title: Paths of Glory

text: Kubrick eventually hired Calder Willingham to work on the script of "Paths of Glory" (1957), of which Jim Thompson had written earlier drafts. The specific contributions by Kubrick, Thompson, and Willingham to the final script were disputed, and the matter went to arbitration with the Writers' Guild. Willingham claimed that Thompson had minimal involvement in the final script of the film, claiming responsibility for 99 percent of "Paths of Glory" for himself and that Thompson had not written any of the dialogue. When Thompson's draft screenplay was compared to the final film, it was clear that Thompson had written seven scenes, including the reconnaissance mission and the soldiers the night before their executions by firing squad. In the end, the Writers' Guild attributed the script in the order of Kubrick, Willingham and then Thompson.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Parts of the screenplay were taken from Cobb's work verbatim. However, Kubrick made several changes to the narrative of the novel in his adaptation, most notably his shift of focus to Colonel Dax, as opposed to Paris, Ferol and Arnaud as in the novel.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Primarily, Kubrick and Thompson had added a happy ending to the film to make the film more commercial to the general public, where the men's lives are saved from execution at the last minute by the general. However, these changes were reversed back more closely to the original novel at the demand of Kirk Douglas. On the Criterion Collection Blu-ray, James B. Harris claims to have gotten this ending past distributors by sending the entire script instead of just the reversed ending, in the knowledge that those distributors would not read through the whole script again. After viewing the film, United Artists was happy with the changes and left the ending as it is.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Production took place entirely in Bavaria, Germany, especially at the Schleissheim Palace near Munich. Timothy Carey was fired during production. He was reportedly extremely difficult to work with, even to the extent of faking his own kidnapping, holding up the whole production. He was replaced in the scenes remaining to be shot with a double. The film cost slightly less than $1 million and just about broke even.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Due to having three years' military training, around 600 German police officers were used as extras for soldiers. The last scenes filmed were those that take place on the battlefield. For the construction of the battlefield, Kubrick hired 5,000 square yards (0.4 hectares) of land from a local farmer. It took Kubrick a month to set up the filming of the assault, arranging props and tearing up the field to look like a war zone. For the filming of the battle sequence, the battlefield was divided into five regions where explosive charges were specifically placed. This made it easier for Kubrick to film the dying of extras as he split the extras into five groups, one for each of the regions, and each man would die in his own zone by an explosion that was near him.


title: Paths of Glory

text: An early critical test of Kubrick's obsession with control on the set came during the making of "Paths of Glory". As recalled by Kirk Douglas:


title: Paths of Glory

text: The only female character in the film, the woman who sings "The Faithful Hussar", is portrayed by German actress Christiane Harlan (credited in the film as Susanne Christian). An affecting scene towards the end of the film shows actress Harlan briefly appearing to sing a German song, timidly evoking emotion in both the audience and the soldiers. She and Kubrick later married; the couple remained together until his death in 1999. It was on set that they originally had met.


title: Paths of Glory

text: "Paths of Glory" employs both camera-work and audio cues to create a sense of realism, thus making it easier for the audience to sympathise with the plight of the accused soldiers. In the beginning of the film a snare drum plays, and the music is reminiscent of war era newsreels. During the battle sequences, the camera keeps pace with the soldiers but in other ways, the shots look like old trench warfare footage from World War I. The film's choice of black and white further emphasises its similarity to the actual newsreels of the conflict.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Kubrick's vision of war was far bleaker than that of some other films of the era, which also influenced the director's choice to shoot the picture in black and white. The visuals also allow the audience to see the difference between "life in the trenches" and "life in the command". From the opulent mansion of the high-ranking officers, the audience notices wide shots from the exterior and the interior. The viewer misses nothing; every decadent piece of furniture, jewelry or bauble that the senior officers have, in sharp contrast to the trenches where the shots are much tighter. Close ups and point-of-view shots (e.g. from Colonel Dax's perspective) are cramped and tight, suffocating for the audience. Switching to a shot in front of Dax's person, e.g. a walking shot, the audience becomes much like the other soldiers accompanying him in the trenches, feeling stuck and trapped in the confined and dangerous space.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The musical score by Gerald Fried makes extensive use of percussion instruments, specifically military drums.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Kubrick used sound, or the lack thereof, to build tension and suspense in the film, particularly towards the beginning when the three soldiers are given orders to check on the Anthill. This scene is in silence, with no use of diegetic/non-diegetic sound, working well to add depth and rawness. Much of what the viewer can hear throughout the film is explosions in the distance and the sound of a whistle being blown, further adding to the overall documentary style of the film. The lack of a big bold score gives no suggestion of heroism to the plot of the film, and the sounds of people dying are a common trope associated with Stanley Kubrick's films. The song towards the ending happens within the narrative. In the tavern with the French soldiers of Dax's regiment, a young woman sings a traditional German folk song of that era, "Der treue Husar". With Kubrick's use of mise-en-scene, the audience is able to see the German woman's performance bring the men to tears through various close-ups and angles. The troopers begin to hum and eventually sing along to the tune in an expression of their basic humanity. "Paths of Glory" later ends in the same way it began with the familiar snare/drum roll used in the opening, indicative of a lack of change throughout the film. Kubrick's use of sounds and song functions as a kind of narration for the audience, linking each sound to a later or earlier scene in the film.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The film had its "world premiere" in Munich, Germany on November 1, 1957 A month and a half before that event, on September 18, a special screening of Kubrick's production was also presented in Munich, but then to a very select audience. Frank Gordon, reporting from the Bavarian capital for the widely read New York trade paper "Variety", describes the earlier presentation in the paper's September 27 issue:


title: Paths of Glory

text: In the United States, the picture was not officially released nationwide until January 1958, although it was shown in two major cities prior to that: in Los Angeles, California at the Fine Arts Theatre on December 20, 1957 and then five days later, on Christmas Day, in New York City at the Victoria Theatre. The American trade journal "Motion Picture Daily" explained at the time that "Paths" was being shown in those cities before the end of 1957 to ensure the film would qualify for nominations for the next Academy Award ceremonies, which were to be held on March 26, 1958.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Assessments vary with regard to the film's ultimate success at the box office, with some sources citing it as a modest financial success and others noting that it only managed to recoup most, if not all, of its production costs. The film did, however, earn Kubrick widespread critical acclaim, while it also generated widespread controversy, especially in Europe.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Although the film did not receive a single nomination for the Academy Awards of 1958, it was nominated for and collected several international awards. Those awards and many positive reviews from film critics further enhanced Kubrick's already growing reputation. The film was nominated for a BAFTA Award under the category Best Film but lost to "The Bridge on the River Kwai". The production also received in Finland the Jussi Awards' Diploma of Merit, was nominated for a Writers' Guild of America Award in 1959, and won the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association. Kubrick himself received on February 17, 1959 in Rome the Italian critics' Silver Ribbon, an award recognizing him as "the best foreign director of 1958 for his movie 'Paths of Glory'."


title: Paths of Glory

text: On its release, the film's anti-military tone was subject to severe public criticism and governmental censorship.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Despite the film's harsh reception in Europe by various governments, French war veterans, and media outlets, in the months after the motion picture's initial screenings in the United States, reactions to Kubrick's production featured in American newspapers and trade publications were generally positive. Nevertheless, perceived deficiencies in the film's structure and content were expressed by some of the nation's leading reviewers in 1957 and 1958.


title: Paths of Glory

text: In his December 26, 1957, review for "The New York Times", Bosley Crowther credits Kubrick for creating a visually "terrific", highly intense picture. In particular, Crowther draws attention to the story's execution scene, which he describes as "one of the most craftily directed and emotionally lacerating that we have ever seen." He does, though, also identify two "troubling flaws" that he saw in the film, one being within the "realm of technique", the other within the "realm of significance":


title: Paths of Glory

text: The absence of any spoken French or suitably accented English dialogue in a highly focused portrayal of French soldiers continued to be a point of debate in American critical analysis of "Paths of Glory". Philip K. Scheuer, who wrote about films for the "Los Angeles Times" from the 1920s to 1967, was another reviewer who addressed the issue again in the newspaper's January 16, 1958, edition. In a follow-up discussion about the "controversial war picture", in a commentary subtitled "Question of Foreign Accents Raised by 'Paths of Glory'", Scheuer cites the style of speech used in the film and the screenplay's "weak" ending as two reasons he omitted the production from his "selection of 1957's best". Like Bosley Crowther, he found the "linguistic" aspects of the dialogue wholly distracting. "In 'Paths'", Scheuer writes, "the actors all...employ ordinary colloquial Englishmuch of it, I felt, delivered badlyalthough Adolph Menjou, being of French descent, did convey a certain quality of Frenchness," adding, "The others were simply Hollywood types."


title: Paths of Glory

text: The overriding tone of the motion picture also evoked comments about the picture's marketability, namely its scant appeal to a very large segment of moviegoers. "Grim" is the word that frequently appears in contemporary reviews of the film, an adjective understandably applied given the story's brutal subject matter, and a word still commonly used even in complimentary assessments by critics. In its March 18, 1958 edition, the "Chicago Daily Tribune" summarizes the release as "a grim, forceful story, presented in blunt, unvarnished fashion, entirely lacking in the customary cliches, deftly directed." Whitney Williams, a critic for "Variety", previewed the film six weeks before it opened at the Fine Arts Theatre in Los Angeles. In his review, which was published on November 20, 1957, Williams anticipates limited interest as well as limited box-office revenue for the picture:


title: Paths of Glory

text: "Harrison's Reports", an independent and advertisement-free film review journal in 1957, agreed with "Variety"'s critic and in November expressed doubts too that the "World War I melodrama" would be successful commercially after its general release in January 1958. "Just how it will fare at the box-office is a matter of conjecture", "Harrison's" stated, characterizing its central theme as "a grim and unpleasant study of man's inhumanity toward man".


