title: Cambrian explosion

text: A range of theories are based on the concept that minor modifications to animals' development as they grow from embryo to adult may have been able to cause very large changes in the final adult form. The Hox genes, for example, control which organs individual regions of an embryo will develop into. For instance, if a certain "Hox" gene is expressed, a region will develop into a limb; if a different Hox gene is expressed in that region (a minor change), it could develop into an eye instead (a phenotypically major change).


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Such a system allows a large range of disparity to appear from a limited set of genes, but such theories linking this with the explosion struggle to explain why the origin of such a development system should by itself lead to increased diversity or disparity. Evidence of Precambrian metazoans combines with molecular data to show that much of the genetic architecture that could feasibly have played a role in the explosion was already well established by the Cambrian.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: This apparent paradox is addressed in a theory that focuses on the physics of development. It is proposed that the emergence of simple multicellular forms provided a changed context and spatial scale in which novel physical processes and effects were mobilized by the products of genes that had previously evolved to serve unicellular functions. Morphological complexity (layers, segments, lumens, appendages) arose, in this view, by self-organization.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Horizontal gene transfer has also been identified as a possible factor in the rapid acquisition of the biochemical capability of biomineralization among organisms during this period, based on evidence that the gene for a critical protein in the process was originally transferred from a bacterium into sponges.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: These focus on the interactions between different types of organism. Some of these hypotheses deal with changes in the food chain; some suggest arms races between predators and prey, and others focus on the more general mechanisms of coevolution. Such theories are well suited to explaining why there was a rapid increase in both disparity and diversity, but they do not explain why the "explosion" happened when it did.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Evidence for such an extinction includes the disappearance from the fossil record of the Ediacara biota and shelly fossils such as "Cloudina", and the accompanying perturbation in the record. It is suspected that several global anoxic events were responsible for the extinction.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Mass extinctions are often followed by adaptive radiations as existing clades expand to occupy the ecospace emptied by the extinction. However, once the dust had settled, overall disparity and diversity returned to the pre-extinction level in each of the Phanerozoic extinctions.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: The late Ediacaran oceans appears to have suffered from an anoxia that covered much of the seafloor, which would have given mobile animals with the ability to seek out more oxygen-rich environments an advantage over sessile forms of life.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Andrew Parker has proposed that predator-prey relationships changed dramatically after eyesight evolved. Prior to that time, hunting and evading were both close-range affairs – smell, vibration, and touch were the only senses used. When predators could see their prey from a distance, new defensive strategies were needed. Armor, spines, and similar defenses may also have evolved in response to vision. He further observed that, where animals lose vision in unlighted environments such as caves, diversity of animal forms tends to decrease. Nevertheless, many scientists doubt that vision could have caused the explosion. Eyes may well have evolved long before the start of the Cambrian. It is also difficult to understand why the evolution of eyesight would have caused an explosion, since other senses, such as smell and pressure detection, can detect things at a greater distance in the sea than sight can; but the appearance of these other senses apparently did not cause an evolutionary explosion.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: The ability to avoid or recover from predation often makes the difference between life and death, and is therefore one of the strongest components of natural selection. The pressure to adapt is stronger on the prey than on the predator: if the predator fails to win a contest, it loses a meal; if the prey is the loser, it loses its life.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: But, there is evidence that predation was rife long before the start of the Cambrian, for example in the increasingly spiny forms of acritarchs, the holes drilled in "Cloudina" shells, and traces of burrowing to avoid predators. Hence, it is unlikely that the "appearance" of predation was the trigger for the Cambrian "explosion", although it may well have exhibited a strong influence on the body forms that the "explosion" produced. However, the intensity of predation does appear to have increased dramatically during the Cambrian as new predatory "tactics" (such as shell-crushing) emerged. This rise of predation during the Cambrian was confirmed by the temporal pattern of the median predator ratio at the scale of genus, in fossil communities covering the Cambrian and Ordovician periods, but this pattern is not correlated to diversification rate. This lack of correlation between predator ratio and diversification over the Cambrian and Ordovician suggests that predators did not trigger the large evolutionary radiation of animals during this interval. Thus the role of predators as triggerers of diversification may have been limited to the very beginning of the "Cambrian explosion".


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Geochemical evidence strongly indicates that the total mass of plankton has been similar to modern levels since early in the Proterozoic. Before the start of the Cambrian, their corpses and droppings were too small to fall quickly towards the seabed, since their drag was about the same as their weight. This meant they were destroyed by scavengers or by chemical processes before they reached the sea floor.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Mesozooplankton are plankton of a larger size. Early Cambrian specimens filtered microscopic plankton from the seawater. These larger organisms would have produced droppings and ultimately corpses large enough to fall fairly quickly. This provided a new supply of energy and nutrients to the mid-levels and bottoms of the seas, which opened up a new range of possible ways of life. If any of these remains sank uneaten to the sea floor they could be buried; this would have taken some carbon out of circulation, resulting in an increase in the concentration of breathable oxygen in the seas (carbon readily combines with oxygen).


title: Cambrian explosion

text: The initial herbivorous mesozooplankton were probably larvae of benthic (seafloor) animals. A larval stage was probably an evolutionary innovation driven by the increasing level of predation at the seafloor during the Ediacaran period.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Metazoans have an amazing ability to increase diversity through coevolution. This means that an organism's traits can lead to traits evolving in other organisms; a number of responses are possible, and a different species can potentially emerge from each one. As a simple example, the evolution of predation may have caused one organism to develop a defence, while another developed motion to flee. This would cause the predator lineage to diverge into two species: one that was good at chasing prey, and another that was good at breaking through defences. Actual coevolution is somewhat more subtle, but, in this fashion, great diversity can arise: three quarters of living species are animals, and most of the rest have formed by coevolution with animals.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Evolving organisms inevitably change the environment they evolve in. The Devonian colonization of land had planet-wide consequences for sediment cycling and ocean nutrients, and was likely linked to the Devonian mass extinction. A similar process may have occurred on smaller scales in the oceans, with, for example, the sponges filtering particles from the water and depositing them in the mud in a more digestible form; or burrowing organisms making previously unavailable resources available for other organisms.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: The explosion may not have been a significant evolutionary event. It may represent a threshold being crossed: for example a threshold in genetic complexity that allowed a vast range of morphological forms to be employed. This genetic threshold may have a correlation to the amount of oxygen available to organisms. Using oxygen for metabolism produces much more energy than anaerobic processes. Organisms that use more oxygen have the opportunity to produce more complex proteins, providing a template for further evolution. These proteins translate into larger, more complex structures that allow organisms better to adapt to their environments. With the help of oxygen, genes that code for these proteins could contribute to the expression of complex traits more efficiently. Access to a wider range of structures and functions would allow organisms to evolve in different directions, increasing the number of niches that could be inhabited. Furthermore, organisms had the opportunity to become more specialized in their own niches.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: The "Cambrian explosion" can be viewed as two waves of metazoan expansion into empty niches: first, a coevolutionary rise in diversity as animals explored niches on the Ediacaran sea floor, followed by a second expansion in the early Cambrian as they became established in the water column. The rate of diversification seen in the Cambrian phase of the explosion is unparalleled among marine animals: it affected all metazoan clades of which Cambrian fossils have been found. Later radiations, such as those of fish in the Silurian and Devonian periods, involved fewer taxa, mainly with very similar body plans. Although the recovery from the Permian-Triassic extinction started with about as few animal species as the Cambrian explosion, the recovery produced far fewer significantly new types of animals.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: Whatever triggered the early Cambrian diversification opened up an exceptionally wide range of previously unavailable ecological niches. When these were all occupied, limited space existed for such wide-ranging diversifications to occur again, because strong competition existed in all niches and incumbents usually had the advantage. If a wide range of empty niches had continued, clades would be able to continue diversifying and become disparate enough for us to recognise them as different phyla; when niches are filled, lineages will continue to resemble one another long after they diverge, as limited opportunity exists for them to change their life-styles and forms.


title: Cambrian explosion

text: There were two similar explosions in the evolution of land plants: after a cryptic history beginning about , land plants underwent a uniquely rapid adaptive radiation during the Devonian period, about . Furthermore, angiosperms (flowering plants) originated and rapidly diversified during the Cretaceous period.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans (genus Pelecanus) are a genus of large water birds that make up the family Pelecanidae. They are characterized by a long beak and a large throat pouch used for catching prey and draining water from the scooped-up contents before swallowing. They have predominantly pale plumage, except for the brown and Peruvian pelicans. The bills, pouches, and bare facial skin of all pelicans become brightly coloured before the breeding season. The eight living pelican species have a patchy global distribution, ranging latitudinally from the tropics to the temperate zone, though they are absent from interior South America and from polar regions and the open ocean.


title: Pelican

text: Long thought to be related to frigatebirds, cormorants, tropicbirds, and gannets and boobies, pelicans instead are now known to be most closely related to the shoebill and hamerkop, and are placed in the order Pelecaniformes. Ibises, spoonbills, herons, and bitterns have been classified in the same order. Fossil evidence of pelicans dates back at least 36 million years to the remains of a tibiotarsus recovered from late Eocene strata of Egypt that bears striking similarity to modern species of pelican. They are thought to have evolved in the Old World and spread into the Americas; this is reflected in the relationships within the genus as the eight species divide into Old World and New World lineages. This hypothesis is supported by fossil evidence from the oldest pelican taxa.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans frequent inland and coastal waters, where they feed principally on fish, catching them at or near the water surface. They are gregarious birds, travelling in flocks, hunting cooperatively, and breeding colonially. Four white-plumaged species tend to nest on the ground, and four brown or grey-plumaged species nest mainly in trees. The relationship between pelicans and people has often been contentious. The birds have been persecuted because of their perceived competition with commercial and recreational fishing. Their populations have fallen through habitat destruction, disturbance, and environmental pollution, and three species are of conservation concern. They also have a long history of cultural significance in mythology, and in Christian and heraldic iconography.


