, both Djokovic and Nadal made the semifinals, where Nadal retired against Juan Martín del Potro after being two sets down due to a knee injury he sustained during the tournament. Djokovic, on the other hand, defeated Kei Nishikori to make his eighth US Open final, where he beat del Potro for his 14th major title. He then followed this up with victory at the Shanghai Masters.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal withdrew before his first match at the Paris Masters, thus yielding the No. 1 ranking to Djokovic. Djokovic and Federer met in the semifinals, where Djokovic won in three hours. Djokovic was defeated by Karen Khachanov in the final. Nadal withdrew from the ATP Finals to undergo surgery for an ankle injury. Federer and Djokovic were both defeated at the ATP Finals by Alexander Zverev in the semifinals and final, respectively. The year ended with Djokovic, Nadal and Federer occupying the top-three positions in the rankings.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: In the 2019 Australian Open, Federer was upset in the fourth round by 20-year-old Stefanos Tsitsipas in a tight four-setter. In the final, Djokovic defeated Nadal in straight sets to claim a record-winning seventh Australian Open title and increased his major tally to 15. In the week following the Australian Open, Murray underwent another hip surgery.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Federer rebounded from his early loss at the Australian Open by winning his 100th title in Dubai. He followed this with a runner-up finish at Indian Wells and a title in Miami.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: After withdrawing from Indian Wells due to injury, Nadal initially struggled upon returning for the clay-court season, losing in the semifinals at Monte Carlo, Barcelona and Madrid. However, he returned to form in Rome, defeating Djokovic in the final to win his ninth crown at the event. At the French Open, Federer returned to play at the tournament for the first time since 2015, reaching the semifinals where he was defeated by Nadal in straight sets. Djokovic also reached the semifinals without losing a set, but was beaten in five sets by Dominic Thiem in a match that was spread over two days due to rain. In the final, Nadal prevailed over Thiem for a second consecutive year, winning the tournament for a record-extending 12th time. The win brought Nadal to 18 major titles, just two behind Federer's record of 20. Federer, meanwhile, won his tenth title in Halle, making him the only player in the Open Era besides Nadal to win ten titles at the same event.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: In Wimbledon, Nadal and Federer again met in the semifinals, their first meeting at Wimbledon since the 2008 final. Federer defeated Nadal in four sets to reach the final, where he faced Djokovic. There, Djokovic defeated Federer in the longest Wimbledon men's final in history. It was Djokovic's 16th major title, only trailing Federer's 20 and Nadal's 18.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal returned in Montreal where he defended his title. Following his victory, he decided not to play in Cincinnati once again. Murray, meanwhile, continued his comeback to tennis through doubles, however, he returned to singles in Cincinnati, where he lost in the first round to Richard Gasquet in straight sets. There, Federer was upset in the third round by qualifier Andrey Rublev, and Djokovic was upset in the semifinals by the eventual champion Daniil Medvedev.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the US Open, Djokovic retired against Stan Wawrinka in the fourth round due to a shoulder injury, and Federer was upset by Grigor Dimitrov in the quarterfinals. Nadal only dropped one set en route to his fifth US Open final, where he met Daniil Medvedev. Despite Nadal going up two sets to love, Medvedev responded furiously and claimed the next two sets. Nadal then defeated Medvedev 6–4 in the fifth set, claiming his fourth US Open title and 19th major title overall, one behind Federer's record.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal ended 2019 as the world No. 1 for the fifth time, despite not reaching the semifinals of ATP Finals. In the 2019 Davis Cup, Spain won its sixth title (its first since 2011), defeating Canada in the final 2–0. Nadal received the Most Valuable Player (MVP) award for his performance in the tournament after he won all eight matches in which he participated. This was Nadal's fifth Davis Cup title.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the 2020 Australian Open, Nadal lost to Dominic Thiem in the quarterfinals, while Djokovic defeated Federer in the semifinals. Djokovic then won his eighth Australian Open title and his 17th major overall by a narrow victory over Thiem in the final.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The 2020 season was disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Four of the five Masters tournaments typically held between the Australian and the French Open were cancelled, with the Italian Open the only one to be postponed. The French Open itself was postponed to late September, while Wimbledon was cancelled. The first Masters to be held after the resumption of the tour was the Cincinnati Masters, where Djokovic emerged victorious to complete the double Career Golden Masters.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal opted to skip the US Open, citing concerns over the COVID-19 pandemic, while Federer withdrew due to a knee injury. Djokovic was disqualified from the tournament during his fourth-round match against Pablo Carreño-Busta after inadvertently striking a ball at a line judge after conceding a break. The title was won by Dominic Thiem, who became the first player outside the Big Three to win a major since Stan Wawrinka in 2016. Djokovic rebounded to win a record 36th Masters title in the Italian Open two weeks later. Federer did not enter the rescheduled French Open, still sidelined by his knee injury. Nadal successfully defended his title over Djokovic in a straight-sets final. With the win, Nadal equaled Federer's all-time record of 20 major singles titles and extended his own record to 13 titles from the same major tournament.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Federer did not compete in the 2021 Australian Open in order to recover from surgery. There, Nadal was upset by Stefanos Tsitsipas in the quarterfinals despite taking a two-sets-to-love lead, while Djokovic successfully defended his title by beating Daniil Medvedev in straight sets. The win marked his ninth Australian Open title and 18th major title overall, putting him two titles away from tying Federer and Nadal.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal achieved his 36th Masters victory by defeating Djokovic in the Italian Open final. At the French Open, Federer withdrew after his third round victory in order not to jeopardize his recovery from a knee injury, while Nadal's bid at winning a record 21st major ended when he lost to Djokovic in an epic semifinal encounter. Despite being down two sets to love in the final against Stefanos Tsitsipas, Djokovic rallied to win the title in five sets. With the victory, Djokovic won his second French Open title and 19th major singles title overall, and became the third man to have won each of the four majors at least twice or more (after Roy Emerson and Rod Laver), and the first to do so in the Open Era. Djokovic was then only one title away from tying Federer and Nadal for the most men's singles majors of all-time.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal withdrew from Wimbledon due to scheduling reasons. Federer was defeated in the quarterfinals by Hubert Hurkacz. Djokovic won the title and his 20th major against Matteo Berrettini, thereby equaling both Federer and Nadal's all-time tally. The victory made him the first man to win the Australian Open, French Open and Wimbledon titles in the same calendar year since Rod Laver in 1969, and the second player to win majors on three different surfaces in a calendar year, after Nadal in 2010.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Djokovic had hoped to emulate Steffi Graf's 1988 Golden Slam in men's tennis by winning the singles Olympic gold and the US Open. However, he lost in the semifinals of Tokyo Olympics to Alexander Zverev, despite being up a set and a break, and subsequently lost the bronze medal match to Pablo Carreño Busta.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the US Open, Federer pulled out of the tournament due to his need for further knee surgery, while Nadal also withdrew due to a nagging foot injury. Djokovic lost in the final to Daniil Medvedev, preventing him from winning a record 21 majors and achieving a Grand Slam, which would have been the first in men's tennis since Rod Laver in 1969. Medvedev thus became the twelfth player outside the Big Three to win a major since Federer's first win at 2003 Wimbledon.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the Paris Masters, Djokovic defeated Medvedev in the final to win his sixth Paris Masters title and surpass Nadal for the most Masters titles at 37. By reaching the final, Djokovic also clinched the year-end No. 1 ranking for the seventh time, surpassing Pete Sampras' all-time record.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Djokovic was unable to compete at the Australian Open for being unvaccinated against COVID-19. Despite multiple appeals for exemption, he was denied a visa to enter the country, which prevented him from defending his title. Federer was unable to compete due to a persistent knee injury while Nadal returned to compete, after a lengthy six-month injury hiatus and a positive COVID-19 result. Despite playing with low expectations, Nadal progressed to the quarterfinals, where he defeated Denis Shapovalov, and Matteo Berrettini in the semifinals. In the 5-hour 24-minute final, he defeated Daniil Medvedev, after coming back from a two-set deficit, to win his record-breaking 21st major and establish a new all-time record for the most men's majors singles titles. He became the fourth man in history to complete the double Career Grand Slam in singles, and the second after Djokovic in the Open Era.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: In February 2022, Medvedev became the world No. 1-ranked player, following Djokovic's loss in the quarterfinals of the Dubai Championships, thus ending the Big Four's streak of 921 weeks at the top of the ATP rankings (the streak began on 2 February 2004 when Federer overtook Andy Roddick).


