title: Ushuaia

text: As in most of Argentina, football is a popular sport in Ushuaia, and in 2010 the TV show "FIFA Futbol Mundial" did a story about the sport's development in this locality. In 2015 Ushuaia hosted the first PATHF Snow Handball Panamerican Championship.


title: Ushuaia

text: A popular sport in Ushuaia is ice hockey, and low temperatures all year long make the city a perfect spot for practicing it outdoors. In 2010 the city opened an outdoor short track and ice hockey Olympic-size ice rink (), the first of its kind in South America. After this Argentina became the first South American nation to be upgraded from affiliate to associate member status of the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF).


title: Ushuaia

text: Since 2005 the Municipality of Ushuaia and the Argentinean Ice Hockey Federation (FAHH) organize the yearly End of the World Cup ("Copa del Fin del Mundo") that has gathered ice hockey teams from Ushuaia, Buenos Aires, Punta Arenas and Sao Paulo and includes seven different competitions: one for men, one for women, four junior categories and an international tournament.


title: Ushuaia

text: Beside the local league and the Copa del Fin del Mundo, in 2016 the city hosted the first ice hockey Patagonian Championship, with teams from Ushuaia, Río Grande and Punta Arenas. After the tournament it was announced a new plan to build a roof over the ice rink. Ushuaia has two rival teams: Club Andino de Ushuaia (CAU) and Los Ñires.


title: Ushuaia

text: Several ski areas are located near Ushuaia including Glacier El Martial (on Martial Mountains) and Cerro Castor. Opened in 1999, Cerro Castor is the southernmost full-fledged ski resort in the world. On Cerro Castor, it is possible to ski just above sea level. The summit reaches an elevation of above sea level, and consistently cool temperatures allow the longest skiing season in South America. Winter temperatures fluctuate between . It has ten elevation facilities and 28 ski trails for all skill levels. There are cafeterias, mountain huts, a ski school, a first aid room and a forest of beech. Snowboarding, sledding, and snowshoeing are also available at Cerro Castor, in addition to alpine skiing. It is located on the southern side of Cerro Krund, north of Ushuaia. The ski season is typically between June through October. In 2012 Cerro Castor hosted the FIS Freestyle Slopestyle World Cup, organized by the International Ski Federation (FIS), and in 2015 it hosted the Interski Congress and World Cup, organized by the International Ski Instructors Association, which was its first ever event in the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Ushuaia

text: The glacier is popular even during the summer months, when the chairlift operates in both directions. Hiking trails lead from the city's edge to the base of the glacier, which has retreated considerably over the past century, as shown in photographs on display at the Antarctic Museum of Ushuaia.


title: Ushuaia

text: The Valley of Tierra Mayor and the Francisco Jerman Nordic Ski Area, located 20 km and 5 km away from Ushuaia respectively, are popular cross-country venues. Since 1986 Tierra Mayor hosts the annual Marchablanca, a 21 km traditional race organized by the Club Andino Ushuaia, and the Ushuaia Loppet, a full distance marathon that is one of the 20 members of the Worldloppet Ski Federation. Usually this race starts the Federation's Marathon Series in August.


title: Ushuaia

text: In October 2014 the Argentine Olympic Committee (COA) revealed the plan to use the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics, to be held in Buenos Aires, as the launchpad for a bid in the near future. The Committee identified Argentina's south-eastern region of Patagonia, which comprises the southern section of the Andes mountains, as a possible location to host the Winter Games. In 2010 it was suggested that Ushuaia would be the main option for a bid. Before the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics, International Olympic Committee President Thomas Bach visited Ushuaia and talked about the possibility of holding the 2024 Winter Youth Olympics there.


title: Ushuaia

text: The city government consists of a Mayor (executive), City Council (seven members, legislative) and the Tribunal de Faltas (small court, judicial).


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia has twelve secondary schools, four of which also provide adult education. The Colegio Nacional de Ushuaia is one of the newest schools in the city and was modeled after the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires. Another important secondary school is Colegio Diocesano Monseñor Miguel Ángel Alemán, which takes its name after the Monsignor of the same name.


title: Ushuaia

text: The National University of Patagonia San Juan Bosco operates a campus in Ushuaia, with Faculties of Engineering, Economics and Humanities, and Social Sciences.


title: Ushuaia

text: There are two main newspapers, "El Diario del Fin del Mundo" and "El Diario La Prensa", plus several other minor publications.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia receives regular flights at Ushuaia – Malvinas Argentinas International Airport from El Calafate, Buenos Aires and Santiago, Chile.


title: Ushuaia

text: In addition to being a vacation destination for local and international tourists, Ushuaia is also the key access point to the Southern Ocean, including subantarctic islands such as South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and Antarctic islands such as the South Orkney Islands and the South Shetland Islands. Its commercial pier is the major port of departure in the world for tourist and scientific expeditions to the Antarctic Peninsula. Cruise ships visiting the Falkland Islands and Antarctica dock at the port, as well as Princess Cruises, Holland America Line, and Celebrity Cruises, which transit between Valparaíso, Chile, to Buenos Aires and beyond. Albatros Expeditions, Antarpply Expeditions, Global Maritime, Hurtigruten, Lindblad Expeditions, Orient Lines, Quark Expeditions, Regent Seven Seas Cruises, and other passenger and freight lines provide regularly scheduled services between Ushuaia and local seaports and settlements.


title: Ushuaia

text: The southern terminus of the Pan-American Highway, which is also the southern end of Argentina National Route 3, is located in Tierra del Fuego National Park.


title: Ushuaia

text: Located at the corner of Avenida 12 de Octubre and Maipú, the "Hospital Gobernador Ernesto M. Campos" is one of the big health care centers in Ushuaia; the other one is private and it is called Clínica San Jorge.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia is surrounded by Magellanic subpolar forests. On the hills around the town, the following indigenous trees are found: "Drimys winteri" (Winter's bark), "Maytenus magellanica" (Hard-log Mayten) and several species of "Nothofagus" (Southern Beech).


title: Ushuaia

text: "Ushuaïa, le magazine de l'Extrême" was the name of a television program, presented by Nicolas Hulot and broadcast on the French TV channel TF1 from September 1987 to June 1995. The show is known in English as "Ushuaia: The Ultimate Adventure", and this language's version was hosted by Perri Peltz and was shown on NBC, CNBC, and international affiliates of the Discovery Channel.. The city was also featured on the American CBS reality television show "The Amazing Race" in the fourth leg of Season 11.


title: Ushuaia

text: In 2014, BBC car program "Top Gear" visited Ushuaia at the conclusion of their "Patagonia Special", with the intent of constructing a stadium and playing a game of car football there. Before they could do so, however, they were chased out of the city (and subsequently across the border into Chile) by mobs of people angered by an apparent reference to the Falklands War encoded in the registration plate of presenter Jeremy Clarkson's vehicle (H982 FKL).


title: Ushuaia

text: Several scenes in the 2015 film "The Revenant", directed by Alejandro González Iñárritu, were shot in Ushuaia from July through November 2014.


title: Ushuaia

text: On 29 December 2009, the first same-sex couple to marry in Latin America were married in Ushuaia. Although the Civil Code of Argentina at that time did not allow marriage between people of the same sex, Governor Fabiana Ríos issued a special decree allowing the couple to wed there. The marriage was annulled when the decree was reversed by Tierra del Fuego's judiciary, since the Civil Code did not support it. Same-sex marriage became legal nationwide in Argentina a few months later, on 15 July 2010, after the approval of a gender-neutral bill by the Argentine National Congress.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The Nissan 240SX is a sports compact car that was introduced to the North American market by Nissan in 1989 for the 1990 model year. It replaced the outgoing 200SX (S12) model. Most of the 240SXs were equipped with the 2.4-liter inline 4 engine (KA24E from 1989 to 1990 and KA24DE from 1990 to 1998). The KA24E had single overhead cams and the KA24DE had dual overhead cams. Two distinct generations of the 240SX, the S13 (1989–1994) the S14 (1994-1998) were produced, based on the Nissan S platform.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The 240SX is closely related to other S platform based vehicles, such as the Japanese-market Silvia and 180SX, and the European-market 200SX. Although their names are similar, the 240SX is unrelated to the 240Z or the 280ZX.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: While the car is no longer being produced since 1998, it remains popular in drifting and tuner culture. However, due to the popularity of the S-chassis in drifting or other related competitions, prices for vehicles and parts have greatly increased because of higher demand of the vehicles or parts. This problem is sometimes known as "drift tax".