title: Paths of Glory

text: Edwin S. Schallert, a fellow critic of Philip Scheuer at the "Los Angeles Times", also attended the film's first screening in Los Angeles on December 20, 1957. The following day the newspaper published Schallert's evaluation, which begins by classifying "Paths of Glory" as "A minor contribution but an interesting one to the war effort on the screen". Next he describes the drama's storyline in some detail before addressing specifically the film's final scene, which he found odd and disconnected in its presentation so soon after "the grim gray execution". "Susanne Christian", Schallert writes, "is seen as the German girl forced to sing to a huge body of [French] troops right at the end of the picturea peculiar sort of payoff for the miscarriage of justice to which the whole gathering of men seems to be oblivious." He then concludes, "'Paths of Glory' is a commendably sincere picture, very well told for the most part, though it does not fulfill itself in the best screen and entertainment terms. It is practically like a documentary."


title: Paths of Glory

text: The review in "Harrison's Reports" addressed the ending as well, maintaining that it was the "picture's one weak spot", was "difficult to understand", and "leaves one with a feeling that it is inconclusive". The journal then offered its own interpretation of the final scenes. From "Harrison's" perspective, as Colonel Dax is returning to his quarters after his confrontations with his superior officers, "he notices his soldiers enjoying themselves in a cafe. It disgusts him to think that they had so quickly forgotten their executed comrades, but he compassionately realizes that life must go on." Whitney Williams in "Variety" also commented about the film's finale, noting that it "ends so abruptly [the] audience is left with a feeling of incompletion."


title: Paths of Glory

text: Other assorted critics in newspapers and trade publications viewed the film's ending and the production's significance cinematically far differently than the cited critics at the "Los Angeles Times" or the reviewers for "Harrison's Reports" and "Variety". Richard Gertner of the New York-based trade paper "Motion Picture Daily" was one of them. He, unlike Edwin Schallert, did not see "Paths of Glory" as a "minor contribution" to the genre of wartime portrayals. Nor did he find its closing scenes "peculiar"; but instead, "poignant". After viewing what he termed "a brilliant and arresting film" only a few weeks after its world premiere in Munich, Gertner highly recommended it to his readers, many of whom were theater owners. He then advised those motion picture "exhibitors" not to misjudge the film's content in advance:


title: Paths of Glory

text: Finally, in contrast to Philip Scheuer's omission of the production from his "selection of 1957's best", Gertner ends his appraisal emphatically: "No doubt about it'Paths of Glory' is one of the strongest dramas of the year."


title: Paths of Glory

text: In spite of issues being raised in various reviews about the film's manner of dialogue, its anticipated marketing challenges, and its ending, in the United States in 1957 and 1958 there was near universal admiration expressed for the directorial abilities and technical expertise that the 29-year-old Kubrick exhibited in the production. Jay Carmodythe drama critic for "The Evening Star" in Washington, D.C. and winner of the Screen Directors Guild's "Critic of the Year" award for 1956commended Kubrick for directing a "film with sting" and doing so with "chilling incisiveness". At the "New York Herald Tribune", critic William Zinsser judges the film to be "outstanding" in his December 26, 1957 review and describes Kubrick's direction and editing as first-rate. "His scenes", Zinsser observes, "are vivid and well composed, and he knows the art of cuttingthe scenes make their point, with economy and bite, and move on." Even at this relatively early stage in Kubrick's career directing feature films, he had already gained a reputation in the motion picture industry for commanding all aspects of his projects and being, as one colleague described him, "'meticulous with everything, from scripting to editing'". What is notably missing, however, from Zinsser's comments or in other contemporary reviews about the quality of the production's "cutting" are any allusions to Eva Kroll, the film's credited editor, and to her contributions in helping to construct or at least refine the end product.


title: Paths of Glory

text: More than three decades after the release of "Paths of Glory", American director Robert Zemeckis paid homage to the film with the 1991 "Tales from the Crypt" episode "Yellow". The episode was an adaptation of the 1952 "Shock SuspenStories" story, "Yellow!", about a WWII U.S. Army colonel whose son, a lieutenant, exhibits cowardice and is sentenced to face the firing squad. The father makes the son falsely believe that the firing squad will be firing blanks, so that the son will not exhibit cowardice before his execution. Zemeckis changed the setting to World War I, and cast Kirk Douglas and his son Eric Douglas in the father and son roles.


title: Paths of Glory

text: David Simon, creator of the critically acclaimed television series "The Wire" (20022008), has said that "Paths of Glory" was a key influence on the HBO crime drama. The influence of the film comes in its depiction of the tribulations of "middle management", in the form of Dax's unsuccessful attempt to protect his troops against the inhumane ambitions of his superiors, which in turn influenced "The Wire"'s depiction of various institutions acting against individuals.


title: Paths of Glory

text: "Chicago Sun-Times" critic Roger Ebert added the film to his "Great Movies" list on February 25, 2005. Years earlier, on a 1987 episode of the televised film review series "At the Movies", critic Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" debated with co-host Ebert about the respective merits of several Kubrick productions. Siskel in their discussions declared "Paths of Glory" to be "a near perfect film", one that in his opinion was surpassed in overall quality only by Kubrick's dark comedy "Dr. Strangelove".


title: Paths of Glory

text: An indication of the film's enduring popularity can be found on the American review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. As of 2022, the film holds a 96% rating based on 74 reviews with an average rating of 9/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Paths of Glory" is a transcendentally humane war movie from Stanley Kubrick, with impressive, protracted battle sequences and a knock-out ending". On Metacritic, the film has a score of 90 out of 100 based on reviews from 18 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Paths of Glory

text: In 1992, the film was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In October and November 2004 the film was shown at the London Film Festival by the British Film Institute. It was carefully remastered over a period of several years; the original film elements were found to be damaged. However, with the aid of several modern digital studios in Los Angeles the film was completely restored and remastered for modern cinema. In addition, Stanley Kubrick's widow Christiane (who also appears in the closing scene as the German singer) made a guest appearance at the start of the performance.


title: Paths of Glory

text: MGM released the VHS format on July 21, 1997, followed by the DVD version on June 29, 1999. The Criterion Collection's first release of the film was for a Laserdisc release in 1989. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by The Criterion Collection with a high-definition digital transfer on October 26, 2010.


title: Paths of Glory

text: In 2022, Kino Lorber have detailed their upcoming 4K Blu-ray release of the film, restored from the original camera negative. This release also features an audio commentary by critic Tim Lucas. This edition was released on August 23, 2022.


title: V speeds

text: In aviation, V-speeds are standard terms used to define airspeeds important or useful to the operation of all aircraft. These speeds are derived from data obtained by aircraft designers and manufacturers during flight testing for aircraft type-certification. Using them is considered a best practice to maximize aviation safety, aircraft performance, or both.


title: V speeds

text: The actual speeds represented by these designators are specific to a particular model of aircraft. They are expressed by the aircraft's indicated airspeed (and not by, for example, the ground speed), so that pilots may use them directly, without having to apply correction factors, as aircraft instruments also show indicated airspeed.


title: V speeds

text: In general aviation aircraft, the most commonly used and most safety-critical airspeeds are displayed as color-coded arcs and lines located on the face of an aircraft's airspeed indicator. The lower ends of the white arc and the green arc are the stalling speed with wing flaps in landing configuration, and stalling speed with wing flaps retracted, respectively. These are the stalling speeds for the aircraft at its maximum weight. The yellow band is the range in which the aircraft may be operated in smooth air, and then only with caution to avoid abrupt control movement. The red line is the V, the never-exceed speed.


title: V speeds

text: Proper display of V-speeds is an airworthiness requirement for type-certificated aircraft in most countries.


title: V speeds

text: The most common V-speeds are often defined by a particular government's aviation regulations. In the United States, these are defined in title 14 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations, known as the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). In Canada, the regulatory body, Transport Canada, defines 26 commonly used V-speeds in their Aeronautical Information Manual. V-speed definitions in FAR 23, 25 and equivalent are for designing and certification of airplanes, not for their operational use. The descriptions below are for use by pilots.


title: V speeds

text: These V-speeds are defined by regulations. They are typically defined with constraints such as weight, configuration, or phases of flight. Some of these constraints have been omitted to simplify the description.


title: V speeds

text: Some of these V-speeds are specific to particular types of aircraft and are not defined by regulations.


title: V speeds

text: Whenever a limiting speed is expressed by a Mach number, it is expressed relative to the local speed of sound, e.g. V: Maximum operating speed, M: Maximum operating Mach number.


title: V speeds

text: V is the critical engine failure recognition speed or takeoff decision speed. It is the speed above which the takeoff will continue even if an engine fails or another problem occurs, such as a blown tire. The speed will vary among aircraft types and varies according to factors such as aircraft weight, runway length, wing flap setting, engine thrust used and runway surface contamination, thus it must be determined by the pilot before takeoff. Aborting a takeoff after V is strongly discouraged because the aircraft may not be able to stop before the end of the runway, thus suffering a runway overrun.


title: V speeds

text: V is defined differently in different jurisdictions, and definitions change over time as aircraft regulations are amended.


title: Berry

text: A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples are strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, red currants, white currants and blackcurrants. In Britain, soft fruit is a horticultural term for such fruits.


title: Berry

text: In common usage, the term "berry" differs from the scientific or botanical definition of a fruit produced from the ovary of a single flower in which the outer layer of the ovary wall develops into an edible fleshy portion (pericarp). The botanical definition includes many fruits that are not commonly known or referred to as berries, such as grapes, tomatoes, cucumbers, eggplants, bananas, and chili peppers. Fruits commonly considered berries but excluded by the botanical definition include strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries, which are aggregate fruits and mulberries, which are multiple fruits. Watermelons and pumpkins are giant berries that fall into the category "pepos". A plant bearing berries is said to be "bacciferous" or "baccate".