title: Pelican

text: The name comes from the Ancient Greek word "pelekan" (πελεκάν), which is itself derived from the word "pelekys" (πέλεκυς) meaning "axe". In classical times, the word was applied to both the pelican and the woodpecker.


title: Pelican

text: The genus "Pelecanus" was first formally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of "Systema Naturae". He described the distinguishing characteristics as a straight bill hooked at the tip, linear nostrils, a bare face, and fully webbed feet. This early definition included frigatebirds, cormorants, and sulids, as well as pelicans.


title: Pelican

text: The family Pelecanidae was introduced (as Pelicanea) by the French polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque in 1815.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans give their name to the Pelecaniformes, an order which has a varied taxonomic history. Tropicbirds, darters, cormorants, gannets, boobies, and frigatebirds, all traditional members of the order, have since been reclassified: tropicbirds into their own order, Phaethontiformes, and the remainder into the Suliformes. In their place, herons, ibises, spoonbills, the hamerkop, and the shoebill have now been transferred into the Pelecaniformes. Molecular evidence suggests that the shoebill and the hamerkop form a sister group to the pelicans, though some doubt exists as to the exact relationships among the three lineages.


title: Pelican

text: The oldest known record of Pelicans is a right tibiotarsus very similar to those of modern species from the Birket Qarun Formation in the Wadi El Hitan in Egypt, dating to the late Eocene (Priabonian), referred to the genus "Eopelecanus."


title: Pelican

text: The eight living pelican species were traditionally divided into two groups, one containing four ground-nesters with mainly white adult plumage (Australian, Dalmatian, great white, and American white pelicans), and one containing four grey- or brown-plumaged species which nest preferentially either in trees (pink-backed, spot-billed and brown pelicans), or on sea rocks (Peruvian pelican). The largely marine brown and Peruvian pelicans, formerly considered conspecific, are sometimes separated from the others by placement in the subgenus "Leptopelecanus" but in fact species with both sorts of appearance and nesting behavior are found in either.


title: Pelican

text: DNA sequencing of both mitochondrial and nuclear genes yielded quite different relationships; the three New World pelicans formed one lineage, with the American white pelican sister to the two brown pelicans, and the five Old World species the other. The Dalmatian, pink-backed, and spot-billed were all closely related to one another, while the Australian white pelican was their next-closest relative. The great white pelican also belonged to this lineage, but was the first to diverge from the common ancestor of the other four species. This finding suggests that pelicans evolved in the Old World and spread into the Americas, and that preference for tree- or ground-nesting is more related to size than genetics.


title: Pelican

text: The fossil record shows that the pelican lineage has existed for at least 36 million years; the oldest known pelican fossil was assigned to "Eopelecanus aegyptiacus" and was found in late Eocene (middle to late part of the early Priabonian stage/age) deposits of the Birket Qarun Formation within the Wadi Al-Hitan World Heritage Site in Egypt. A more complete fossil pelican of early Oligocene age is known from deposits at the Luberon in southeastern France, and is remarkably similar to modern forms. Its beak is almost complete and is morphologically identical to that of present-day pelicans, showing that this advanced feeding apparatus was already in existence at the time. An Early Miocene fossil has been named "Miopelecanus gracilis" on the basis of certain features originally considered unique, but later thought to lie within the range of interspecific variation in "Pelecanus". The Late Eocene "Protopelicanus" may be a pelecaniform or suliform – or a similar aquatic bird such as a pseudotooth (Pelagornithidae), but is not generally considered a pelecanid. The supposed Miocene pelican "Liptornis" from Patagonia is a "nomen dubium" (of doubtful validity), being based on fragments providing insufficient evidence to support a valid description.


title: Pelican

text: Fossil finds from North America have been meagre compared with Europe, which has a richer fossil record. Several "Pelecanus" species have been described from fossil material, including:


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans are very large birds with very long bills characterised by a downcurved hook at the end of the upper mandible, and the attachment of a huge gular pouch to the lower. The slender rami of the lower bill and the flexible tongue muscles form the pouch into a basket for catching fish, and sometimes rainwater, though to not hinder the swallowing of large fish, the tongue itself is tiny. They have a long neck and short stout legs with large, fully webbed feet. Although they are among the heaviest of flying birds, they are relatively light for their apparent bulk because of air pockets in the skeleton and beneath the skin, enabling them to float high in the water. The tail is short and square. The wings are long and broad, suitably shaped for soaring and gliding flight, and have the unusually large number of 30 to 35 secondary flight feathers.


title: Pelican

text: Males are generally larger than females and have longer bills. The smallest species is the brown pelican, small individuals of which can be no more than and long, with a wingspan of as little as . The largest is believed to be the Dalmatian, at up to and in length, with a maximum wingspan of . The Australian pelican's bill may grow up to long in large males, the longest of any bird.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans have mainly light-coloured plumage, the exceptions being the brown and Peruvian pelicans. The bills, pouches, and bare facial skin of all species become brighter before breeding season commences. The throat pouch of the Californian subspecies of the brown pelican turns bright red, and fades to yellow after the eggs are laid, while the throat pouch of the Peruvian pelican turns blue. The American white pelican grows a prominent knob on its bill that is shed once females have laid eggs. The plumage of immature pelicans is darker than that of adults. Newly hatched chicks are naked and pink, darkening to grey or black after 4 to 14 days, then developing a covering of white or grey down.


title: Pelican

text: Anatomical dissections of two brown pelicans in 1939 showed that pelicans have a network of air sacs under their skin situated across the ventral surface including the throat, breast, and undersides of the wings, as well as having air sacs in their bones. The air sacs are connected to the airways of the respiratory system, and the pelican can keep its air sacs inflated by closing its glottis, but how air sacs are inflated is not clear. The air sacs serve to keep the pelican remarkably buoyant in the water and may also cushion the impact of the pelican's body on the water surface when they dive from flight into water to catch fish. Superficial air sacs may also help to round body contours (especially over the abdomen, where surface protuberances may be caused by viscera changing size and position) to enable the overlying feathers to form more effective heat insulation and also to enable feathers to be held in position for good aerodynamics.


title: Pelican

text: Modern pelicans are found on all continents except Antarctica. They primarily inhabit warm regions, although breeding ranges extend to latitudes of 45° South (Australian pelicans in Tasmania) and 60° North (American white pelicans in western Canada). Birds of inland and coastal waters, they are absent from polar regions, the deep ocean, oceanic islands (except the Galapagos), and inland South America, as well as from the eastern coast of South America from the mouth of the Amazon River southwards. Subfossil bones have been recovered from as far south as New Zealand's South Island, although their scarcity and isolated occurrence suggests that these remains may have merely been vagrants from Australia (much as is the case today).


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans swim well with their strong legs and their webbed feet. They rub the backs of their heads on their preen glands to pick up an oily secretion, which they transfer to their plumage to waterproof it. Holding their wings only loosely against their bodies, pelicans float with relatively little of their bodies below the water surface. They dissipate excess heat by gular flutter – rippling the skin of the throat and pouch with the bill open to promote evaporative cooling. They roost and loaf communally on beaches, sandbanks, and in shallow water.


title: Pelican

text: A fibrous layer deep in the breast muscles can hold the wings rigidly horizontal for gliding and soaring. Thus, they use thermals for soaring to heights of 3000 m (10,000 ft) or more, combined both with gliding and with flapping flight in V formation, to commute distances up to to feeding areas. Pelicans also fly low (or "skim") over stretches of water, using a phenomenon known as ground effect to reduce drag and increase lift. As the air flows between the wings and the water surface, it is compressed to a higher density and exerts a stronger upward force against the bird above. Hence, substantial energy is saved while flying.


title: Pelican

text: Adult pelicans rely on visual displays and behaviour to communicate, particularly using their wings and bills. Agonistic behaviour consists of thrusting and snapping at opponents with their bills, or lifting and waving their wings in a threatening manner. Adult pelicans grunt when at the colony, but are generally silent elsewhere or outside breeding season. Conversely, colonies are noisy, as chicks vocalise extensively.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans are gregarious and nest colonially. Pairs are monogamous for a single season, but the pair bond extends only to the nesting area; mates are independent away from the nest. The ground-nesting (white) species have a complex communal courtship involving a group of males chasing a single female in the air, on land, or in the water while pointing, gaping, and thrusting their bills at each other. They can finish the process in a day. The tree-nesting species have a simpler process in which perched males advertise for females. The location of the breeding colony is constrained by the availability of an ample supply of fish to eat, although pelicans can use thermals to soar and commute for hundreds of kilometres daily to fetch food.


title: Pelican

text: The Australian pelican has two reproductive strategies depending on the local degree of environmental predictability. Colonies of tens or hundreds, rarely thousands, of birds breed regularly on small coastal and subcoastal islands where food is seasonally or permanently available. In arid inland Australia, especially in the endorheic Lake Eyre basin, pelicans breed opportunistically in very large numbers of up to 50,000 pairs, when irregular major floods, which may be many years apart, fill ephemeral salt lakes and provide large amounts of food for several months before drying out again.


title: Pelican

text: In all species, copulation takes place at the nest site; it begins shortly after pairing and continues for 3–10 days before egg-laying. The male brings the nesting material, in ground-nesting species (which may not build a nest) sometimes in the pouch, and in tree-nesting species crosswise in the bill. The female then heaps the material up to form a simple structure.


