title: Saint Stephen

text: 1. Our Blessed Lord was sentenced to death on the charge of blasphemy, because He had affirmed on oath: “I am the Son of the living God, and hereafter you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of God.” In the same manner Stephen was stoned on the assumption that he was a blasphemer, and because he professed his belief in the Divinity of Jesus, and said: “I see heaven open, and Jesus standing at the right hand of God.” 2. Both our Blessed Lord and St. Stephen were treated as outcasts, and put to death outside the city. 3. Both, when dying, prayed for their enemies: “Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do.” — “Lay not this sin to their charge.” 4. Both, before dying, commended their souls to God: “Father, into Thy hands I commend My spirit.” — “Lord Jesus, receive my soul!”


title: Saint Stephen

text: Acts 8:2 says "Godly men buried Stephen and mourned deeply for him," but the location where he was buried is not specified.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In 415, a priest named Lucian purportedly had a dream that revealed the location of Stephen's remains at Beit Jimal. After that, the relics of the protomartyr were taken in procession to the Church of Hagia Sion on 26 December 415, making it the date for the feast of Saint Stephen. In 439, the relics were translated to a new church north of the Damascus Gate built by the empress Aelia Eudocia in honor of Saint Stephen. This church was destroyed in the 12th century. A 20th-century French Catholic church, Saint-Étienne, was built in its place, while another, the Greek Orthodox Church of St Stephen, was built outside the eastern gate of the city, which a second tradition holds to be the site of his martyrdom, rather than the northern location outside Damascus Gate (for the two traditions see here).


title: Saint Stephen

text: The Crusaders initially called the main northern gate of Jerusalem "Saint Stephen's Gate" (in Latin, "Porta Sancti Stephani"), highlighting its proximity to the site of martyrdom of Saint Stephen, marked by the church and monastery built by Empress Eudocia. A different tradition is documented from the end of the Crusader period, after the disappearance of the Byzantine church: as Christian pilgrims were prohibited from approaching the militarily exposed northern city wall, the name "Saint Stephen's Gate" was transferred to the still accessible eastern gate, which bears this name until this day.


title: Saint Stephen

text: The relics of the protomartyr were later translated to Rome by Pope Pelagius II during the construction of the basilica of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura. They were interred alongside the relics of Saint Lawrence, whose tomb is enshrined within the church. According to the Golden Legend, the relics of Lawrence moved miraculously to one side to make room for those of Stephen.


title: Saint Stephen

text: The Imperial Regalia of the Holy Roman Empire includes a relic known as St. Stephen's Purse which is an elaborate gold and jewel-encrusted box believed to contain soil soaked with the blood of St. Stephen. The reliquary is likely a 9th-century creation.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In his book "The City of God", Augustine of Hippo describes the many miracles that occurred when part of the relics of Saint Stephen were brought to Africa.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In Western Christianity, 26 December is called "Saint Stephen's Day", the "Feast of Stephen" mentioned in the English Christmas carol "Good King Wenceslas". It is a public holiday in many nations that are of historic Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran traditions, including Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Slovakia, Poland, Italy, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Catalonia and the Balearic Isles. In Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the United Kingdom, the day is celebrated as "Boxing Day".


title: Saint Stephen

text: In the current norms for the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, the feast is celebrated at the Eucharist, but, for the Liturgy of the Hours, is restricted to the Hours during the day, with Evening Prayer being reserved to the celebration of the Octave of Christmas. Historically, the "Invention of the Relics of Saint Stephen" (i.e., their reputed discovery) was commemorated on 3 August. The feasts of both 26 December and 3 August have been used in dating clauses in historical documents produced in England. Stephen is remembered in the Church of England with a Festival on 26 December.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In the Eastern Orthodox Church, those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite, and in Oriental Orthodox Churches (e.g., Coptic, Syrian, Malankara) Saint Stephen's feast day is celebrated on 27 December, due to the celebration of the Synaxis of the Theotokos on the 26 December. This also has the effect of pushing the Feast of the Holy Innocents to the 29 December. This day is also called the "Third Day of the Nativity" because it is the third day of the Christmas season.


title: Saint Stephen

text: Some Orthodox churches, particularly in the west, follow a modified Julian calendar that places date names identically with the standard Gregorian calendar of widespread civil usage. In those churches, then, the date the feast is observed is generally known as 27 December. However, other Orthodox churches, including the Oriental Orthodox, continue to use the original Julian calendar. Throughout the 21st century, 27 December Julian will continue to fall on 9 January in the Gregorian calendar, and that is the date on which they observe the feast.


title: Saint Stephen

text: Saint Stephen is also commemorated on 4 January (Synaxis of the Seventy Apostles) in the Eastern Orthodox Church.


title: Saint Stephen

text: Uncovering of his relics (relics of the saints: Nicodemus, Gamaliel and Abibas son of Gamaliel were also found in Saint Stephen's tomb) took place in 415, Gamaliel appeared to and he told him to go to Jerusalem and inform Bishop John about relics of Saint Stephen. Bishop John II with bishops Eusthia (from Sebastia) and Eleutherius (from Jericho) came to the tomb in Beit Jimal and translated relics to Jerusalem, this event is commemorated on 15 September.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In 428 (when Saint Theodosius II the Younger Roman Emperor) relics of saint: Stephen, Nicodemus, Gamaliel and Abibas were translated from Jerusalem to Constantinople and relics have been placed in Saint Lawrence church, and after preparations were made relics were moved to specially prepared Saint Stephen church in Constantinople, this event took place on 2 August.