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Federer did not participate at the French Open. Nadal and Djokovic both progressed to the quarterfinals, with Nadal emerging victorious in four sets. Nadal went to contest a career milestone 30th major final against Casper Ruud, winning a staggering 14th French Open title and 22nd major overall. He extended the all-time record for the most men's singles titles and became the third man after Mats Wilander (1982 French Open) and Federer (2017 Australian Open) to defeat four Top-10 players en route to a major title.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The 2022 Wimbledon Championships marked the event's first edition since 1998 in which Federer did not compete. Nadal returned to Wimbledon for the first time in three years; however he received an abdominal injury during the tournament. He progressed to the quarterfinals to face Taylor Fritz, defeating him in five sets which further aggravated his injury. He withdrew from the tournament before his semi-final encounter against Nick Kyrgios, the latter of whom would advance to his first ever Grand Slam final. Djokovic successfully defended his title by defeating Kyrgios in four sets in the finals to win his 21st Grand Slam title, thereby passing Federer and placing him one behind Nadal. He tied Pete Sampras for the second-most Wimbledon men's singles titles at 7, one behind Federer's all-time record of 8 titles.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: At the 2022 US Open, Djokovic was forced to withdraw for being unvaccinated, while Federer did not compete due to injuries. Nadal's attempt to win his 23rd Grand Slam title was thwarted by an upset in the 4th round by Frances Tiafoe. Medvedev's elimination guaranteed a new champion, making this the 13th time that a Grand Slam tournament would feature a new champion since Federer's first Wimbledon title in 2003, and the third consecutive year that the US Open would feature a new champion.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: On 23 September 2022, Federer retired from professional tennis at the 2022 Laver Cup, having struggled with a knee injury for the past couple of years, ending the age of the Big Three.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The Big Three are the top-three all-time men's leaders in Grand Slam singles titles won, as well as finals reached. Djokovic has reached 32 finals, Federer 31, and Nadal 30. They are the only three men in history to win eight or more singles titles at a single Grand Slam tournament: Nadal with 14 French Open titles, Djokovic with 9 Australian Open titles, and Federer with 8 Wimbledon titles.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The Big Three monopolized the top spot in the ATP singles rankings 892 weeks (equivalent to 17 years). Djokovic has been ranked No. 1 for an ATP record 373 weeks, Federer for 310 weeks, and Nadal for 209 weeks. Each player has occupied the top position at the end of the year at least five times, with Djokovic holding the ATP record with seven.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The respective rivalries between the Big Three are considered to be some of the greatest tennis rivalries of all time, and are the three most prolific men's rivalries of the Open Era. Amongst the three of them they have played 149 matches against each other, 49 of which were at Grand Slam events. This includes 23 Grand Slam tournament finals, more than any other trio. Currently, Djokovic leads his head-to-head record against both Federer and Nadal. Federer has delivered the most bagels against the other two with four, while receiving only one.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Nadal is dominant on clay, particularly at the French Open, where he has won all six matches against Federer and eight of ten against Djokovic.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The Big Three are currently competing to win the most Grand Slam men's singles titles of all-time. Federer first led the trio by winning his first Grand Slam singles title at 2003 Wimbledon. He broke Pete Sampras's all-time record 14 Grand Slam titles at 2009 Wimbledon. Following the 2010 Australian Open, Federer had 16 titles, Nadal 6, and Djokovic 1, the peak of Federer's lead over Nadal and Djokovic. After winning the 2016 French Open, Djokovic came to within 2 titles of Nadal (14 vs. 12), but over the next two years, Nadal and Federer extended their lead over Djokovic again; following the 2018 French Open, Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic had 20, 17, and 12 titles, respectively. During the 2010s, Federer's lead gradually shrank, culminating in Nadal tying Federer's record 20 titles with his win at the 2020 French Open. Subsequently, Djokovic's three victories in 2021 brought him on an equal footing with Federer and Nadal, when for the only time all three players had an equal number of titles. At the 2022 Australian Open, Nadal surpassed both Federer and Djokovic by claiming the singles title. Nadal then went on to claim his 22nd Grand Slam at the 2022 French Open. That same year, Djokovic won 2022 Wimbledon and got his 21st title, surpassing Federer.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Fellow top players, including David Ferrer, Tomáš Berdych, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, Stan Wawrinka and Andy Roddick have all spoken about the dominance of the Big Three (and Murray until 2017) and the challenge they have faced in matching them. Many former top professionals have also spoken about the topic, including Björn Borg, Andre Agassi, Pete Sampras and Goran Ivanišević.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Since 2010, when the Big Four increasingly began to dominate the tour as a group, many articles and reports have concentrated mainly on the members of the Big Four and their chances in upcoming tournaments, with smaller sections devoted to all other players.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The presence of the Big Four is generally seen to have had a positive impact on tennis, making the sport more exciting and in turn attracting more attention. However, with all four members being European, this may have had a potentially negative effect on tennis popularity in North America compared to previous decades, when Americans were regularly at the top of men's tennis. It has also been argued that the dominance of the Big Four has made the game predictable or even boring.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Even initially, some tennis commentators, including Murray himself, spoke of a "Big Three" or "Trivalry", due to Murray's lesser achievements than those three players. In 2014, statistician Nate Silver labelled the group the 'Big Three and a Half'. Murray's overall record against the Big Three is 29–56 (as of year end 2021). However, Murray features in the top ten on a number of Open Era records, including in quarterfinals, semifinals, and finals reached at the Majors, and is to date the only person in history to have won two gold medals in singles at the Olympic Games, and only the second player in the Open Era (after Andre Agassi), to have won a Grand Slam singles event, an ATP Finals, an ATP Masters, and an Olympic singles gold, as well as reach world No. 1 in the ATP rankings. He reached world No. 1 after the Big Three reached it, though he had by that time spent 76 weeks as No. 2.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Murray's three Majors, two Olympic Games victories, ATP Finals, Masters titles and his success in reaching the world no. 1 ranking, all since 2012, saw him listed more comfortably alongside the other three members during the mid-2010s. His rise to reach the world No. 1 ranking in November 2016 and keep it to finish the year at the top position further helped arguments about him belonging in a "Big Four". However, given Murray's injury-ridden exit from the tennis elite after his 2016 triumphs, and the Big Three's continued dominance through year-end 2019, the "Big Four" label has been increasingly confined to the 2008–2017 period.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Occasionally, it was claimed that the current era in tennis could be seen as featuring a "Big Five", with Juan Martín del Potro, Marin Čilić and Stan Wawrinka each suggested as additional expansions to the then Big Four. Wawrinka is the only active player outside the Big Four to have won multiple Slam titles with three (the same number as Murray), defeating Djokovic and Nadal on the way to the 2014 Australian Open title, Federer and Djokovic to win the 2015 French Open, and Djokovic to win the 2016 US Open. He also holds a positive win–loss record in Grand Slam singles finals, winning three of four (the loss being to Nadal in the final of the 2017 French Open), as opposed to Murray who has won only three from eleven (a 27.27% strike rate). However, Wawrinka has reached seven fewer Grand Slam singles finals, has won 13 fewer Masters titles than Murray, and has peaked at only number 3 in the world rankings. Wawrinka himself has downplayed the suggestion that he be included in an expanded "Big Five", describing Murray as "well ahead" of him.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Some, including Steffi Graf and John McEnroe, believe the presence of the Big Four has coincided with that of a new "Golden Era" in men's tennis since 2008, wherein depth, athleticism and quality have never been better. The era has been compared to that of Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, Roy Emerson and John Newcombe throughout the 1960s and that of Björn Borg, Jimmy Connors, John McEnroe and Ivan Lendl during the late 1970s and early 1980s.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer have both recognized the period as a golden era for tennis, though Federer tempered discussion around the all-time-greatest status of the Big Four in 2012, commenting:


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: The term Golden Era has also been applied to other famous eras in tennis history including the mid-1970s to 1980s, and the 1920s to the 1930s.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Djokovic, Federer, Nadal make up the top three prize money leaders of all time (not adjusted for inflation).


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: Additionally, they collectively own the 10 biggest single season payouts ranging from $13.06 million to $21.15 million.


title: Big Three (tennis)

text: With a combined total of 149 matches played, the Big Three have played many notable matches against each other. The 2008 Wimbledon final, 2009 Australian Open final, 2012 Australian Open final, 2013 French Open semifinal, 2017 Australian Open final, 2018 Wimbledon semifinal and 2019 Wimbledon final are considered some of the greatest tennis matches of all time. Djokovic saved double match points against Federer at the 2010 and 2011 US Open semifinals and the 2019 Wimbledon final, whereas Federer ended Djokovic's 43-match winning streak in the 2011 French Open semifinals. Nadal stopped Djokovic from completing a non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2012 French Open and has delivered eight of Djokovic's defeats at the tournament, while Djokovic has delivered two of Nadal's three losses at Roland Garros and outlasted him in the longest major final in history at the 2012 Australian Open. Federer ended Nadal's Open Era record 81-match winning streak on clay at the 2007 Hamburg Masters, while Nadal ended Federer's Open Era record 65-match winning streak on grass and five-year dominance at Wimbledon in the 2008 final, and twice denied Federer the non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2006 and 2007 French Opens.


title: Jan Hus

text: Jan Hus (; ; 1370 – 6 July 1415), sometimes anglicized as John Hus or John Huss, and referred to in historical texts as "Iohannes Hus" or "Johannes Huss", was a Czech theologian and philosopher who became a Church reformer and the inspiration of Hussitism, a key predecessor to Protestantism, and a seminal figure in the Bohemian Reformation. Hus is considered by some to be the first Church reformer, even though some designate the theorist John Wycliffe. His teachings had a strong influence, most immediately in the approval of a reformed Bohemian religious denomination and, over a century later, on Martin Luther. Hus was a master, dean and rector at the Charles University in Prague between 1409 and 1410.


title: Jan Hus

text: Jan Hus was born in Husinec, Bohemia, to poor parents. In order to escape poverty, Hus trained for the priesthood. At an early age he traveled to Prague, where he supported himself by singing and serving in churches. His conduct was positive and, reportedly, his commitment to his studies was remarkable. After earning a Bachelor of Arts degree and being ordained as a priest, Hus began to preach in Prague. He opposed many aspects of the Catholic Church in Bohemia, such as their views on ecclesiology, simony, the Eucharist, and other theological topics.


title: Jan Hus

text: When Alexander V was elected as a pope, he was persuaded to side with Bohemian Church authorities against Hus and his disciples. He issued a Papal bull that excommunicated Hus; however, it was not enforced, and Hus continued to preach. Hus then spoke out against Alexander V's successor, Antipope John XXIII, for his selling of indulgences. Hus's excommunication was then enforced, and he spent the next two years living in exile. When the Council of Constance assembled, Hus was asked to be there and present his views on the dissension within the Church. When he arrived, with a promise of safe conduct, he was immediately arrested and put in prison. He was eventually taken in front of the council and asked to recant his views. He replied, "I would not for a chapel of gold retreat from the truth!". When he refused, he was put back in prison. On 6 July 1415, he was burned at the stake for heresy against the doctrines of the Catholic Church. He could be heard singing Psalms as he was burning. Among his dying words, Hus predicted that God would raise others whose calls for reform would not be suppressed; this was later taken as a prophecy about Martin Luther (born 68 years after Hus's death).