title: Pelican

text: The eggs are oval, white, and coarsely textured. All species normally lay at least two eggs; the usual clutch size is one to three, rarely up to six. Both sexes incubate with the eggs on top of or below the feet; they may display when changing shifts. Incubation takes 30–36 days; hatching success for undisturbed pairs can be as high as 95%, but because of sibling competition or siblicide, in the wild, usually all but one nestling dies within the first few weeks (later in the pink-backed and spot-billed species). Both parents feed their young. Small chicks are fed by regurgitation; after about a week, they are able to put their heads into their parents' pouches and feed themselves. Sometimes before, but especially after being fed the pelican chick may seem to "throw a tantrum" by loudly vocalizing and dragging itself around in a circle by one wing and leg, striking its head on the ground or anything nearby and the tantrums sometimes end in what looks like a seizure that results in the chick falling briefly unconscious; the reason is not clearly known, but a common belief is that it is to draw attention to itself and away from any siblings who are waiting to be fed.


title: Pelican

text: Parents of ground-nesting species sometimes drag older young around roughly by the head before feeding them. From about 25 days old, the young of these species gather in "pods" or "crèches" of up to 100 birds in which parents recognise and feed only their own offspring. By 6–8 weeks they wander around, occasionally swimming, and may practise communal feeding. Young of all species fledge 10–12 weeks after hatching. They may remain with their parents afterwards, but are now seldom or never fed. They are mature at three or four years old. Overall breeding success is highly variable. Pelicans live for 15 to 25 years in the wild, although one reached an age of 54 years in captivity.


title: Pelican

text: The diet of pelicans usually consists of fish, but occasionally amphibians, turtles, crustaceans, insects, birds, and mammals are also eaten. The size of the preferred prey fish varies depending on pelican species and location. For example, in Africa, the pink-backed pelican generally takes fish ranging in size from fry up to and the great white pelican prefers somewhat larger fish, up to , but in Europe, the latter species has been recorded taking fish up to . In deep water, white pelicans often fish alone. Nearer the shore, several encircle schools of small fish or form a line to drive them into the shallows, beating their wings on the water surface and then scooping up the prey. Although all pelican species may feed in groups or alone, the Dalmatian, pink-backed, and spot-billed pelicans are the only ones to prefer solitary feeding. When fishing in groups, all pelican species have been known to work together to catch their prey, and Dalmatian pelicans may even cooperate with great cormorants.


title: Pelican

text: Large fish are caught with the bill-tip, then tossed up in the air to be caught and slid into the gullet head-first. A gull will sometimes stand on the pelican's head, peck it to distraction, and grab a fish from the open bill. Pelicans in their turn sometimes snatch prey from other waterbirds.


title: Pelican

text: The brown pelican usually plunge-dives head-first for its prey, from a height as great as , especially for anchovies and menhaden. The only other pelican to feed using a similar technique is the Peruvian pelican, but its dives are typically from a lower height than the brown pelican. The Australian and American white pelicans may feed by low plunge-dives landing feet-first and then scooping up the prey with the beak, but they—as well as the remaining pelican species—primarily feed while swimming on the water. Aquatic prey is most commonly taken at or near the water surface. Although principally a fish eater, the Australian pelican is also an eclectic and opportunistic scavenger and carnivore that forages in landfill sites, as well as taking carrion and "anything from insects and small crustaceans to ducks and small dogs". Food is not stored in a pelican's throat pouch, contrary to popular folklore.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans may also eat birds. In southern Africa, eggs and chicks of the Cape cormorant are an important food source for great white pelicans. Several other bird species have been recorded in the diet of this pelican in South Africa, including Cape gannet chicks on Malgas Island as well as crowned cormorants, kelp gulls, greater crested terns, and African penguins on Dassen Island and elsewhere. The Australian pelican, which is particularly willing to take a wide range of prey items, has been recorded feeding on young Australian white ibis, and young and adult grey teals and silver gulls. Brown pelicans have been reported preying on young common murres in California and the eggs and nestlings of cattle egrets and nestling great egrets in Baja California, Mexico. Peruvian pelicans in Chile have been recorded feeding on nestlings of imperial shags, juvenile Peruvian diving petrels, and grey gulls. Cannibalism of chicks of their own species is known from the Australian, brown, and Peruvian pelicans. Great white pelicans have been observed swallowing city pigeons in St. James's Park in London. Spokeswoman for the Royal Parks, Louise Wood, stated that feeding on other birds is more likely with captive pelicans that live in a semi-urban environment and are in constant close contact with humans.


title: Pelican

text: Globally, pelican populations are adversely affected by these main factors: declining supplies of fish through overfishing or water pollution, destruction of habitat, direct effects of human activity such as disturbance at nesting colonies, hunting and culling, entanglement in fishing lines and hooks, and the presence of pollutants such as DDT and endrin. Most species' populations are more or less stable, although three are classified by the IUCN as being at risk. All species breed readily in zoos, which is potentially useful for conservation management.


title: Pelican

text: The combined population of brown and Peruvian pelicans is estimated at 650,000 birds, with around 250,000 in the United States and Caribbean, and 400,000 in Peru. The National Audubon Society estimates the global population of the brown pelican at 300,000. Numbers of brown pelican plummeted in the 1950s and 1960s, largely as a consequence of environmental DDT pollution, and the species was listed as endangered in the US in 1970. With restrictions on DDT use in the US from 1972, its population has recovered, and it was delisted in 2009.


title: Pelican

text: The Peruvian pelican is listed as near threatened because, although the population is estimated by BirdLife International to exceed 500,000 mature individuals, and is possibly increasing, it has been much higher in the past. It declined dramatically during the 1998 El Niño event and could experience similar declines in the future. Conservation needs include regular monitoring throughout the range to determine population trends, particularly after El Niño years, restricting human access to important breeding colonies, and assessing interactions with fisheries.


title: Pelican

text: The spot-billed pelican has an estimated population between 13,000 and 18,000 and is considered to be near threatened in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Numbers declined substantially during the 20th century, one crucial factor being the eradication of the important Sittaung valley breeding colony in Burma through deforestation and the loss of feeding sites. The chief threats it faces are from habitat loss and human disturbance, but populations have mostly stabilised following increased protection in India and Cambodia.


title: Pelican

text: The pink-backed pelican has a large population ranging over much of sub-Saharan Africa. In the absence of substantial threats or evidence of declines across its range, its conservation status is assessed as being of least concern. Regional threats include the drainage of wetlands and increasing disturbance in southern Africa. The species is susceptible to bioaccumulation of toxins and the destruction of nesting trees by logging.


title: Pelican

text: The American white pelican has increased in numbers, with its population estimated at over 157,000 birds in 2005, becoming more numerous east of the continental divide, while declining in the west. However, whether its numbers have been affected by exposure to pesticides is unclear, as it has also lost habitat through wetland drainage and competition with recreational use of lakes and rivers.


title: Pelican

text: Great white pelicans range over a large area of Africa and southern Asia. The overall trend in numbers is uncertain, with a mix of regional populations that are increasing, declining, stable, or unknown, but no evidence has been found of rapid overall decline, and the status of the species is assessed as being of least concern. Threats include the drainage of wetlands, persecution and sport hunting, disturbance at the breeding colonies, and contamination by pesticides and heavy metals.


title: Pelican

text: The Dalmatian pelican has a population estimated at between 10,000 and 20,000 following massive declines in the 19th and 20th centuries. The main ongoing threats include hunting, especially in eastern Asia, disturbance, coastal development, collision with overhead power lines, and the over-exploitation of fish stocks. It is listed as near threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species as the population trend is downwards, especially in Mongolia, where it is nearly extinct. However, several European colonies are increasing in size and the largest colony for the species, at the Small Prespa Lake in Greece, has reached about 1,400 breeding pairs following conservation measures.


title: Pelican

text: Widespread across Australia, the Australian pelican has a population generally estimated at between 300,000 and 500,000 individuals. Overall population numbers fluctuate widely and erratically depending on wetland conditions and breeding success across the continent. The species is assessed as being of least concern.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans have been persecuted by humans for their perceived competition for fish, despite the fact that their diet overlaps little with fish caught by people. Starting in the 1880s, American white pelicans were clubbed and shot, their eggs and young were deliberately destroyed, and their feeding and nesting sites were degraded by water management schemes and wetland drainage. Even in the 21st century, an increase in the population of American white pelicans in southeastern Idaho in the US was seen to threaten the recreational cutthroat trout fishery there, leading to official attempts to reduce pelican numbers through systematic harassment and culling.


title: Pelican

text: Great white pelicans on Dyer Island, in the Western Cape region of South Africa, were culled during the 19th century because their predation of the eggs and chicks of guano-producing seabirds was seen to threaten the livelihood of the guano collectors. More recently, such predation at South African seabird colonies has impacted on the conservation of threatened seabird populations, especially crowned cormorants, Cape cormorants, and bank cormorants. This has led to suggestions that pelican numbers should be controlled at vulnerable colonies.


title: Pelican

text: Apart from habitat destruction and deliberate, targeted persecution, pelicans are vulnerable to disturbance at their breeding colonies by birdwatchers, photographers, and other curious visitors. Human presence alone can cause the birds to accidentally displace or destroy their eggs, leave hatchlings exposed to predators and adverse weather, or even abandon their colonies completely.


title: Pelican

text: DDT pollution in the environment was a major cause of decline of brown pelican populations in North America in the 1950s and 1960s. It entered the oceanic food web, contaminating and accumulating in several species, including one of the pelican's primary food fish – the northern anchovy. Its metabolite DDE is a reproductive toxicant in pelicans and many other birds, causing eggshell thinning and weakening, and consequent breeding failure through the eggs being accidentally crushed by brooding birds. Since an effective ban on the use of DDT was implemented in the US in 1972, the eggshells of breeding brown pelicans there have thickened and their populations have largely recovered.