title: Nissan 240SX

text: Because of its extreme popularity in drifting or similar competitions, the 240SX is featured in numerous racing video games such as Midnight Club and Forza Motorsport, among others.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The first generation of the 240SX can be divided into two distinct versions, both having the sporting advantage of rear wheel drive. The hatchback, which was offered in base, SE, and LE trims, and the coupé, which was offered in base, XE, LE and SE trims. Both styles shared the same front bodywork as the Japanese-market Nissan 180SX, featuring the sloping front with pop-up headlights. This front bodywork distinguishes the coupé model from its Japanese-market counterpart, the Silvia, which featured fixed headlights. Both styles in all markets share the same chassis, and with few exceptions, most components and features are identical. The 240SX is a popular car in the sport of drifting due to its long wheelbase, low cost, ample power, light weight, well-balanced chassis and abundant aftermarket support.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: 1989 and 1990 models are powered by a naturally aspirated , SOHC KA24E 4-cylinder engine with 3 valves per cylinder (instead of the turbocharged and intercooled 1.8-liter DOHC CA18DET offered in Japan and Europe in the 180SX and Silvia). Four-wheel disc brakes were standard, with anti-lock brakes available as an option on the SE. Both models were offered with either a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. Coupes offered a Heads-up display (HUD) with a digital speedometer as part of the optional Power Convenience Group.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The 240SX received some updates in 1991. The matte silver, teardrop wheels were replaced by polished aluminium 7-spoke wheels that had better brake cooling properties but more drag. The nose was smoothed out by getting rid of the non-functional slots and gave back the aerodynamic efficiencies lost by the wheels. This gave the car an overhaul that included a minor update of the exterior and a new cylinder head. A new "LE" hatchback trim package was added that included leather interior. The SOHC KA24E was replaced by the DOHC KA24DE, now with 4 valves per cylinder, rated at at 5,600 rpm and at 4,400 rpm of torque. An optional sports package including ABS, a limited-slip differential, and Nissan's HICAS four-wheel steering was now available on hatchback models.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The S13 was known for sharp steering and handling (thanks to front MacPherson struts and a rear multilink suspension) and relatively light weight (2700 lb) but was regarded in the automotive press as being underpowered. The engine, while durable and relatively torquey, was a heavy iron-block truck unit that produced meager power for its relatively large size. It was only modestly improved by the change to the DOHC version in 1991. Furthermore, despite the modest power output, relatively low vehicle weight, and good aerodynamics, gas mileage was mediocre. These engines are the primary difference between the North American 240SX and the international-market Silvia/180SX/200SX. The KA24DE did not come turbocharged while the CA18DET and SR20DET did. The U.S. version was regarded as a highly capable sports car that only needed a better engine. Other differences include a standard limited-slip differential on overseas and Canadian models, available digital climate control in Japan, and manual seat belts standard in Japan and Canada vs. automatic restraint seatbelts in the U.S.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: In 1992, a convertible was added to the lineup and was exclusive to the North American market. These vehicles began life in Japan as coupés and were later modified in the California facilities of American Specialty Cars (ASC). For the 1994 model year, the only 240SX available was a Special Edition (SE) convertible, equipped with a 4-speed automatic transmission.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The North American 240SX convertible differed from the Japanese market version, in that the Japanese market models had a powered top cover boot, whereas the North American market models had manually-installed boot covers once the top is down. It was also produced in Japan rather than by ASC, and was introduced early on in the S13's production in Japan (the Japanese market models were released in 1988, four years before the 240SX convertible).


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The 240SX was released in the spring of 1994 as a 1995 model. The hatchback and convertible body styles were eliminated, leaving only the coupe. The wheelbase of the


title: Nissan 240SX

text: car grew and the track width was also increased, while the overall length of the vehicle was slightly shorter than the previous generation. The curb weight of the vehicle increased by about relative to the 1994 model. Dual air bags were added and the automatic seatbelts were replaced with common manual type. The pop-up headlights were relaxed with fixed headlamps. The cupholders were also removed in this generation of the Nissan 240SX. Though the general layout remained the same, almost all parts were redesigned to the extent that very few parts are interchangeable. The chassis was changed slightly to increase stiffness (Nissan claimed 50% torsional, 100% bending rigidity increase) and utilized higher rear strut mounts. The fuel tank, previously located at the rear end under the trunk floor, now sits in front of the rear suspension and behind the rear seats.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The base model had 4-lug, 15-inch wheels, a softer suspension, and no rear sway bar. The base model had several options and features available to be fitted to the car such as leather seats, ABS, and a viscous limited-slip differential. SE and LE models came equipped with 5-lug, 16-inch alloy wheels, a stiffer suspension than the base model, and a rear sway bar. The LE was basically an upgraded SE model, but with more standard equipment such as leather seats, keyless entry, an anti-theft system, and a CD player. Anti-lock brakes and a viscous limited-slip differential could be had as an optional package to both base and SE/LE models.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: In 1996, the 1997 model year 240SX received minor updates. The different looks of the S-Chassis are referred to as before change "Zenki" and after change "Kouki". Changes were mostly aesthetic, including new projector headlights, front bumper, hood, fenders, and revised taillights and center panel. Side skirts became standard on the SE and LE trim level. 1998 marked the end of production for the Nissan 240SX, with no further variations released in North America.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: This generation of the 240SX suffered in sales due to competition from other car manufacturers and consumers at the time choosing more practical vehicles, such as SUVs. In this generation, every 240SX was built in Kyūshū, Japan. The last 240SX rolled off the assembly line on July 23, 1998.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The IMSA GTU Nissan 240SX was originally piloted ["see image"] by vintage Datsun and Nissan racer Bob Leitzinger through the late 1980s and 1990s. It is currently owned and raced by Philip Mendelovitz. The tube chassis was custom built for IMSA GTU class racing. From Speedhunters: "The roofline and taillight lenses are some of the only parts this thing shares with a normal S13.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The engine is Nissan's VG30 V6 typically found in the Nissan Z and D21 truck. It is naturally aspirated and dry sumped, and a United States engine builder who managed to help the single overhead cam V6 to make about 340 horsepower.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: Chassis code LR-001, seen right, was entered in nearly 80 different events during its career, and it helped Nissan earn four-straight manufacturers championship wins between 1991 and 1994. (Speedhunters)


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The engine tuning system utilizes a Sony Walkman to write engine performance metrics to tape. These tapes are fed to a special computer to change fueling, timing, and other tuning parameters.


title: Nissan 240SX

text: The Nissan 240SX has been a popular choice in the drifting community. Although it was never marketed to the drifting community during its release, it was adopted in Japan during the golden age of drifting. It was chosen for its balanced weight distribution of 55/45 front to rear, and its overall lightweight RWD layout.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M2 is a high-performance version of the BMW 2 Series automobile developed by BMW's motorsport division, BMW M GmbH.


title: BMW M2

text: As the 2 Series replaced the 1 Series coupé and convertible models, the first generation M2 was marketed as the most basic M Car in the range. The M2 used the F8x chassis from the M3/M4, code name F87 and featured a more powerful and responsive, turbocharged and slightly modified BMW N55 series engine, while its successors, the M2 Competition and M2 CS, featured a high performance twin-turbocharged engine developed by BMW M GmbH (S55 engine); improved handling, suspension, and braking systems; aerodynamic body enhancements; interior/exterior accents with the tri-colour "M" (Motorsport) badging and increased weight. The M2 is unofficially considered as an indirect successor to the BMW 1 Series M Coupé.


title: BMW M2

text: The M2 was unveiled in "Need for Speed" in November 2015, before later premiering at the North American International Auto Show in January 2016. Production commenced in October 2015, first delivered early 2016 and the M2 was only available as a rear-wheel drive coupé. The M2 is powered by the turbocharged 3.0-litre N55B30T0 straight-six engine rated at at 6,500 rpm and between 1,450 and 4,750 rpm, while an overboost function temporarily increases torque to . The M2 features reinforced pistons, and has lighter aluminium front and rear suspension components resulting in a weight reduction. The M2 is available with a 6-speed manual or with a 7-speed dual-clutch transmission. 0–100 km/h acceleration times are 4.5 seconds manual transmission models and 4.3 seconds for models equipped with the 7-speed dual clutch transmission. Top speed is limited to but can be extended to with the optional M Driver's package. The M2 was used as a safety car in the 2016 MotoGP season.


title: BMW M2

text: 150 examples produced for the US market. The car is finished in Alpine White over black Dakota leather, and power is provided by a turbocharged 3.0-liter inline-six paired with a seven-speed M double-clutch transmission or manual 6 speed transmission. Performance Edition equipment includes an M Performance coilover suspension and exhaust system with titanium tips, along with black trim, manually-adjustable front sport seats, an M Performance sport and track key.


title: BMW M2

text: All 150 Performance Editions were finished in Alpine White with Shadowline trim. Additional equipment includes xenon headlights, LED door projectors, a rear spoiler lip, and black-finished kidney grilles, side gills, and mirror caps.


title: BMW M2

text: Factory 19″ Style 437M wheels wear staggered-width Michelin Pilot Super Sport tires. The Performance Edition equipment includes adjustable M Performance coilovers, and braking is handled by blue-finished calipers and cross-drilled rotors that are shared with the M4 F82.


title: BMW M2

text: The interior features seats trimmed in black Dakota leather with contrasting blue stitching, while carbon-fiber trim accents the dashboard, center console, and door panels. Manually-adjustable front sport seats are equipped as part of weight savings, along with single-zone automatic climate control, and removal of the smoker's package and Comfort Access proximity key. Factory output was rated at 370 horsepower and 343 lb-ft of torque, and the top speed was increased from 155 mph to 168 mph for the Performance Edition.


title: BMW M2

text: A coilover adjustment wrench and rebound adjustment knob were included, along with an M Performance key that activates sport and track mode.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M2 Competition was introduced at the 2018 Beijing Auto Show and succeeded the standard M2 Coupé as a more powerful variant. Production began first in July 2018, delivered early 2019.


title: BMW M2

text: The M2 Competition uses the BMW M GmbH S55 engine, a high performance variant of the N55 engine, that has been detuned from its application in the F80 M3 and F82 M4. The decision to use the S55 engine was a result of Europe adopting the Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicles Test Procedure as the official procedure to measure vehicle pollutants, which meant that the standard M2's N55 engine was no longer conformed to European emission standards.


title: BMW M2

text: Differences from the N55 engine found in the standard M2, the S55 includes a closed-deck engine block, lightweight crankshaft, different crankshaft bearings, strengthened pistons/rods, different springs/valve material, twin turbos, twin fuel pumps, active exhaust, revised cooling system and intercoolers.


title: BMW M2

text: The engine also features a redesigned oil supply system, modified cooling system, and electronic locking differential parts that are adapted from the BMW M4 Competition Package. It also features a gasoline particulate filter in certain European Union countries to reduce emissions. Compared to the standard M2, the S55 produces an additional and , resulting in a larger and more sustained power output of between 5,250 and 7,000 rpm, and at 2,350–5,200 rpm. The 0–100 km/h acceleration time is 4.4 seconds for six-speed manual transmission models, and 4.2 seconds for models with the 7-speed dual clutch transmission. Top speed is electronically limited to , but the M Driver's package can extend the limit to which is higher than in the M2.


title: BMW M2

text: The M2 Competition has the standard carbon-fibre reinforced plastic strut bar found in all S55 engine equipped models, to lighten and stiffen the car, enlarged kidney grilles, and optional larger brake discs of in the front axle with 6 piston calipers and in the rear axle with 4 piston calipers. Because of the engine and cooling system borrowed from the F82 M4, the M2 Competition is heavier than the standard M2 which had for manual transmission models and for dual-clutch transmission models.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M2 can be fitted with M Performance Parts. This includes a splitter, side skirts, fenders, bonnet, boot and a spoiler.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M2 CS, a more track focused version of the BMW M2 Competition, and was unveiled online in November 2019 prior to its introduction at the LA Auto Show. Production began in March 2020, with 2,200 units planned for North America, Europe, Asia and Mexico.