title: Jan Hus

text: After Hus was executed, the followers of his religious teachings (known as Hussites) refused to elect another Catholic monarch and defeated five consecutive papal crusades between 1420 and 1431 in what became known as the Hussite Wars. Both the Bohemian and the Moravian populations remained majority Hussite until the 1620s, when a Protestant defeat in the Battle of the White Mountain resulted in the Lands of the Bohemian Crown coming under Habsburg dominion for the next 300 years and being subject to immediate and forced conversion in an intense campaign of return to Catholicism.


title: Jan Hus

text: The exact date of Hus's birth is disputed. Some claim he was born around 1369, while others claim he was born between 1373 and 1375. Though older sources state the latter, more contemporary research states that 1372 is more likely. The belief that he was born on 6 July, also his death day, has no factual basis. Hus was born in Husinec, southern Bohemia, to peasant parents. It is well known that Hus took his name from the village where he lived (Husinec). The reason behind him taking his name from his village rather than from his father is up to speculation; some believe that it was because Hus did not know of his father, while others say it was simply a custom at that time. The name "Hus," however, means "goose" in Bohemian (now called Czech), and he was a century later referenced as a "Bohemian goose" in a dream given to Frederick, the Elector of Saxony. Nearly all other information we have about Hus's very early life is unsubstantiated. Similarly, we know little of Hus's family. His father's name was Michael; his mother's name is unknown. It is known that Hus had a brother due to him expressing concerns for his nephew while awaiting execution at Constance. Whether or not Hus had any other family is unknown.


title: Jan Hus

text: At the age of roughly 10, Hus was sent away to a monastery. The exact reason is not known; some claim that his father had died, others say he went there due to his devotion to God. He impressed the teachers with his studies, and they recommended him to move to Prague, one of the largest cities in Bohemia at that time. Hus apparently supported himself by securing employment in Prague, which allowed him to fulfill his basic necessities, and access to the Prague Library.


title: Jan Hus

text: Three years later, he was admitted to the University of Prague. Though not an exceptional student, he pursued his studies with ferocity. In 1393, Hus earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at the University of Prague, and he earned his master's degree in 1396. The strongly anti-papal views that were held by many of the professors there likely influenced Hus's future works. During his studies, he served as a choir boy, to supplement his earnings.


title: Jan Hus

text: Hus began teaching at the university of Prague in 1398 and in 1399, he first publicly defended propositions of Wycliffe. In 1401, his students and faculty promoted him to dean of the philosophical department, and a year later, he became a rector of the University of Prague. He was appointed a preacher at the Bethlehem Chapel in 1402. Hus was a strong advocate for the Czechs and the Realists, and he was influenced by the writings of John Wycliffe. Although church authorities banned many works of Wycliffe in 1403, Hus translated "Trialogus" into Czech and helped to distribute it.


title: Jan Hus

text: Hus denounced the moral failings of clergy, bishops, and even the papacy from his pulpit. Archbishop Zbyněk Zajíc tolerated this, and even appointed Hus a preacher at the clergy's biennial synod. On 24 June 1405, Pope Innocent VII directed the Archbishop to counter Wycliffe's teachings, especially the doctrine of impanation in the Eucharist. The archbishop complied by issuing a synod decree against Wycliffe, as well as forbidding any further attacks on the clergy.


title: Jan Hus

text: In 1406, two Bohemian students brought to Prague a document bearing the seal of the University of Oxford and praising Wycliffe. Hus proudly read the document from his pulpit. Then, in 1408, Pope Gregory XII warned Archbishop Zajic that the Church in Rome had been informed of Wycliffe's heresies and of the sympathies of King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia for non-conformists. In response, the king and university ordered all of Wycliffe's writings surrendered to the archdiocesan chancery for correction. Hus obeyed, declaring that he condemned the errors in those writings.


title: Jan Hus

text: In 1408, the Charles University in Prague was divided by the Western Schism, in which Gregory XII in Rome and Benedict XIII in Avignon both claimed the papacy. Wenceslaus felt Gregory XII might interfere with his plans to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. He denounced Gregory, ordered the clergy in Bohemia to observe a strict neutrality in the schism and said that he expected the same of the university. Archbishop Zajíc remained faithful to Gregory. At the University, only the scholars of the Bohemian "nation" (one of the four governing sections), with Hus as their leader, vowed neutrality.


title: Jan Hus

text: In January 1409, Wenceslaus summoned representatives of the four nations comprising the university to the Czech city of Kutná Hora to demand statements of allegiance. The Czech nation agreed, but the other three nations declined. The king then decreed that the Czech nation would have three votes in university affairs, while the "German nation" (composed of the former Bavarian, Saxon, and Polish nations) would have one vote in total. Due to the change in voting structure by May 1409 the German dean and rector were deposed and replaced by Czechs. The Palatine Elector called the Germans to his own University of Heidelberg, while the Margrave of Meissen started a new university in Leipzig. It is estimated that over one thousand students and masters left Prague. The emigrants also spread accusations of Bohemian heresy.


title: Jan Hus

text: In 1409, the Council of Pisa tried to end the schism by electing Alexander V as Pope, but Gregory and Benedict did not submit. (Alexander was declared an "antipope" by the Council of Constance in 1418.) Hus, his followers, and Wenceslaus IV transferred their allegiance to Alexander V. Under pressure from


title: Jan Hus

text: King Wenceslaus IV, Archbishop Zajíc did the same. Zajíc then lodged an accusation of "ecclesiastical disturbances" against Wycliffites in Prague with Alexander V.


title: Jan Hus

text: On 20 December 1409, Alexander V issued a papal bull that empowered the Archbishop to proceed against Wycliffism in Prague. All copies of Wycliffe's writings were to be surrendered and his doctrines repudiated, and free preaching discontinued. After the publication of the bull in 1410, Hus appealed to Alexander V, but in vain. The Wycliffe books and valuable manuscripts were burned, and Hus and his adherents were excommunicated by Alexander V.


title: Jan Hus

text: Alexander V died in 1410, and was succeeded by John XXIII (also later declared an antipope). In 1411, John XXIII proclaimed a crusade against King Ladislaus of Naples, the protector of rival Pope Gregory XII. This crusade was preached in Prague as well. John XXIII also authorized indulgences to raise money for the war. Priests urged the people on and these crowded into churches to give their offerings. This traffic in indulgences was a sign of the corruption of the Church needing remediation.


title: Jan Hus

text: Archbishop Zajíc died in 1411 and with his death the religious movement in Bohemia entered a new phase during which the disputes concerning indulgences assumed great importance. Hus spoke out against indulgences, but he could not carry with him the men of the university. In 1412, a dispute took place, on which occasion Hus delivered his address "Quaestio magistri Johannis Hus de indulgentiis". It was taken literally from the last chapter of Wycliffe's book, "De ecclesia", and his treatise, "De absolutione a pena et culpa". Hus asserted that no pope or bishop had the right to take up the sword in the name of the Church; he should pray for his enemies and bless those that curse him; man obtains forgiveness of sins by true repentance, not money. The doctors of the theological faculty replied, but without success. A few days afterward some of Hus followers led by Vok Voksa z Valdštejna, burned the Papal bulls. Hus, they said, should be obeyed rather than the Church, which they considered a fraudulent mob of adulterers and Simonists.


title: Jan Hus

text: In response, three men from the lower classes who openly called the indulgences a fraud were beheaded. They were later considered the first martyrs of the Hussite Church. In the meantime, the faculty had condemned the forty-five articles and added several other theses, deemed heretical, which had originated with Hus. The king forbade the teaching of these articles but neither Hus nor the university complied with the ruling. They requested that the articles should be first proven to be un-scriptural. The tumults at Prague had stirred up a sensation. Papal legates and Archbishop Albik tried to persuade Hus to give up his opposition to the papal bulls and the king made an unsuccessful attempt to reconcile the two parties.


title: Jan Hus

text: King Wenceslaus IV made efforts to harmonize the opposing parties. In 1412, he convoked the heads of his kingdom for a consultation and, at their suggestion, ordered a synod to be held at Český Brod on 2 February 1412. The synod was instead held in the palace of the archbishops at Prague in order to exclude Hus from participation. Propositions were made to restore peace in the Church. Hus declared that Bohemia should have the same freedom in regard to ecclesiastical affairs as other countries and that approbation and condemnation should therefore be announced only with the permission of the state power. This was the doctrine of Wycliffe ("Sermones", iii. 519, etc.).


title: Jan Hus

text: There followed treatises from both parties, but no harmony was obtained. "Even if I should stand before the stake which has been prepared for me," Hus wrote at the time, "I would never accept the recommendation of the theological faculty." The synod did not produce any results but the king ordered a commission to continue the work of reconciliation. The doctors of the university demanded Hus and his followers approve the university's conception of the Church. According to this conception the pope is the head of the Church and the Cardinals are the body of the Church. Hus protested vigorously. The Hussite party seems to have made a great effort toward reconciliation. To the article that the Roman Church must be obeyed, they added only "so far as every pious Christian is bound". Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán Páleč protested against this addition and left the convention; they were exiled by the king, with two others.