title: Pelican

text: In the late 1960s, following the major decline in brown pelican numbers in Louisiana from DDT poisoning, 500 pelicans were imported from Florida to augment and re-establish the population; over 300 subsequently died in April and May 1975 from poisoning by the pesticide endrin. About 14,000 pelicans, including 7500 American white pelicans, perished from botulism after eating fish from the Salton Sea in 1990. In 1991, abnormal numbers of brown pelicans and Brandt's cormorants died at Santa Cruz, California, when their food fish (anchovies) were contaminated with neurotoxic domoic acid, produced by the diatom "Pseudo-nitzschia".


title: Pelican

text: As waterbirds that feed on fish, pelicans are highly susceptible to oil spills, both directly by being oiled and by the impact on their food resources. A 2007 report to the California Fish and Game Commission estimated that during the previous 20 years, some 500–1000 brown pelicans had been affected by oil spills in California. A 2011 report by the Center for Biological Diversity, a year after the April 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, said that 932 brown pelicans had been collected after being affected by oiling and estimated that 10 times that number had been harmed as a result of the spill.


title: Pelican

text: Where pelicans interact with fishers, through either sharing the same waters or scavenging for fishing refuse, they are especially vulnerable to being hooked and entangled in both active and discarded fishing lines. Fish hooks are swallowed or catch in the skin of the pouch or webbed feet, and strong monofilament fishing line can become wound around bill, wings, or legs, resulting in crippling, starvation, and often death. Local rescue organisations have been established in North America and Australia by volunteers to treat and rehabilitate injured pelicans and other wildlife.


title: Pelican

text: As with other bird families, pelicans are susceptible to a variety of parasites. Avian malaria is carried by the mosquito "Culex pipens", and high densities of these biting insects may force pelican colonies to be abandoned. Leeches may attach to the vent or sometimes the inside of the pouch. A study of the parasites of the American white pelican found 75 different species, including tapeworms, flukes, flies, fleas, ticks, and nematodes.


title: Pelican

text: The brown pelican has a similarly extensive range of parasites. The nematodes "Contracaecum multipapillatum" and "C. mexicanum" and the trematode "Ribeiroia ondatrae" have caused illness and mortality in the Puerto Rican population, possibly endangering the pelican on this island.


title: Pelican

text: Many pelican parasites are found in other bird groups, but several lice are very host-specific. Healthy pelicans can usually cope with their lice, but sick birds may carry hundreds of individuals, which hastens a sick bird's demise. The pouch louse "Piagetiella peralis" occurs in the pouch and so it cannot be removed by preening. While this is usually not a serious problem even when present in such numbers that it covers the whole interior of the pouch, sometimes inflammation and bleeding may occur from it and harm the host.


title: Pelican

text: In May 2012, hundreds of Peruvian pelicans were reported to have perished in Peru from a combination of starvation and roundworm infestation.


title: Pelican

text: The pelican ("henet" in Egyptian) was associated in Ancient Egypt with death and the afterlife. It was depicted in art on the walls of tombs, and figured in funerary texts, as a protective symbol against snakes. "Henet" was also referred to in the Pyramid Texts as the "mother of the king" and thus seen as a goddess. References in nonroyal funerary papyri show that the pelican was believed to possess the ability to prophesy safe passage in the underworld for someone who had died.


title: Pelican

text: Consumption of pelican, as with other seabirds, is considered not kosher as an unclean animal, and thus forbidden in Jewish dietary law.


title: Pelican

text: An origin myth from the Murri people of Queensland, cited by Andrew Lang, describes how the Australian pelican acquired its black and white plumage. The pelican, formerly a black bird, made a canoe during a flood to save drowning people. He fell in love with a woman he thus saved, but her friends and she tricked him and escaped. The pelican consequently prepared to go to war against them by daubing himself with white clay as war paint. However, before he had finished, another pelican, on seeing such a strange piebald creature, killed him with its beak, and all such pelicans have been black and white ever since.


title: Pelican

text: The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature. They placed emphasis on animals and often depicted pelicans in their art.


title: Pelican

text: Alcatraz Island was given its name by the Spanish because of the large numbers of brown pelicans nesting present. The word "alcatraz" is itself derived from the Arabic "al-caduos", a term used for a water-carrying vessel and likened to the pouch of the pelican. The English name albatross is also derived by corruption of the Spanish word.


title: Pelican

text: The "Physiologus", a didactic Christian text from the 3rd or 4th century, claims that pelicans kill their young when they grow and strike their parents in the face, but then the mother laments them for three days, after which she strikes her side and brings them back to life with her blood. This the "Physiologus" explains as mirroring the pain inflicted on God by people's idolatry, and the self-sacrifice of Jesus on the cross redeeming the sinful (see the blood and water gushing from the wound in his side). This text was widely copied, translated, and sometimes closely paraphrased during the Middle Ages, for instance by 13th-century authors Guillaume le Clerc and Bartholomaeus Anglicus. Likewise, a folktale from India says that a pelican killed her young by rough treatment, but was then so contrite that she resurrected them with her own blood. In a newer, also medieval version of the European myth, the pelican was thought to be particularly attentive to her young, to the point of providing them with blood by wounding her own breast when no other food was available. As a result, the pelican came to symbolise the Passion of Jesus and the Eucharist, supplementing the image of the lamb and the flag. A reference to this mythical characteristic is contained for example in the hymn by Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Adoro te devote" or "Humbly We Adore Thee", where in the penultimate verse, he describes Christ as the loving divine pelican, one drop of whose blood can save the world.


title: Pelican

text: Elizabeth I of England adopted the symbol, portraying herself as the "mother of the Church of England". The Pelican Portrait of her was painted around 1573, probably by Nicholas Hilliard. A pelican feeding her young is depicted in an oval panel at the bottom of the title page of the first (1611) edition of the King James Bible. Such "a pelican in her piety" appears in the 1686 reredos by Grinling Gibbons in the church of St Mary Abchurch in the City of London. Earlier medieval examples of the motif appear in painted murals, for example that of "circa" 1350 in the parish church of Belchamp Walter, Essex.


title: Pelican

text: The self-sacrificial aspect of the pelican was reinforced by the widely read medieval bestiaries. The device of "a pelican in her piety" or "a pelican vulning (from Latin "vulnerō", "I wound, I injure, I hurt") herself" was used in religious iconography and heraldry.


title: Pelican

text: The legends of self-wounding and the provision of blood may have arisen because of the impression a pelican sometimes gives that it is stabbing itself with its bill. In reality, it often presses this onto its chest to fully empty the pouch. Another possible derivation is the tendency of the bird to rest with its bill on its breast; the Dalmatian pelican has a blood-red pouch in the early breeding season and this may have contributed to the myth.


title: Pelican

text: Pelicans have featured extensively in heraldry, generally using the Christian symbolism of the pelican as a caring and self-sacrificing parent. Heraldic images featuring a "pelican vulning" refers to a pelican injuring herself, while a "pelican in her piety" refers to a female pelican feeding her young with her own blood. The King of Portugal John II adopted the pelican as is own personal sygil while he was Infante, evoking the christian symbology to equate the sacrifice of his blood to feed the nation. The pelican as a symbol also became sinonimous with the increasing charity efforts of the Santas Casas da Misericórdia during his reign and the reconstruction of the Hospital das Caldas da Rainha and the Hospital Real de Todos-os-Santos, which were mainly patronaged by his wife D. Leonor.


title: Pelican

text: The image became linked to the medieval religious feast of Corpus Christi. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge each have colleges named for the religious festival nearest the dates of their establishment, and both Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, feature pelicans on their coats of arms.


title: Pelican

text: The medical faculties of Charles University in Prague also have a pelican as their emblem. The symbol of the Irish Blood Transfusion Service is a pelican, and for most of its existence the headquarters of the service was located at Pelican House in Dublin, Ireland. The heraldic pelican also ended up as a pub name and image, though sometimes with the image of the ship "Golden Hind". Sir Francis Drake's famous ship was initially called "Pelican", and adorned the British halfpenny coin.


title: Pelican

text: The great white pelican is the national bird of Romania. The brown pelican is the national bird of three Caribbean countries—Saint Kitts and Nevis, Barbados, and Sint Maarten—and features on their coats of arms. It is also the state bird of the US state of Louisiana, which is known colloquially as the Pelican State; the bird appears on the state flag and state seal. It adorns the seals of Louisiana State University, Tulane University, Louisiana Tech University, the University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Loyola University New Orleans, Southeastern Louisiana University, and Southern University, and is the mascot of the New Orleans Pelicans NBA team, the Lahti Pelicans ice hockey team, Tulane University, and the University of the West Indies. A white pelican logo is used by the Portuguese bank Montepio Geral, and a pelican is depicted on the reverse of the Albanian 1 lek coin, issued in 1996. The name and image were used for Pelican Books, an imprint of nonfiction books published by Penguin Books. The seal of the Packer Collegiate Institute, a pelican feeding her young, has been in use since 1885.


title: Pelican

text: The pelican is the subject of a popular limerick originally composed by Dixon Lanier Merritt in 1910 with several variations by other authors. The original version ran:


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules is a 2020 American straight-to-DVD sex comedy film directed by Mike Elliott. It is the fifth installment of the "American Pie Presents" film series, a spin-off of the "American Pie" franchise and the ninth overall installment. It is also the first film in the franchise to neither feature Eugene Levy nor contain any nudity. The film serves as a standalone sequel, revolving around Steve Stifler's cousin Stephanie (Lizze Broadway) and her friends.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: The film was released on demand and DVD on October 6, 2020, by Universal Pictures. It was released on Blu-ray on September 7, 2021.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Now that it is their senior year, four young friends named Annie, Kayla, Michelle and Stephanie band together to get what they want.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Annie is trying to lose her virginity to her boyfriend. Stephanie is a confident lacrosse player who is blackmailing her school’s perverted principal into retiring by recording him being chained up and whipped by her. Kayla is insecure about her boyfriend Tim cheating and constantly goes through his phone asking if she is the best girlfriend he has ever had. Michelle is a sex toy expert who prides herself on her knowledge.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: They all make a pact to get what they need this year. Along comes Grant, a handsome new guy in school. He meets Michelle first as she is rushing to class, as she is distracted by the sight of him, she runs into a door and he helps her up.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Tim breaks up with Kayla and as Grant witnesses this, he offers help in making her ex jealous. Stephanie is playing lacrosse and meets Grant by knocking him to the ground during a play.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Michelle takes Annie to a sex shop to buy her first toy, a vibrating set of panties. Annie uses it later that day while having phone sex with her boyfriend. Grant and his mother Ellen come over to introduce themselves, especially Ellen to Annie’s single father Kevin, who tells Grant to go upstairs and meet his daughter.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Michelle and Stephanie end up liking Grant and employ ways to win his affection. Michelle, playing the damsel in distress trips and falls into a locker in front of him. He takes her to the nurse and Oliver, the principal's assistant, a nerdy boy who has a crush on her, helps out. Stephanie goes to Grant's friend Emmett (her old friend who she had a falling out with) and asks for his help, giving him $100.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Annie runs into Grant in the library and they team up to study and slowly start falling for each other. Kayla and Tim start having sex clandestinely. Stephanie and Emmett spend more and more time together to help her win over Grant and start falling for each other. Things come to a head at Ellen’s house party when the girls realize they all know and have crushes on Grant.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Grant says he has a crush on Annie and they kiss. She feels guilty and goes to see her boyfriend Jason at college and catches him getting a blowjob from a girl. Initially angry, she feels relief because she realizes she has feelings for Grant.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Ellen helps Michelle realize that Oliver is the perfect guy for her as he also has a love of John F. Kennedy and when doing an imitation of his speech she realizes she likes him. They all go to a party thrown by Stephanie in an attempt to get together with Grant. Realizing that Grant likes Annie they call off the pact. A fight breaks out when Stephanie gets called a slut and Emmett defends her, which then causes Stephanie to punch the assailant and throw him out. Emmett and Stephanie kiss, realizing the whole time they had feelings for each other. Kayla and Tim get back together. Michelle and Oliver end up together.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Jason shows up and inaccurately describes the girls' pact to Grant about the pact, who leaves as he feels used. The girls all go to the pajama prom together and help Annie win back Grant. He shows up and they kiss. Their friends set up a tent on the football field so Annie can finally lose her virginity. They all end up having sex with their respective partners.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: After the success of "", writer David H. Steinberg was hired in 2010 to write the next movie in the series entitled "American Pie Presents: East Great Falls" centered around four male students at East Great Falls High School who all fall in love with the same female student. Universal Studios hired new writers starting in 2017 to flip the genders of all the characters.


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Robyn Bahr of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote, "Dashed together by a male director, two male screenwriters and a half-male producing team, the film appears to be the cinematic equivalent of two straight girls making out at a party for some bro's attention."


title: American Pie Presents: Girls' Rules

text: Teo Bugbee of "The New York Times" wrote, "The original "American Pie" was tasteless; this version is flavorless."


title: Encino Man

text: Encino Man (known as California Man in France, Finland, Sweden, Great Britain, Asia, South Africa, and New Zealand) is a 1992 American comedy film directed by Les Mayfield in his directorial debut. The film stars Sean Astin, with a supporting cast of Brendan Fraser, Mariette Hartley, Richard Masur, Pauly Shore, Robin Tunney, Michael DeLuise, and Jonathan Ke Quan in his last American film project until 2021. The plot revolves around two geeky teenagers from Encino, Los Angeles, California, who discover a caveman in Morgan's backyard, frozen in a block of ice where he has to learn to live in the 20th century while teaching the teenagers about life.


title: Encino Man

text: The film was released on May 22, 1992, by Buena Vista Pictures Distribution (under its Hollywood Pictures label). Despite negative reviews, "Encino Man" was a box-office success, grossing $40.7 million worldwide on a $7 million budget. It was followed by a made-for-television spin-off, "Encino Woman", in 1996.


title: Encino Man

text: During the first ice age, a caveman attempts to make fire with his cavewoman partner. An earthquake causes a cave-in that buries the two of them.


title: Encino Man

text: In 1992 Los Angeles, an earthquake awakens average teenager Dave Morgan. He, along with his best friend Stoney, strives to attain popularity in high school, but comes off more like a reject or an outcast. Dave is in love with Robyn Sweeney, a sweet and attractive girl who had been his best friend during grade school, and until she reached adolescence, had been rejected by Dave on several occasions. Her boyfriend, Matt Wilson, is a jock and a bully, who constantly humiliates Dave and Stoney, usually directly due to Dave's affections toward Robyn.


title: Encino Man

text: One day, while digging a pool in his backyard, Dave comes across a chunk of ice that has the body of a man in it. He leaves the ice block unattended in the garage and space heaters left on cause the ice to melt, releasing the caveman.


title: Encino Man

text: When the boys return home, they find hand paint covering the walls and the house in disarray. Investigating a beeping smoke alarm, they discover the caveman in Dave's bedroom, attempting to start a fire. At first, he panics at the sight of them and the sound of a telephone, but Stoney uses the flame of a lighter to mesmerize and calm him. After bathing him and trimming him to look like an average teenager, Dave names him "Link" as in the missing link.


title: Encino Man

text: They manage to get him some clothes and fool Dave's parents and sister into thinking he is actually an Estonian exchange student sent to live with them. They enroll him in school, where Link's bizarre behavior and supreme athletic skills shoot Dave and Stoney to popularity by association. This allows Dave to get closer to Robyn, causing Matt's anger and frustration.


title: Encino Man

text: Soon, Stoney's bizarre attitude apparently is having an effect on Link's actions and speech, which causes a rift between Dave and Stoney. Matt's anger and frustration leads to a fight with Link at a skating rink and increases due to Robyn's growing attraction towards Link.


title: Encino Man

text: During a school field trip to a natural history museum, Link gets upset realizing that the cavepeople he knew are all dead. Stoney and Dave console Link that he is not without friends in this time, causing the trio to make a pact. During Driver's ed, Link drives away in a car with Dave, Stoney, and Robyn in it, they stop at a dance club and Dave and Link are arrested. Dave, who has had enough of Link's shenanigans and upset that Robyn chooses to go to the prom with Link, tries to abandon him, and a fight between Dave and Stoney causes Link to come running back and separate the friends. Stoney and Dave reconcile.


title: Encino Man

text: On prom night, Link is a hit at the party with Robyn as his date, while Dave stays in for the evening. Matt breaks into Dave's bedroom and steals photographic evidence that Link is a caveman. As Dave and Stoney go after Matt and his friends, another earthquake happens. Matt uncovers the "freak" at the prom, but his plan backfires, as the information makes Link even more popular. Matt is left humiliated, Dave and Robyn make up, and the three boys lead the entire prom in an impromptu caveman-like dance with Infectious Grooves providing the music.


title: Encino Man

text: After the prom, some of the students attend Dave's house for a pool party, where Dave and Robyn kiss. Meanwhile, Stoney and Link follow clues (similar to when they found him) ranging from breast prints on the slider and paint covering the walls. They follow the muddy footprints to the bathroom and discover a beautiful cavewoman in the bathtub, who turns out to be Link's partner from the beginning of the film. He joins her in the bathtub as Stoney cheers them on and embraces her happily. She is also made to look like a modern human.


title: Encino Man

text: "Encino Man" was directed by Les Mayfield, a veteran of behind-the-scenes promotional documentaries, making his feature-film debut. The film was shot from December 1991 to February 1992.


title: Encino Man

text: Pauly Shore was known for his show "Totally Pauly" on MTV, and Disney expected this would bring an existing audience to the film. The film tested well with teen audiences, and Mayfield thanked "Wayne's World", which was released three months before "Encino Man", for showing a comedy aimed at this demographic could do well.


title: Encino Man

text: Costume designer Marie France decided not to buy clothes; instead she custom-made the wardrobe for the characters of Stoney and Link. For Shore, she took his own unusual style and gave it a younger look. For Fraser, who stands at , it was a matter of practicality, easier than trying to find the sizes needed, and she dressed him in baggy, knee-length shorts and oversized T-shirts.


title: Encino Man

text: The film was a box-office success. The film took in $9,866,120 in its opening weekend, coming in fourth at the box office. The film went on to earn a total of $40,693,477 at the North American box office on a budget of about $7,500,000. The film was released in the United Kingdom on September 25, 1992, titled "California Man", and opened at number five.


title: Encino Man

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 17% based on reviews from 35 critics, with an average rating of 3.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads: ""Encino Man" isn't the first unabashedly silly comedy to embrace its stupidity and amass a cult following, but whether or not it works for you will largely be determined by your tolerance for Pauly Shore". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 25% based on reviews from 20 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A on scale of A to F.


title: Encino Man

text: "Variety" panned the film, saying ""Encino Man" is a mindless would-be comedy aimed at the younger set. Low-budget quickie is insulting even within its own no-effort parameters". Peter Rainer of the Los Angeles Times wrote: "There are a lot of funny ideas in Encino Man that don't come off because the director, Les Mayfield, and his screenwriter, Shawn Schepps, don't seem to have made up their minds how smart they want to be. A scene like Link freaking out during a visit to the La Brea tar pits museum should count for a lot more than it does here".


title: Encino Man

text: According to Shore, Disney+ are discussing on a sequel with the possibility of him, Astin and Fraser back as their characters.


title: Encino Man

text: Link, again played by Fraser, makes a cameo appearance in the film "Son-in-Law" (1993), which also stars Pauly Shore. Fraser also briefly appears as a soldier with the name "Link" on his fatigues in "In the Army Now" starring Shore.


title: Encino Man

text: In Evan Wright's book about the 2003 invasion of Iraq, "Generation Kill", the US Marine company commander is nicknamed Encino Man, supposedly for his incompetence. In the 2008 HBO miniseries of adaptation of the book, the officer is played by Brian Patrick Wade. The "South Park" episode "Prehistoric Ice Man" (1999) was a parody of the film, wherein the boys find a man who has been frozen in ice since 1996.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The ortolan (Emberiza hortulana), also called ortolan bunting, is a Eurasian bird in the bunting family Emberizidae, a passerine family now separated by most modern scholars from the finches, Fringillidae. The genus name "Emberiza" is from Alemannic German , a bunting. The specific "hortulana" is from the Italian name for this bird, . The English "ortolan" is derived from Middle French , "gardener".