title: BMW M2

text: The M2 CS uses the same engine as the M2 Competition but it uses the factory ECU management as the F82 M4 Competition package, resulting in a more powerful version of the S55 which is rated at and of torque (same torque as the other M models equipped with the S55 engine) . The 0–100 km/h (62 mph) acceleration time is 4.2 seconds for six-speed manual transmission models, and 4.0 seconds for models with the 7-speed dual clutch transmission.


title: BMW M2

text: The M Performance Brakes option rotors and calipers from the M2 Competition are carried over as standard, but ceramic brakes are available as an option. An adaptive M suspension is standard along with an electronic locking differential. The wheel hubs and control arms are made from forged aluminium, with a carbon-fibre transmission tunnel as an additional weight-saving measure. The hood, roof and various aerodynamic parts are made of a carbon-fibre composite. The active exhaust system is new as well, and unique wheel designs in high-gloss Jet black or matte gold finishes differentiate it from other M2 models; Michelin Cup 2 tires are also available.


title: BMW M2

text: Inside, the centre console is also carbon-fibre, with Alcantara trim and an embroidered red "CS" badge; the seats are leather and Alcantara with red contrast stitching and are complemented by contrast-stitched Alcantara on the steering wheel. The central armrest and rear AC vents, which are standard on the M2 and M2 Competition, have been removed for some little weight reduction.


title: BMW M2

text: The M2 CS has been widely acclaimed in car reviews, winning the coveted Evo Car of the Year 2020 awards beating out several supercars from McLaren and Porsche.


title: BMW M2

text: The G87 M2 was shown to the public ahead of its debut at Motorclassica in Melbourne, Australia, in October 2022. The M2 is powered by the twin-turbo 3.0-litre BMW S58 straight-six engine rated at at 6,250 rpm and between 2,600 and 5,950 rpm. It remains rear-wheel drive and will be available with a 6-speed manual or with an 8-speed automatic. 0–100 km/h acceleration times are 4.3 seconds for manual transmission models and 4.1 seconds for automatic transmission models. Top speed is limited to but can be extended to with the optional M Driver's package.


title: BMW M2

text: Some markets will have an optional carbon package. The package will include M carbon bucket seats that are both power operated and heated as well as a carbon roof and carbon fiber interior trim. A power sunroof will be standard in the US but optional in Europe. Other options include a Shadowline package, a lighting package which offers full-LED adaptive headlights and automatic high beams and driver assistant packages.


title: BMW M2

text: The M235i Racing is a track version of the 2 Series developed by the BMW Motorsport division and was produced from 2014 to 2018. It was aimed at amateur drivers due to its relatively lower price and addition of driver aids such as anti-lock brakes, traction control, and dynamic stability control. The M235i Racing uses an 8-speed automatic transmission and features a modified version of the N55B30O0 engine found in the standard M235i, and produces at 5,800–6,000 rpm and at 1,300–4,500 rpm. The M235i Racing also features a mechanical limited-slip differential and larger brakes and springs. The front and rear spoilers, diffuser, and wing mirrors are from the BMW M Performance Parts catalog. The car was used in the BMW M235i Racing Cup which was part of the VLN Endurance Championship at the Nürburgring. It was also sold to customer teams in other championships such as the 24H Series, Touring Car Endurance Series, and Pirelli World Challenge.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M240i Racing is an updated version heavily revised by BMW M Motorsport from its predecessor, the BMW M235i Racing, used from the 2019 season and on of the BMW M240i Racing Cup, from the 2019 season and on. The BMW M240i Racing features revised spoiler end plates, updated engine software, and an optional newly designed driver's seat. The M240i Racing has an increased power output of , but produces an additional at , from the same 3-liter twin-turbo inline-6 from its predecessor. As it is a racecar, it still has an FIA-approved full roll cage, certified by DMSB. Deliveries started in 2020.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW M2 CS Racing is a racing variant of the road-going M2 CS, developed by BMW M Motorsport, to get beginner drivers to be involved in motorsport. The racecar has many developments that have been inspired by and developed further from its predecessors, the BMW M235i Racing, and the BMW M240i Racing, along with its "bigger brother" racecar, the BMW M4 GT4. The racecar gets power from a race-prepped 3-liter twin-turbo inline-6 that can generate anywhere from 280 hp (205 kW) to 365 hp (268 kW) depending on the configuration of the power stick, which is in turn controlled by the need to have a balance of performance or from regulations of a Permit B classification. The BMW M2 CS Racing also features a full FIA-approved roll cage, along with many motorsport-specific components, such as the rear wing, including ABS systems specifically tailored to the car by BMW M Motorsport. A stronger performance package is being made right now to allow the racecar to have up to 450 hp, just 6 hp more than the current street-legal version. Deliveries of the BMW M2 CS Racing are expected to start in mid-2020.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW 2002 Hommage Concept was introduced in May 2016 at the Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este and pays tribute to the BMW 2002 turbo. The car's underpinnings are based on a BMW M2.


title: BMW M2

text: The BMW 2002 Hommage Turbomeister Concept was introduced in August 2016 at Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille (sometimes stylised as BΔSTILLE) are an English pop rock band formed in 2010. The group began as a solo project by lead vocalist Dan Smith, but later expanded to include keyboardist Kyle Simmons, bassist and guitarist Will Farquarson and drummer Chris "Woody" Wood.


title: Bastille (band)

text: After an independently released debut single and a self-released EP, the band signed to Virgin Records. Their first studio album, "Bad Blood", was released in March 2013 and entered the UK Albums Chart at number one and included the hit single "Pompeii" which peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart. Bastille was nominated for four Brit Awards at the 2014 ceremony, winning the British Breakthrough Act. As of August 2021, the band have sold over eleven million records worldwide.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille debuted in July 2010 with their limited edition 7" single that featured the two tracks "Flaws" and "Icarus". Released through London-based independent record label Young & Lost Club, only 300 copies were pressed. One of the copies found its way into the hands of Alex Baker, presenter of the unsigned/independent artists radio show on Kerrang! Radio. Baker started to support Bastille on air, and the band began to find an audience. They released the EP "Laura Palmer" themselves later in 2011. After debuting further tracks online through sites such as YouTube and MySpace, the band's audience started to grow. In December 2011 Smith signed a contract with Virgin Records. The group subsequently secured a few support slots and later performed at major UK festivals including Glastonbury, the Isle of Wight, Redfest, Reading and Leeds Festival and Blissfields. The band also recorded and released two parts of their mix-tape titled "Other People's Heartache" for free.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 27 April 2012, their first official single release, "Overjoyed", was released through Virgin Records, as confirmed by EMI on 1 May 2012. Following its video premiere in November 2011, popular music publication, "Q" Magazine introduced the track as its 'Track of the Day' for 7 March 2012. The second single to be released from the upcoming debut studio album, "Bad Blood", was the eponymous track, "Bad Blood". An accompanying video for the single was released on the band's official VEVO channel on 29 June 2012, and digitally through Virgin Records on 20 August 2012. Bastille was also named 'New Band of the Day' by British newspaper "The Guardian" in July 2012. The song charted moderately at number 90 in the United Kingdom and saw the group's first entry into the chart. In August 2012 the band performed at UK festivals like Reading and Leeds, as well as supporting British singer-songwriter Emeli Sandé. They later played a small headlining tour, titled 'Flaws Tour' in October 2012, with Swiss Lips as their support act. in November 2012, the band performed at Hong Kong's Clockenflap Music and Arts Festival, their first outside of Europe. Their third single, a re-release of their first 7" non-album single "Flaws", was a commercial success, earning the group their first position in the UK Top 40, debuting at number-twenty-one.


title: Bastille (band)

text: In February 2013, Bastille confirmed the release of the fourth single to be taken from "Bad Blood", "Pompeii". The song was positively reviewed by critics, reaching number two in the United Kingdom and number five in the US. Their debut album "Bad Blood" was released on 4 March 2013, and placed at number one in the UK Albums Chart. On 11 March, Bastille was announced to be playing at the Reading and Leeds Festival in August 2013. In an interview with Digital Spy in March 2013, "Laura Palmer" was revealed to be the fifth single to be released from the album, by lead vocalist, Dan Smith. It was released on 3 June 2013, and an accompanying video for the track premiered through the band's official VEVO page on 12 April 2013. The group joined English rock band Muse as a supporting act on their The 2nd Law Tour in May 2013 and did so again in June 2013. In May 2013, Bastille released their "Haunt" EP in the US via iTunes. On Saturday 6 July the band headlined their first UK summer music festival at Blissfields. Smith was quoted as saying "We're massively excited about our first ever headline slot at a festival. Particularly because we love Blissfields so much, and because they've been so supportive to us over the last couple of years." The performance coincided with the band appearing on the cover of a national music publication, Notion magazine, for the first time. On 24 August 2013, "Things We Lost in the Fire" was released as the sixth single from the band's debut album. A music video for the song was shot in Vilnius and Kėdainiai, Lithuania. On 3 September 2013, Bastille released their "Bad Blood" album in the US via iTunes.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 9 October 2013 Bastille released a new single, "Of the Night", a mash-up of the songs "The Rhythm of the Night" by Corona and "Rhythm Is a Dancer" by Snap!. The single debuted at number two on UK Singles Chart. The song was promoting "All This Bad Blood", a reissue of the band's debut album, released on 25 November 2013. In January 2014 Will Farquarson said in an interview with "Billboard" magazine that the band had already started to work on its second album in between tour dates. The band performed on "Saturday Night Live" on 25 January 2014. On 4 February 2014 Bastille won the BRIT Award for Best Breakthrough Act and performed a remixed version of "Pompeii" with Rudimental and their song "Waiting All Night" at the ceremony. Two hours after their appearance, sales of "Bad Blood" were up by 132% to give them a second week at number one in the UK album chart and "Pompeii" had climbed 29 places in the singles. On 1 April 2014 the Official Charts Company announced that Bad Blood was the biggest selling digital album of 2013, and Number 11 in the over-all Official Artist Albums Top 40 of 2013. Also in April 2014, the band performed at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival at the Empire Polo Club in Indio, California. On 31 May 2014, the band took part in the Annual KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine, California, performing among other bands including The Neighbourhood and Fall Out Boy. On 13 July 2014, Bastille played at T in the Park. In September 2014 they released the last single from "Bad Blood", "Oblivion". The Bad Blood Tour finished in 2014. They were part of the supergroup Band Aid 30 whose version of "Do They Know It's Christmas?" was released in November and featured other artists such as One Direction and Ed Sheeran. All proceeds of the song went towards helping the 2014 Ebola crisis. It became the band's first UK #1.