title: Berry

text: Berries are eaten worldwide and often used in jams, preserves, cakes, or pies. Some berries are commercially important. The berry industry varies from country to country as do types of berries cultivated or growing in the wild. Some berries such as raspberries and strawberries have been bred for hundreds of years and are distinct from their wild counterparts, while other berries, such as lingonberries and cloudberries, grow almost exclusively in the wild.


title: Berry

text: While many berries are edible, some are poisonous to humans, such as deadly nightshade and pokeweed. Others, such as the white mulberry, red mulberry, and elderberry, are poisonous when unripe, but are edible when ripe.


title: Berry

text: Berries have been valuable as a food source for humans since before the start of agriculture, and remain among the primary food sources of other primates. They were a seasonal staple for early hunter-gatherers for thousands of years, and wild berry gathering remains a popular activity in Europe and North America today. In time, humans learned to store berries so that they could be used in the winter. They may be made into fruit preserves, and among Native Americans, mixed with meat and fats as pemmican.


title: Berry

text: Berries also began to be cultivated in Europe and other countries. Some species of blackberries and raspberries of the genus "Rubus" have been cultivated since the 17th century, while smooth-skinned blueberries and cranberries of the genus "Vaccinium" have been cultivated in the United States for over a century. In Japan, between the 10th and 18th centuries, the terms and referred to many berry crops. The most widely cultivated berry of modern times, however, is the strawberry, which is produced globally at twice the amount of all other berry crops combined.


title: Berry

text: The strawberry was mentioned by ancient Romans, who thought it had medicinal properties, but it was then not a staple of agriculture. Woodland strawberries began to be grown in French gardens in the 14th century. The musk strawberry ("F. moschata"), also known as the hautbois strawberry, began to be grown in European gardens in the late 16th century. Later, the Virginia strawberry was grown in Europe and the United States. The most commonly consumed strawberry, the garden strawberry ("F. ananassa"), is an accidental hybrid of the Virginia strawberry and a Chilean variety "Fragaria chiloensis". It was first noted by a French gardener around the mid 18th century that, when "F. moschata" and "F. virginiana" were planted in between rows of "F. chiloensis", the Chilean strawberry would bear abundant and unusually large fruits. Soon after, Antoine Nicolas Duchesne began to study the breeding of strawberries and made several discoveries crucial to the science of plant breeding, such as the sexual reproduction of strawberry. Later, in the early 1800s, English breeders of strawberry made varieties of "F. ananassa" which were important in strawberry breeding in Europe, and hundreds of cultivars have since been produced through the breeding of strawberries.


title: Berry

text: The Old English word berie ("berry, grape,") comes from Proto-Germanic *basjom (source also of Old Norse ber, Middle Dutch bere, German Beere "berry;" Old Saxon winberi, Gothic weinabasi "grape"), which is of unknown origin. This and apple are the only native fruit names.


title: Berry

text: In botanical terminology, a berry is a simple fruit with seeds and pulp produced from the ovary of a single flower. It is fleshy throughout, except for the seeds. It does not have a special "line of weakness" along which it splits to release the seeds when ripe (i.e. it is indehiscent). A berry may develop from an ovary with one or more carpels (the female reproductive structures of a flower). The seeds are usually embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary, but there are some non-fleshy examples such as peppers, with air rather than pulp around their seeds. The differences between the everyday and botanical uses of "berry" results in three categories: those fruits that are berries under both definitions; those fruits that are botanical berries but not commonly known as berries; and those parts of plants commonly known as berries that are not botanical berries, and may not even be fruits.


title: Berry

text: Berries under both definitions include blueberries, cranberries, lingonberries, and the fruits of many other members of the heather family, as well as gooseberries, goji berries and elderberries. The fruits of some "currants" ("Ribes" species), such as blackcurrants, red currants and white currants, are botanical berries, and are treated as horticultural berries (or as soft fruit in the UK), even though their most commonly used names do not include the word "berry".


title: Berry

text: Botanical berries not commonly known as berries include bananas, tomatoes, grapes, eggplants (aubergines), persimmons, watermelons, and pumpkins.


title: Berry

text: There are several different kinds of fruits which are commonly called berries, but are not botanical berries. Blackberries, raspberries, and strawberries are kinds of aggregate fruit; they contain seeds from different ovaries of a single flower. In aggregate fruits like blackberries, the individual "fruitlets" making up the fruit can be clearly seen. The fruits of blackthorn may be called "sloe berries", but botanically are small stone fruits or drupes, like plums or apricots. Junipers and yews are commonly said to have berries, but these differ from botanical berries and are instead highly modified seed-bearing cones. In juniper berries, used to flavour gin, the cone scales, which are hard and woody in most conifers, are instead soft and fleshy when ripe. The bright red berries of yews consist of a fleshy outgrowth (aril) almost enclosing the poisonous seed.


title: Berry

text: Strawberries have been grown in gardens in Europe since the 14th century. Blueberries were domesticated starting in 1911, with the first commercial crop in 1916. Huckleberries of all varieties are not fully domesticated, but domestication was attempted from 1994 to 2010 for the economically significant western huckleberry. Many other varieties of "Vaccinium" are likewise not domesticated, with some being of commercial importance.


title: Berry

text: Like most other food crops, berries are commercially grown, with both conventional pest management and integrated pest management (IPM) practices. Organically certified berries are becoming more widely available.


title: Berry

text: Many soft fruit berries require a period of temperatures between for breaking dormancy. In general, strawberries require 200–300 hours, blueberries 650–850 hours, blackberries 700 hours, raspberries 800–1700 hours, currants and gooseberries 800–1500 hours, and cranberries 2000 hours. However, too low a temperature will kill the crops: blueberries do not tolerate temperatures below , raspberries, depending on variety, may tolerate as low as , and blackberries are injured below . Spring frosts are, however, much more damaging to berry crops than low winter temperatures. Sites with moderate slopes (3–5%), facing north or east, in the northern hemisphere, near large bodies of water, which regulate spring temperature, are considered ideal in preventing spring frost injury to the new leaves and flowers. All berry crops have shallow root systems. Many land-grant university extension offices suggest that strawberries should not be planted more than five years on the same site, due to the danger of black root rot (though many other illnesses go by the same name), which in the past has been controlled in major commercial production by annual methyl bromide fumigation but is largely prohibited now. Besides the number of years in production, soil compaction, the frequency of fumigation, and herbicide usages increase the appearance of black root rot in strawberries. Raspberries, blackberries, strawberries, and many other berries are susceptible to verticillium wilt. Blueberries and cranberries grow poorly if the clay or silt content of the soil is more than 20%, while most other berries tolerate a wide range of soil types. For most berry crops, the ideal soil is well drained sandy loam, with a pH of 6.2–6.8 and a moderate to high organic content; however, blueberries have an ideal pH of 4.2–4.8 and can be grown on muck soils, while blueberries and cranberries prefer poorer soils with lower cation exchange, lower calcium, and lower levels of phosphorus.


title: Berry

text: Growing most berries organically requires the use of proper crop rotation, the right mix of cover crops, and the cultivation of the correct beneficial microorganisms in the soil. As blueberries and cranberries thrive in soils that are not hospitable to most other plants, and conventional fertilizers are toxic to them, the primary concern when growing them organically is bird management.


title: Berry

text: Postharvest small fruit berries are generally stored at 90–95% relative humidity and . Cranberries, however, are frost sensitive, and should be stored at . Blueberries are the only berries that respond to ethylene, but flavor does not improve after harvest, so they require the same treatment as other berries. Removal of ethylene may reduce disease and spoilage in all berries. Precooling within one to two hours post-harvest to storage temperature, generally , via forced air cooling increases the storage life of berries by about a third. Under optimum storage conditions, raspberries and blackberries last for two to five days, strawberries 7–10 days, blueberries two to four weeks, and cranberries two to four months. Berries can be shipped under high carbon dioxide or modified atmosphere of 10–15% carbon dioxide for high carbon dioxide or 15–20% carbon dioxide and 5–10% oxygen for a modified atmosphere container to increase shelf life and prevent grey mold rot.


title: Berry

text: Several discoveries in the science of breeding berries were made in the 18th century by Antoine Nicolas Duchesne in his work on strawberries. In the traditional technique of plant breeding, berries with specific desirable characteristics were chosen and allowed to sexually reproduce with other berries, and offspring with improved traits could then be selected and used for further crossing. Plants may be hybridized with different species within the same genus; hybridization between different genus may also be possible, but more difficult. Breeding may seek to increase the size and yield of the fruit, improve the flavor and quality of its nutrient content, such as antioxidants, expand the harvest season, and produce cultivars with resistance to diseases, tolerance of hot or cold conditions, and other desirable traits. Advancements in molecular biology and genetic engineering allow for a more efficient and better targeted approach in the selection for a desirable genotype, via marker-assisted selection, for example. Genetic modification techniques can also be used for breeding berries.


title: Berry

text: Some fruit not commonly referred to as berries and not always botanically berries are included by land-grant university extension offices in their guides for berry cultivation, or in guides for identifying local wild edible and non-edible berries. Examples include beach plums, American persimmons, pawpaws, Pacific crabapples, and prickly pears.


title: Berry

text: In certain regions, berrypicking can be a large part of the economy, and it is becoming increasingly common for western European countries such as Sweden and Finland to import cheap labor from Thailand or Bulgaria to do the berry picking. This practice has come under scrutiny in the past years because of the low wages and poor living standard for the "berry-pickers", as well as the lack of worker safety.


title: Berry

text: In the late 2010s in the US, reduced migration from Mexico and increased minimum wage standards have made finding "stoop-work" labourers to pick the strawberry crop difficult and costly.


title: Berry

text: Once ripened, berries have a contrasting color to their background (often of green leaves), making them visible and attractive to frugivorous animals and birds. This assists the wide dispersal of the plants' seeds.