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The ortolan is served in French cuisine, typically cooked and eaten whole. Traditionally diners cover their heads with their napkin, or a towel, while eating the delicacy. The bird is so widely used that its French populations dropped dangerously low, leading to laws restricting its use in 1999. In September 2007, the French government announced its intent to enforce long-ignored laws protecting the bird.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The ortolan bunting was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his "Systema Naturae" and retains its original binomial name of "Emberiza hortulana". The species is monotypic. A molecular phylogenetic study of the buntings published in 2008 found that the ortolan bunting is most closely related to Cretzschmar's bunting ("Emberiza caesia").


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The ortolan bunting is in length and has a wing-span of . In appearance and habits it much resembles its relative the yellowhammer, but lacks the bright colouring of that species; the ortolan's head, for instance, is greenish-grey, instead of a bright yellow. The song of the male ortolan resembles that of the yellowhammer.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: A native of most European countries and western Asia, it reaches as far north as Scandinavia and beyond the Arctic Circle, frequenting cornfields and their neighbourhoods. It is an uncommon vagrant in spring, and particularly autumn, to the British Isles.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: It was spotted at Kenjar Coastal Karnataka, India, in November 2018 and photographed by Birdwatchers. Some birders commented that it is the first photographic record of an ortolan bunting in India.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The birds are caught with nets set during their autumn migratory flight to Africa. They are then kept in covered cages or boxes. The birds react to the dark by gorging themselves on grain, usually millet seed, until they double their bulk. The birds are then thrown into a container of Armagnac, which both drowns and marinates the birds.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: The bird is roasted for eight minutes and then plucked. The consumer then places the bird feet first into their mouth while holding onto the bird's head. The ortolan is then eaten whole, with or without the head, and the consumer spits out the larger bones. The traditional way French gourmands eat ortolans is to cover their heads and face with a large napkin or towel while consuming the bird. The purpose of the towel is debated. Some claim it is to retain the maximum aroma with the flavour as they consume the entire bird at once, others have stated "Tradition dictates that this is to shield – from God’s eyes – the shame of such a decadent and disgraceful act", and others have suggested the towel simply hides the consumers spitting out bones. This use of the towel was begun by a priest, a friend of Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: At one time, the island of Cyprus formed a chief depot for the export of ortolans, which were pickled in spices and vinegar and packed in casks containing from 300 to 400 each. In the early 20th century, between 400 and 500 casks were annually exported from Cyprus.


title: Ortolan bunting

text: Ortolan hunting was banned in France in 1999, but the law was poorly enforced and it is thought that up to 50,000 ortolans were illegally killed each year during the autumn migration: mostly birds from breeding grounds in Finland and the Baltic area. According to France's League for the Protection of Birds, France's ortolan population fell 30% between 1997 and 2007. In 2007, the French government vowed to strictly enforce some existing rules about banning the practice, with the maximum fine set at €6,000 (£4,800 or $6,728). Killing and cooking ortolans is banned across the EU. In 2007, the pressure from France's League for Protection of Birds and from the European Union resulted in the French government promising to enforce the EU directive protecting the ortolan. After several years of active citizen watch revealing little if any change in the field situation, the local representative of the government repeated this statement in 2016.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: Ismail ibn Musa Menk () (born 27 June 1975) is a Zimbabwean Islamic scholar, best known as Mufti Menk. He is the Grand Mufti of Zimbabwe's Muslim community, which makes up roughly 1% of the country's total population, and head of the fatwa department for the Council of Islamic Scholars of Zimbabwe.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: Menk was named one of The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the world by the Royal Aal al-Bayt Institute for Islamic Thought in Jordan in 2013, 2014 and 2017.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: Menk was born on 27 June 1975 in Harare to Gujarati Indian immigrant parents of Yemeni descent, where he undertook his initial studies with his father, Moulana Musa, memorizing the Quran and learning Arabic. He went to St. John's College (Harare) for senior school. He then completed his religious education and Mufti course from Kantharia Darul Uloom located in Gujarat, India. Menk has been identified as a Deobandi as well as a Salafi by different sources, though he has not publicly acknowledged his involvement in either movement.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: Menk opposes terrorism and has pledged his aid in curbing religious extremism in the Maldives. On 31 March 2018, he urged Liberian Muslims to avoid Muslim—Christian violence, arguing that Muslims and Christians are brothers and sisters from one father, the prophet Adam. He blames western media for misleading the world that Muslims are terrorists. According to Gulf News, Menk said that everyone on this earth is a part of a family and has one maker, therefore, no one has the right to force any belief or faith on another.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: In 2018 he published a collection of his sayings as a book titled "Motivational Moments" and in 2019 published the second edition, titled "Motivational Moments 2."


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: On 31 October 2017, Singapore banned Menk from its borders because it believes he expresses views incompatible with its multicultural laws and policies. According to the "Straits Times", he has asserted that "it is blasphemous for Muslims to greet believers of other faiths during festivals such as Christmas or Deepavali". Singapore's Ministry of Home Affairs said in a statement that its decision to reject Menk's application for a short-term work pass stemmed from his "segregationist and divisive teachings". The Majlisul Ulama Zimbabwe, Menk's own institution, released a statement to express "regret and dismay" regarding the ban. It said that Menk was an "asset to multi‐cultural, multi‐religious Zimbabwe" and that viewers should "listen to his sermons in full" and not "edited clips of a few minutes" to see the moderate path he has chosen. Mufti Menk actually addressed this issue in a youtube video of his, in which he clarifies that he actually said, that you must not force your beliefs onto others.


title: Ismail ibn Musa Menk

text: "The Huffington Post" has described Menk as an "openly homophobic Islamic preacher" who has denounced the act of homosexuality as "filthy". In 2013, he was due to visit six British universities – Oxford, Leeds, Leicester, Liverpool, Cardiff and Glasgow – but the speaking tour was cancelled after student unions and university officials expressed concern about his views. Menk's controversial statement included these words: "How can you engage in acts of immorality with the same sex?... The Qur'an clearly says it is wrong what you are doing... Allah speaks about how filthy this is... With all due respect to the animals, homosexuals are worse than animals."


title: Friday the 13th

text: Friday the 13th is considered an unlucky day in Western superstition. It occurs when the 13th day of the month in the Gregorian calendar falls on a Friday, which happens at least once every year but can occur up to three times in the same year. For example, 2015 had a Friday the 13th in February, March, and November; 2017 through 2020 had two Friday the 13ths each; 2016, 2021 and 2022 had just one occurrence of Friday the 13th each; 2023 and 2024 will have two Friday the 13ths each.


title: Friday the 13th

text: According to folklore historian Donald Dossey, the unlucky nature of the number "13" originated with a Norse myth about 12 gods having a dinner party in Valhalla. The trickster god Loki, who was not invited, arrived as the 13th guest, and arranged for Höðr to shoot Balder with a mistletoe-tipped arrow. Dossey: "Balder died, and the whole Earth got dark. The whole Earth mourned. It was a bad, unlucky day." This major event in Norse mythology caused the number 13 to be considered unlucky.


title: Friday the 13th

text: The superstition seems to relate to various things, like the story of Jesus' last supper and crucifixion in which there were 13 individuals present in the Upper Room on the 13th of Nisan Maundy Thursday, the night before his death on Good Friday.


title: Friday the 13th

text: While there is evidence of both Friday and the number 13 being considered unlucky, there is no record of the two items being referred to as especially unlucky in conjunction before the 19th century.


title: Friday the 13th

text: In France, Friday 13th might have been associated with misfortune as early as the first half of the 19th century. A character in the 1834 play "Les Finesses des Gribouilles" states, "I was born on a Friday, December 13th, 1813 from which come all of my misfortunes".


title: Friday the 13th

text: An early documented reference in English occurs in H. S. Edwards' biography of Gioachino Rossini, who died on a Friday 13th:


title: Friday the 13th

text: It is possible that the publication in 1907 of T. W. Lawson's popular novel "Friday, the Thirteenth",


title: Friday the 13th

text: contributed to popularizing the superstition. In the novel, an unscrupulous broker takes advantage of the superstition to create a Wall Street panic on a Friday the 13th.


title: Friday the 13th

text: Similar dates are prevalent in many cultures, although it is unclear whether these similarities are in any way historically connected or only coincidental.


title: Friday the 13th

text: In Spanish-speaking countries, instead of Friday, Tuesday the 13th ("martes trece") is considered a day of bad luck.


title: Friday the 13th

text: The Greeks also consider Tuesday (and especially the 13th) an unlucky day. Tuesday is considered dominated by the influence of Ares, the god of war (or Mars, the Roman equivalent). The fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade occurred on Tuesday 13 April 1204, and the Fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans happened on Tuesday 29 May 1453, events that strengthen the superstition about Tuesday. In addition, in Greek the name of the day is Triti ("Τρίτη") meaning the third (day of the week), adding weight to the superstition, since bad luck is said to "come in threes".


title: Friday the 13th

text: The origin of this belief could be traced in the writing of the number 17, in Roman numerals: XVII. By shuffling the digits of the number one can easily get the word "VIXI" ("I have lived", implying death at present), an omen of bad luck.