title: Bastille (band)

text: In late 2013 Bastille began to play new songs called "Blame" and "Campus". Another song called "Oil On Water" was played during sound-check and leaked online. They began proper work on the album in 2014, and planned to start recording it in September. Farquarson said that they had "16 or 17 tracks" demoed already for the album. He also said “We’re going into the studio in September to record; hopefully by then we’ll have 20 or maybe more. I think it’s always better to have more material and whittle it down. Our producer has gone on tour with us, so we’ve been doing things on our days off and during sound-checks." Dan Smith said the album will include more guitars saying "we didn't have much of that on the first album and it may not end up on it but it would be quite interesting to try it out. We feel quite free. If we want to go quite electronic then we can and if we want to go rockier and indie then we can." On 21 October 2014 Bastille announced their third mixtape, "VS. (Other People's Heartache, Pt.III)" with the release of their song "Torn Apart", featuring the artist's Grades and Lizzo, on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show. They also wrote and recorded the song "The Driver" for the re-score of the film "Drive" which was released a week later and also featured on the mixtape. "VS. (Other People's Heartache, Pt.III)" was released on 8 December 2014 and featured the Gemma Sharples Quartet, Haim, MNEK, Tyde, Rationale, Lizzo, Grades, Angel Haze, F*U*G*Z, Braque, Rag'n'Bone Man, and Skunk Anansie. In November 2014, Bastille was featured on the Band Aid 30 version of "Do They Know It's Christmas?". They were nominated for Best New Artist at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards, but lost out to Sam Smith.


title: Bastille (band)

text: In 2015, Bastille recruited a new touring member, Charlie Barnes. On 22 September 2015, Bastille released an independent single called "Hangin". It was announced via Facebook that their second album would be released in 2016. Also, during that summer, the band debuted two new songs live: "Grip" and "Snakes". In April 2016, the band debuted a new song entitled "The Currents". On 2 June 2016, the band uploaded a trailer including an excerpt from the then-unreleased song "Two Evils" announcing the name of the album to be "Wild World". On 9 June, it was announced that the band's new single, "Good Grief", would be released on 16 June 2016. On 16 June 2016, Annie Mac debuted "Good Grief" on her BBC Radio 1 show as the "hottest record in the world." The track was immediately released to radio, streaming services, and for purchase following the debut. In an interview with Mac following the song's premiere, Dan Smith revealed that their second album would "go through a variety of sounds, but it is very much us [Bastille]." On 24 June 2016, Bastille performed the songs "Good Grief" and "Two Evils" live for the first time at Glastonbury Festival as part of their set on the Other Stage. On 30 June 2016, Bastille announced the release of the second LP "Wild World" and embarked on their Wild Wild World Tour in July. Released on 9 September, the album reached the top of the mid-week sales chart, while the band set up pop-up shops in London, New York and Los Angeles to promote the release. On 16 September, it was confirmed that "Wild World" had reached #1 on both the U.K. and Scottish album charts. The album won "Best Album" at the 2017 NME Awards. On World Record Store Day 2017, the band released an original song titled "Comfort of Strangers."


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band was part of the 'Artists for Grenfell' charity single. Including other artists such as Stormzy and Rita Ora, the cover of the Simon & Garfunkel song "Bridge Over Troubled Water" was released on 21 June 2017 to raise money for the victims of the Grenfell Tower fire. It became the band's second UK #1.


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band announced their third studio album, which was released on 14 June 2019. Speaking to NME, Smith said "We never really stop writing and recording, but I can confirm we spent a lot of this year writing our third album." On 1 September 2017, the band headlined the annual Pilton Party Held at Pilton Worthy Farm, home of Glastonbury Festival. On 23 November 2017, Craig David and Bastille released "I Know You,” the second single from David's album, "The Time Is Now." The single peaked at number 5 in 2018.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 9 May 2018, "Quarter Past Midnight", the first single from the group's third album "Doom Days" was aired on BBC Radio 1.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 17 August 2018, Bastille and Marshmello collaborated on the single "Happier", which reached a high of 2 on the UK Official Charts in October 2018 and the Billboard Hot 100 in February 2019.


title: Bastille (band)

text: In early December 2018, the band announced a release date of 6 December 2018 for their single "Grip" which features EDM duo Seeb. Also released was "Other People's Heartache, Pt IV" on 7 December 2018 which featured the likes of Craig David, Jacob Banks, James Arthur, Kianja, Lily Moore, Moss Kena, Rationale, Swarmz, and S-X. A limited edition Record Store Day 2019 version of the mixtape was released in independent record shops on 13 April 2019.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 25 April 2019, Bastille released the second single and title track from their third album "Doom Days". On 2 May 2019, the third single from the album, "Joy", was premiered on Scott Mills' show on BBC Radio 1. A fourth single, "Those Nights", was released on 4 June 2019 and was premiered on Beats 1 with Zane Lowe.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 17 May 2019, Bastille was featured on American pop duo FRENSHIP's song titled "Won't Let You Go" on their debut album "Vacation".


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 14 June 2019, the band released their third album "Doom Days". It reached the top 5 in both the UK and US. The band made their "Pyramid Stage" debut at Glastonbury on 28 June 2019 as part of their promotion of the album. On 20 September 2019, they released 'Million Pieces' from the "Doom Days" album at the Abbey Road studios with The Chamber Orchestra of London, which was one of the new songs on the extended album "Doom Days (This Got Out Of Hand)." A music video for the band's song "Bad Decisions" was released on 25 September 2019. The fifth single from "Doom Days", "Another Place", was released on 25 October 2019 with Canadian singer Alessia Cara, as a rework of the original song on the album, with the second verse being changed to one written by Cara. On 6 December 2019, an extended version of the album was released with 11 new songs titled "Doom Days (This Got Out Of Hand)".


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band was one of 23 artists to feature on the Live Lounge Allstars cover of the Foo Fighters song "Times Like These" to help raise funds for the COVID-19 pandemic. The song was released on 23 April 2020, and 8 days later, became the band's third UK #1 single. On 30 July 2020, Bastille released a new song with Graham Coxon titled "What You Gonna Do???". "All This Bad Blood" was released as a limited edition 2LP for Record Store Day 2020, for the first time on 29 August 2020. On 22 September 2020, the band released a new song titled "Survivin'" which premiered on Apple Music's Zane Lowe Show. "What You Gonna Do???" and "Survivin'" were accompanied by another single "Goosebumps" on the EP, "Goosebumps EP", released on 4 December 2020. "Goosebumps" was released on the same day and features Kenny Beats.


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band released an ReOrchestrated version of their song "Warmth" from their second album "Wild World" as an Amazon Music exclusive on 15 January 2021. The audio was taken from their ReOrchestrated live show from the Elbphilharmonie in Hamburg from 4 January 2020. An EP entitled "Roots of ReOrchestrated" was released on 19 March 2021. The band headlined Standon Calling festival on 27 July and Latitude Festival on 29 July with their ReOrchestrated show.


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 23 June, they released the first single from their upcoming album, entitled "Distorted Light Beam". The song was co-written and co-produced with OneRepublic lead singer Ryan Tedder. On 15 July 2021, Bastille released the second single and title track from their fourth album "Give Me the Future". On 10 August 2021, Dan Smith confirmed that a fourth album had been finished and already been pressed on CD and vinyl. On 18 August 2021, the third single "Thelma + Louise" was released, with an accompanying music video released on 2 September. On 1 October 2021, Bastille teased the fourth single from "Give Me The Future". On 19 October 2021, they released "No Bad Days" and Dan Smith, speaking with Zane Lowe, said that the album would be released on 4 February 2022. "Shut Off the Lights" was released on 14 January 2022. The album became the band's third UK number one album.


title: Bastille (band)

text: An extended version of the album, "Give Me The Future + Dreams of the Past" was announced on 28 July 2022 for release on 26 August. Singles "Run Into Trouble", with Brazilian DJ Alok, "Remind Me" and "Revolution" were released on 1 April, 9 June and 28 July, respectively, ahead of the album.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille's musical style has been described as indie pop pop rock, synth-pop, electropop, alternative rock, pop, and indie rock.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille's music has been used on the TV soap "Hollyoaks" with one week in the early summer of 2012 focused on Bastille's song "Laura Palmer". Their music also has been on: "Made in Chelsea" and "Waterloo Road". The song "Oblivion" was featured in season 4 episode 9 of "The Vampire Diaries" in December 2012. "Things We Lost in the Fire" was used for the 2014 autumn trailer for English soap opera "EastEnders". They can also be heard on "Teen Wolf" and on the fourth episode of "How to Get Away with Murder" with the Naughty Boy collaboration "No One's Here to Sleep". The song "Haunt" can be heard in the season 1 finale of the TV series "Finding Carter".


title: Bastille (band)

text: In August 2017, the band released a version of the Green Day song "Basket Case" for the Peter Serafinowicz series "The Tick".


title: Bastille (band)

text: Their song "Pompeii" is featured in the 2014 movie "Mr. Peabody & Sherman". The band's song "The Driver" was used in the re-scored soundtrack of the 2011 film "Drive" produced for the BBC by Zane Lowe for its October 2014 TV broadcast. The band also featured on the "Kill Your Friends" (2015) soundtrack with a cover of the Sugababes debut single "Overload". On 9 November 2017, the band released a music video for “World Gone Mad”, a song for the Netflix movie "Bright".


title: Bastille (band)

text: On 10 February 2021, the band released their Amazon original documentary "Bastille - ReOrchestrated".


title: Bastille (band)

text: Their song "Pompeii" is featured in First Touch game, "First Touch Soccer 15", the Konami game "Pro Evolution Soccer 2015" and a remix of the song is featured in "Need for Speed Rivals". The band's music has appeared in the "FIFA video games" three times: "Weight of Living, Pt. II" in "FIFA 13", "Hangin'" in "FIFA 16" and "Send Them Off!" in "FIFA 17."