title: Jan Hus

text: By this time, Hus's ideas had become widely accepted in Bohemia and there was broad resentment against the Church hierarchy. The attack on Hus by the pope and archbishop caused riots in parts of Bohemia. King Wenceslaus IV and his government took the side of Hus and the power of his adherents increased from day to day. Hus continued to preach in the Bethlehem Chapel. The churches of the city were put under the ban and the interdict was pronounced against Prague. To protect the city, Hus left and went into the countryside where he continued to preach and write.


title: Jan Hus

text: Before Hus left Prague, he decided to take a step which gave a new dimension to his endeavors. He wanted to become a preacher and then taught at the university he studied at before. He no longer put his trust in an indecisive king, a hostile pope or an ineffective council. On 18 October 1412, he appealed to Jesus Christ as the supreme judge. By appealing directly to the highest Christian authority, Christ himself, he bypassed the laws and structures of the medieval Church. For the Bohemian Reformation, this step was as significant as the 95 theses posted in Wittenberg by Martin Luther in 1517.


title: Jan Hus

text: After Hus left Prague for the country, he realized what a gulf there was between university education and theological speculation and the life of uneducated country priests and the laymen entrusted to their care. Therefore he started to write many texts in Czech, such as basics of the Christian faith or preachings, intended mainly for the priests whose knowledge of Latin was poor.


title: Jan Hus

text: Of the writings occasioned by these controversies, those of Hus on the Church, entitled "De Ecclesia", were written in 1413 and have been most frequently quoted and admired or criticized yet their first ten chapters are an epitome of Wycliffe's work of the same title and the following chapters are an abstract of another of Wycliffe's works ("De potentate papae") on the power of the pope. Wycliffe had written his book to oppose the common position that the Church consisted primarily of the clergy and Hus now found himself making the same point. He wrote his work at the castle of one of his protectors in Kozí Hrádek and sent it to Prague where it was publicly read in the Bethlehem Chapel. It was answered by Stanislav ze Znojma and Štěpán z Pálče (also Štěpán Páleč) with treatises of the same title.


title: Jan Hus

text: After the most vehement opponents of Hus had left Prague, his adherents occupied the whole ground. Hus wrote his treatises and preached in the neighborhood of Kozí Hrádek. Bohemian Wycliffism was carried into Poland, Hungary, Croatia, and Austria. But in January 1413, a general council in Rome condemned the writings of Wycliffe and ordered them to be burned.


title: Jan Hus

text: King Wenceslaus's brother Sigismund of Hungary, who was "King of the Romans" (that is, head of the Holy Roman Empire though not then Emperor) and heir to the Bohemian crown was anxious to put an end to religious dissension within the Church. To put an end to the papal schism and to take up the long desired reform of the Church, he arranged for a general council to convene on 1 November 1414, at Konstanz (Constance). The Council of Constance (1414–1418) became the 16th ecumenical council recognized by the Catholic Church. Hus, willing to make an end of all dissensions, agreed to go to Constance, under Sigismund's promise of safe conduct.


title: Jan Hus

text: It is not known whether Hus knew what his fate would be but he made his will before setting out. He started on his journey on 11 October 1414, arriving in Constance on 3 November 1414. The following day, the bulletins on the church doors announced that Michal z Německého Brodu (Michal de Causis) would be opposing Hus. In the beginning, Hus was at liberty under his safe conduct from Sigismund and lived at the house of a widow. But he continued celebrating Mass and preaching to the people, in violation of restrictions decreed by the Church. After a few weeks on 28 November 1414, his opponents succeeded in imprisoning him on the strength of a rumor that he intended to flee. He was first brought into the residence of a canon and then on 6 December 1414 into the prison of the Dominican monastery. Sigismund, as the guarantor of Hus's safety, was greatly angered and threatened the prelates with dismissal. The prelates convinced him that he could not be bound by promises to a heretic.


title: Jan Hus

text: On 4 December 1414, John XXIII entrusted a committee of three bishops with a preliminary investigation against Hus. As was common practice, witnesses for the prosecution were heard but Hus was not allowed an advocate for his defense. His situation became worse after the downfall of John XXIII, who had left Constance to avoid abdicating. Hus had been the captive of John XXIII and in constant communication with his friends but now he was delivered to the bishop of Constance and brought to his castle, "Gottlieben on the Rhine". Here he remained for 73 days, separated from his friends, chained day and night, poorly fed, and ill.


title: Jan Hus

text: On 5 June 1415, he was tried for the first time and was transferred to a Franciscan monastery, where he spent the last weeks of his life. Extracts from his works were read and witnesses were heard. He refused all formulae of submission but declared himself willing to recant if his errors should be proven to him from the Bible. Hus conceded his veneration of Wycliffe and said that he could only wish his soul might some time attain unto that place where Wycliffe's was. On the other hand, he denied having defended Wycliffe's doctrine of The Lord's Supper or the forty-five articles; he had only opposed their summary condemnation. King Sigismund admonished him to deliver himself up to the mercy of the council, as he did not desire to protect a heretic.


title: Jan Hus

text: At the last trial, on 8 June 1415, thirty-nine sentences were read to him. Of these, twenty-six had been excerpted from his book on the Church ("De ecclesia"), seven from his treatise against Páleč (Contra Palecz), and six from that against Stanislav ze Znojma ("Contra Stanislaum"). The danger of some of these doctrines to worldly power was explained to Sigismund to incite him against Hus. Hus again declared himself willing to submit if he could be convinced of errors. This declaration was considered an unconditional surrender, and he was asked to confess:


title: Jan Hus

text: He asked to be exempted from recanting doctrines which he had never taught. Other doctrines, which the assembly considered erroneous, he was not willing to revoke and to act differently would be against his conscience. These words found no favorable reception. After the trial on 8 June, several other attempts were purportedly made to induce him to recant, which he resisted.


title: Jan Hus

text: The condemnation of Jan Hus took place on 6 July 1415 in the presence of the assembly of the council in the cathedral. After the High Mass and Liturgy, Hus was led into the church. The Bishop of Lodi (then Giacomo Balardi Arrigoni) delivered an oration on the duty of eradicating heresy; various theses of Hus and Wycliffe and a report of his trial were then read.


title: Jan Hus

text: An Italian prelate pronounced the sentence of condemnation upon Hus and his writings. Hus protested, saying that even at this hour he did not wish anything but to be convinced from Scripture. He fell upon his knees and asked God with a soft voice to forgive all his enemies. Then followed his degradation. He was dressed in priestly vestments and again asked to recant and again he refused. With curses, Hus's ornaments were taken from him, his priestly tonsure was destroyed. The sentence of the Church was pronounced, stripping him of all rights, and he was delivered to secular authorities. A tall paper hat was then put upon his head with the inscription ""Haeresiarcha"" ("i.e.", the leader of a heretical movement). Hus was led away to the stake under a strong guard of armed men.


title: Jan Hus

text: Before his execution, Hus is said to have declared, "You may kill a weak goose ["Hus" is Czech for "goose"], but more powerful birds, eagles and falcons, will come after me." Luther modified the statement and reported that Hus had said that they might have roasted a goose, but that in a hundred years a swan would sing to whom they be forced to listen. In 1546, in his funeral sermon for Luther, Johannes Bugenhagen gave a further twist to Hus's declaration: "You may burn a goose, but in a hundred years will come a swan you will not be able to burn." Twenty years later, in 1566, Johannes Mathesius, Luther's first biographer, found Hus's prophecy to be evidence of Luther's divine inspiration.


title: Jan Hus

text: At the place of execution, he knelt down, spread out his hands and prayed aloud. The executioner undressed Hus and tied his hands behind his back with ropes. His neck was bound with a chain to a stake around which wood and straw had been piled up so that it covered him to the neck. At the last moment, the imperial marshal, von Pappenheim, in the presence of the Count Palatine, asked Hus to recant and thus save his own life. Hus declined, stating:


title: Jan Hus

text: Anecdotally, it has been claimed that the executioners had trouble intensifying the fire. An old woman then came to the stake and threw a relatively small amount of brushwood on it. Upon seeing her act, a suffering Hus then exclaimed, ""O Sancta Simplicitas!"". It is said that when he was about to expire, he cried out, ""Christ, son of the Living God, have mercy on us!"" (a variant of the Jesus Prayer). Hus's ashes were later thrown into the Rhine river as a means of preventing the veneration of his remains.


title: Jan Hus

text: As news of Hus's death spread outrage was brewing from the local nobles and doctors. On the 2nd of September 1415, a document now called the Bohemian Protest was signed with corresponding attached wax seals by 100 notable people from Bohemia and Moravia in protest of Jan Hus's burning. There is evidence that four documents of this kind were made total, however only this one is known to survive and is currently held at the University of Edinburgh. The statement inside reads that "Master John Hus was a good, just and catholic man" that "consistently detested all error and heresies" and that anyone that believed that heresy was arising within Bohemia or Moravia to be "the worst of traitors".


title: Jan Hus

text: Responding with horror to the execution of Hus, the people of Bohemia moved even more rapidly away from Papal teachings. Rome then pronounced a crusade against them (1 March 1420): Pope Martin V issued a Papal bull authorizing the execution of all supporters of Hus and Wycliffe. King Wenceslaus IV died in August 1419 and his brother, Sigismund of Hungary, was unable to establish a real government in Bohemia due to the Hussite revolt.


title: Jan Hus

text: The Hussite community included most of the Czech population of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Under the leadership of Jan Žižka (c. 1360 – 1424) and later of Prokop the Great (c. 1380 – 1434)—both excellent commanders—the Hussites defeated the crusade and the other three crusades that followed (1419–1434). Fighting ended after a compromise between the Utraquist Hussites and the Catholic Council of Basel in 1436. It resulted in the Basel Compacts, in which the Catholic Church officially allowed Bohemia to practice its own version of Christianity (Hussitism). A century later as much as ninety percent of the inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands still followed Hussite teachings.