title: Friday the 13th

text: In fact, in Italy, 13 is generally considered a lucky number. However, due to Americanization, young people consider Friday the 13th unlucky as well.


title: Friday the 13th

text: The 2000 parody film "Shriek if You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth" was released in Italy with the title "Shriek – Hai impegni per venerdì 17?" (""Shriek – Do You Have Something to Do on Friday the 17th?"").


title: Friday the 13th

text: According to the Stress Management Center and Phobia Institute in Asheville, North Carolina, an estimated 17–21 million people in the United States are affected by a fear of this day, making it the most feared day and date in history. Some people are so paralyzed by fear that they avoid their normal routines in doing business, taking flights or even getting out of bed.


title: Friday the 13th

text: Despite this, representatives for both Delta Air Lines and Continental Airlines (the latter now merged into United Airlines) have stated that their airlines do not suffer from any noticeable drop in travel on those Fridays.


title: Friday the 13th

text: In Finland, a consortium of governmental and nongovernmental organizations led by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health promotes the National Accident Day ("kansallinen tapaturmapäivä") to raise awareness about automotive safety, which always falls on a Friday the 13th.


title: Friday the 13th

text: as it concluded that "the risk of hospital admission as a result of a transport accident "may" be increased by as much as 52 percent on the 13th";


title: Friday the 13th

text: however, the authors clearly state that "the numbers of admissions from accidents are too small to allow meaningful analysis".


title: Friday the 13th

text: On 12 June 2008 the Dutch Centre for Insurance Statistics stated to the contrary, that "fewer accidents and reports of fire and theft occur when the 13th of the month falls on a Friday than on other Fridays, because people are preventatively more careful or just stay home. Statistically speaking, driving is slightly safer on Friday the 13th, at least in the Netherlands; in the last two years, Dutch insurers received reports of an average 7,800 traffic accidents each Friday; but the average figure when the 13th fell on a Friday was just 7,500."


title: Friday the 13th

text: Each 400 year Gregorian solar cycle contains 146,097 days (with 97 leap days) or exactly 20,871 weeks. Each cycle contains the same pattern of days of the week and therefore the same pattern of Fridays that are on the 13th. The 13th day of the month is slightly more likely to be a Friday than any other day of the week.


title: Friday the 13th

text: Any month that starts on a Sunday contains a Friday the 13th, and there is at least one Friday the 13th in every calendar year.


title: Friday the 13th

text: The months with a Friday the 13th are determined by the Dominical letter (G, F, GF, etc.) of the year. Years which begin on the same day of the week and are of the same type (i.e. common year or leap year), will have a Friday the 13th in the same months.


title: Friday the 13th

text: This sequence, given here for 1900–2099, follows a 28-year cycle from 1 March 1900 to 28 February 2100:


title: Friday the 13th

text: Although there is always at least one Friday the 13th per calendar year, it can be as long as 14 months between two Friday the 13ths. The longest period that occurs without a Friday the 13th is 14 months, either from July to September the following year being a common year starting on Tuesday (F) (e.g. 2001–02, 2012–13 and 2018–19), or from August to October the following year being a leap year starting on Saturday (BA) (e.g. 1999–2000 and 2027–28). The shortest period that occurs with a Friday the 13th is just one month, from February to March in a common year starting on Thursday (D) (e.g. 2009, 2015 and 2026).


title: Friday the 13th

text: On average, there is a Friday the 13th once every 212.35 days. Friday the 13ths occurs with an average frequency of 1.7218 per year or about 3477 since the year 1 CE.


title: Friday the 13th

text: There can be no more than three Friday the 13ths in a single calendar year; either in February, March, and November in a common year starting on Thursday (such as 2009, 2015, or 2026) (D), or January, April, and July in a leap year starting on Sunday (such as 1984, 2012, or 2040) (AG).


title: Friday the 13th

text: In the 2000s, there were three Friday the 13ths in 2009, and two Friday the 13ths in 2001, 2002, 2006, and 2007. In the 2010s, there were three Friday the 13ths in 2012 and 2015, and two in 2013, 2017, 2018, and 2019. In the 2020s, there were two Friday the 13ths in 2020. There will also be three Friday the 13ths in 2026, and two in 2023, 2024, and 2029. The remaining years all have at least one Friday the 13th.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: John Barry Prendergast (3 November 1933 – 30 January 2011) was a British composer and conductor of film music.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: He composed the scores for eleven of the "James Bond" films between 1963 and 1987, as well as arranging and performing the "James Bond Theme" for the first film in the series, 1962's "Dr. No". He wrote the Grammy- and Academy Award-winning scores to the films "Dances with Wolves" and "Out of Africa", as well as the scores of "The Scarlet Letter", "Chaplin", "The Cotton Club", "Game of Death", "The Tamarind Seed", "Mary, Queen of Scots" and the theme for the television series "The Persuaders!", in a career spanning over 50 years. In 1999, he was appointed with an OBE for services to music.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Born in York, Barry spent his early years working in cinemas owned by his father. During his national service with the British Army in Cyprus, Barry began performing as a musician after learning to play the trumpet. Upon completing his national service, he formed a band in 1957, the John Barry Seven. He later developed an interest in composing and arranging music, making his début for television in 1958. He came to the notice of the makers of the first James Bond film "Dr. No", who were dissatisfied with a theme for James Bond given to them by Monty Norman. Noel Rogers, the head of music at United Artists, approached Barry. This started a successful association between Barry and the Bond series that lasted for 25 years.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry received awards including five Academy Awards: two for "Born Free" and one each for "The Lion in Winter" (for which he also won the first BAFTA Award for Best Film Music), "Out of Africa" and "Dances with Wolves" (both of which also won him Grammy Awards). He also received ten Golden Globe Award nominations, winning once for Best Original Score for "Out of Africa" in 1986. Barry completed his last film score, "Enigma", in 2001 and recorded the successful album "Eternal Echoes" the same year. He then concentrated chiefly on live performances and co-wrote the music to the musical "Brighton Rock" in 2004 alongside Don Black.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In 2001, Barry became a Fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors, and, in 2005, he was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Barry was married four times and had four children. He moved to the United States in 1975 and lived there until his death in 2011.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry was born John Barry Prendergast, in York, and was the son of an English mother and an Irish father. His mother was a classical pianist. His father, John Xavier "Jack" Prendergast, from Cork, was a projectionist during the silent film era, who later owned a chain of cinemas across northern England. As a result of his father's work, Barry was raised in and around cinemas in northern England and he later stated that this childhood background influenced his musical tastes and interests. He was the youngest of four children. He had two older brothers and one older sister. Barry was educated at St Peter's School, York, and also received composition lessons from Francis Jackson, Organist of York Minster.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Serving in the British Army, Barry spent his national service playing the trumpet, taking a correspondence course (with jazz composer Bill Russo). Barry after national service worked as an arranger for Jack Parnell's and Ted Heath's orchestras forming his own band in 1957, the John Barry Seven, The John Barry Seven scored hit records on the EMI's Columbia label. These included "Hit and Miss", the theme tune he composed for the BBC's "Juke Box Jury" programme, a cover of the Johnny Smith song "Walk Don't Run", and a cover of the theme for the United Artists western "The Magnificent Seven".


title: John Barry (composer)

text: By 1959 Barry was gaining commissions to arrange music for other acts, starting with a young trio on Decca, coincidentally called the Three Barry Sisters, though unrelated both to Barry and the more famous The Barry Sisters duo in America. The career breakthrough for Barry was the BBC television series "Drumbeat", when he appeared with the John Barry Seven. He was employed by EMI from 1959 until 1962 arranging orchestral accompaniments for the company's singers, including Adam Faith. He also composed songs (along with Les Vandyke) and scores for films in which Faith was featured. When Faith made his first film, "Beat Girl" (1960), Barry composed, arranged and conducted the film score, his first. His music was later released as the UK's first soundtrack album.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry also composed the music for another Faith film, "Never Let Go" (also 1960), orchestrated the score for "Mix Me a Person" (1962), and composed, arranged and conducted the score for "The Amorous Prawn" (also 1962). In 1962, Barry transferred to Ember Records, where he produced and arranged albums.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: These achievements caught the attention of the producers of a new film called "Dr. No" (1962) who were dissatisfied with a theme for James Bond given to them by Monty Norman. Barry was hired and the result was one of the most famous signature tunes in film history, the "James Bond Theme". (Credit goes to Monty Norman, see here.) When the producers of the Bond series engaged Lionel Bart to score the next James Bond film "From Russia with Love" (1963), they discovered that Bart could neither read nor write music. Though Bart wrote a title song for the film, the producers remembered Barry's arrangement of the James Bond Theme and his composing and arranging for several films with Adam Faith. Lionel Bart also recommended Barry to producer Stanley Baker for his 1964 film "Zulu". That same year Bart and Barry collaborated on the film "Man in the Middle"; and then, in 1965, Barry worked with director Bryan Forbes in scoring the World War II prison-camp drama "King Rat".


title: John Barry (composer)

text: This was the turning point for Barry, and he subsequently won five Academy Awards and four Grammy Awards, with scores for, among others, "Born Free" (1966), "The Lion in Winter" (1968), "Midnight Cowboy" (1969) for which he did not receive an on-screen credit, and "Somewhere in Time" (1980).