title: Berry

text: Berry colors are due to natural phytochemicals, including plant pigments, such as anthocyanins, together with other flavonoids localized mainly in berry skins, seeds and leaves. Although berry pigments have antioxidant properties "in vitro", there is no physiological evidence established to date that berry pigments have actual antioxidant or any other functions within the human body. Consequently, it is not permitted to claim that foods containing polyphenols have antioxidant health value on product labels in the United States or Europe.


title: Berry

text: Berries are commonly used in pies or tarts, such as blueberry pie, blackberry pie, and strawberry pie.


title: Berry

text: Berries are often used in baking, such as blueberry muffins, blackberry muffins, berry cobblers, berry crisps, berry cakes, berry buckles, berry crumb cakes, berry tea cakes, and berry cookies. Berries are commonly incorporated whole into the batter for baking, and care is often taken so as to not burst the berries. Frozen or dried berries may be preferable for some baked berry products. Fresh berries are also often incorporated into baked berry desserts, sometimes with cream, either as a filling to the dessert or as a topping.


title: Berry

text: Berries are often added to water and/or juiced, as in cranberry juice, which accounts for 95% of cranberry crop usage, blueberry juice, raspberry juice, goji berry juice, acai juice, aronia berry juice, and strawberry juice. Wine is the principal fermented beverage made from berries (grapes). Fruit wines are commonly made out of other berries. In most cases, sugars must be added to the berry juices in the process of Chaptalization to increase the alcohol content of the wine. Examples of fruit wines made from berries include: elderberry wine, strawberry wine, blueberry wine, blackberry wine, redcurrant wine, huckleberry wine, goji wine and cranberry wine. Berries are used in some styles of beer, particularly framboise (made with raspberry) and other fruit lambics.


title: Berry

text: Currants, raisins and sultanas are examples of dried grape berries, and many other commercially important berries are available in dried form.


title: Berry

text: Berries are perishable fruits with a short shelf life, and are often preserved by drying, freezing, pickling or making fruit preserves. Berries such as blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, lingonberry, loganberry, raspberry, and strawberry are often used in jams and jellies. In the United States, Native Americans were "the first to make preserves from blueberries".


title: Berry

text: Chefs have created quick pickled soft fruit, such as blackberries, strawberries, and blueberries. Strawberries can be battered and quickly fried in a deep fryer. Sauces made from berries, such as cranberry sauce, can be frozen until hard, battered, and deep fried. Cranberry sauce is a traditional food item for Thanksgiving, and similar sauces can be made from many other berries such as blueberries, raspberries, blackberries, and huckleberries.


title: Berry

text: Berries have been used in some cultures for dyeing. Many berries contain juices that can easily stain, affording use as a natural dye. For example, blackberries are useful for making dyes, especially when ripe berries can easily release juice to produce a colorfast effect. "Rubus" berries, such as blackberry, raspberry, black raspberry, dewberry, loganberry, and thimbleberry all produce dye colors. These were once used by Native Americans. In Hawaii, the native raspberry called 'akala' was used to dye tapa cloth with lavender and pink hues, whereas berries from the dianella lily were used for blue coloration, and berries from the black nightshade were used to produce green coloration.


title: Berry

text: Berry consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases. A 2016 review found that berry consumption can significantly lower body mass index, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and systolic blood pressure.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Far Cry 4 is a 2014 first-person shooter game developed by Ubisoft Montreal and published by Ubisoft. It is the successor to the 2012 video game "Far Cry 3", and the fourth main installment in the "Far Cry" series. Set in the fictional Himalayan country of Kyrat, the game follows Ajay Ghale, a young Kyrati-American, who becomes caught in a civil war between Kyrat's Royal Army, controlled by tyrannical king Pagan Min, and a rebel movement called the Golden Path. Gameplay focuses on combat and exploration; players battle enemy soldiers and dangerous wildlife using a wide array of weapons. The game features many elements found in role-playing games, such as a branching storyline and side quests. The game also features a map editor and both cooperative and competitive multiplayer modes.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Announced in May 2014, development on "Far Cry 4" began immediately after the shipment of "Assassin's Creed III" in late 2012. The team originally intended to develop a direct sequel to "Far Cry 3" that continues the narrative, but the idea was later scrapped and the team decided to develop a new setting and story for the game. Certain aspects of "Far Cry 4" were inspired by the Nepalese Civil War, and the design of the game's antagonist Pagan Min was inspired by Japanese films "Ichi the Killer" and "Brother". Troy Baker was hired to portray Pagan Min. The game's competitive multiplayer was created by Red Storm Entertainment while the Shangri-La segments in the campaign were handled by Ubisoft Toronto.


title: Far Cry 4

text: "Far Cry 4" was released worldwide for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360, and Xbox One in November 2014. It received mostly positive reviews, with critics praising the open world design, visuals, soundtrack, and characters as well as new gameplay additions and the wealth of content. However, some reviewes disliked the story and found the game too similar to its predecessor. The game was a commercial success, selling seven million copies by the end of 2014, and was the biggest launch in the franchise's history. Several releases of downloadable content were subsequently published. A spin-off title, "Far Cry Primal", was released in February 2016. A successor, "Far Cry 5", was released in March 2018.


title: Far Cry 4

text: "Far Cry 4" is a first-person action-adventure game. Players assume control of Ajay Ghale, a Kyrati-American who is on a quest to spread his deceased mother's ashes in the fictional country of Kyrat. Ajay may utilize various short and long range firearms, including pistols, revolvers, shotguns, assault rifles, submachine guns, bows, a flamethrower, rocket launchers, grenade launchers, and sniper rifles. More powerful versions of these weapons become available after considerable progression through the game. Throwable weapons include fragmentation grenades, Molotov cocktails, and throwing knives. The game allows players to take cover to avoid gunfights and to perform melee takedowns from above or up-close. Unlike previous installments in the series, "Far Cry 4" gives players the ability to kick objects and the ability to hide the corpses of enemies.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Players can use a variety of methods to approach missions. For instance, players can utilize stealth to evade enemies and complete objectives without being noticed, or they also have the option to assault enemies with firearms and vehicles. The player-character is equipped with a digital camera, which allows him to mark and highlight all visible enemies, animals, and loots. Players are also able to ride on elephants, which serve as tank-like offensive weapons. Players can throw bait towards enemies, which attracts nearby wildlife that is hostile to both the player and enemies. Players can also hunt and skin animals.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game features an open world environment that is free for players to explore. It features several environments, including forests, rivers, and mountains. To allow players to travel between places faster, the game features various vehicles, including buggies, trucks, and water vehicles like speedboats. Players can drive and shoot at the same time, and can enable auto-drive, in which the game's artificial intelligence takes over the role of controlling the vehicle and guides players to their objectives. Players can also hijack other vehicles while driving. The Buzzer, an aerial, gyrocopter-like vehicle, is introduced in the game, allowing players to gain a tactical advantage from the air. Parachutes, wingsuits, and grappling hooks are also featured in the game; these items help players swing across cliffs and quickly navigate the environment. Parts of the game take place in Shangri-La, a mystical dreamland where players battle demons as the Kyrati warrior Kalinag. While in Shangri-La, players are accompanied by an injured tiger which serves as their companion. Players can issue commands to the tiger, which assists them in battle.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game world is divided into two halves: North and South Kyrat. Players start in South Kyrat and are free to explore it almost immediately, but can only unlock North Kyrat over the course of the story. The map is progressively opened by liberating bell towers, freeing them from Pagan Min's influence and allowing the Golden Path to expand. These towers help players reveal new areas and mark new locations of interest on the map. The world is scattered with outposts controlled by Pagan Min, which can be infiltrated by players. Four larger outposts, or fortresses, can also be found, and feature stronger defenses and more difficult combinations of enemies. If players successfully liberate these outposts, they will serve as fast-travel points, allowing quick navigation through the game's world. Additional missions and quests also become available. There are many side-missions that can be completed, including hostage rescues, bomb disposal quests, and hunting missions. The collected animals' parts can then be used for crafting new pouches and belts.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Like its predecessors, the game features some role-playing elements. Players can earn experience points by completing missions and defeating enemies, and these experience points can then be spent on performance boosts and upgrades. There are two sets of abilities for players to choose from, called The Tiger and The Elephant. The Tiger upgrades mainly improve players' offensive abilities, while The Elephant upgrades improve players' defensive skills. A variety of random events and hostile encounters take place throughout the game; for example, the player may unexpectedly be attacked by an eagle, be hit by a car, or witness an animal attack. Players can accumulate karma by performing kind actions towards the rebels, such as by assisting them in battles when they are attacked by wildlife or enemies. Doing so will give players discounts when purchasing new items at trading posts, and will allow players to call in support and back-up from members of the Golden Path. Players can also gain experience by collecting items like masks, propaganda posters, and prayer wheels. There is also an Arena mode, in which players battle human enemies and animals for additional experience points and rewards.


title: Far Cry 4

text: "Far Cry 4" features a co-operative multiplayer mode known as "Guns for Hire", which supports up to two players. The mode is separated from the game's campaign, and players are free to explore the game's world, defeat enemies, and infiltrate outposts with their companion. In addition to the co-operative mode, players can gain access to several competitive multiplayer modes which have an asymmetrical structure. Players play as either a Rakshasa or a Golden Path member. The Rakshasa are equipped with bows and arrows, and have the ability to teleport and to summon wildlife to assist them and gain transparency, while Golden Path members are equipped with guns and explosives, and have access to armored vehicles. Known as "Battles of Kyrat", players fight against each other in three modes, called Outpost, Propaganda, and Demon Mask. "Far Cry 4" also contains a Map Editor that allows users to create and share custom content. Similar to that of "Far Cry 3", players can create their maps by customizing landscapes, and by placing buildings, trees, wildlife, and vehicles. However, the Map Editor did not support competitive multiplayer levels at launch. Multiplayer support was added to the game on February 3, 2015.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The story was inspired by the ten-year-long Maoist insurgency in Nepal. The game follows Ajay Ghale, a young Kyrati-American who returns to his native country of Kyrat (a fictional Himalayan country derived from the Kirat ethnicities of Nepal and northern India) to spread his deceased mother's ashes. Kyrat was once an autonomous state in the Himalayas ruled by a royal family before being engulfed in a series of civil wars. Ajay finds the country in a state of conflict between Kyrat's Royal Army, led by the country's eccentric and tyrannical King Pagan Min, and the Golden Path, a rebel movement fighting to free Kyrat from Min's oppressive rule. The choices Ajay makes will determine the fate of Kyrat.