title: Jan Hus

text: Hus left reformatory writings. He translated Wycliffe's "Trialogus", and was very familiar with his works on the body of Jesus, on the Church, on the power of the pope, and especially with his sermons. There are reasons to suppose that Wycliffe's doctrine of the Lord's Supper (consubstantiation rather than transubstantiation) had spread to Prague as early as 1399, with strong evidence that students returning from England had brought the work back with them. It gained an even wider circulation after it had been prohibited in 1403, and Hus preached and taught it. The doctrine was seized eagerly by the Taborites, who made it the central point of their system. According to their book, the Church is not the clerical hierarchy which was generally accepted as 'the Church'; the Church is the entire body of those who from eternity have been predestined for salvation. Christ, not the pope, is its head. It is no article of faith that one must obey the pope to be saved. Neither internal membership in the Church nor churchly offices and dignities are a surety that the persons in question are members of the true Church.


title: Jan Hus

text: Hus's efforts were designed to rid the Church of its ethical abuses. The seeds of the Reformation are clear in Hus's and Wycliffe's writings. In explaining the plight of the average Christian in Bohemia, Hus wrote, "One pays for confession, for Mass, for the sacrament, for indulgences, for churching a woman, for a blessing, for burials, for funeral services and prayers. The very last penny which an old woman has hidden in her bundle for fear of thieves or robbery will not be saved. The villainous priest will grab it." (Macek, 16) After Hus's death, his followers, known as Hussites, split off into several groups including the Utraquists, Taborites and Orphans.


title: Jan Hus

text: Nearly six centuries later in 1999, Pope John Paul II expressed "deep regret for the cruel death inflicted" on Hus and added "deep sorrow" for Hus's death and praised his "moral courage". Cardinal Miloslav Vlk of the Czech Republic was instrumental in crafting John Paul II's statement.


title: Jan Hus

text: Hus was also, unlike the vast majority of preachers at the time, an advocate for women and feminism. He believed women were given rights in the Bible. Hus stated that "Women were made in the image of God and should fear no man." He allowed women to preach and serve in battle, and they later fought in the Hussite wars.


title: Jan Hus

text: The works of Jan Hus incorporate reforms to medieval Czech orthography, including the "hook" (háček) diacritic which was used to form the graphemes , , , and , which replaced digraphs like , , , and ; the "dot" above letters for strong accent, as well as the acute accent to mark long vowels , , , , and , in order to represent each phoneme by a single symbol. Some sources mention documented use of the special symbols in Bible translations (1462), the Schaffhausen Bible, and handwritten notes in the bible. The symbol (instead of ) came later. The book "Orthographia Bohemica" (1406) was attributed to Hus by František Palacký, but it is possible that it was compiled by another author from Charles University.


title: Jan Hus

text: A century after the Hussite Wars began, as many as 90% of inhabitants of the Czech lands were Hussites (although in the Utraquist tradition following a joint Utraquist—Catholic victory in the Hussite Wars). Bohemia was the site of one of the most significant pre-reformation movements, and there are still Protestant adherents remaining in modern times; though they no longer comprise the majority mainly due to historical reasons such as persecution of Protestants by the Catholic Habsburgs, particularly after the Battle of White Mountain in 1620; restrictions during the Communist rule; and also the ongoing secularization.


title: Jan Hus

text: Jan Hus was a key contributor to Protestantism, whose teachings had a strong influence on the states of Europe and on Martin Luther. The Hussite Wars resulted in the Basel Compacts which allowed for a reformed Church in the Kingdom of Bohemia—almost a century before such developments would take place in the Lutheran Reformation. The Unitas Fratrum (or Moravian Church) is the modern day home of Hus's followers. Hus's extensive writings earned him a prominent place in Czech literary history.


title: Jan Hus

text: In 1883 the Czech composer Antonin Dvorak composed his Hussite Overture based on melodies used by Hussite soldiers. It was often performed by the German conductor Hans von Bülow.


title: Jan Hus

text: Professor Thomas Garrigue Masaryk used Hus's name in his speech at Geneva University on 6 July 1915, for defense against Austria and in July 1917 for the title of the first corps of troops of his legions in Russia.


title: Jan Hus

text: Today, the Jan Hus Memorial is located at the Prague Old Town Square (), and there are many smaller memorials in other towns throughout the Czech Republic.


title: Jan Hus

text: In New York City, a church in Brooklyn (located at 153 Ocean Avenue), and a church and a theatre in Manhattan (located at 351 East 74th Street) are named for Hus: respectively the John Hus Moravian Church and the Jan Hus Playhouse. Although the Manhattan's church and theatre share a single building and management, the Playhouse's productions are usually non-religious or non-denominational.


title: Jan Hus

text: A statue of Jan Hus was erected at the Union Cemetery in Bohemia, New York (on Long Island) by Czech immigrants to the New York area in 1893.


title: Jan Hus

text: In contrast to the popular perception that Hus was a proto-Protestant, some Eastern Orthodox Christians have argued that his theology was far closer to Eastern Orthodox Christianity. Jan Hus is considered as a martyr saint in some jurisdictions of the Orthodox Church. The Czechoslovak Hussite Church claims to trace its origin to Hus, to be "neo-Hussite", and contains mixed Eastern Orthodox and Protestant elements. Nowadays he is considered a saint by the orthodox churches of Greece, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia and other several support them.


title: Jan Hus

text: Jan Hus is a major character of the "Hussite Revolutionary Trilogy" directed by Otakar Vávra. He is played by Zdeněk Štěpánek in the 1954 film "Jan Hus."


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir (ACV), also known as acyclovir, is an antiviral medication. It is primarily used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus infections, chickenpox, and shingles. Other uses include prevention of cytomegalovirus infections following transplant and severe complications of Epstein–Barr virus infection. It can be taken by mouth, applied as a cream, or injected.


title: Aciclovir

text: Common side effects include nausea and diarrhea. Potentially serious side effects include kidney problems and low platelets. Greater care is recommended in those with poor liver or kidney function. It is generally considered safe for use in pregnancy with no harm having been observed. It appears to be safe during breastfeeding. Aciclovir is a nucleoside analogue that mimics guanosine. It works by decreasing the production of the virus's DNA.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir was patented in 1974, and approved for medical use in 1981. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. It is available as a generic medication and is marketed under many brand names worldwide. In 2020, it was the 162nd most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is used for the treatment of herpes simplex virus (HSV) and varicella zoster virus infections, including:


title: Aciclovir

text: Its effectiveness in treating Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) infections is less clear. It has not been found to be useful for infectious mononucleosis due to EBV. Valaciclovir and acyclovir act by inhibiting viral DNA replication, but as of 2016 there was little evidence that they are effective against Epstein–Barr virus, they are expensive, they risk causing resistance to antiviral agents, and (in 1% to 10% of cases) can cause unpleasant side effects.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir taken by mouth does not appear to decrease the risk of pain after shingles. In those with herpes of the eye, aciclovir may be more effective and safer than idoxuridine. It is not clear if aciclovir eye drops are more effective than brivudine eye drops.


title: Aciclovir

text: Intravenous aciclovir is effective to treat severe medical conditions caused by different species of the herpes virus family, including severe localized infections of herpes virus, severe genital herpes, chickenpox and herpesviral encephalitis. It is also effective in systemic or traumatic herpes infections, eczema herpeticum and herpesviral meningitis.


title: Aciclovir

text: Reviews of research dating from the 1980s show there is some effect in reducing the number and duration of lesions if aciclovir is applied at an early stage of an outbreak. Research shows effectiveness of topical aciclovir in both the early and late stages of the outbreak as well as improving methodologically and in terms of statistical certainty from previous studies. Aciclovir trials show that this agent has no role in preventing HIV transmission, but it can help slow HIV disease progression in people not taking anti-retroviral therapy (ART). This finding emphasizes the importance of testing simple, inexpensive non-ART strategies, such as aciclovir and cotrimoxazole, in people with HIV.


title: Aciclovir

text: Classified as a Category B drug, the CDC and others have declared that during severe recurrent or first episodes of genital herpes, aciclovir may be used. For severe HSV infections (especially disseminated HSV), IV aciclovir may also be used. Studies in mice, rabbits and rats (with doses more than 10 times the equivalent of that used in humans) given during organogenesis have failed to demonstrate birth defects. Studies in rats in which they were given the equivalent to 63 times the standard steady-state humans concentrations of the drug on day 10 of gestation showed head and tail anomalies.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is recommended by the CDC for treatment of varicella during pregnancy, especially during the second and third trimesters.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is excreted in the breast milk, therefore it is recommended that caution should be used in breast-feeding women. It has been shown in limited test studies that the nursing infant is exposed to approximately 0.3 mg/kg/day following oral administration of aciclovir to the mother. If nursing mothers have herpetic lesions near or on the breast, breast-feeding should be avoided.


title: Aciclovir

text: Common adverse drug reactions (≥1% of patients) associated with systemic aciclovir therapy (oral or IV) include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, encephalopathy (with IV use only), injection site reactions (with IV use only) and headache. In high doses, hallucinations have been reported. Infrequent adverse effects (0.1–1% of patients) include agitation, vertigo, confusion, dizziness, oedema, arthralgia, sore throat, constipation, abdominal pain, hair loss, rash and weakness. Rare adverse effects (<0.1% of patients) include coma, seizures, neutropenia, leukopenia, crystalluria, anorexia, fatigue, hepatitis, Stevens–Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and anaphylaxis.


title: Aciclovir

text: Intravenous aciclovir may cause reversible nephrotoxicity in up to 5% to 10% of patients because of precipitation of aciclovir crystals in the kidney. Aciclovir crystalline nephropathy is more common when aciclovir is given as a rapid infusion and in patients with dehydration and preexisting renal impairment. Adequate hydration, a slower rate of infusion, and dosing based on renal function may reduce this risk.