title: Saint Stephen

text: In the Armenian Apostolic and Armenian Catholic Churches, Saint Stephen's Day falls on 25 December – the day on which the feast of the Nativity of Jesus (Christmas) falls in all other churches. This is because the Armenian churches maintain the decree of Constantine, which stipulated that the Nativity and Theophany of Jesus were to be celebrated on 6 January. In dioceses of the Armenian Church which use the Julian Calendar, Saint Stephen's Day falls on 7 January and Nativity/Theophany on 19 January (for the remainder of the 21st century Julian).


title: Saint Stephen

text: In the eucharistic celebration on this feast day, it is traditional for all deacons serving at the altar to wear a liturgical crown (Armenian: խոյր "khooyr"), which is one of the vestments worn only by priests on all other days of the year, the crown being in this instance a symbol of martyrdom.


title: Saint Stephen

text: Many churches and other places commemorate Stephen. Among the most notable are the two sites in Jerusalem held by different traditions to be the place of his martyrdom, the Salesian monastery of Beit Jimal in Israel held to be the place where his remains were miraculously found, and the church of San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome, where the saint's remains are said to be buried.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost Coast to Coast is an American adult animated comedy talk show created by Mike Lazzo for Cartoon Network and hosted by a re-imagined version of the 1960s Hanna-Barbera cartoon character Space Ghost. In contrast to the original 1960s series, "Space Ghost", which aired as a standard Hanna-Barbera Saturday-morning superhero cartoon, "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" is a reboot and sequel of the series intended for teens and adults, reinterpreted as a surreal spoof talk show and animated using the original series' artwork. For its first three seasons, the series is presented as a serious talk show with subdued jokes, but later seasons rely more on surrealism and non-sequitur humor.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" is the first original series fully produced by Cartoon Network. It premiered on April 15, 1994, and originally ended on December 17, 1999. The series was revived on May 7, 2001, and was moved to the then-new Adult Swim late-night programming block on September 2, where new episodes premiered until April 12, 2004. Two final seasons were released exclusively on GameTap from 2006 to 2008. Over 11 seasons, 108 episodes aired. The series helped to launch the careers of animators Adam Reed, Matt Thompson, Andy Merrill, Jim Fortier, Pete Smith, Michael Ouweleen, Erik Richter, Dave Willis, and Matt Maiellaro.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Four spin-off series, "Cartoon Planet", "The Brak Show, Aqua Teen Hunger Force," and "Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law", are based on "Space Ghost: Coast to Coast". The series has also inspired or influenced other animated series for Adult Swim, including "Sealab 2021" and "The Eric Andre Show".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" uses a subverted talk show format hosted by Space Ghost as he interviews live-action guest stars, whom Space Ghost believes to be fellow superheroes, appearing on a monitor beside Space Ghost's desk. In early episodes, Space Ghost begins his interviews by asking guests about their superpowers. His interactions with guests can be awkward because the guests' answers are often changed to humorously match Space Ghost's questions in post-production. Later episodes feature guests being allowed to interact directly with the characters.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost's bandleader, an evil, talking mantis named Zorak, and his director-producer, a red-helmeted lava man named Moltar, work forced unpaid labor for Space Ghost, ostensibly as punishment for their crimes committed on the original series. They frequently disrupt the show and make no secret of how much they hate him. Zorak is more openly hostile towards Space Ghost while Moltar is primarily focused on ending each show quickly.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Cartoon Network's Adult Swim often aired two 11-minute episodes back-to-back with advertisements to make a 30-minute programming block. In its first few years, Cartoon Network showed episodes of the original 1960s and 1980s "Space Ghost" cartoons (sometimes with an added laugh track) after each 11-minute episode of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Early seasons feature music played by Zorak and his band "The Original Way-Outs". The original theme song, "Hit Single", was composed by free jazz guitarist Sonny Sharrock and performed by Sharrock on guitar, Lance Carter on drums, Eddie Horst on bass, and Alfreda Gerald on vocals. Sharrock and Carter recorded songs for the show that were later compiled on the album "Space Ghost Coast to Coast". As a tribute to Sharrock, who died in May 1994 shortly after the show first aired, the episode "Sharrock" featured fifteen minutes of unedited takes of music recorded for the show.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Seasons 4–6 feature a new closing theme by Man or Astro-man?, and in later seasons the opening theme and titles were nearly abandoned. Alternate songs are sometimes used as theme music, including the "CHiPs" theme song for the episode titled "CHiPs". An hour-long musical season finale featuring the bands Yo La Tengo and Cornershop was planned for the 1998 season but never produced.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" was created by Mike Lazzo after he was asked to develop a cartoon to appeal to adults. The series' original title stemmed from early 1993 when Andy Merrill and Jay Edwards were brainstorming names for a marathon of the 1960s "Space Ghost" for Cartoon Network, trying to find things that rhyme with "Ghost". Because of budget limitations, Ned Hastings recycled clips from the original series and reorganized them on an Avid non-linear editor for a "talk show" style program. The characters' crudely animated lips, awkward movements that resembled "paper dolls glued to Popsicle sticks", and continuity errors became part of the joke.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: The series premiered on April 15, 1994, having aired initially at 11:00 p.m. ET on Friday nights, with an encore showing of the episode on Saturday night. Later, the program was moved to various late-night time slots, usually on weekends.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: January 1995 saw a special episode included on the Turner-distributed VHS release of "The Mask" after the film, where Space Ghost and Zorak promote the show and interview Jim Carrey and the film's director, Chuck Russell. In February 1995, an episode of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" was simulcast on Cartoon Network, TBS, and TNT for the "World Premiere Toon-In" special debut of Cartoon Network's "World Premiere Toons" series. In the special, Space Ghost interviews a few of the new directors, while the Council of Doom members are the judges of the cartoon clips. The first run ended on December 17, 1999, with the episode "King Dead". But in 2000, Cartoon Network premiered pilots for the show's spin-offs "The Brak Show", "Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law", and "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", as well as "Sealab 2021" — all of which were created by "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" staff.