title: Far Cry 4

text: After the death of his mother Ishwari, Ajay Ghale (James A. Woods) returns to his home country of Kyrat to carry out Ishwari's final wish by returning her ashes to Lakshmana. However, his mission is interrupted when the bus he is traveling on is attacked by the Royal Army and he is greeted by Pagan Min (Troy Baker), the country's eccentric and violent king. Min apologises, brutally kills a soldier for shooting the bus, and acts warmly towards Ajay before kidnapping him and his tour guide and taking them to a dinner party at Lietenant's Paul De Pleur's mansion. After his guide is taken to be interrogated, Ajay flees with the aid of Sabal (Naveen Andrews), a commander in the Golden Path, a rebel movement established by Ajay's father, Mohan Ghale. Ajay is not able to leave the country as the Royal Army has taken control of Kyrat's only airport and sealed the borders.


title: Far Cry 4

text: In the twenty-odd years since Ishwari and Ajay fled Kyrat, the rebellion has stagnated, with the Golden Path now fighting for their very existence. As the son of Mohan Ghale, Ajay becomes a symbol for the Golden Path to rally around. After freeing a group of hostages and liberating territory held by Pagan, the Golden Path plan on breaking Pagan's stranglehold on power by targeting his three regional governors: Paul "De Pleur" Harmon (Travis Willingham), who oversees opium production and runs Pagan's torture chambers; Noore Najjar (Mylène Dinh-Robic), who runs poaching and prostitution rings and who became a victim of Pagan's cruelty herself after he kidnapped her family; and Yuma Lau (Gwendoline Yeo), Min's adopted sister and trusted general who is obsessed with uncovering the secrets of the mystical realm of Shangri-La.


title: Far Cry 4

text: However, the Golden Path's newfound momentum is threatened by deep divisions between its commanders, Sabal, who favors traditional values, and Amita (Janina Gavankar), who argues for progress, which includes relying heavily on producing drugs for export. Ajay is forced to intervene on several occasions, with his decisions influencing the direction the Golden Path takes. The first governor to fall is De Pleur, after Noore helps Ajay find a way to infiltrate De Pleur's stronghold, allowing the rebellion to capture him. Amita and Sabal later task Ajay with confronting and killing Noore. She dies in her fighting arena, either with Ajay killing her, or with Noore committing suicide upon learning Pagan had her family executed years beforehand.


title: Far Cry 4

text: As the Golden Path secures Kyrat's southern provinces, Ajay is contacted by Willis Huntley (Alain Goulem), a CIA agent who offers intelligence for the rebels and pages from his father's diary in exchange for killing Yuma's lieutenants. After Ajay kills several of them, Huntley admits they were in fact CIA assets, and that he was sent to clean up after the CIA as the agency did not see Pagan as a threat anymore. Huntley betrays Ajay to Pagan just as the Golden Path prepare to push into Northern Kyrat.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Ajay ends up in Yuma's mountain prison, where he is drugged and suffers terrifying hallucinations, but manages to escape. In the process, he finds out that Yuma has started despising Pagan, primarily because of his affections toward Ajay's late mother. The Golden Path pushes into the north, and while Ajay attempts to reconnect with another faction of the rebels, Pagan, aware of Yuma's plotting against him, betrays Yuma to the Golden Path. Ajay is drawn into a confrontation with her and prevails, but tensions between Amita and Sabal reach new heights, and Ajay is forced to make a final decision as to who will lead the Golden Path. Whichever leader he chooses then sends Ajay to kill the other to prevent them from starting another civil war, and Ajay can choose to either kill them as ordered or let them go. With the Golden Path now united under a single leader, Ajay joins them for an attack on Pagan's fortress and pushes on alone to Pagan's palace while the Golden Path holds off the military.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Ajay encounters Pagan, who chastises him for fleeing at the start of the game, claiming that he only ever intended to help Ajay. Pagan offers Ajay a final decision: shoot him now, or listen to him. If Ajay shoots Pagan, the game ends immediately and the credits roll. If Ajay instead chooses to listen, Pagan reveals that Mohan sent Ishwari to spy on Pagan in the early days of the Golden Path, but they fell in love and had a daughter together: Lakshmana, Ajay's half-sister. Mohan killed Lakshmana for Ishwari's betrayal, and Ishwari killed him in turn before leaving the country with the infant Ajay. Pagan shows Ajay to a shrine containing Lakshmana's ashes, and Ajay places Ishwari's ashes inside. Pagan then boards a helicopter and departs peacefully, leaving the country in Ajay's hands. The player can choose to shoot down Pagan's helicopter as it flies away, killing Pagan in the process.


title: Far Cry 4

text: In the aftermath, the Golden Path seizes control of Kyrat. The final ending depends on which leader Ajay ultimately sided with. If Amita is placed in charge, she turns Kyrat into an authoritarian drug state, forcing villagers into work in factories and drug fields, and conscripting children into the group as soldiers to bolster their ranks against the remnants of the Royal Army; Ajay also learns that she has had her sister, Bhadra, taken away, "never to come again". If Sabal is placed in charge, Kyrat becomes a patriarchal fundamentalist theocracy where all of Amita's supporters are executed, women are denied fundamental political rights, and Bhadra is anointed as a religious symbol for the country to rally around. The player has the choice to kill the Golden Path's leader or leave them alive.


title: Far Cry 4

text: An Easter egg ending can be found at the beginning of the game. To trigger it, Ajay must simply wait at the dinner table in Pagan's mansion; when Pagan returns, he thanks Ajay for being a "gentleman" and leads him to Lakshmana's shrine, telling Ajay of his family history. After Ajay plants his mother's ashes at the shrine, Pagan invites Ajay to join him to "finally shoot some goddamn guns".


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's development was led by Ubisoft Montreal, which took over the development of the "Far Cry" franchise after the release of "" in 2005. Additional development was handled by four other in-house Ubisoft studios, Ubisoft Toronto, Red Storm Entertainment, Ubisoft Shanghai, and Ubisoft Kyiv. The Montreal studio worked on the game's campaign, the Toronto studio worked on the Shangri-La segments of the campaign, Red Storm handled the development of the competitive multiplayer, the Shanghai studio worked on the hunting missions, and the Kyiv studio developed the game's PC version. Development of the game began in late 2012, after the shipment of "Assassin's Creed III". The game's creative director is Alex Hutchinson, who had previously worked on Maxis's "Spore" as well as "Assassin's Creed III". The game runs on an upgraded version of the Dunia 2 engine that was used in "Far Cry 3".


title: Far Cry 4

text: When brainstorming ideas for the new "Far Cry" game, the development team originally planned on developing a direct sequel to "Far Cry 3." The sequel would be set on the same tropical island, would expand upon the protagonist's story, and would bring back characters, such as "Far Cry 3"'s secondary antagonist, Vaas Montenegro. However, after four days, the team found that a sequel was not what they wanted to achieve. As a result, they decided to scrap the idea and build a brand new game with a new setting and a new set of characters. The team adapted a "we want it all" approach, in which they hoped to experiment with all kinds of ideas. Some team members hoped that the game would allow players to fly, which led to the game's verticality. The game's director also hoped that players would be able to ride a rampaging elephant, in a place with "exotic mountainsides" and "unique culture". This led to the concept of a mountainous setting and the introduction of elephants in the game. The developers aimed for players to consider "Far Cry 4" a standalone experience, and therefore they avoided bringing back any characters from "Far Cry 3" except for Willis and Hurk. The decision to bring the two back was made because the team thought that they should provide some references to previous games in the series, as all of the games are set in the same universe even though they are not directly related.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Some of the gameplay elements were directly taken from "Far Cry 3". Exotic locations, hunting, and the freedom for players to complete missions through different approaches were maintained in "Far Cry 4". The team hoped that by incorporating and expanding upon on these ideas, while introducing new features, they could make "Far Cry 4" an evolution for the series. As a result, the size of the game's outposts became larger and players were given more options to customize their weapons. The team also realized that players spent a lot of time interacting with the open world of "Far Cry 3", and decided to put more effort and resources into the world's design and add more quests to the game.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's setting, Kyrat, is a fictional country in the Himalayas region. When building Kyrat, the developers merged elements from real-world regions including India, Nepal and Tibet, but exaggerated those elements. The map's size is similar to that of "Far Cry 3", but is more dense, diverse, and features more varied environments. The developers hoped that players could experience a sense of exploration when traveling between the different terrains. The team also hoped that the new location could be believable, while remaining interesting for players. As a result, they created an identity for Kyrat by doing such things as adding different signboards to the game and creating a fictional mythology and religion for Kyrat. The game's world was also designed to accommodate new features such as the helicopter and the grappling hook. In an effort to make the world feel real, the team added improvements to the design of side-quests. Instead of simply being activities for players to complete, the quests are narrative-driven, which was done to increase the connection between them and the world. In order to increase the credibility of the game's world, the studio sent a team to Nepal to experience and record the local culture, so that they could bring those ideas back to the studio. According to the developer, the trip changed the game's design; the focus shifted from the game's civil war, which is inspired by the real-world Nepalese Civil War, to developing unique and interesting characters.