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille's music has also been featured in the simulation game "The Sims 3" in the Supernatural DLC, specifically the song "Laura Palmer" which is dubbed over in the video game's language of "Simlish".


title: Bastille (band)

text: In 2019, a cover of "Can't Fight This Feeling" was recorded by the band for the John Lewis and Waitrose Christmas advert.


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band performed "Pompeii" at Birmingham New Street railway station for a TV advert for EE in November 2019. The gig was a world first as it was streamed via 5G and captured in augmented reality. The advert was released on 13 January 2020.


title: Bastille (band)

text: In May 2021, the band recorded a cover of The Turtles song "Happy Together" for a Spanish Toyota advert.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille performed "Pompeii" on "The Jonathan Ross Show" (2013). They also went on to play the song on "The Voice van Vlaanderen" (2013), "Conan", making their American TV debut (2013), "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" (2013) and "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" (2013). They performed "Pompeii" along with "Oblivion" on "Saturday Night Live" (2014). They performed "Laura Palmer" on Sunday Brunch (2013). They performed "Of the Night" on "" (2013). They returned to "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" and "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" in 2014 to perform "Flaws". They performed "Bad Blood" on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" (2013), "The Late Show with David Letterman" (2014), "Conan" (2014) and "Late Night with Seth Meyers" (2014). They performed "Good Grief" on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show" (2016), "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" (2016), "Alan Carr's Happy Hour" and "RTL Late Night" (2016). They performed "Send Them Off!" on "Sunday Brunch" (2016). They performed "Blame" on "Late Night with Seth Meyers" (2017) and "The Late Late Show Starring James Corden" (2017). They performed "World Gone Mad" at the final of the 13th season of "The Voice" with contestant Noah Mac (2017). Alongside Craig David, Dan Smith performed "I Know You" alone on "Sounds Like Friday Night" (2017), before the rest of the band joined them to perform the song at the semi-final of the 15th series of "Strictly Come Dancing" (2017). The band made their fourth appearance on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" (2018) when they performed "Quarter Past Midnight". Along with Marshmello, Smith performed their collaboration, "Happier", on "Good Morning America" (2018) and then at the final of the 15th season of "The Voice" with the entire band (2018). They performed "Joy" on "The Voice van Vlaanderen" (2019) and "The Graham Norton Show" (2019). The band performed "Distorted Light Beam" at the Team GB 2020 Summer Olympics homecoming (2021). "Thelma + Louise" was performed live on "" (2021). "No Bad Days" was performed live on "Sunday Brunch" alone by Smith (2021). The band performed twice on "The Late Late Show Starring James Corden" (2022), playing "Shut Off The Lights" and "Give Me The Future".


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band performed at the New Year's Eve Party 2015 at Hollywood, which was broadcast on "Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve", whilst they headlined the 2019 New Year's Eve Party. The band performed as one of the summer concert lineup for "The TODAY Show" (2016). They performed their song "Fake It" on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!" (2016). The band have performed on "Sunday Brunch" to promote their album Doom Days (2019). The band performed on "Good Morning America" as part of the GMA Summer Concert Series in 2019, as well as in 2021. The band performed "Bad Decisions" on "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon". Their mashup of Joy Crookes' song "Anyone But Me" and Easy Life's song "Nightmares", was shown on Channel 4 as part of highlights from "Barclaycard Share The Stage" highlights (2020). The band performed as part of the charity event "Love Not War" for War Child, which was shown on 20 December 2021 on Sky Max. The band's "MTV Unplugged" performance from Porchester Hall was shown on MTV Music on 23 December 2021 and globally throughout late December. The band performed as the headline act at the final of the 2022 season of The Hundred, and it was shown live on BBC Two and Sky Sports.


title: Bastille (band)

text: The band performed "Pompeii" at the Brit Awards (2014) as part of a mashup with Ella Eyre and Rudimental with their song "Waiting All Night". They also performed the song at the iHeartRadio Music Awards (2014). They performed "Happier" at the MTV EMAs (2018) as part of a collaboration with Marshmello and Anne-Marie, who sang their song "Friends".


title: Bastille (band)

text: In 2017, all members of the band, and tour manager Dick Meredith, featured as extras in the final episode of season 7 of "Game of Thrones". Simmons and Meredith made the cut, whereas Smith, Wood, and Farquarson were cut out.


title: Bastille (band)

text: Bastille have won several music awards and landed many nominations, including ones for Brit Awards, Billboard Music Awards, World Music Awards, and Grammy Awards.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: The Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation () or SVR RF () is Russia's external intelligence agency, focusing mainly on civilian affairs. The SVR RF succeeded the First Chief Directorate (PGU) of the KGB in December 1991. The SVR has its headquarters in the Yasenevo District of Moscow.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Unlike the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB), the SVR is tasked with intelligence and espionage activities outside the Russian Federation. It works together with the Russian Main Intelligence Directorate (, GRU), its military-affairs espionage counterpart, which reportedly deployed six times as many spies in foreign countries as the SVR in 1997. The SVR is also authorized to negotiate anti-terrorist cooperation and intelligence-sharing arrangements with foreign intelligence agencies, and provides analysis and dissemination of intelligence to the Russian president.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Any information pertaining to specific identities of staff employees (officers) of the SVR is legally classified as a state secret; since September 2018, the same applies to non-staff personnel, i.e. informers and recruited agents.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: SVR RF is the official foreign-operations successor to many prior Soviet-era foreign intelligence agencies, ranging from the original 'foreign department' of the Cheka under Vladimir Lenin, to the OGPU and NKVD of the Stalinist era, followed by the First Chief Directorate of the KGB.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Officially, the SVR RF dates its own beginnings to the founding of the Special Section of the Cheka on 20 December 1920. The head of the Cheka, Felix Dzerzhinsky, created the Foreign Department ("Inostranny Otdel" – INO) to improve the collection as well as the dissemination of foreign intelligence. On 6 February 1922, the Foreign Department of the Cheka became part of a renamed organization, the "State Political Directorate", or GPU. The Foreign Department was placed in charge of intelligence activities overseas, including collection of important intelligence from foreign countries and the liquidation of defectors, emigres, and other assorted 'enemies of the people'. In 1922, after the creation of the State Political Directorate (GPU) and its merger with the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs of the RSFSR, foreign intelligence was conducted by the GPU Foreign Department, and between December 1923 and July 1934 by the Foreign Department of Joint State Political Administration or OGPU. In July 1934, the OGPU was reincorporated into the NKVD. In 1954, the NKVD in turn became the KGB, which in 1991 became SVR and FSB.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: In 1996, the SVR RF issued a CD-ROM entitled "Russian Foreign Intelligence: VChK–KGB–SVR", which claims to provide "a professional view on the history and development of one of the most powerful secret services in the world" where all services are presented as one evolving organization.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Former Director of the SVR RF Sergei Lebedev stated "there has not been any place on the planet where a KGB officer has not been". During their 80th anniversary celebration, Vladimir Putin went to SVR headquarters to meet with other former KGB/SVR chiefs Vladimir Kryuchkov, Leonid Shebarshin, Yevgeny Primakov and Vyacheslav Trubnikov, as well as other agents, including the British double agent and ex-Soviet spy George Blake.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: The "Law on Foreign Intelligence" was written by the SVR leadership itself and adopted in August 1992. This Law provided conditions for "penetration by checkists of all levels of the government and economy", since it stipulated that "career personnel may occupy positions in ministries, departments, establishments, enterprises and organizations in accordance with the requirements of this law without compromising their association with foreign intelligence agencies."


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: A new "Law on Foreign Intelligence Organs" was passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council in late 1995 and signed into effect by the then-President Boris Yeltsin on 10 January 1996. The law authorizes the SVR to carry out the following:


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: The SVR sends to the Russian president daily digests of intelligence, similar to the President's Daily Brief produced by the United States Intelligence Community in the US. However, unlike in the US, the SVR recommends to the president which policy options are preferable.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Since 2012, the President of the Russian Federation can personally issue any secret orders to the SVR RF without consulting the parliament of national legislature the Federal Assembly which consists of the State Duma and Federation Council.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: According to Article 12 of the 1996 Federal Law "On Foreign Intelligence", "overall direction" of external intelligence activity is executed by the president of Russia, who appoints the Director of the SVR.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: The director provides regular briefings to the president. The director is a permanent member of the Security Council of Russia and the Defense Council.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: According to the SVR RF web site, the organization currently consists of a director, a first deputy director (who oversees the directions for Foreign Counterintelligence and Economic Intelligence) and the following departments:


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Each directorate is headed by a deputy director who reports to the SVR Director. The Red Banner Intelligence Academy has been renamed the Academy of Foreign Intelligence (ABP are its Russian initials) and is housed in the Science Directorate.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: During Boris Yeltsin's presidency, the SVR conflicted with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs for directing Russian foreign policy. SVR director Yevgeni Primakov upstaged the foreign ministry by publishing warnings to the West not to interfere in the unification of Russia with other former Soviet republics and attacking the NATO extension as a threat to Russian security, whereas foreign minister Andrey Kozyrev was requesting different things. The rivalry ended in decisive victory for the SVR, when Primakov replaced Kozyrev in January 1996 and brought with him a number of SVR officers to the foreign ministry of Russia.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: In September 1999, Yeltsin admitted that the SVR played a greater role in Russian foreign policy than the Foreign Ministry. It was reported that the SVR defined the Russian position on the transfer of nuclear technologies to Iran, NATO expansion, and modification of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. the SVR also tried to justify annexation of the Baltic states by the Soviet Union in World War II using selectively declassified documents.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: From the end of the 1980s, KGB and later SVR began to create "a second echelon" of "auxiliary agents in addition to our main weapons, illegals and special agents", according to former SVR officer Kouzminov. These agents are legal immigrants, including scientists and other professionals. Another SVR officer who defected to Britain in 1996 described several "thousand" Russian agents and intelligence officers, some of them "illegals" who live under deep cover abroad.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Between 1994 and 2001, high-profile cases of Americans working as sources ('spies') for Russian agencies included those of Aldrich Hazen Ames, Harold James Nicholson, Earl Edwin Pitts, Robert Philip Hanssen and George Trofimoff. They would be considered double agents because they were working for American intelligence agencies while providing information to Russia. They were not Russian 'illegals' however, because they were American citizens.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: An agreement on intelligence cooperation between Russia and China was signed in 1992. This secret treaty covers cooperation of the GRU GSh VS RF and the SVR RF with the Chinese People's Liberation Army's Military Intelligence Directorate. In 2003 it was reported that SVR RF trained Iraqi spies when Russia collaborated with Saddam Hussein. The SVR also has cooperation agreements with the secret police services of certain former Soviet republics, such as Azerbaijan and Belarus.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: "In the Soviet era, the SVR – then part of the KGB – handled covert political assassinations abroad". These activities reportedly continue. It was reported in September 2003 that an SVR RF agent in London was making preparations to assassinate Boris Berezovsky with a binary weapon, which is why Berezovsky had been speedily granted asylum in Britain. GRU officers who killed Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev in Qatar in 2004 reportedly claimed that supporting SVR agents let them down by not evacuating them in time, so they have been arrested by Qatar authorities.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Former KGB agent Igor the Assassin, who is believed to have been the poisoner of Alexander Litvinenko in 2006, was allegedly an SVR officer. However, SVR denied involvement in the poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko. An SVR spokesperson queried over Litvinenko remarked: "May God give him health."


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: According to senior SVR officer Sergei Tretyakov, he often sent intelligence officers to branches of the New York Public Library where they gained access to the Internet without anyone knowing their identity. They placed propaganda and disinformation on educational websites and sent emails to US broadcasters. The articles or studies were generated by Russian experts who worked for the SVR. The purpose of these active measures was to whitewash Russian foreign policy, create a positive image of Russia, promote anti-American feelings and "to cause dissension and unrest inside the US".


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: "Once the SVR officer targets a Russian émigré for recruitment, they approach them, usually at their place of residence and make an effort to reach an understanding," said former FSB officer Aleksander Litvinenko. "If he or she refuses, the intelligence officer then threatens the would-be recruit with legal prosecution in Russia, and if the person continues to refuse, the charges are fabricated". It was reported that the SVR prey on successful Russian businessmen abroad and a close number of foreigners swearing allegiance upon pain of death.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: These claims have not been confirmed by the official SVR website, which states that only Russian citizens without dual citizenship can become SVR RF agents.


title: Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)

text: Russian intelligence no longer recruits people on the basis of Communist ideals, which was the "first pillar" of KGB recruitment, said analyst Konstantin Preobrazhenskiy. "The second pillar of recruitment is love for Russia. In the West, only Russian immigrants have feelings of filial obedience toward Russia. That’s precisely why [the SVR] works with them so often. A special division was created just for this purpose. It regularly holds Russian immigrant conferences, which Putin is fond of attending."


title: Getty family

text: The Getty family of the United States identify with George Franklin Getty and his son Jean Paul Getty as their patriarchs. In the 20th century they were heavily involved in the petroleum industry. The Getty family is of Scots-Irish ancestry from their patrilineal lineage, their ancestors having immigrated to North America from Cullavmor, County Londonderry, Ireland. Several members of the Getty family have lived in England, including Sir Paul Getty who took British citizenship.


title: Getty family

text: George Getty (1855–1930) was a lawyer who became an independent oilman in 1904. He was married with one son, a daughter having died in infancy in a typhoid epidemic in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He lent his son Jean Paul money to invest in oil wells and in 1916, George and Jean Paul incorporated the Getty Oil Company, later to become Getty Oil.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel LLC (formerly known as Citadel Investment Group, LLC) is an American multinational hedge fund and financial services company. Founded in 1990 by Kenneth C. Griffin, it has more than $50 billion in assets under management . The company has over 2,600 employees, with corporate headquarters in Miami, Florida, and offices throughout North America, Asia, and Europe. Founder, CEO and Co-CIO Kenneth C. Griffin owns approximately 85% of the firm.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel LLC is a separate entity from the market maker Citadel Securities, although both were founded and are owned by American financier Kenneth C. Griffin.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Kenneth Griffin started his trading career out of his dorm room at Harvard University in 1987 trading convertible bonds. As a sophomore, he traded convertible bonds and hooked a satellite dish to the roof of his dormitory. After graduating with a degree in economics, Griffin joined Chicago-based hedge fund Glenwood Partners. Citadel was started with $4.6 million in capital. Citadel was originally named Wellington Financial Group after its flagship fund. The company name was changed to Citadel in 1994. Within eight years, the firm had more than $2 billion in assets.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 1998, Citadel started requiring investors to accept terms that "significantly restrict[ed] their ability to withdraw their capital", according to "Institutional Investor". When fund Long-Term Capital Management collapsed later that year, Citadel's capital lockdown made it "a rare buyer, as desperate hedge funds unloaded bond inventory". In 2006, Citadel and JP Morgan Chase took over the energy portfolio and division of failed hedge fund Amaranth Advisors, which had suffered a 65% ($6 billion) loss in assets. In November 2006 Citadel issued $2 billion of investment grade bonds to enable access to borrow money at a lower rate than it would otherwise be able to.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2007, Citadel invested $2.5 billion in E-Trade. This transaction included acquiring E-Trade's securitized subprime mortgages, collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) and second lien loans, as well as 12.5% senior unsecured notes, and 84,687,686 shares of common stock (equal to 19.99% of the then currently outstanding shares). Citadel received a seat on the board of directors. Citadel sold its remaining stake in E*Trade in 2013.


title: Citadel LLC

text: During the financial crisis of 2007–2008, for 10 months, Griffin barred his investors from withdrawing money, attracting criticism. At the peak of the crisis, the firm was losing "hundreds of millions of dollars each week". It was leveraged 7:1 and the biggest funds at Citadel finished 2008 down 55%. However, they rebounded with a 62% return in 2009.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2011, Griffin began recruiting the energy traders from Enron the day after it collapsed for a new business including "a team of traders, meteorologists and researchers" building amongst the industries biggest energy trading groups at the time.


title: Citadel LLC

text: On January 17, 2012, Citadel's flagship funds, Citadel Kensington Global Strategies Fund Ltd and Citadel Wellington LLC, crossed their respective high watermarks, earning back the 50% of assets lost during the 2008 financial crisis. Having made up the losses, Citadel could once again charge client fees for managing their money and take a percentage of profits. Citadel under Griffin's leadership was reported as differentiating from hedge funds rivals post 2008 financial crisis with an "aggressive expansion." Starting at the beginning of 2014, over an 18 months period the hedge fund's assets under management increased $10 billion; from $16 billion to $26 billion as a result of "a 29% rise for its main hedge funds and a flow of new cash." In January 2020, Citadel Securities paid $97m in China trading settlement, after Chinese regulators ended a long-standing investigation into Citadel and other local groups.


title: Citadel LLC

text: During the coronavirus pandemic Citadel Securities created a "bubble" for a class of 100 interns by renting out a luxury resort in Wisconsin.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In January 2021, Citadel and Point72 Asset Management invested $2.75 billion in Melvin Capital, after Melvin Capital lost 53% of its value owing to the GameStop short squeeze.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In a letter to employees on June 23, 2022, CEO Ken Griffin announced they would be moving their headquarters to Miami, Florida, due to a more favorable business climate and increased crime complaints in Chicago.


title: Citadel LLC

text: As of January 2016, Citadel manages more than $29 billion in capital and is one of the world's largest asset managers. Citadel ranks as the eleventh largest hedge fund manager in the world, and in 2006 the second largest multi-strategy hedge fund globally. Citadel's group of hedge funds rank among the largest and most successful hedge funds in the world.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2014, Citadel became the first foreign hedge fund to complete a yuan fundraising as part of a program to allow Chinese investors to invest in overseas hedge funds.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel manages funds across five different investment strategies including equities, commodities, fixed income, quantitative strategies, and credit.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel wanted to allocate the investment capital with its two funds, Kensington Global Strategies Fund Ltd and Citadel Wellington LLC, to investments that the company thought to be uncorrelated to their other investment strategies. To achieve this move, Citadel, through capitalization via their funds, entered the reinsurer industry, which provides insurance companies with their own policies to spread the risk of losses that they have given to their customers, in 2004 by founding CIG Reinsurance Ltd (CIG Re), a Bermuda-based catastrophe reinsurer providing $450 million in capital. Citadel additionally founded $500 million reinsurer New Castle Re in 2005, seeking to capitalize on rising prices for reinsurance in the wake of Hurricane Katrina's damage to property coverage costs. In 2006, Citadel's two funds had approximately 10 percent of its assets invested in reinsurance.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel wound down CIG Re in November 2008 because the company could not achieve a financial strength rating, and as a result could not compete in comparison to other companies in the industry. Meanwhile, New Castle Re remained open and received an 'A−' rating from AM Best in November 2008. However, a month later on December 17, 2008, AM Best announced that New Castle Re's rating was under review when Citadel's funds experienced increased redemption requests as a result of the financial crisis. Two days later on December 19, it was reported that Citadel would not be renewing the rights in New Castle Re contracts, but that Torus Insurance Holdings in Bermuda would do so. In January 2009, Citadel placed New Castle Re into run-off.