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2001, Cartoon Network announced that "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" would be revived for another run, but on their late night programming block Adult Swim. The network aired the first two episodes on May 7th and July 22nd of 2001, prior to the launch of Adult Swim. And on September 2, 2001, new episodes and re-runs moved to Cartoon Network's late-night programming block Adult Swim during the block's premiere. The series ended its television run in 2004 with its 93rd episode, "Live at the Fillmore". "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" would be the only Cartoon Network original series that moved to Adult Swim with new episodes until 2017 when "Samurai Jack" aired its fifth and final season.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2006, the series returned as a five-minute web series on Turner Broadcasting's GameTap online service, in which Space Ghost interviewed celebrities from the video game industry and GameTap's artist of the month. The series officially concluded with the final webisode on May 31, 2008.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: On April Fools' Day 2014, Adult Swim broadcast an unannounced "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" marathon with new material in the form of commercials featuring Space Ghost, Zorak, and Moltar in a voice-recording booth ad-libbing lines from episodes. The series has seen occasional marathons on Adult Swim since, including one on October 22, 2021, in promotion of an Adult Swim tie-in with Carl's Jr.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In Canada, "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" previously aired on Teletoon's Teletoon at Night block, and is airing on the Canadian version of Adult Swim.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Space Ghost: Coast to Coast" has been released on home media in three widespread DVD volumes and two additional volumes only available for purchase through the now-defunct Adult Swim online store. The final six episodes of the television run have never had an official DVD release. Nearly every episode was available to buy through a "build your own DVD" feature on Adult Swim's website. Thus the final season episodes, early episodes that were left off the first volume, and unedited shows that had been altered on the official releases were now available to own, but only in DVD-ROM form.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2006, episodes were made available on the Xbox Live Marketplace. The series, along with other Adult Swim shows such as "Robot Chicken", "Aqua Teen Hunger Force", "Samurai Jack", and "Rick and Morty" was released on HBO Max on its May 2020 launch.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Alex Toth, the creator of Hanna-Barbera's "Space Ghost", was rumored to have been displeased with the usage of his characters in parody, but Toth disproved the rumor through written letters by admitting he appreciated all adaptations of his work.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Cartoon Planet", a spin-off featuring Space Ghost, Zorak, and Brak hosting a variety show on the Cartoon Planet, premiered on Cartoon Network and its sister network TBS in 1995.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: From 1997 to 2003, "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" comics was published in anthology comics "Cartoon Network Present", "Cartoon Network Starring" and "Cartoon Cartoons" by DC Comics.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2000, the show either spun off or directly inspired the four original cartoons that constituted Adult Swim's comedy block—"Sealab 2021"; "The Brak Show"; "Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law"; and "Aqua Teen Hunger Force". Although "Harvey Birdman" used traditional animation to flash animation, the rest used the same limited animation style as "Space Ghost Coast to Coast", and all four shows were created by the original writers and staff for the series. "The Brak Show" included the characters Brak and Zorak, recurring characters on "Space Ghost Coast to Coast".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In a 2012 interview, Eric André mentioned being a big fan of the show, stating it was a major influence on him while developing his own series for Adult Swim, "The Eric Andre Show". Before shooting Andre would rewatch several episodes of "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" in a row in order to "absorb as much "Space Ghost"" as he could. Andre would also ask executive producer and Adult Swim president Mike Lazzo several questions about the series, as he was an executive during its production run. To Andre's surprise Lazzo had no interest in "Space Ghost Coast to Coast", saying "Space Ghost is dead to me".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: "Space Ghost" is mentioned in the opening lyrics of cello rock band Rasputina's song "The Olde Headboard", which is featured on their 1998 album "How We Quit the Forest".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Four rocks found on the planet Mars were named after Space Ghost, Zorak, Moltar, and Brak. In January 2009, "IGN" named "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" as their 37th favorite animated TV show in their Top 100 Best Animated TV Shows article.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2013, "IGN" placed "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" as number 18 on their list of Top 25 animated series for adults.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Rapper SpaceGhostPurrp named himself after the titular character and used the character's image for the cover of his "NASA" mixtape.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost appears on the 1998 series "Donny & Marie" to promote the CD "Space Ghost's Surf & Turf".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost can be seen in the beginning of "The Powerpuff Girls Movie" in the movie theatre next to other Warner Bros., Hanna-Barbera, and Cartoon Network characters, such as Zorak and Brak. He was also in a promo advertising the movie.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost appears on the 2002 "The Brak Show" episode "Runaway" and the 2003 episode "Enter the Hump".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In the cold opening for the 2003 "Aqua Teen Hunger Force" episode "The Dressing", Space Ghost's body is seen on the floor dripping with blood, and Dr. Weird is seen putting Space Ghost's head over his own. Seth Green appears in footage of an unaired "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" episode entitled "One Way Out".