title: Aciclovir

text: The aciclovir metabolite 9-Carboxymethoxymethylguanine (9-CMMG) has been shown to play a role in neurological adverse events, particularly in older people and those with reduced renal function.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir topical cream is commonly associated (≥1% of patients) with: dry or flaking skin or transient stinging/burning sensations. Infrequent adverse effects include erythema or itch. When applied to the eye, aciclovir is commonly associated (≥1% of patients) with transient mild stinging. Infrequently (0.1–1% of patients), ophthalmic aciclovir is associated with superficial punctate keratitis or allergic reactions.


title: Aciclovir

text: Ketoconazole: In-vitro replication studies have found a synergistic, dose-dependent antiviral activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 when given with aciclovir. However, this effect has not been clinically established and more studies need to be done to evaluate the true potential of this synergy.


title: Aciclovir

text: Probenecid: Reports of increased half life of aciclovir, as well as decreased urinary excretion and renal clearance have been shown in studies where probenecid is given simultaneously with aciclovir.


title: Aciclovir

text: Interferon: Synergistic effects when administered with aciclovir and caution should be taken when administering aciclovir to patients receiving IV interferon.


title: Aciclovir

text: Zidovudine: Although administered often with aciclovir in HIV patients, neurotoxicity has been reported in at least one patient who presented with extreme drowsiness and lethargy 30–60 days after receiving IV aciclovir; symptoms resolved when aciclovir was discontinued.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir may be quantitated in plasma or serum to monitor for drug accumulation in patients with renal dysfunction or to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in acute overdose victims.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is converted by viral thymidine kinase to aciclovir monophosphate, which is then converted by host cell kinases to aciclovir triphosphate (ACV-TP, also known as aciclo-GTP). ACV-TP is a very potent inhibitor of viral DNA replication. ACV-TP competitively inhibits and inactivates the viral DNA polymerase. Its monophosphate form also incorporates into the viral DNA, resulting in chain termination.


title: Aciclovir

text: Resistance to aciclovir is rare in people with healthy immune systems, but is more common (up to 10%) in people with immunodeficiencies on chronic antiviral prophylaxis (transplant recipients, people with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome due to HIV infection). Mechanisms of resistance in HSV include deficient viral thymidine kinase; and mutations to viral thymidine kinase or DNA polymerase, altering substrate sensitivity.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is poorly water-soluble and has poor oral bioavailability (15–30%), hence intravenous administration is necessary if high concentrations are required. When orally administered, peak plasma concentration occurs after 1–2 hours. According to the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS), aciclovir falls under the BCS Class III drug i.e. soluble with low intestinal permeability. Aciclovir has a high distribution rate; protein binding is reported to range from 9 to 33%. The elimination half-life (t) of aciclovir depends according to age group; neonates have a t of 4 hours, children 1–12 years have a t of 2–3 hours whereas adults have a t of 3 hours.


title: Aciclovir

text: Details of the synthesis of aciclovir were first published by scientists from the University at Buffalo.


title: Aciclovir

text: In the first step shown, 2,6-dichloropurine was alkylated with 1-benzoyloxy-2-chloromethoxyethane. The chlorine group at the 6-position of the heterocyclic ring is more reactive than the chlorine at the 2-position, hence it can be selectively replaced by an amino group, which was then converted to an amide using nitrous acid. Finally, the remaining chlorine was replaced by the amino group of aciclovir using ammonia in methanol. This synthesis and other methods for preparing the compound have been reviewed.


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir was seen as the start of a new era in antiviral therapy, as it is extremely selective and low in cytotoxicity. Since discovery in mid 1970s, it has been used as an effective drug for the treatment of infections caused by most known species of the herpesvirus family, including herpes simplex and varicella zoster viruses. Nucleosides isolated from a Caribbean sponge, "Cryptotethya crypta", were the basis for the synthesis of aciclovir. It was codiscovered by Howard Schaeffer following his work with Robert Vince, S. Bittner and S. Gurwara on the adenosine analog acycloadenosine which showed promising antiviral activity. Later, Schaeffer joined Burroughs Wellcome and continued the development of aciclovir with pharmacologist Gertrude B. Elion. A U.S. patent on aciclovir listing Schaeffer as inventor was issued in 1979. Vince later invented abacavir, an nRTI drug for HIV patients. Elion was awarded the 1988 Nobel Prize in Medicine, partly for the development of aciclovir.


title: Aciclovir

text: A related prodrug form, valaciclovir came into medical use in 1995. It is converted to aciclovir in the body after absorption.


title: Aciclovir

text: In 2009, acyclovir in combination with hydrocortisone cream, marketed as Xerese, was approved in the United States for the early treatment of recurrent herpes labialis (cold sores) to reduce the likelihood of ulcerative cold sores and to shorten the lesion healing time in adults and children (six years of age and older).


title: Aciclovir

text: Aciclovir is the international nonproprietary name (INN) and British Approved Name (BAN) while acyclovir is the United States Adopted Name (USAN) and former British Approved Name.


title: Aciclovir

text: It was originally marketed as Zovirax; patents expired in the 1990s and since then it is generic and is marketed under many brand names worldwide.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: Club Universidad Nacional, A.C., commonly referred to as UNAM, is a professional football club based in Ciudad Universitaria of Mexico City, Mexico. The club competes in the Liga MX, the top division in the Mexican football league system. Founded in 1954, they play their home games at Estadio Olímpico Universitario.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: Domestically, Universidad Nacional has won 11 trophies: 7 Liga MX, 1 Copa MX, the Campeón de Campeones twice, as well as 1 Segunda División de México. In international club football, the club has won 3 CONCACAF Champions Cups and 1 Copa Interamericana. The club has a long-standing rivalry with América in the "derbi capitalino".


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The club is one of the most popular clubs in Mexico. Alongside in-city rivals, América, Cruz Azul and Guadalajara are considered to be the "Cuatro Grandes" in Liga MX.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The team is also known for its youth development system, which has produced international players such as Hugo Sánchez, Manuel Negrete, Luis Flores, Miguel España, Claudio Suárez, Luis García, Alberto García Aspe, David Patiño, Jorge Campos, Braulio Luna, Gerardo Torrado,