title: Citadel LLC

text: The firm's risk management philosophy is focused on three main areas: risk capital allocation, stress exposure and liquidity management. Citadel's risk management center has 36 monitors displaying more than 50,000 instruments being traded within the firm's portfolios. The firm runs 500 stress tests each day to simulate the impact of potential economic and geopolitical crises or other market dislocation. Citadel aggregates investment positions on trading screens to calculate "more than 500 doomsday scenarios" to assess the potential of risk for the firm.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2014, Citadel rated an A grade for risk management in the annual Institutional Investor Hedge Fund Report Card.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In April 2015, Ben S. Bernanke, who was the United States Federal Reserve chairman for eight years, joined Citadel as a senior adviser on global economic and financial issues. In January 2017, Joanna Welsh became the Chief Risk Officer.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel Technology, established in 2009, was a wholly owned and independently operated affiliate of Citadel. It offers investment management technology, developed internally at Citadel, to a wide range of firms and funds. In 2013, Citadel Technology announced a partnership with REDI. The partnership combines Citadel's order management system (OMS) with REDI's execution management capabilities (EMS).


title: Citadel LLC

text: In November 2006, Citadel became the second hedge fund to publicly issue debt bonds to investors in the form of senior unsecured debt totaling $2 billion, in an arrangement managed by Lehman Brothers and Goldman Sachs.


title: Citadel LLC

text: The fund has become known for having one of the largest personnel turnovers in Chicago gaining the nickname of "Chicago's revolving door" and the "New York Times" reported "the firm is unique in its reputation for being a revolving door." It is also reported that turnover is aligned with the hedge fund industry.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In March 2015, Citadel received a Top 10 Great Workplaces in Financial Services ranking by the Great Places to Work Institute, based on a survey by Citadel employees.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel has played an active role in regulatory affairs and has advocated for financial legislation on market structure. In 1999, Congress repealed a provision in the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933 that strictly separated banking and trading activities by financial firms. Griffin called dismantling that law "one of the biggest fiascos of all time". In the aftermath of the 2008 financial crisis, Griffin and Citadel called for greater transparency in derivatives trading, a stance at odds with many other hedge funds and major financial firms. The company spoke out against Wall Street for lobbying to delay the implementation of the Dodd–Frank Act. Griffin has also called for breaking up "too big to fail" banks and separating their banking and trading activities.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Following the 2014 publication of "Flash Boys" by Michael Lewis, who claimed financial markets are "rigged" "by large, high-speed traders" (also known as "high-frequency traders") Griffin, who was not interviewed by Lewis, shared his views on the book and its allegations during his second congressional hearing. Griffin said in front of the Senate Banking Committee that from his perspective "the U.S. equity markets are the fairest, most transparent, resilient and competitive markets in the world." Griffin expanded by saying that high-frequency trading functions to reconcile discrepancies between options tied to groups of stocks and the stocks themselves, saying, "Somebody has to keep the New York markets in line with the markets in Chicago. It all happens at an extremely low cost in the context of our capital markets". During an event at Georgetown University Griffin called the book "fiction".


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2014, former president Bill Clinton was paid $250,000 by Citadel to speak at New York restaurant Daniel to investors and employees in celebration of the Citadel's founders' 46th birthday.


title: Citadel LLC

text: In 2015, Citadel paid pop-star Katy Perry $500,000 to perform at an event celebrating the 25th anniversary of the firm.


title: Citadel LLC

text: Citadel has paid over $800,000 in speaking fees to current secretary of the treasury Janet Yellen during 2018–2020 while she was not in office.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Arthur Leclerc (born 14 October 2000) is a Monégasque racing driver, currently set to race for DAMS in the 2023 Formula 2 Championship. He is the younger brother of Scuderia Ferrari Formula One driver Charles Leclerc, and a member of Ferrari Driver Academy. He most recently competed in the FIA Formula 3 Championship with Prema Racing. He is runner-up during the 2020 Formula Regional European Championship and the 2022 Formula Regional Asian champion.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: In 2018, Leclerc raced in the French F4 Championship. He finished fifth in the championship with two race wins.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Leclerc was a development driver in FIA Formula E championship during the 2017–18 Formula E season for Venturi Racing. By doing so, he was given access to Venturi's simulators and personal development systems. Leclerc was retained for the 2018–19 Formula E season. Leclerc did his first public test for Venturi at the 2019 Formula E Rookie Test at the Marrakech Street Circuit. For the 2019–20 Formula E season Venturi announced Leclerc as their test driver for the season.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Leclerc competed in the ADAC Formula 4 Championship in 2019 for US Racing-CHRS outfit. Leclerc finished third overall with one race win and eight podiums.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Leclerc joined the Formula Regional European Championship for Prema Powerteam alongside Oliver Rasmussen, Gianluca Petecof and W Series champion Jamie Chadwick, in his first year as a Ferrari junior. He started the season with a pole position hat-trick at the Misano round, taking victory in the second race. Leclerc won again in the first and third races at Paul Ricard, and he took the lead of the championship in Mugello by winning all three races of the round. However, he would lose the lead to teammate Petecof by finishing third, ninth and sixth at the Monza Circuit. Subsequently, both Leclerc and Petecof failed to win any races throughout the remainder of the season. In the final round at Vallelunga the Monegasque driver scored eight points in the first race with a sixth place, but he lost the championship to Petecof after he spun in the final race under wet conditions. On his mental mistake that costed him the title, Leclerc felt "disappointed" and had "no words". Leclerc ended the season in second with 343 points and six victories.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: In 2021 Leclerc was partnered with Olli Caldwell and Red Bull academy member Dennis Hauger at Prema Racing in the FIA Formula 3 Championship. He also competed in the 2021 Virtual Grand Prix Championship for Ferrari, his brother's real-world team. Following an extremely difficult round in Barcelona, Leclerc sprinted to his maiden F3 victory during the second sprint race in Paul Ricard.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Leclerc was retained by Prema for the 2022 season, partnering fellow Ferrari Driver Academy member Oliver Bearman and Red Bull academy's Jak Crawford. During pre-season, prior to his main campaign, he took part in the Formula Regional Asian Championship with Mumbai Falcons, winning the championship. Leclerc started his F3 season out strongly, finishing second in the sprint race in Bahrain. Points finishes followed in Imola and Barcelona, before Leclerc took victory in the main race at Silverstone, having overtaken Zak O'Sullivan in the early stages of the race. Two fourth-placed finishes at the Red Bull Ring continued Leclerc's championship push, however a disappointing round in Hungary, where Leclerc crashed into teammate Crawford on the final lap of the sprint race, proved costly, with the Monégasque driver losing vital points to his title rivals. Following the summer break, three successive non-points results left Leclerc going into the season finale as a title outsider, and despite scoring points in both races at Monza, Leclerc was unable to bridge the gap, ending up sixth in the drivers' standings.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Following the F2 Yas Marina season finale, Leclerc was announced to be stepping up to Formula 2 with DAMS for the 2023 season.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: In 2019, Leclerc was signed to the Sauber Junior Team as part of his move to the ADAC Formula 4 Championship. The following year, he was made a member of the Ferrari Driver Academy.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Leclerc has two older brothers, Lorenzo and Charles, the latter of which currently races in Formula One for Ferrari.


title: Arthur Leclerc

text: Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as they completed more than 90% of the race distance.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Cleavage is the narrow depression or hollow between the breasts of a woman. The superior portion of cleavage may be accentuated by clothing such as a low-cut neckline that exposes the division, and often the term is used to describe the low neckline itself, instead of the term décolletage. Joseph Breen, head of the U.S. film industry's Production Code Administration, coined the term in its current meaning when evaluating the 1943 film "The Outlaw", starring Jane Russell. The term was explained in "Time" magazine on August 5, 1946. It is most commonly used in the parlance of Western female fashion to refer to necklines that reveal or emphasize "décolletage" (display of the upper breast area).


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: In many cultures, though not all, men typically derive erotic pleasure from the visible display of cleavage. This tendency has been attributed to many reasons, including evolutionary psychology, a patriarchal revolution, and dissociation from breastfeeding. Since at least the 15th century, women in the Western world have used their cleavage to flirt, attract, make gender statements, and assert power. In several parts of the world, the advent of Christianity and Islam saw a sharp decline in the amount of cleavage which was considered socially acceptable. In many cultures today, cleavage exposure is considered unwelcome or is banned legally. In some areas like European beaches and among many indigenous populations across the world, cleavage exposure is acceptable; conversely, even in the Western world it is often discouraged in daywear or in public spaces. In some cases, exposed cleavage can be a target for unwanted voyeuristic photography or sexual harassment.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Cleavage-revealing clothes started becoming popular in the Christian West as it came out of the Early Middle Ages and enjoyed significant prevalence during Mid-Tang-era China, Elizabethan era England, and France over many centuries, particularly after the French Revolution. But in Victorian era England and during the flapper period of Western fashion, it was suppressed. Cleavage came vigorously back to Western fashion in the 1950s, particularly through Hollywood celebrities and lingerie brands. The consequent fascination with the cleavage was most prominent in the U.S., and countries heavily influenced by the U.S. With the advent of push-up and underwired bras that replaced corsets of the past, the cleavage fascination was propelled by these lingerie manufacturers. By the early 2020s, dramatization of the cleavage started to lose popularity along with the big lingerie brands. At the same time cleavage was sometimes replaced with other types of presentation of clothed breasts, like sideboobs and underboobs.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Many women enhance their cleavage through the use of things like brassières, falsies and corsetry, as well as surgical breast augmentation using saline or silicone implants and hormone therapy. Workouts, yoga, skin care, makeup, jewelry, tattoos and piercings are also used to embellish the cleavage. Male cleavage (also called heavage), accentuated by low necklines or unbuttoned shirts, is a film trend in Hollywood and Bollywood. Some men also groom their chests.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: The word "cleavage" was first used in the early 19th century in geology and mineralogy to mean the tendency of crystals, minerals, and rocks to split along definite planes. By the mid-19th century, it was generally used to mean splitting along a line of division into two or more parts. In the 1940s, Joseph Breen, head of the U.S. Production Code Administration, applied the term to breasts in reference to actor Jane Russell's costumes and poses in the 1943 movie "The Outlaw". The term was also applied in the evaluation of the British films "The Wicked Lady" (1945), starring Margaret Lockwood and Patricia Roc; "Bedelia" (1946), also starring Lockwood; and "Pink String and Sealing Wax" (1945), starring Googie Withers. This use of the term was first covered in a "Time" article titled "Cleavage & the Code" on August 5, 1946, as a "Johnston Office (the popular name for Motion Picture Association of America office at the time) trade term for the shadowed depression dividing an actress' bosom into two distinct sections." The word "cleavage" is made of the root verb "cleave" 'to split' (from Old English and Middle English ; "cleft" in the past tense) and the suffix "-age" 'the state of, the act of'.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: While the division of the breasts is a cleavage, the opening of a person's garments to make the division visible is called a "décolletage", a French word that is derived from 'to reveal the neck'. The term was first used in English literature before 1831 and was the preferred term among educated people in the English-speaking world before cleavage became the popular term. Décolletage (or "décolleté" in adjectival form) refers to the upper part of the female torso, consisting of the neck, shoulders, back and chest, which is exposed by the neckline, the edge of a dress or shirt that goes around the neck, especially at the front of a woman's garment. The neckline and collar are often the most attention-grabbing parts of a garment, effected by bright or contrasting colors, or by décolletage. The term is most commonly applied to a neckline that reveals or emphasizes cleavage and is measured as extending about two hand-breadths from the base of the neck down; both in the front and the back. In anatomical terms, the cleft in the human body between the breasts is known as the intermammary cleft or "intermammary sulcus".