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost appears in a 2004 promo for the animated series "Tom Goes to the Mayor", where he interviews Tom and the Mayor.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost makes a cameo in the 2007 film "Aqua Teen Hunger Force Colon Movie Film for Theaters". Space Ghost has been in commercials for Coca-Cola, Dr Pepper, AT&T, Nestea, Esurance, and Vitamin Water and has appeared in bumps and promos for Cartoon Network and Adult Swim.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In 2007, Cartoon Network Spain produced an adaptation of the series which aired as part of the Adult Swim block on TNT Spain. It replaced the guests with Spanish celebrities.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost, Moltar, Zorak, Brak, and Mojo Jojo from "The Powerpuff Girls" appear in a 2002 interview with professional soccer player Hugo Sánchez on the Latin America Cartoon Network channel, and again in 2003 interviewing Óscar Pérez Rojas (which also features Eustace from "Courage the Cowardly Dog").


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Space Ghost appears in the 2011 Adult Swim pilot "Earth Ghost", a reworking of a 2007 live-action pilot "Lowe Country."


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: Issue 40 of the comic book "Scooby-Doo Team-Up" features a non-satirical Space Ghost in his traditional role as a space-traveling superhero, albeit one who captures Moltar and Zorak with the help of Scooby-Doo. Sidekicks Jan and Jace say that the two villains are clever and that once, to keep him from interfering in their plans, they even "hypnotized him into thinking he was a talk show host! Fortunately, he snapped out of it after eight seasons." On hearing that, Space Ghost frowns and says, "I don't want to talk about it."


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: In the late 1990s, CartoonNetwork.com hosted a Flash game called "How Zorak Stole X-mas". In the game, the player controls Space Ghost, who zaps Zorak with his power bands, dodges Zorak's thrown eggs, and prevents Zorak from escaping with Christmas presents. Another game, "Blast Zorak", had the player use Space Ghost to blast Zorak as much as possible before the time runs out.


title: Space Ghost Coast to Coast

text: British indie band Glass Animals references "Space Ghost Coast to Coast" on their 2020 album "Dreamland" with a song of the same name.


title: Milo Gibson

text: Milo Gibson (born November 16, 1990) is an Australian actor. He is the son of Mel Gibson. He is known for his roles in "All the Devil's Men", "Breaking & Exiting", "Gangster Land", and "Hacksaw Ridge".


title: Milo Gibson

text: Gibson was born in Australia and raised in Malibu. Gibson worked as an electrician prior to starting his acting career. Gibson made his film debut in his father's film "Hacksaw Ridge".


title: Milo Gibson

text: He had a major role as Lt. Johnny Kent in the 2018 film "Hurricane", which was also released under the titles "Hurricane: 303 Squadron", "303: Bitwa o Anglię" in Poland and "Mission of Honor" in the United States.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The 2002 Bali bombings occurred on 12 October 2002 in the tourist district of Kuta on the Indonesian island of Bali. The attack killed 202 people (including 88 Australians, 38 Indonesians, 23 Britons, and people of more than 20 other nationalities). A further 209 people were injured.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Various members of Jemaah Islamiyah, a violent Islamist group, were convicted in relation to the bombings, including three individuals who were sentenced to death. The attack involved the detonation of three bombs: a backpack-mounted device carried by a suicide bomber; a large car bomb, both of which were detonated in or near popular nightclubs in Kuta; and a third much smaller device detonated outside the United States consulate in Denpasar, causing only minor damage. An audio-cassette purportedly carrying a recorded voice message from Osama bin Laden stated that the Bali bombings were in direct retaliation for support of the United States' War on Terror and Australia's role in the liberation of East Timor.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 9 November 2008, Amrozi bin Nurhasyim, Imam Samudra and Huda bin Abdul Haq were executed by firing squad on the island prison of Nusakambangan. On 9 March 2010, Dulmatin, nicknamed "the Genius"—believed to be responsible for setting off one of the Bali bombs with a mobile phone—was killed in a shoot-out with Indonesian police in Pamulang, South Tangerang.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: At 11:05 p.m. on 12 October 2002, a suicide bomber inside the nightclub "Paddy's Pub" (sometimes referred to as "Paddy’s Irish Bar") detonated a bomb in his backpack, causing many patrons, with or without injuries, to immediately flee into the street. Twenty seconds later, a second and much more powerful car bomb hidden inside a white Mitsubishi van was detonated by another suicide bomber outside the "Sari Club", a renowned open-air thatch-roof bar located opposite "Paddy's Pub".