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: Club Universidad Nacional was originally an amateur club of college students from UNAM's several schools and then developed into a professional team competing in the Mexican football league. It is now one of the biggest clubs in all of Mexico. It has evolved into one of the most popular Mexican teams and has gained an international following.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The team's blue and gold colors were selected as a tribute to the University of Notre Dame, whose football coaches helped to develop an American-style football team at the university. The nickname was inspired by Roberto 'Tapatio' Mendez, who coached the team from 1946 to 1964 and whose motivational speeches often compared his players to pumas. The nickname stayed with the public, and all the athletic teams representing the university have been called Pumas.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: Their home ground is the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, the main venue of the 1968 Summer Olympics. It has a seating capacity of over 72,000. The stadium is situated within the campus which enables easy access by the students. The Pumas have training facilities within the campus but their main complex is the Cantera, located nearby.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The dean of the university, Luis Chico Goerne, made the first attempt to affiliate a representative of UNAM with the top football Mexican championship of the day, filing a petition to join the Liga Mayor de Fútbol Professional del Distrito Federal. The petition was rejected in favor of de Morelos. Therefore, Pumas played 13 years in Mexicos Liga De Ascenso.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: By the 1940s, the dean Gustavo Baz Prada assigned the task to prepare the UNAM team to Rodolfo "Butch" Muñoz, then player of Club España. The new manager formed its new team with members of the student body of the many schools and faculties of the university. The UNAM team joined many university tournaments, with successful results, and "Butch" Muñoz went on to manage the team for 13 years. This prepared the team to complete its later transition to professional status.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In August 1954, the Club Universidad was accepted as a member of the Segunda División, in those days the second tier division of professional football in Mexico. This achievement was accomplished with the support of the dean Nabor Carrillo and Guillermo Aguilar Alvarez Sr., a benefactor of the club. Aguilar Alvarez was appointed by the dean as the chairman of the club.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: On September 12, 1954 UNAM played its first professional game, an away match against Monterrey. After competing for three years, Club Universidad requested a one-year moratorium in its competing in Segunda División play to undergo a programme rebuilding process. Within that year, Hector Ortiz was appointed as the new manager of the club, and a Board of Patrons was formed.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: UNAM realized its objective of promotion from Segunda División to Primera División when Club Universidad won the home-played promotion match on January 9, 1962, by defeating Club Cataluña de Torreón, 9–1. The match ended, the students rushed the pitch, and honored its team by carrying them off the field on their shoulders—this was the first step towards the consolidation of the club.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The following day, dean Ignacio Chávez Sánchez congratulated the team when he met with them: Octavio Vial (manager), and players: Homero Villar, Raúl Chanes, José Antonio "La Espátula" Rodríguez, Rafael Ramirez Jimenez, Alfredo Echávarri, José Ruiz, Carlos Gutierrez, Alfredo "Tito" Zenteno, José Luis "El Chango" Ledezma, Antonio Sámano, Jorge Gaitán, Guillermo Vázquez Sr., José Luis González "La Calaca", Lorenzo Garcia, Carlos Calderón de la Barca, Manuel "Manolo" Rodríguez, Edmundo "El Poli" Pérez, and Gustavo "El Gato" Cuenca.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The team established itself in the Primera División, the Board of Patrons prepared for the continuation of the team's success by establishing youth system to develop new players.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: After two years under the management of Alfonso "El Pescado" Portugal, the Spaniard Ángel Zubieta took the reins of the team. This enabled the program to identify "foreign" reinforcements, but rely on promoting from the youth system.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The first half of the decade was marked by the arrival of three of the most important foreign players in the existence of the club; the Peruvian Juan José Muñante, the Serbian Velibor "Bora" Milutinović, and the Brazilian Cabinho. They arrived to join a solid base of native-players such as Miguel Mejía Barón, Héctor Sanabria, Arturo Vázquez Ayala, José Luis "Pareja" López, and Leonardo Cuellar. In the second half of the decade those same players would give the club its first titles in the top division.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In 1975 the club adopted a new administration consisting of an independent civil association that helped the university to support the club. In the 1974–75 season, Universidad won the Copa México and the Campeón de Campeones. In the 1976–77 season, Club Universidad became league champion for the first time in its history. That championship was followed by two sub championships. The culmination of a successful decade for Club Universidad came with the debut of Hugo Sánchez. In 1978, Club Universidad would signed Ricardo "Tuca" Ferretti , a player that will prove to be vital for the team in the coming decade.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In the 1980–81 season, Universidad won its second league championship. That season was also the last season Hugo Sánchez played for the club. In the following season, the Pumas won the CONCACAF Championship and the Interamerican Cup.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: This decade also marked the national recognition of the work performed by the club, and the revolutionary and dynamic style of play that helped Mexican football overall. For the 1986 FIFA World Cup, the Mexican Football Federation appointed the manager of Universidad, Velibor "Bora" Milutinović as the manager of the Mexico national football team. Milutinović called numerous Pumas and former Pumas to the nation team, including Hugo Sánchez, Félix Cruz Barbosa, Rafael Amador, Raúl Servín, Miguel España, Manuel Negrete and Luis Flores. This generation of players gave great satisfactions not only to the followers of Pumas, but also to the Mexican football fans.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The decade began with one of the most celebrated championships in club history, the 1990–91 League Championship against arch-rivals Club América - the memorable winning goal via free kick from Ricardo "Tuca" Ferretti. This will be the last game of Ricardo "Tuca" Ferretti due to retirement as a professional player. A new generation of players arrived, including Luis García, Jorge Campos, Claudio Suárez, Antonio Sancho, Israel López, Braulio Luna, Rafael García, Jaime Lozano, and Gerardo Torrado. This decade is, however, considered one of the least successful in terms of championships and development of players. Towards the end of the decade, Hugo Sánchez became manager of the club for the first time.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In 2004, Sánchez led the Pumas to their first championship in thirteen years. The Pumas were able to retain the championship later that year, becoming the first team since the Mexican league was split into two seasons to win back-to-back championships. As of summer 2012, they remain the only team to achieve this feat. Along with two domestic titles, the Pumas were also able to win both the Campeon de Campeones.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In 2005, the Pumas reached the Copa Sudamericana final, where they lost to Boca Juniors in a penalty shoot out when Roberto Abbondanzieri controversially stopped a penalty after having been forgiven a red card for handling the ball outside the penalty box denying a Pumas player a clear chance on goal. Domestically, the Pumas struggled after their 2004 success and, by 2006, were facing the threat of relegation. Ricardo Ferretti was appointed as manager that year in an effort to lead Pumas away from the relegation zone. The stability and discipline that Ferretti brought to the team paid off as the Pumas climbed out of the relegation zone and reached a final in 2007 against Atlante, which they lost 2–1 on aggregate. In 2009, Ferretti once again led the Pumas to a final, this time being victorious against Pachuca in extra time to claim the team's sixth championship.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In 2011, Pumas became champions of Clausura 2011 tournament, winning their seventh championship against Monarcas Morelia.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: After hard times at the club after the sacking of Guillermo Vasquez as head coach in 2012, he was re-hired as head coach in 2014. In Apertura 2015, Pumas made it to the tournament final against Tigres U.A.N.L. Tigres won the first leg of the Final with a home win of 3–0. Then in the second leg of the final Pumas managed to tie the game on the global scoreboard at home 4–1. A penalty-shootout had to be done and Tigres won the championship 4–2 at a penalty-shootout. Thus, making Pumas unable to gain its 8th title. After the club's inability to make it to the play-offs in Clausura 2016 and failing to reach the semifinal for Copa Libertadores 2016 Guillermo Vasquez was once again sacked as head coach in May 2016.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: At the end of May 2016, Pumas hired Francisco Palencia as head coach making Palencia debut as his first team to manage. Once again, in Apertura 2016 Pumas made it to the play-offs against Tigres for quarter finals. In the first leg with Pumas hosting the home game both teams tied 2-2. In the second leg Tigres hosting the home game, Tigres won 5–0. Thus, in the global scoreboard Pumas lost 7–2, and was not able to go further throughout the play-off stage.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In the Clausura 2017, Pumas had signed the Chilean forward Nicolas Castillo in order to give more ability in the offensive part of the team. He conceived 8 goals the first 2 months of the season before he was injured and was out for the rest of the season. Pumas was having a great streak of games the first half of the season. Starting gaming Game 14 they lost 4 straight games and were not able to score a goal. With these results they finished in 17th place and were the worst defensive team having 30 goals against and Nicolas Castillo missing his top scorer championship by 1 goal by Raul Ruidiaz, player of Monarcas Morelia who made 9 goals.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In the Apertura 2017, many key players were sold or loaned out the loan, such as Alejandro Palacios, and long time captain Dario Veron, all with the purpose to make room for new, young players.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: Universidad has strong rivalries with América and Cruz Azul. These games are passionate and followed by the whole city. There is also a more recent rivalry with Guadalajara.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The rivalry with América, compared to the others, is quite old and began during the 1960s, when Universidad won its promotion. The mere fact that both clubs are located in Mexico City generated the right atmosphere to see a rivalry born and grow. A few years later América bought UNAM idol Enrique Borja, even though the player had made a public statement that he did not want to be sold to América. In the 1980s the rivalry grew when América defeated Universidad twice in the league finals, both times with controversial refereeing decisions. The 1990s began with a "victory" of the Pumas over their rivals in the league finals, although it was actually a tie; the first leg was lost 3–2, and only the second leg was a 1–0 win. The aggregate score was 3–3, but UNAM scored two goals as the visiting team, giving them the edge. A new generation of players from the youth system grew up hating their adversaries; this decade is also marked by the birth of Las Barras Bravas, who supported both sides but had a much longer background story of rivalry. This rivalry is often referred to as the most violent of Mexico, with security measures exceeding those of any other game.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The rivalry with Cruz Azul comes out of the fact that both clubs are located in Mexico City, and they have played many important matches, including two league finals, recently the name of this game is the "Clásico Metropolitano or Derby central" because both teams was born in states that are in the centre of Mexico


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: The only major encounter these two clubs have had with each other was in the 1977 final. UNAM beat Leones Negros to achieve their first title.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: In recent years, Pumas and Guadalajara have increased their rivalry. Most of it is due to the 2004 Final; Pumas vs Guadalajara. Also UNAM went 36 years without winning an away match against Guadalajara. Many people have started calling this fixture a clasico.


title: Club Universidad Nacional

text: On October 6, 2018, Pumas faced Guadalajara away in Liga MX. They had won this fixture ten days earlier in the Copa MX Round of 16 by a score of 3–1, though many considered the winless streak still unbroken because it did not occur in Liga MX play. Guadalajara quickly took the lead, Isaác Brizuela opening the scoring. However Guadalajara had little time to celebrate, as Pumas tied the game shortly thereafter. The score remained 1-1 until the 66th minute, when Felipe Mora scored on a header to give Pumas the lead. Pumas then saw out the 2–1 win, officially ending the 36-year record of not winning against Guadalajara in an away match in the Liga MX.


title: El filibusterismo

text: El filibusterismo (; "The Subversive" or "The Subversion", as in the Locsín English translation, are also possible translations), also known by its alternative English title The Reign of Greed, is the second novel written by Philippine national hero José Rizal. It is the sequel to "Noli Me Tángere" and, like the first book, was written in Spanish. It was first published in 1891 in Ghent.


title: El filibusterismo

text: The novel centers on the "Noli-El fili" duology's main character Crisóstomo Ibarra, now returning for vengeance as "Simoun". The novel's dark theme departs dramatically from the previous novel's hopeful and romantic atmosphere, signifying Ibarra's resort to solving his country's issues through violent means, after his previous attempt in reforming the country's system made no effect and seemed impossible with the corrupt attitude of the Spaniards toward the Filipinos.


title: El filibusterismo

text: The novel, along with its predecessor, was banned in some parts of the Philippines as a result of their portrayals of the Spanish government's abuses and corruption. These novels, along with Rizal's involvement in organizations that aimed to address and reform the Spanish system and its issues, led to Rizal's exile to Dapitan and eventual execution. Both the novel and its predecessor, along with Rizal's last poem, are now considered Rizal's literary masterpieces.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Both of Rizal's novels had a profound effect on Philippine society in terms of views about national identity, the Catholic faith and its influence on the Filipino's choice, and the government's issues in corruption, abuse of power, and discrimination, and on a larger scale, the issues related to the effect of colonization on people's lives and the cause for independence. These novels later on indirectly became the inspiration to start the Philippine Revolution.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Throughout the Philippines, the reading of both the novel and its predecessor is now mandatory for high school students throughout the archipelago, although it is now read using English, Filipino, and the Philippines' regional languages.