title: Far Cry 4

text: One of the game's most critically acclaimed characters is its major antagonist Pagan Min, a foreign interloper who usurps the rule of Kyrat by its royal family and names himself after the historical Burmese king within series lore. The team hoped that players would be "shocked, amazed and intrigued" by him in every encounter. Min has a complex relationship with the playable character, Ghale, as the team wanted players to guess Min's intentions and add a layer of mystery to him. The team originally hoped to have a villain that had a "punk-rock mentality", but the idea was abandoned as the team thought that the concept was not original. The pink costume Min wears throughout the game was inspired by Beat Takeshi, a character from "Brothers", and Kakihara, a character from "Ichi the Killer". Min is designed to be sadistic yet confident, and the team hired Troy Baker to provide the voice for Min, as they thought that Baker's voice is charismatic enough to suit Min. According to Baker, Ubisoft gave him a script for the audition but he chose not to follow it, and instead decided to threaten to cut off the face of an assistant using Min's tone. The interviewer was very pleased with Baker's performance and decided to sign him for the job. As for Ghale, he was designed to be "thin", and his backstory was designed to be revealed as players progressed through the game's story. According to the game's narrative director, Mark Thompson, Ghale learns the history and culture of Kyrat along with players. The developers also hoped that Ghale could be an accessible character for players.


title: Far Cry 4

text: In hindsight, the team considered the story of "Far Cry 3" "great", even though they thought that it was separated from the game's world. In order to increase players' agency and make the story to feel more connected to the world for players, the team introduced a branching storyline which required players to make choices that would lead to different results and alter the game's ending. The team hoped that by adding choices, they could add additional depth and meaning to the game's campaign. Thompson added that they twisted the story of "Far Cry 3" for "Far Cry 4", and made outsiders the villains instead of the heroes. The team considered it a "risk", but they wanted to try something different.


title: Far Cry 4

text: For the Shangri-La mission, the team wanted to have a structure similar to "Far Cry 3"'s mushroom missions; a game within a game. The Shangri-La missions are not related to Kyrat, but play an important role in the game's narrative. When creating these segments, the team put a lot of emphasis on the use of colors. They hoped that the artistic vision for "Far Cry 4" would not feature any resemblance to other typical shooter games. It was originally designed to be a small open world, but was later converted into a linear experience due to time constraints and huge creative differences between developers. The team later decided to simplify it, and re-imagined it into an "ancient, natural world". It is made up of five different colors. The main color of Shangri-La is gold; the developers thought that using gold as the foundation added "warmth" to the dreamland. Meanwhile, red was used heavily to add a sense of strangeness, as well as for establishing a tie to the game's narrative and story. Orange was used as a color of interaction, while white was used to add purity to the world. Blue is the last of Shangri-La's main colors, and represents dangers and honor.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Ubisoft promised that "Far Cry 4" would have much more of a multiplayer element than "Far Cry 3". Some elements that were scrapped for "Far Cry 3" due to time constraints were featured in "Far Cry 4", such as the "Guns for Hire" co-operative multiplayer mode. Building a co-operative experience was the team's goal starting from the beginning of the game's development. Originally intended to be a separate mode, it was later made to be seamlessly integrated into the main campaign. The game's competitive multiplayer was designed to give players freedom, allowing players to progress and defeat enemies through a variety of different ways. Red Storm Entertainment also considered players' feedback from the multiplayer aspect of "Far Cry 3", and decided to include vehicles in the game. The company chose an asymmetrical structure for this mode, so that players could have different experiences in different matches, as well as to make matches feel more chaotic. The developers originally planned to feature female playable characters, but the plan was scrapped due to animation problems. Ubisoft announced a 'Keys to Kyrat' offer for players that owned a copy of the game for the PlayStation 3 or PlayStation 4. It allows those owners to send out game keys to up to ten other people who do not own a copy of the game. Players who are offered a key can join the person that sent them the key and play the co-operative mode for two hours.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Cliff Martinez was hired to work on the game's soundtrack. A two disc edition was released that contained 30 tracks heard in the game, and a deluxe edition was released that contained 15 extra tracks. The album was released just before the release of the game, and received positive reviews. Particular praise was directed towards the usage of traditional Nepalese instruments which, combined with electronic samples, suggested high octane action and mystical wondering.


title: Far Cry 4

text: With "Far Cry 3" being a commercial success, Ubisoft considered the "Far Cry" series one of their most important brands, and they hinted that a sequel was in development in June 2013. On October 3, 2013, Martinez mentioned that he was working on the soundtrack for the game. In March 2014 the game's setting and features were leaked. The game was officially announced on May 15, 2014, and the first gameplay footage was revealed during Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014. The game's cover art, which shows the light-skinned Pagan Min resting his hand on a dark-skinned person, caused controversy and accusation of racism. Hutchinson later responded and clarified by saying that Pagan Min is not a white person, and that the other person depicted is not the game's protagonist. Hutchinson added that the reaction of the community regarding the cover art was "uncomfortable".


title: Far Cry 4

text: In addition to the standard version, a "Limited Edition" of the game is able to be purchased. This edition features additional in-game missions and an Impaler Harpoon Gun. The Limited Edition was a free upgrade for players who pre-ordered the game. A "Kyrat Edition" was also announced and it contains a collector's box, a poster, a journal, a map of Kyrat, a figurine of Pagan Min, and the missions from the Limited Edition. Players can also purchase a season pass for the game, which grants them access to additional content, including a new competitive multiplayer mode, a mission called "the Syringe", the missions from the "Limited Edition", and the two other pieces of downloadable content. "Far Cry 4: Arena Master", developed by Ludomade, was released alongside the game itself, as a companion app for the iOS and Android.


title: Far Cry 4

text: "Far Cry 4" was released worldwide on November 18, 2014 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4, Xbox 360 and Xbox One. The Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One versions feature higher visual fidelity, such as having a higher texture resolution and more animal fur. The game was supported by downloadable content upon launch. The first DLC, "Escape From Durgesh Prison", featuring a new mission set during the main campaign, was released on January 13, 2015. It can be played solo or with another player. The "Overrun" DLC, which added new maps, a new vehicle, and a new mode to the game's competitive multiplayer, was released on February 10, 2015 for the consoles, and February 12, 2015 for PC. The "Hurk Deluxe Pack" was released on January 28, 2015 and added several story missions and weapons. The last downloadable content, "Valley of the Yetis", features a new region and new story missions which can be played solo or co-cooperatively with another player. "Valley of the Yetis" was released on March 10, 2015 in North America and March 11, 2015 in Europe. The game was released for Amazon Luna on November 23, 2020.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's story received mixed responses. Chris Carter from "Destructoid" praised the personality of Ajay Ghale, which is "less in-your-face" than that of "Far Cry 3"'s protagonist Jason Brody. He also praised the villain, Pagan Min, who he considered took the spotlight every time he appeared in the game. Josh Harmon from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" thought that the characters in this game had more depth, and that the choices made by players throughout the game were meaningful. Aoife Wilson from "Eurogamer" thought that the game's characters were memorable, but was disappointed by the story. Nick Tan, from "Game Revolution", also praised Min's personality, but he complained that the character appeared too seldom in the game. Shacknews reviewer, however, thinks most characters are multilayered and interesting. As the examples he gives Pagan Min's chief interrogator, Pagan Min himself and the main character's mother. "Jeux Video" reviewer liked neither plot, nor the characters, as they wrote: "If the main plot left us a little hungry [...], it is quite sad to note that our Nemesis Pagan also disappointed us" and "The key characters of this episode are unfortunately a little too caricatured and predictable". Edwin Evans-Thirlwell, writing for "GamesRadar", thought that the story grew tiresome as players progressed, even though some of its characters were interesting. He further criticized the game's writing, which he thought was lackluster. Mike Splechta from "GameZone" praised the game's voice acting and applauded its storyline, calling it "much more satisfying".


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's setting received positive responses. Carter thought that the verticality nature of the game's map created obstacles for players when they were traveling between places. However, he praised the interesting lore and wildlife found within the world, as well as the game's long draw distance. Harmon had similar comments, praising the game's graphics and Kyrat's culture. Harmon thought that the hilly landscape of the game's world gave players a sense of exploration, and hence made traversal enjoyable. Wilson thought, however, that the game's setting was not as compelling as the tropical setting of "Far Cry 3". Furthermore, she thought that most of the time vast territories in Far Cry 4 are similar everywhere. Nevertheless, she praised the Shangri-la section, which, according to her, was one of the exceptions. She also notes that what the game "may lack in looks", "it makes up for by being positively stuffed with things to do". Matt Bertz from "Game Informer" praised the game's setting, which he thought was vibrant, varied and rich. Ludwig Kietzmann from Joystiq praised the content found within the world, and thought that the world itself was absorbing and interesting. ShackNews reviewer liked that as the player travels from southern to northern territories, the music and soldiers change from Indian to Chinese.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's design also received acclaim. Carter from Destructoid thought that the fortress and the outpost system provided players with a sense of accomplishment and success, and he considered having the freedom to use different ways to approach and complete missions one of the greatest parts of the game. In addition, Carter applauded the game's driving mechanics and the auto-drive feature, which he considered a significant improvement for the series. However he criticized the upgrade system, which he thought was directly converted from "Far Cry 3" and was uninspiring. "Electronic Gaming Monthly"'s Harmon thought that the introduction of the helicopter was dull. Mitch Dyer, from IGN, praised the game's economy system, which he thought was satisfying. He added that it gives players motivations to complete side-quests. GameSpot's reviewer calls the game's economy "excellent" and enjoys the fact that it forces you to upgrade wallet, so it can hold more money, and to craft a bigger backpack. Justin McElroy of "Polygon" praised the introduction of the grappling hook and the vertical map-design, which he thought had allowed players to develop strategy before taking action. He also praised the game for allowing players to use multiple approaches towards a single objective. GameSpot's reviewer writes that after liberating an outpost and leaving it, the game may inform the player that it is already under another attack, when the player comes back to defend it and leaves again, he meets the same message that the outpost is under attack.