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The bombing occurred during one of the busiest tourist periods of the year in Kuta Beach, driven in part by many Australian sporting teams making their annual end-of-season holiday.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Damage to the densely populated residential and commercial district was immense, destroying neighbouring buildings and shattering windows several blocks away. The car bomb explosion left a one metre deep crater.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The local Sanglah Hospital was ill-equipped to deal with the scale of the disaster and was overwhelmed with the number of injured, particularly burn victims. There were so many people injured by the explosion that some of the injured had to be placed in hotel pools near the explosion site to ease the pain of their burns. Many of the injured were forced to be flown extreme distances to Darwin () and Perth () for specialist burn treatment.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A comparatively small bomb detonated outside the U.S. consulate in Denpasar, which is thought to have exploded shortly before the two Kuta bombs, caused minor injuries to one person and property damage was minimal. It was reportedly packed with human excrement.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A report released in August 2005 by the United States-Indonesia Society (USINDO) described the events as follows:


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The investigators were thus able to recreate the bombers activities. Amrozi, Idris and Ali Imron had simply walked into a dealership and purchased a new Yamaha motorbike, after asking how much they could re-sell it for if they returned it in a few days. Imron used the motorbike to plant the small bomb outside the U.S. Consulate. Idris then rode the motorbike as Imron drove two suicide bombers in the Mitsubishi to the nightclub district in Kuta. He stopped near the Sari Club, instructed one suicide bomber to put on his explosives vest and the other to arm the vehicle bomb. The first bomber headed to Paddy's Pub. Idris then left the second bomber, who had only learned to drive in a straight line, to drive the minivan the short distance to the Sari Club. Idris picked up Imron on the Yamaha and the duo headed back into Denpasar. Idris dialed the number of the Nokia to detonate the bomb at the Consulate. The two suicide bombers exploded their devices. Imron and Idris dropped the motorbike at a place where it eventually attracted the attention of the caretaker.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The final death toll was 202, mainly comprising Western tourists and holiday-makers in their 20s and 30s who were in or near Paddy's Pub or the Sari Club, but also including many Balinese Indonesians working or living nearby, or simply passing by. Hundreds more people suffered horrific burns and other injuries. The largest group among those killed were tourists from Australia with 88 fatalities. On 14 October, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1438 condemning the attack as a threat to international peace and security.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Kusitino 'Kossy' Halemai, a Wallis and Futuna-born Australian citizen who was managing the Bounty Hotel in Kuta at the time of the attacks, sheltered survivors in the immediate aftermath of the blasts. He was singled out for praise with the award of the Medal of the Order of Australia (OAM) on 13 June 2005.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Husband and wife Richard and Gilana Poore, who organized a makeshift triage area in the Bounty Hotel's reception area, were both honored with an OAM.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: James Parkinson, an emergency nurse, worked alongside Doctor Hogg from Wollongong in the Denpasar Sanglah Hospital running the trauma centre for the bombing victims. After he disappeared in Africa and Europe for three years, the Governor General's department finally tracked him down and awarded Parkinson the Medal of the Order of Australia in 2005.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Senior Constable Timothy Britten and Mr Richard Joyes of Western Australia were both awarded the Cross of Valour for their actions during the course of the day. The Cross of Valour is the highest civilian honor and is equivalent to the Victoria Cross for Australia which is the highest military honor.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Mitsubishi L300 van bomb was initially thought to have consisted of C4, a military grade plastic explosive which is difficult to obtain. However, investigators discovered the bomb was made from potassium chlorate, aluminium powder, and sulfur. For the Sari club bomb with the L300 van, the terrorists assembled 12 plastic filing cabinets filled with explosives. The cabinets, each containing a potassium chlorate, aluminum powder, sulfur mixture with a TNT booster, was connected by of PETN-filled detonating cord. Ninety-four RDX electric detonators were fitted to the TNT. The total weight of the van bomb was .


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The large, high-temperature blast damage produced by this mixture was similar to a thermobaric explosive, although the bombers may not have known this.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The organization suspected of responsibility for the bombing was Jemaah Islamiyah, an Islamist group allegedly led by radical cleric Abu Bakar Bashir. A week after the blasts, Arab satellite channel Al-Jazeera put to air an audio-cassette purportedly carrying a recorded voice message from Osama Bin Laden saying that the Bali bombings were in retaliation for support of the United States' war on terror and Australia's role in the liberation of East Timor.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: You will be killed just as you kill, and will be bombed just as you bomb. Expect more that will further distress you.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The recording did not however claim responsibility for the Bali attack. However, former FBI agent Ali Soufan confirmed in his book, "The Black Banners", that al-Qaeda did in fact finance the attack. In addition, Hambali confessed that al-Qaeda had sent him US$30,000 to fund the bombings of the two nightclubs.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Indonesian chief of police, General Da'i Bachtiar said that the bombing was the "worst act of terror in Indonesia's history".