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry was often cited as having had a distinct style which concentrated on lush strings and extensive use of brass. However he was also an innovator, being one of the first to employ synthesizers in a film score ("On Her Majesty's Secret Service", also 1969), and to make wide use of pop artists and songs in "Midnight Cowboy". Because Barry provided not just the main title theme but the complete soundtrack score, his music often enhanced the critical reception of a film, notably in "Midnight Cowboy", "The Tamarind Seed", the first remake of "King Kong" (1976), "Out of Africa" (1985), and "Dances with Wolves" (1990). Barry would often watch films and would note down with pen and paper what worked or what did not.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry composed the theme for the TV series "The Persuaders!" (1971), also known as "The Unlucky Heroes", in which Tony Curtis and Roger Moore were paired as rich playboys solving crimes. The instrumental recording features the cimbalom (which Barry also used for "The Ipcress File" (1965) and other themes) and Moog synthesizers. The theme was a hit single in many European countries (including France, Germany, and the Benelux states), contributing to the cult status of the series in Europe, and the record featured Barry's "The Girl with the Sun in Her Hair" on the B side, an instrumental piece featured in a long running TV advert for Sunsilk shampoo. Barry also wrote the scores to a number of musicals, including the 1965 "Passion Flower Hotel" (lyrics by Trevor Peacock), the successful 1974 West End show "Billy" (lyrics by Don Black), and two intended Broadway musicals that never opened on Broadway, "Lolita, My Love" (1971), with Alan Jay Lerner as lyricist, and "The Little Prince and the Aviator" (1981), again with lyricist Don Black. Barry also composed the soundtrack for the Bruce Lee film "Game of Death" (1978).


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In 2001, the University of York conferred an honorary degree on Barry, and in 2002 he was named an Honorary Freeman of the City of York.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: During 2006, Barry was the executive producer on an album entitled "Here's to the Heroes" by the Australian ensemble The Ten Tenors. The album features a number of songs Barry wrote in collaboration with his lyricist friend, Don Black. Barry and Black also composed one of the songs on Shirley Bassey's 2009 album, "The Performance". The song, entitled "Our Time Is Now", is the first written by the duo for Bassey since "Diamonds Are Forever".


title: John Barry (composer)

text: After the success of "Dr. No", Barry was hired to compose and perform eleven of the next fourteen "James Bond" films.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In his tenure with the film series, Barry's music, variously brassy and moody, achieved very wide appeal. For "From Russia with Love" he composed "007", an alternative James Bond signature theme, which is featured in four other Bond films ("Thunderball", "You Only Live Twice", "Diamonds Are Forever", and "Moonraker". The theme "Stalking", for the teaser sequence of "From Russia with Love", was covered by colleague Marvin Hamlisch for "The Spy Who Loved Me" (1977). Barry also contributed indirectly to the soundtrack of the spoof version of "Casino Royale" (1967): his "Born Free" theme appears briefly in the opening sequence.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In "Goldfinger" (1964), he perfected the "Bond sound", a heady mixture of brass, jazz elements and sensuous melodies. There is even an element of Barry's jazz roots in the big-band track "Into Miami", which follows the title credits and accompanies the film's iconic image of the camera lens zooming toward the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami Beach.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry's love for the Russian romantic composers is often reflected in his music; in his Bond scores he unites this with brass-heavy jazz writing. His use of strings, lyricism, half-diminished chords and complex key shifting provides melancholy contrast; in his scores this is often heard in variations of the title songs that are used to underscore plot development.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: As Barry matured, the Bond scores became more lushly melodic (along with other scores of his such as "The Tamarind Seed" and "Out of Africa") as in "Moonraker" (1979) and "Octopussy" (1983). Barry's score for "A View to a Kill" was traditional, but his collaboration with Duran Duran for the title song was contemporary and reached number one in the United States and number two in the UK Singles Chart. Both "A View to a Kill" and "The Living Daylights" theme by A-ha blended the pop music style of the bands with Barry's orchestration.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In 2006, A-ha's Pal Waaktaar complimented Barry's contributions: "I loved the stuff he added to the track, I mean it gave it this really cool string arrangement. That's when for me it started to sound like a Bond thing."


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry's last score for the Bond series was "The Living Daylights" (1987), Timothy Dalton's first film in the series, with Barry making a cameo appearance as a conductor in the film. Barry was intended to score "Licence to Kill" (1989) but was recovering from throat surgery at the time, and it was considered unsafe to fly him to London to complete the score. The score was completed by Michael Kamen.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: David Arnold, a British composer, saw the result of two years' work in 1997 with the release of "Shaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project", an album of new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. Arnold thanks Barry in the sleeve notes, referring to him as "the Guvnor". Almost all of the tracks were John Barry compositions, and the revision of his work met with his approval – he contacted Barbara Broccoli, producer of the then upcoming "Tomorrow Never Dies", to recommend Arnold as the film's composer. Arnold also went on to score four subsequent Bond films: "The World Is Not Enough", "Die Another Day", "Casino Royale" and "Quantum of Solace".


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Sole compositional credit for the "James Bond Theme" is assigned to Monty Norman, who was contracted as composer for "Dr. No". Nearly 40 years later, in 2001, the disputed authorship of the theme was examined legally in the High Court in London after Norman sued "The Sunday Times" for libel for publishing an article in 1997 in which Barry was named as the true composer; Barry testified for the defence.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In court, Barry testified that he had been handed a musical manuscript of a work by Norman (meant to become the theme) and that he was to arrange it musically, and that he composed additional music and arranged the "James Bond Theme". The court was also told that Norman received sole credit because of his prior contract with the producers. Barry said that a deal was struck whereby he would receive a flat fee of £250 and Norman would receive the songwriting credit. Barry said that he had accepted the deal with United Artists Head of Music Noel Rogers because it would help his career. Despite these claims, the jury ruled unanimously in favour of Norman.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: On 7 September 2006, John Barry reiterated his claim of authorship of the theme on the Steve Wright show on BBC Radio 2.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry was married four times. His first three marriages, to Barbara Pickard (1959–63), Jane Birkin (1965–68) and Jane Sidey (1969–78) all ended in divorce. He was married to his fourth wife, Laurie, from January 1978 until his death. The couple had a son, Jonpatrick. Barry had three daughters: Suzanne with his first wife, Barbara; Kate with his second wife, Jane; and Sian, from a relationship with Ulla Larson between the first two marriages.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In 1975, Barry moved to the US. A British judge later accused him of emigrating to avoid paying £134,000 due the Inland Revenue. The matter was resolved in the late 1980s, and Barry was able to return to the UK. He subsequently lived for many years in the United States, mainly in Oyster Bay, New York, in Centre Island on Long Island, from 1980.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry suffered a rupture of the esophagus in 1988, following a toxic reaction to a health tonic he had consumed. The incident rendered him unable to work for two years and left him vulnerable to pneumonia.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: A memorial concert took place on 20 June 2011 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, where the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Shirley Bassey, Rumer, David Arnold, Wynne Evans and others performed Barry's music. Sir George Martin, Sir Michael Parkinson, Don Black, Timothy Dalton and others also contributed to the celebration of his life and work. The event was sponsored by the Royal College of Music through a grant by the Broccoli Foundation.


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In 1999, Barry was made an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to music. He received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award in 2005. In 2005, the American Film Institute ranked Barry's score for "Out of Africa" No. 15 on their list of the greatest film scores. His scores and original songs for the following films were nominated:


title: John Barry (composer)

text: Barry worked on the soundtracks for the following James Bond films (title song collaborators in brackets):


title: John Barry (composer)

text: In addition, a brief excerpt from the song "Born Free" is heard during a sequence in the non-EON Productions Bond film, "Casino Royale" (1967).


title: Ham

text: Ham is pork from a leg cut that has been preserved by wet or dry curing, with or without smoking. As a processed meat, the term "ham" includes both whole cuts of meat and ones that have been mechanically formed.


title: Ham

text: Ham is made around the world, including a number of regional specialties, such as Westphalian ham and some varieties of Spanish "jamón". In addition, numerous ham products have specific geographical naming protection, such as prosciutto di Parma in Europe, and Smithfield ham in the US.


title: Ham

text: The preserving of pork leg as ham has a long history, with traces of production of cured ham among the Etruscan civilization known in the 6th and 5th century BC.


title: Ham

text: There are claims that the Chinese were the first people to mention the production of cured ham. " claims an origin from Gaul. It was certainly well established by the Roman period, as evidenced by an import trade from Gaul mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his writings.


title: Ham

text: The modern word "ham" is derived from the Old English ' or ' meaning the hollow or bend of the knee, from a Germanic base where it meant "crooked". It began to refer to the cut of pork derived from the hind leg of a pig around the 15th century.


title: Ham

text: Because of the preservation process, ham is a compound foodstuff or ingredient, being made up of the original meat, as well as the remnants of the preserving agent(s), such as salt, but it is still recognised as a food in its own right.


title: Ham

text: Ham is produced by curing raw pork by salting, also known as dry curing, or brining, also known as wet curing. Additionally, smoking may be employed, and seasonings may be added.


title: Ham

text: Traditional dry cure hams may use only salt as the curative agent, such as with San Daniele or Parma hams, although this is comparatively rare. This process involves cleaning the raw meat, covering it in salt while it is gradually pressed draining all the blood. Specific herbs and spices may be used to add flavour during this step. The hams are then washed and hung in a dark, temperature-regulated place until dry. It is then hung to air for another period of time.


title: Ham

text: The duration of the curing process varies by the type of ham. For example, Jinhua ham takes approximately 8 to 10 months to complete, Serrano ham cures in 9–12 months, Parma ham takes more than 12 months, and Iberian ham can take up to 2 years to reach the desired flavor characteristics.


title: Ham

text: Most modern dry cure hams also use nitrites (either sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite), which are added along with the salt. Nitrites are used because they prevent bacterial growth and, in a reaction with the meat's myoglobin, give the product a desirable dark red color. The amount and mixture of salt and nitrites used have an effect on the shrinkage of the meat. Because of the toxicity of nitrite, some areas specify a maximum allowable content of nitrite in the final product. Under certain conditions, especially during cooking, nitrites in meat can react with degradation products of amino acids, forming nitrosamines, which are known carcinogens.