title: Far Cry 4

text: The game's multiplayer mode received mixed response. Carter compared the competitive multiplayer to that of "Tomb Raider", and called it "skippable". He considered the co-operative multiplayer a fun addition to the game, but was disappointed by its limitations. He also added that the game would still be a strong title without these multiplayer elements. Bertz from "Game Informer" also found the multiplayer shallow and poorly-executed. He also criticized the lack of a large player pool and dedicated servers. Evans-Thirlwell of GamesRadar thought that the game's co-operative multiplayer were fun to play, but the asymmetrical competitive multiplayer was easy to forget. In contrast, "GameZone" Splechta thought that the competitive multiplayer mode was "a surprise" for him. Dyer echoed similar statement, and he thought that it had successfully captured the scale and freedom offered by both the game's co-op and campaign. JeuxVideo wrote about multiplayer in the game: "You will understand that exploring Kyrat is honestly funny for two, assuming we are not likely to get tired in the long run".


title: Far Cry 4

text: Harmon thought that "Far Cry 4" was an improvement over "Far Cry 3", but he thought that the game felt and played too similarly to "Far Cry 3", and he added that the game was unambitious. Bertz thought that Ubisoft Montreal's vision for "Far Cry 4" is not as bold as its predecessors, and also thought that the experience delivered by "Far Cry 4" did not stray far away from "Far Cry 3". Tan also noted that the game's open world design felt not only similar to "Far Cry 3", but also other Ubisoft franchises like "Assassin's Creed" and "Watch Dogs". Evans-Thirlwell thought that the experience offered by "Far Cry 4" was hollow as it had failed to innovate or reinvent its wheel. Dyer thought that the game was not ambitious, but the experience delivered was still gratifying and rewarding.


title: Far Cry 4

text: Ubisoft expected the game to sell at least six million copies in its first year of release. "Far Cry 4" became the fastest-selling game and the most successful launch in the series in the first week of release. "Far Cry 4" was the second best selling game in the United Kingdom for all-formats during the week of its release, only behind "Grand Theft Auto V". It was also the sixth best selling game in the US according to The NPD Group. As of December 31, 2014, the game has shipped seven million copies. The game sold more than 10 million copies during the eighth generation of video game consoles.


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: Natasha Dervill O'Keeffe (born 1 December 1986) is a British actress. She is known for her roles as Abbey in the E4 series "Misfits" (2012–2013), Fedora in the ITV series "Jekyll and Hyde" (2015), Emilia Ricoletti in the "Sherlock" special "The Abominable Bride" (2016), and Lizzie Shelby in the BBC series "Peaky Blinders" (2013–2022).


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: Born in Brighton to Irish parents from County Cavan, she was raised in Tooting, South London. O'Keeffe trained at the Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama, and starred in a number of their stage productions.


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: O'Keeffe first came to public attention in 2008, playing a member of the Royal Family who enjoys parties, one night stands and drugs in the music video for "Falling Down", the last single released by Oasis before the band dissolved. That same year, she had a part in the feature film "Abraham's Point".


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: In 2010 and 2012, O'Keeffe played Sadie in both seasons of BBC Three's drama series "Lip Service", about a group of lesbians living in Glasgow, Scotland. In 2012 and 2013 she played Abbey Smith in the lead ensemble for the final two seasons of E4's comedy-drama "Misfits", about a group of young offenders in a London community service program who obtain supernatural powers.


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: In 2013, she had a role in an episode of "," and appeared in the feature films "Filth" and "Svengali".


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: In 2015, she starred as Fedora, the side-kick and lover of the main antagonist in ITV's TV series, "Jekyll and Hyde". She also starred in a music video for Daughter's song "Numbers" as part of a series of films for the band's album "Not to Disappear".


title: Natasha O'Keeffe

text: In 2016, she appeared in the "Sherlock" special "The Abominable Bride" as the titular bride, Emelia Ricoletti.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The English Electric Lightning is a British fighter aircraft that served as an interceptor during the 1960s, the 1970s and into the late 1980s. It was capable of a top speed of above Mach 2. The Lightning was designed, developed, and manufactured by English Electric, which was later merged into the newly-formed British Aircraft Corporation. Later the type was marketed as the BAC Lightning. It was operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF), the Kuwait Air Force (KAF), and the Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF).


title: English Electric Lightning

text: A unique feature of the Lightning's design is the vertical, staggered configuration of its two Rolls-Royce Avon turbojet engines within the fuselage. The Lightning was designed and developed as an interceptor to defend the V bomber airfields from attack by anticipated future nuclear-armed supersonic Soviet bombers such as what emerged as the Tupolev Tu-22, but it was subsequently also required to intercept other bomber aircraft such as the Tupolev Tu-16 and the Tupolev Tu-95.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The Lightning has exceptional rate of climb, ceiling, and speed; pilots have described flying it as "being saddled to a skyrocket". This performance and the initially limited fuel supply meant that its missions are dictated to a high degree by its limited range. Later developments provided greater range and speed along with aerial reconnaissance and ground-attack capability. Overwing fuel tank fittings were installed in the F6 variant and offered an extended range, but the maximum speed of the configuration was limited to a reported .


title: English Electric Lightning

text: Following retirement by the RAF in the late 1980s, many of the remaining aircraft became museum exhibits. Until 2009, three Lightnings were kept flying at "Thunder City" in Cape Town, South Africa. In September 2008, the Institution of Mechanical Engineers conferred on the Lightning its "Engineering Heritage Award" at a ceremony at BAE Systems' site at Warton Aerodrome.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The specification for the aircraft followed the cancellation of the Air Ministry's 1942 E.24/43 supersonic research aircraft specification which had resulted in the Miles M.52 programme. W.E.W. "Teddy" Petter, formerly chief designer at Westland Aircraft, was a keen early proponent of Britain's need to develop a supersonic fighter aircraft. In 1947, Petter approached the Ministry of Supply (MoS) with his proposal, and in response Specification ER.103 was issued for a single research aircraft, which was to be capable of flight at and .


title: English Electric Lightning

text: Petter initiated a design proposal with F W "Freddie" Page leading the design and Ray Creasey responsible for the aerodynamics. By July 1948 their proposal incorporated the stacked engine configuration and a high-mounted tailplane. As it was designed for Mach 1.5, it had a 40° swept wing to keep the leading edge clear of the Mach cone. This proposal was submitted in November 1948, and in January 1949 the project was designated P.1 by English Electric. On 29 March 1949 MoS granted approval to start the detailed design, develop wind tunnel models and build a full-size mockup.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The design that had developed during 1948 evolved further during 1949 to further improve performance. To achieve Mach 2 the wing sweep was increased to 60° with the ailerons moved to the wingtips. In late 1949, low-speed wind tunnel tests showed that a vortex was generated by the wing which caused a large downwash on the tailplane; this issue was solved by lowering the tail below the wing. Following the resignation of Petter, Page took over as design team leader for the P.1. In 1949, the Ministry of Supply had issued Specification F23/49, which expanded upon the scope of ER103 to include fighter-level manoeuvring. On 1 April 1950, English Electric received a contract for two flying airframes, as well as one static airframe, designated "P.1".