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Aris Munandar (aka Sheik Aris) is a Jemaah Islamiyah associate linked to Bashir. He is believed to have assisted the Bali bomber Amrozi in acquiring some of the explosives used in the Bali bombings. Philippine intelligence considers Munandar to be associated with Mohammad Abdullah Sughayer, a Saudi national Abu Sayyaf Group in southern Philippines. Munandar is still at large. A report by the United States-Indonesia Society describes the arrest of Amrozi and other suspects.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: General Pastika ordered his men to make the arrest early the next morning, November. Amrozi was asleep in the rear of the house. According to Greg Barton's account, Amrozi did not attempt to escape, but laughed instead, later exclaiming, "Gosh, you guys are very clever, how did you find me?" Amrozi's mobile phone, a particularly important piece of evidence, was seized during his arrest. Bags of chemical ingredients for bombs were found in his workshop and soil samples taken from outside his home showed traces of the primary chemical used in the Sari Club bomb. Police found receipts for the purchase of chemicals used to make the bombs, as well as a list of expenses incurred in making the bombs. Further search of Amrozi's home revealed copies of speeches by Osama bin Laden, and Abu Bakar Bashir, the radical Indonesian Muslim cleric reputed to be the leader of Jemaah Islamiyah. The speeches exhorted listeners to wage jihad. Police also uncovered training manuals on ambush techniques and numerous articles on jihad. Under questioning Amrozi revealed the names of six others involved in the bombing: Ali Imron, Imam Samudra, Dul Matin, Idris, Abdul Ghani and Umar Patek. But Amrozi's mobile phone proved to be the real catch. Indonesian investigators were able to print out a list of calls he had made immediately before, during and after the bombing, as well as the names and telephone numbers in the phone's memory. Pastika kept Amrozi's arrest secret for two days. After it was announced, Polri monitored the sudden flurry of communications among numbers listed in Amrozi's telephone before the calls abruptly ceased. The investigators were able to identify the location of a number of the telephones, leading to a series of arrests.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Indonesian authorities also believe more suspects remain at large. In 2005, Indonesian police arrested 24 additional people suspected of involvement in the Bali attacks and a 2003 bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 12 October 2005, a story in Australian broadcaster SBS's documentary series "Dateline", called "Inside Indonesia's War on Terrorism", argued that the Indonesian military or police may have been involved in executing the attack.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 13 June 2007, it was reported that Abu Dujana, who might have headed a terrorist cell in Bali, was captured.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Just past midnight on 9 November 2008, the three convicted of carrying out the bombings (Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim, and Ali Ghufron) were executed by a firing squad.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Umar Patek was finally arrested in Abbottabad, Pakistan in early 2011. The U.S. government had offered a US$1 million reward for his arrest. Patek is a suspect in other bombings as well as the one in Bali.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Another suspect named Zulkarnaen was finally arrested in Lampung on 10 December 2020. He was also stated to have orchestrated numerous Jemaah Islamiyah-related incidents in the past and been one of the executives of said terrorist group.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In April 2003, Indonesian authorities charged Abu Bakar Bashir (also rendered "Ba'asyir"), the alleged spiritual leader of Jemaah Islamiyah, with treason. It was alleged that he tried to overthrow the government and establish an Islamic state. The specific charges against Bashir related to a series of church bombings on Christmas Eve in 2000, and to a plot to bomb United States and other Western interests in Singapore. He was initially not charged over the Bali attack, although he was frequently accused of being the instigator or inspirer of the attack. On 2 September, Bashir was acquitted of treason but convicted of lesser charges and sentenced to a prison term of four years. He said he would appeal. On 15 October 2004, he was arrested by the Indonesian authorities and charged with involvement in another bomb attack, which killed 14 people at the J. W. Marriott hotel in Jakarta on 5 August 2003. Secondary charges in this indictment accused him of involvement in the Bali bombing, the first time he faced charges in relation to this attack. On 3 March 2005, Bashir was found not guilty of the charges surrounding the 2003 bombing, but guilty of conspiracy over the 2002 attacks in Bali. He was sentenced to two and a half years imprisonment. The Australian, US, and many governments expressed its disappointment that the sentence was too short; in the outcome, Bashir was freed 14 June 2006 having served less than 26 months for his conspiracy, and on 21 December 2006, Bashir's conviction was overturned by Indonesia's Supreme Court.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 30 April 2003, the first charges related to the Bali bombings were made against Amrozi bin Haji Nurhasyim, known as Amrozi, for allegedly buying the explosives and the van used in the bombings. On 8 August, he was found guilty and sentenced to death. Another participant in the bombing, Imam Samudra, was sentenced to death on 10 September. Amrozi's brother, Ali Imron, who had expressed remorse for his part in the bombing, was sentenced to life imprisonment on 18 September. A fourth accused, Ali Ghufron, the brother-in-law of Noordin Mohammed Top was sentenced to death on 1 October. Ali Ghufron, alias Mukhlas, told police that he was the head of one of Jemaah Islamiyah's four cells and had ordered the Bali bombings. He also confessed that a fellow leader Riduan Isamuddin, known as Hambali, had provided the funds for the attacks. He told police, "I do not know for sure the source of the aforementioned money from Hambali; most probably it was from Afghanistan, that is, from Sheikh Usama bin Laden. As far as I know, Hambali did not have a source of funds except from Afghanistan." Another operative, Wan Min bin Wan Mat, revealed to police that he had given Mukhlas money, at Hambali's request and that he understood part of the money had come directly from al-Qaeda.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Australian, US, and many other foreign governments expressed satisfaction with the speed and efficiency with which the Indonesian police and courts dealt with the bombings primary suspects, despite what they characterized as light sentences. All Australian jurisdictions abolished the death penalty more than 30 years ago, but a poll showed that 77% of Australians approved of the death sentence for Amrozi. The Australian government said it would not ask Indonesia to refrain from using the death penalty.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 15 August, Riduan Isamuddin, generally known as Hambali, described as the operational chief of Jemaah Islamiyah was arrested in Ayutthaya, Thailand, the old capital one hour's drive north of Bangkok. He is in American custody in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 23 July 2004, one of the convicted bombers, Maskur Abdul Kadir, successfully appealed his conviction. He had been tried under retroactive laws which were introduced after the bombing and which were employed to aid the prosecution of those involved in the attack. These laws were used by the prosecution instead of existing criminal laws as they allowed the death penalty to be imposed and lowered certain evidentiary restrictions.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The highest court in Indonesia, the Constitutional Court, found by a margin of five to four that trying the terrorist suspects under these retroactive laws violated Article 28I(1) of the constitution [2]. The minority judges argued that international human rights documents such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allowed an exception to not applying retrospective legislation in the prosecution of crimes against humanity. The majority found that this argument was inconsistent with the text of Article 28I(1) which states that the rights listed there "cannot be limited under any circumstances."