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: While there has been much work done to classify breasts based on their shapes, contours and sizes there has not been much work done to classify the cleavage, despite its prominence in aesthetic determination.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: In most cultures, men typically find female breasts attractive. Women sometimes use décolletage that exposes the cleavage to enhance their physical and sexual attractiveness, and to improve their sense of femininity. Display of cleavage with a low neckline is often regarded as a form of flirting or seduction, as much as for its aesthetic or erotic effect. According to "Kinsey Reports", most men derive erotic pleasure from seeing a woman's cleavage. When designing costumes, creating shapes that draw attention to the face or the chest helps distract the gaze from body parts that are considered less desirable. Male cross-dressers and trans women often want female-like cleavage to make their bodies look more feminine. Convincing cleavage may distract attention from less-feminine aspects of the appearance and improve the ability to pass.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: The amount of cleavage exposure that is acceptable in public differs significantly between cultures and societies. In contemporary Western society, the extent to which a woman may expose her breasts depends on the social and cultural context. Displaying any part of the female breast may be considered inappropriate and may be prohibited in some settings, such as workplaces, churches, and schools, while in other spaces, such as parties, beaches and pools, it may be permissible to show as much cleavage as possible. Art historian James Laver noted the changing standards of cleavage are mostly applicable to evening wear rather than to day wear. The exposure of nipples and areolae is almost always considered immodest and in some instances is viewed as indecent behavior.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: The fascination with female breasts and cleavage is widespread but not universal. It is more prevalent in Western and Westernized cultures, particularly in the U.S. and countries that are heavily influenced by the U.S. Many people in Western culture, both male and female, consider breasts to be an important female secondary sex characteristic and an aspect of femininity. The flaunting of cleavage became an aggressive statement of gender. Films like "Erin Brockovich", in which Julia Roberts was required to wear a silicone gel-filled bra to increase her cleavage, demonstrated cleavage as a woman's right and an application of feminine attributes as "a source of power".


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Across history and cultures, other parts of women's bodies have sometimes been viewed as more enticing than breasts, including buttocks, legs, necks, ankles, hair, and feet. American anthropologist Clellan S. Ford and ethologist Frank A. Beach said in their 1951 book "Patterns of Sexual Behavior" that only 13 of 130 cultures in a cross-cultural survey perceived female breasts as sexually attractive. In some cultures, for example in African communities, it is not unusual to see uncovered breasts, which are not considered titillating.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Documentarian Carolyn Latteier said in Dr. Jennifer and Dr. Laura Berman's TV program "All About Breasts", "I interviewed a young anthropologist working with women in Mali, a country in Africa where women go around with bare breasts. They're always feeding their babies. And when she told them that in our culture men are fascinated with breasts there was an instant of shock. According to Rosie Sayers, "Breasts have retained their primary biological function [in Mali] and hold no sexual connotations or stimulus."


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Evolutionary psychologist David M. Buss observed that "Americans are probably the most extreme in viewing the breast as a sexual signal." American cultural anthropologist Katherine Ann Dettwyler, editor of "Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives" (Aldine de Gruyter, 1995), found parallels between the modern American practice of breast enlargement and the past Chinese practice of foot binding. She suggests that both are "culturally sanctioned mutilations of the female body" for the purpose of "male sexual pleasure", and both "compromise a woman's health" and make her body "nonfunctional".


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: During adolescence, some girls become obsessed with breast shape and cleavage, while others try to resist the growth of their breasts during puberty by binding down their breasts, wearing loose clothes that disguise them or adopting a hunched or stooped posture. A study found that girls whose breasts develop early may be ashamed and embarrassed because of unwanted staring. There is historical evidence that some cultures, including classical antiquity, strongly discouraged cleavage or any hint of a bosom. During the Middle Ages and up to the Renaissance, a woman's stomach was often the central symbol of her sexuality, rather than the breasts. Early English Puritans used a tight bodice to completely flatten breasts, while 17th-century Spaniards put lead plates across the chests of pubescent girls to prevent their bosoms from developing.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: In India, women's traditional clothing (saris and cholis) generally exposes more midriff than cleavage. "Gagra choli", a dress taken as very chaste in India, also exposes significant amount of midriff and cleavage. "Cholis" customized for Bollywood movies have particularly deep décolletage. Women of the Bishnoi people wear kanchli blouses with very deep necklines that are embellished with frills and bells to draw attention to their cleavage. Women of Ahir, Gadariya, Jats, Kamboj, Maratha and Rajput communities wear angia, a small, bikini-like top that is tied at the back with a string, often with the front open enough to show deep cleavage. In the late-20th-century India, cleavage became a staple point of attraction in Bollywood movies.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: In a 2006 study conducted among young people in Mumbai, both male and female respondents believed that women wearing cleavage-revealing "filmi" (movie-like) clothes may be more prone to become victims of sexual violence. By the 2010s, Indian men and women wearing décolleté clothes was seen as a fashion statement and not, as in the past, a sign of desperation. At the same time, the allure of on-screen cleavage waned as cleavage-revealing clothes became more commonplace.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: The Muslim religious dress code for a woman's cleavage is derived from two Quranic verses () – verse 31, Sura 24 (An-Nūr; ; "The Light") and verse 59, Surah 33 (Al-Aḥzāb; ; "The Clans"). Verse 31 of Sura 24 says, "Say to the believing women [...] that they should draw their veils ("khumur", "khimar") over their bosoms ("juyub", "jayb") and not display their beauty". Only the "mahram" (unmarriageable) relatives are exempt from this strict code. Verse 59 of Sura 33 says, "Tell [...] the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments ("jalabib", s. "jilbāb") over their persons". "Jilbab" and "khimar" are the only two women's clothing items mentioned in the Quran. Women used to wear clothes that were parted at the front to expose the breasts when the verses were revealed.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: These verses were later interpreted as requiring the complete covering of women's bodies. Some Islamic clerics and scholars, including Ibn Taymiyyah, argued that the entire female body is "a shameful part" ("awrah") and therefore is to be covered entirely, with a niqab or burqa, centuries after the time of Muhammad. According to Egyptian historian Sayyid-Marsot, male Islamic scholars ("ulama", s. "alim") since the 18th century started interpreting that a woman's whole body needs to be entirely covered. But as late as in the 1980s, women of the "Al-Akhdam" (servant) class in Yemen and "baladi" (folk) women of Egypt still wore cleavage revealing clothes as the Islamic dress codes were not universally applied. In the early 21st century Muslim world, there is a popular consensus that modesty requires coverage of any cleavage.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Breastfeeding advocate Maria Miller argued that the American obsession with breasts is caused by American men's and women's unfamiliarity with the extraordinary variety of normal breasts and their ignorance of "what the breast is really for". In Alexandre Guillaume Mouslier de Moissy's 1771 play "La Vraie Mère" ("The True Mother"), the title character rebukes her husband for treating her as an object for his sexual gratification; "Are your senses so gross as to look on these breasts—the respectable treasures of nature—as merely an embellishment, destined to ornament the chest of women?". In the 18th century, biologists and philosophers like Carl Linnaeus and Jean-Jacques Rousseau attempted to popularize the idea of breastfeeding of one's own children as natural and fashionable.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: According to Valerie Steele, director of Fashion Institute of Technology, "For centuries (even in the Judeo-Christian and Islamic worlds), the sight of a woman nursing was accepted as normal. This factor contributed to the fairly rapid acceptance of dresses with low necklines, which were introduced in the fifteenth century." Since emerging in the Christian West, the early décolleté dresses—which were termed by French court historian Jean Froissart as "the smile of the bustline"—had increasingly plunging necklines because the Renaissance celebrated the beauty of the unclothed human body. Moralists, who blamed any number of chest illness on bare cleavage, were shocked by the development.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: "Downblouse" is the act of looking down a woman's dress or top to observe or photograph her cleavage or breasts. It may occur as a form of voyeurism or sexual fetishism. In some jurisdictions it is a sexual offense. The issue has been publicly discussed during the 21st century, although the term "downblouse" has been used in English since 1994. The popularity of covert downblouse and upskirt photography has increased with the proliferation of camera phones since 2000. NASUWT, a UK teachers' union, reported an upward trend in such pictures at schools in 2018.


title: Cleavage (breasts)

text: Many of these covertly taken pictures are uploaded to websites, including pornographic websites like Pornhub, XVideos and xHamster, as well as subreddits like r/CreepShots. Some websites host tutorials on taking downblouse and upskirt pictures. As early as 2004, Google listed about four million websites that were tagged with "upskirt" and "downblouse". Some jurisdictions, including the UK, Germany, and a number of American and Australian states, have statutes that prohibit such covert photography. In the UK, people who take such pictures and post them online can be listed on the sex offender registry, and in Japan the government has pressured mobile phone manufacturers to make their phones produce a warning sound whenever such pictures are taken. These types of offenses "largely [go] unreported" and, according to Maria Miller, chair of the Women and Equalities Committee, the legal provisions are inadequate.