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The Royal Aircraft Establishment disagreed with Petter's choice of sweep angle (60 degrees) and tailplane position (low) considering it to be dangerous. To assess the effects of wing sweep and tailplane position on the stability and control of Petter's design Short Brothers were issued a contract, by the Ministry of Supply, to produce the Short SB.5 in mid-1950. This was a low-speed research aircraft that could test sweep angles from 50 to 69 degrees and tailplane positions high or low. Testing with the wings and tail set to the P.1 configuration started in January 1954 and confirmed this combination as the correct one.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: From 1953 onward, the first three prototype aircraft were hand-built at Samlesbury. These aircraft had been assigned the aircraft serials "WG760", "WG763", and "WG765" (the structural test airframe). The prototypes were powered by un-reheated Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire turbojets, as the selected Rolls-Royce Avon engines had fallen behind schedule due to their own development problems. Since there was no space in the fuselage for fuel the thin wings were the fuel tanks and since they also provided space for the stowed main undercarriage the fuel capacity was relatively small, giving the prototypes an extremely limited endurance, and the narrow tyres housed in the thin wings rapidly wore out if there was any crosswind component during take-off or landing. Outwardly, the prototypes looked very much like the production series, but they were distinguished by the rounded-triangular air intake with no centre-body at the nose, short fin, and lack of operational equipment.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: On 9 June 1952, it was decided that there would be a second phase of prototypes built to develop the aircraft toward achieving ; these were designated "P.1B" while the initial three prototypes were retroactively reclassified as "P.1A". P.1B was a significant improvement on P.1A. While it was similar in aerodynamics, structure and control systems, it incorporated extensive alterations to the forward fuselage, reheated Rolls Royce Avon R24R engines, a conical centre body inlet cone, variable nozzle reheat and provision for weapons systems integrated with the ADC and AI.23 radar. Three P.1B prototypes were built, assigned serials XA847, XA853 and XA856.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In May 1954, "WG760" and its support equipment were moved to RAF Boscombe Down for pre-flight ground taxi trials; on the morning of 4 August 1954, "WG760", piloted by Roland Beamont, flew for the first time from Boscombe Down. One week later, "WG760" officially achieved supersonic flight for the first time, having exceeded the speed of sound during its third flight. During its first flight, "WG760" had unknowingly exceeded , but due to position error the Mach meter only showed a maximum of . The occurrence was noticed during flight data analysis a few days later. While "WG760" had proven the P.1 design to be viable, it was limited to due to directional stability limits. In May 1956, the P.1 received the "Lightning" name, which was said to have been partially selected to reflect the aircraft's supersonic capabilities.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In 1955, the Air Ministry learned of the Tupolev Tu-22, expected to enter service in 1962. It could cruise for relatively long periods at Mach 1.2 and had a dash speed of Mach 1.5. Against a target flying at these speeds, the existing Gloster Javelin interceptors would be useless; its primary de Havilland Firestreak armament could only attack from the rear and the Tu-22 would run away from the Javelin in that approach. A faster version, the "thin-wing Javelin", would offer limited supersonic performance and make it marginally useful against the Tu-22, while a new missile, "Red Dean" would allow head-on attacks. This combination would be somewhat useful against Tu-22, but of marginal use if faster bombers were introduced. In January 1955, the Air Ministry issued Operational Requirement F.155 calling for a faster design to be armed with either an improved Firesreak known as "Blue Vesta", or an improved Red Dean known as "Red Hebe". The thin-wing Javelin was cancelled in May 1956.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In March 1957, Duncan Sandys released the 1957 Defence White Paper which outlined the changing strategic environment due to the introduction of ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads. Although missiles of the era had relatively low accuracy compared to a manned bomber, any loss of effectiveness could be addressed by the ever-increasing yield of the warhead. This suggested that there was no targeting of the UK that could not be carried out by missiles, and Sandys felt it was unlikely that the Soviets would use bombers as their primary method of attack beyond the mid-to-late 1960s.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: This left only a brief period, from 1957 to some time in the 1960s, in which bombers remained a threat. Sandys felt that the imminent introduction of the Bloodhound Mk. II surface-to-air missile would offer enough protection against bombers. The Air Ministry disagreed; they pointed out that the Tu-22 would enter service before Bloodhound II, leaving the UK open to sneak attack. Sandys eventually agreed this was a problem, but pointed out that F.155 would enter service after Bloodhound, as would a further improved SAM, "Blue Envoy". F.155 was cancelled on 29 March 1957 and Blue Envoy in April.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: To fill the immediate need for a supersonic interceptor, Lightning was selected for production. The aircraft was already flying, and the improved P.1B was only weeks away from its first flight. Lightnings mounting Firestreak could be operational years before Bloodhound II, and the aircraft's speed would make it a potent threat against the Tu-22 even in a tail-chase. To further improve its capability, in July 1957 the Blue Vesta program was reactivated in a slightly simplified form, allowing head-on attacks against an aircraft whose fuselage was heated through skin friction while flying supersonically. In November 1957, the missile was renamed "Red Top". This would allow Lightning to attack even faster bombers through a collision-course approach. Thus, what had originally been an aircraft without a mission beyond testing was now selected as the UK's next front-line fighter.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: On 4 April 1957 Beamont made the first flight of the P.1B "XA847", exceeding Mach 1 during this flight. During the early flight trials of the P.1B speeds in excess of 1,000 mph were achieved daily. During this period the Fairey Delta 2 (FD2) held the world speed record of achieved on 10 March 1956 and held till December 1957. While the P.1B was potentially faster than the FD2, it lacked the fuel capacity to provide one run in each direction at maximum speed to claim the record in accordance with international rules.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In 1958 two test pilots from the USAF Air Force Flight Test Center, Andy Anderson and Deke Slayton, were given the opportunity to familiarise themselves with the P.1B. Slayton, who was subsequently selected as one of the Mercury astronauts, commented:


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In late October 1958, the plane was officially and formally named "Lightning". The event was celebrated in traditional style in a hangar at Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) Farnborough, with the prototype XA847 having the name 'Lightning' freshly painted on the nose in front of the RAF Roundel, which almost covered it. A bottle of champagne was put beside the nose on a special smashing rig which allowed the bottle to safely be smashed against the side of the aircraft. The honor of smashing the bottle went to the Chief of the Air Staff, Sir Dermot Boyle.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: On 25 November 1958 the P.1B "XA847", piloted by Roland Beamont, reached Mach 2 for the first time, the first time in a British aircraft. This made it the second Western European aircraft to reach Mach 2, the first one being the French Dassault Mirage III just over a month earlier on 24 October 1958.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The first operational Lightning, designated "Lightning F.1", was designed as an interceptor to defend the V Force airfields in conjunction with the "last ditch" Bristol Bloodhound missiles located either at the bomber airfield, e.g. at RAF Marham, or at dedicated missile sites near to the airfield, e.g. at RAF Woodhall Spa near the 3-squadron Vulcan station RAF Coningsby. The bomber airfields along with the dispersal airfields, would be the highest priority targets in the UK for enemy nuclear weapons. To best perform this intercept mission, emphasis was placed on rate-of-climb, acceleration, and speed, rather than range – originally a radius of operation of from the V bomber airfields was specified – and endurance. It was equipped with two 30 mm ADEN cannon in front of the cockpit windscreen and an interchangeable fuselage weapons pack containing either an additional two ADEN cannon, 48 unguided air-to-air rockets, or two de Havilland Firestreak air-to-air missiles. The Ferranti AI.23 onboard radar provided missile guidance and ranging, as well as search and track functions.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The next two Lightning variants, the "Lightning F.1A" and "F.2", incorporated relatively minor design changes; for the next variant, the "Lightning F.3", they were more extensive. The F.3 had higher thrust Rolls-Royce Avon 301R engines, a larger squared-off fin and strengthened inlet cone allowing a service clearance to (the F.1, F.1A and F.2 were limited to ). The A.I.23B radar and Red Top missile offered a forward hemisphere attack capability and deletion of the nose cannon. The new engines and fin made the F.3 the highest performance Lightning yet, but with an even higher fuel consumption and resulting shorter range. The next variant, the "Lightning F.6", was already in development, but there was a need for an interim solution to partially address the F.3's shortcomings, the "Interim F.Mk6".


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The Interim F.Mk6 introduced two improvements: a new, non-jettisonable, ventral fuel tank, and a new, kinked, conically cambered wing leading edge, incorporating a slightly larger leading edge fuel tank, raising the total usable internal fuel by . The conically cambered wing improved manoeuvrability, especially at higher altitudes, and the ventral tank nearly doubled available fuel. The increased fuel was welcome, but the lack of cannon armament was felt to be a deficiency. It was thought that cannon would be useful in a peacetime interception for firing warning shots to encourage an aircraft to change course or to land.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The "Lightning F.6" was originally nearly identical to the F.3A with the exception that it could carry two ferry tanks on pylons over the wings. These tanks were jettisonable in an emergency, and gave the F.6 a substantially improved deployment capability. There remained one glaring shortcoming: the lack of cannon. This was finally rectified in the form of a modified ventral tank with two ADEN cannon mounted in the front. The addition of the cannon and their ammunition decreased the tank's fuel capacity from .


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The "Lightning F.2A" was an F.2 upgraded with the cambered wing, the squared fin, and the ventral tank. The F.2A retained the A.I.23 and Firestreak missile, the nose cannon, and the earlier Avon 211R engines. Although the F.2A lacked the thrust of the later Lightnings, it had the longest tactical range of all Lightning variants, and was used for low-altitude interception over West Germany.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: The "Lightning F.53", otherwise known as the "Export Lightning", was developed as a private venture by BAC. While the Lightning had originated as an interception aircraft, this version was to have a multirole capability for quickly interchanging between interception, reconnaissance, and ground-attack duties. The F.53 was based on the F.6 airframe and avionics, including the large ventral fuel tank, cambered wing and overwing pylons for drop tanks of the F.6, but incorporated an additional pair of hardpoints under the outer wing. These hardpoints could be fitted with pylons for air-to-ground weaponry, including two bombs or four SNEB rocket pods each carrying 18 68 mm rockets. A gun pack carrying two ADEN cannons and 120 rounds each could replace the forward part of the ventral fuel tank. Alternative, interchangeable packs in the forward fuselage carried two Firestreak missiles, two Red Top missiles, twin retractable launchers for 44× rockets, or a reconnaissance pod fitted with five 70 mm Type 360 Vinten cameras.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: BAC also proposed clearing the overwing hardpoints for carriage of weapons as well as drop tanks, with additional Matra JL-100 combined rocket and fuel pods (each containing 18 SNEB rockets and of fuel) or 1000lb (450kg) bombs being possible options. This could give a maximum ground attack weapons load for a developed export Lightning of six 1000lb (450kg) bombs or 44 × rockets and 144 × 68 mm rockets. The "Lightning T.55" was the export two-seat variant; unlike the RAF two-seaters, the T.55 was equipped for combat duties. The T.55 had a very similar fuselage to the T.5, while also using the wing and large ventral tank of the F.6. The Export Lightning had all of the capability of the RAF's own Lightnings such as exceptional climb rate and agile manoeuvering. The Export Lightning also retained the difficulty of maintenance, and serviceability rates suffered. The F.53 was generally well regarded by its pilots, and its adaptation to multiple roles showed the skill of its designers.


title: English Electric Lightning

text: In 1963, BAC Warton was working on the preliminary design of a two-seat Lightning development with a variable-geometry wing, based on the Lightning T.5. In addition to the variable-sweep wing, which was to sweepback between 25 degrees and 60 degrees, the proposed design featured an extended ventral pack for greater fuel capacity, an enlarged dorsal fin fairing, an arrestor hook, and a revised inward-retracting undercarriage. The aircraft was designed to be compatible with the Royal Navy's existing aircraft carriers' carrier-based aircraft, the VG Lightning concept was revised into a land-based interceptor intended for the RAF the following year. Various alternative engines to the Avon were suggested, such as the newer Rolls-Royce Spey engine. It is likely that the VG Lightning would have adopted a solid nose (by moving the air inlet to the sides or to upper fuselage) to install a larger, more capable radar.