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Following this decision, charges related to the bombings against Idris, who had confessed to participating in the attacks to the police and court, were dismissed. The legal status of Kadir, Idris and others who might have their convictions quashed following the ruling on the retrospective law is unclear.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Constitutional Court is a relatively new body, created after the fall of Suharto, and this decision was one of the first to overrule the constitutionality of the government's application of a law.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 24 October 2008, Bali officials announced that three men convicted of carrying out the bombings would be executed by firing squad in November 2008. On 25 October 2008, Communications and Information Minister asked the Indonesian media to stop calling the three "heroes".


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Denpasar District Court, on 3 November, accepted a reprieve motion to reconsider the death sentences. Fahmi Bachmid, a lawyer for the family of Jafar Sodiq, a brother of Amrozi and Mukhlas, stated: "We lodged the judicial review to Denpasar court to question (previous) decisions." Lawyer Imam Asmara Hadi stated: "We have lodged an appeal because we haven't received a copy of the Supreme Court rejection of our previous appeal."


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Indonesia's Supreme Court denied previous petitions for judicial review amid the constitutional court's dismissal of the bombers' appeals. Denpasar court official Nengah Sanjaya said the 3-page appeal would be sent to a Cilacap, central Java court. But the Attorney General's office said on 1 November the execution was "very close." Supreme Court judge Djoko Sarwoko, however, said a "last-minute legal challenge by the relatives of Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim and Ali Ghufron will not change or delay the execution." They were moved to isolation cells, and execution spots were ready on the Nusakambangan island prison where they were being held. Local chief prosecutor Muhammad Yamin said they would be "executed simultaneously" but at different locations.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Imam Samudra, Amrozi Nurhasyim and Ali Ghufron were executed by firing squad after midnight on 9 November 2008 (West Indonesian time). In the final moment, there was no remorse or repentance, and they shouted: Allahu Akbar, or "God is great!" Despite his carefree demeanor throughout his trial and incarceration, the Australian edition of "The Daily Telegraph" reported Amrozi was pale-faced and shaking in the moments before his execution. For burial, Mukhlas and Amrozi's bodies were flown by helicopter to Tenggulan, Lamongan, East Java, while Imam Samudra's body was flown to Serang, Banten, amid "welcome martyrs" banner displayed at the cemetery.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The execution caused high tension and sparked clashes in Tenggulan between hundreds of police and supporters. Indonesian singer and TV presenter Dorce Gamalama attended the funeral of Imam Samudra. After praying with the crowd, she spent half an hour in the house of the executed man and spoke with his mother. On leaving she was quoted as saying "I'm certain he's gone to heaven". Ma'ruf Amin, deputy chairman of the Indonesian Ulemas Council, the chief body for Islamic clerics in Indonesia said of the men: "They did not die a holy death. That can only be in a war and Indonesia is not at war."