title: El filibusterismo

text: In the events of the previous novel, Crisóstomo Ibarra, a reform-minded "mestizo" who tried to establish a modern school in his hometown of San Diego and marry his childhood sweetheart, was falsely accused of rebellion and presumed dead after a shootout following his escape from prison. Elías, his friend who was also a reformer, sacrificed his life to give Crisóstomo a chance to regain his treasure and flee the country, and hopefully continue their crusade for reforms from abroad. After a thirteen-year absence from the country, a more revolutionary Crisóstomo has returned, having taken the identity of Simoun, a mysterious wealthy jeweler whose objective is to drive the government to commit as much abuse as possible in order to drive people into revolution.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Simoun goes from town to town presumably to sell his jewels. Reaching San Diego, he detours to a forested land once owned by the Ibarras to retrieve more of his treasures buried in the mausoleum. There his true identity as Crisóstomo Ibarra is discovered by a now-grown Basilio, who was also in the mausoleum visiting his mother's grave. In the years since the death of his mother, Basilio had been serving as Capitán Tiago's servant in exchange for being allowed to study, and is now an aspiring doctor on his last year at university as well as administrator and apparent heir to Capitán Tiago's wealth. Simoun reveals his motives to Basilio and offers him a place in his plans. Too secure of his place in the world, Basilio declines.


title: El filibusterismo

text: At Barrio Sagpang in the town of Tiani, Simoun stays at the house of the village's "cabeza de barangay", Tales. Having suffered misfortune after misfortune in recent years, Kabesang Tales is unable to resist the temptation to steal Simoun's revolver and join the bandits. In Los Baños, Simoun joins his friend, the Captain-General, who is then taking a break from a hunting excursion. In a friendly game of cards with him and his cronies, Simoun raises the stakes higher and higher and half-jokingly secures blank orders for deportation, imprisonment, and summary execution from the Captain-General.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Later on, Simoun goes to Manila and meets Quiroga, a wealthy Chinese businessman and aspiring consul-general for the Chinese empire. Knowing Quiroga is heavily in his debt, Simoun offers him a steep discount if the former stores his massive arsenal of rifles in Quiroga's warehouses, to be used presumably for extortion activities with Manila's elite. Despite his hatred of guns and weaponry, Quiroga reluctantly agrees to do the job and uses his bazaar as a front.


title: El filibusterismo

text: During the Quiapo Fair, a talking heads exhibit ostensibly organized by an American named Mr. Leeds but secretly commissioned by Simoun is drawing popular acclaim. Padre Bernardo Salví, now chaplain of the Convent of the Poor Clares, attends one of the performances. The exhibit is set in Ptolemaic Egypt but features a tale that closely resembled that of Crisóstomo Ibarra and María Clara, and their fate under Salví. The show ends with an ominous vow of revenge. Deeply overcome with guilt and fear, Salví recommends the show be banned, but not before Mr. Leeds sailed for Hong Kong.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Months pass and the night of Simoun's revolution comes. Simoun visits Basilio in Tiago's house and tries to convince him again to join his revolution. He reveals his plan for the attack: a cannon volley shall be fired, at which point Kabesang Tales, now a bandit identifying himself as Matanglawin, and Simoun who managed to deceive and recruit a sizable rogue force among the government troops, will lead their forces into the city. The leaders of the Church, the University, scores of bureaucrats, the Captain-General himself, as well as the bulk of officers guarding them are all conveniently located in one location, the theater where a controversial and much-hyped performance of "Les cloches de Corneville" is taking place. While Simoun and Matanglawin direct their forces, Basilio and several others are to raid the Convent of the Poor Clares and rescue María Clara.


title: El filibusterismo

text: However, Basilio reports to Simoun that María Clara died just that afternoon, after suffering the travails of monastic life under Salví, who always lusted after her. Simoun, driven by grief, aborts the attack and becomes crestfallen throughout the night. It will be reported later on that he suffered an "accident" that night, leaving him confined to his bed.


title: El filibusterismo

text: The following day, posters threatening violence to the leaders of the university and the government are found at the university doors. A reform-oriented student group to which Basilio belonged is named the primary suspects; the members are arrested, including Basilio, despite his absence from the group's mock celebration. They are eventually freed through the intercession of relatives, except for Basilio who is an orphan and has no means to pay for his freedom. During his imprisonment, he learns that Capitán Tiago has died, leaving him with nothing; it is revealed that Tiago's will was actually forged by his spiritual advisor Padre Írene, who also supplies him with opium; his childhood sweetheart Juli has committed suicide to avoid getting raped by parish priest Camorra when she tried asking for help on Basilio's behalf; and that he has missed his graduation and will be required to study for another year, but now with no funds to go by. Released through the intercession of Simoun, a darkened, disillusioned Basilio joins Simoun's cause wholeheartedly.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Simoun, meanwhile, has been organizing a new revolution, and he reveals his plans to a now committed Basilio. The wedding of Juanito Peláez and Paulita Gómez will be used to coordinate the attack upon the city. As the Peláez and Gómez families are prominent members of the Manila elite, leaders of the church and civil government are invited to the reception. The Captain-General, who declined to extend his tenure despite Simoun's urging, is leaving in two days and is the guest of honor.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Simoun will personally deliver a pomegranate-shaped crystal lamp as a wedding gift. The lamp is to be placed on a plinth at the reception venue and will be bright enough to illuminate the entire hall, which was also walled with mirrors. After some time the light will flicker as if to go out. When someone attempts to raise the wick, a mechanism hidden within the lamp containing fulminated mercury will detonate, igniting the lamp which is actually filled with nitroglycerin, killing everyone in an enormous blast.


title: El filibusterismo

text: At the sound of the explosion, Simoun's mercenaries will attack, reinforced by Matanglawin and his bandits who will descend upon the city from the surrounding hills. Simoun postulates that at the chaos, the masses, already worked to a panic by the government's heavy-handed response to the poster incident, as well as rumors of German ships at the bay to lend their firepower to any uprising against the Spanish government, will step out in desperation to kill or be killed. Basilio and a few others are to put themselves at their head and lead them to Quiroga's warehouses, where Simoun's guns are still being kept. The plan thus finalized, Simoun gives Basilio a loaded revolver and sends him away to await further instructions.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Basilio walks the streets for hours and passes by his old home, Capitán Tiago's riverside house on Anloague Street. He discovers that this was to be the reception venue – Juanito Peláez's father bought Tiago's house as a gift for the newlywed couple. Sometime later, he sees Simoun enter the house with the lamp, then hastily exit the house and board his carriage. Basilio begins to move away but sees Isagani, his friend and Paulita Gómez's former lover, sadly looking at Paulita through the window. Noting how close they were to the condemned house, Basilio tries to head Isagani off, but Isagani was too dazed with grief to listen to him. In desperation, Basilio reveals to Isagani how the house is set to explode at any time then. But when Isagani still refuses to heed him, Basilio flees, leaving Isagani to his fate.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Seeing Basilio's demeanor, Isagani is temporarily, rather belatedly unnerved by the revelation. Isagani rushes into the house, seizes the lamp leaving the hall in darkness, and throws it into the river. With this, Simoun's second revolution fails as well.


title: El filibusterismo

text: In the following days, as the trappings at the reception venue are torn down, sacks containing gunpowder are discovered hidden under the boards all over the house. Simoun, who had directed the renovations, is exposed. With his friend, the Captain-General, having left for Spain, Simoun is left without his protector and is forced to flee. A manhunt ensues and Simoun is chased as far away as the shores of the Pacific. He then spends the rest of his days hiding in the ancestral mansion of Padre Florentino, Isagani's uncle.


title: El filibusterismo

text: One day, the lieutenant of the local Guardia Civil informs Florentino that he received an order to arrest Simoun that night. In response, Simoun drinks the slow-acting poison which he always kept in a compartment on his treasure chest. Simoun then makes his final confession to Florentino, first revealing his true name, to Florentino's shock. He goes on to narrate how thirteen years before, as Crisóstomo Ibarra, he lost everything in the Philippines despite his good intentions. Crisóstomo swore vengeance. Retrieving some of his family's treasure Elias buried in the Ibarra mausoleum in the forest, Crisóstomo fled to foreign lands and engaged in trade. He took part in the war in Cuba, aiding first one side and then another, but always profiting. There Crisóstomo met the Captain-General who was then a major, whose goodwill he won first by loans of money, and afterwards by covering for his criminal activity. Crisóstomo bribed his way to secure the major's promotion to Captain-General and his assignment to the Philippines. Once in the country, Crisóstomo then used him as a blind tool and incited him to all kinds of injustice, availing himself of the Captain-General's insatiable lust for gold.


title: El filibusterismo

text: The confession is long and arduous, and night has fallen when Crisóstomo finished. In the end, Florentino assures the dying man of God's mercy, but explains that his revolution failed because he has chosen means that God cannot sanction. Crisóstomo bitterly accepts the explanation and dies.


title: El filibusterismo

text: Realizing that the arresting officers will confiscate Crisóstomo's possessions, Florentino divests him of his jewels and casts them into the sea, proclaiming that should people need wealth for a righteous cause, God will provide the means to draw them out, adding that they are better hidden at the bottom of the sea in the meantime, where they cannot be found to be used for distorting justice or inciting greed.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: Tom Clancy's is a branding used by video game company Ubisoft for video games, some of which feature the works of American author Tom Clancy, while others do not. Various sub-series are often unrelated to each other with a few exceptions, although most are shooters set in modern or near-future military settings.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: In 1996, Clancy co-founded the video game developer Red Storm Entertainment. He has had his name on several of Red Storm's most successful games. Red Storm was later bought by publisher Ubisoft, which continued to use the Clancy name, though the extent of Clancy's actual involvement with creation of the games and development of intellectual properties, if any, was unclear. This game series includes:


title: Tom Clancy's

text: In 2008, Ubisoft acquired perpetual rights to use Clancy's name and works for video games and other related media including books and film.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: The Rainbow Six series: Squad-based first person tactical shooters, based on the novel of the same name, typically taking place in closed urban environments. 15 "Rainbow Six" games have been produced so far.