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A permanent memorial was built on the site of the destroyed Paddy's Pub on Legian Street. (A new bar, named "Paddy's: Reloaded", was reopened further along Legian Street). The memorial is made of intricately carved stone, set with a large marble plaque, which bears the names and nationalities of each of those killed. It is flanked by the national flags of the victims. The monument is well-maintained and illuminated at night.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The memorial was dedicated on 12 October 2004, the second anniversary of the attack. The dedication included a Balinese Hindu ceremony and the opportunity for mourners to lay flowers and other offerings. The Australian ambassador and Indonesian officials attended the ceremony.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: The Balinese mark their commitment in a nine-day-long event. After major cleansing ceremonies, establishing a memorial for the lost lives, and paying respect to those who left loved ones behind, the people of Kuta look forward to restoring Bali's image through an event named "Kuta Karnival — A Celebration of Life". The community event consists of traditional art performances such as Balinese Sunset Dances, sports on the beach as well as in the water for young and old plus rows and rows of culinary displays along the one kilometre of sandy beach.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In line with the return of tourism to Kuta, Kuta Karnival has grown into a tourism promotional event with major coverage from television and newspapers from across the globe. Companies, embassies, Non-Government Organizations, associations and even individuals come forth to get involved in the various events such as a Balinese dance competition presented by a surf-wear company, an environment exhibition presented by an embassy, a fun cycle presented by a group of individuals, a seminar presented by an association and a parade on the streets presented by an NGO. Tourists and locals alike, more than ninety thousand people participates in the numerous events, year after year.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A repeated tragedy in Bali in 2005 did not reduce the Kuta community's determination to carry out this annual event. Kuta Karnival is conducted to commemorate and give respect to the victims of human violence and show the world the true spirit of local community survival despite terrorism attacks.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On 12 October 2010, Australian and Indonesian survivors of the 2002 bombings attended a solemn commemoration service to mark the eighth anniversary of the devastating attacks.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In Lincoln Square on the western side of Swanston Street in Carlton, Melbourne, is a memorial representing the 88 Australians who died in the bombings, and notably the 22 from Victoria.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: There are 88 jets in the fountain; at night, there are lights representing all those who died. The fountain shuts off and becomes a reflecting pool on 12 October each year.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: One Melburnian survivor of the bombings was North Melbourne AFL player Jason McCartney. He suffered second-degree burns to over 50% of his body while helping carry others to safety and nearly died during surgery after being transported back to Melbourne.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: After a long rehabilitation process, McCartney returned for a single AFL match: North Melbourne vs. Richmond at Docklands Stadium in Melbourne on 6 June 2003. He wore compression garments and protective gloves as well as the numbers "88" and "202" on his jersey, signifying the Australian and total numbers of victims, while many in the crowd held up signs saying "Bali 88/202". Other Australian victims were honored in a video shown on the stadium's video screens before the game, with the attendees including Melbourne players Steven Febey and Steven Armstrong, who were both injured in the blast, and representatives from five Australian rules football clubs who lost players in the attacks were presented to the crowd. McCartney helped his team to a narrow win before announcing his retirement at the end of the game, and his comeback has been cited as one of the AFL's most inspirational stories.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A memorial which lists the victims of the bombings from Western Australia was opened on the first anniversary, and is situated on the ridge of Mount Eliza in Kings Park, overlooking the city. The memorial is specifically designed to frame the sun's rays at dawn on 12 October each year and faces in the exact direction of Bali.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: An Indonesian-style stone memorial is situated in Allambe Memorial Park at Nerang. A bronze plaque lists the names of the 88 Australians who died in the bombings. An annual twilight service is held at the site of the memorial on each anniversary of the Bali bombings.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On the northern side of Coogee Beach a memorial to the Bali bombing victims comprises three interlocking bronze shapes that have an abstract resemblance to three bowed figures supporting each other. There are also some in memory of the dead.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A memorial to seven residents of Sutherland Shire who were victims is at Cronulla. Called "The Seed", the work is based on the seed and foliage of the "Banksia robur", a native plant indigenous to the Shire. This sculpture of pink sandstone is the centrepiece of the memorial. It is set in a black granite pond located in 'Peryman Place' not far from North Cronulla Beach, frequented by many of the seven victims and their families. Two plaques are set into the granite surrounding the pond. The plaques carry the victims' photos, names, and ages; and also details of the event, the design's symbolism, its dedication, and a poem written by the families of the victims. The work is by sculptor Chris Bennetts and Ishi Buki Sandstone Sculpture.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: South of Sydney, in the town of Ulladulla, a large youth centre is being built as a memorial to Craig Dunn and Danny Lewis, two local victims of the bombings. Money is being raised through the Dunn & Lewis Youth Development Foundation.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: On the fourth anniversary of the bombings Prince Charles and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall unveiled a memorial in London, at the rear of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Main Building, facing St. James's Park. The memorial consists of a 1.5-metre marble globe, to represent that people from 21 countries were killed, and has 202 doves carved into it. The names of all 202 victims are on a curved stone wall behind the globe. It is the work of the artist Gary Breeze and the sculptor Martin Cook.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In 2005, two marble wall placards were unveiled at Hong Kong Football Club in memory of the members of the club who were killed in the bombings.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: Every year since 2002, the Rugby Section of the Singapore Cricket Club (the "SCC") has held a dawn memorial service on the Padang (the SCC's rugby field in central Singapore) on the anniversary of the bombings, to honour the memory of the eight players which the SCC lost (Neil Bowler, Chris Redman, Dave Kent, Peter Record, Tim Arnold, Chris Bradford, Chris Kays and Charlie Vanrenen). The service is attended by survivors of the 2002 rugby tour to Bali, friends and family of those who lost their lives, as well as current and past players of the club.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A remembrance garden was constructed at the International School Ho Chi Minh City commemorating teachers from that school who were killed in the bombings.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In 2006, "Long Road to Heaven", an Indonesian feature film about the bombings, was released by Kalyana Shira Films. The film was directed by Enison Sinaro and written by Wong Wai Leng and Andy Logam-Tan. It stars Raelee Hill, Mirrah Foulkes, Alex Komang, Surya Saputra, John O' Hare, Sarah Treleaven, and Joshua Pandelaki. It tells the story during three different times: the planning a few months before the bombing, its execution in 2002, and the trials in 2003 through the viewpoints of both the victims and the bombers. The story is not chronologically linear, starting with the explosion and then moving from time to time so as all three plots are culminated one after the other. At the beginning of each scene, subtitles tell the date and location of the scene.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A comic book about the first Bali Bombing was launched to promote peace and discourage radicalism and terrorism in Indonesia. The book, "Ketika Nurani Bicara" (When Conscience Speaks), tells about the bombing from the perspective of three people: a volunteer who helped evacuate a bombing victim who lost her husband in the blast; a victim who struggled to raise her children without her husband; and a terrorist who regrets his involvement in the bombing.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: A "Seconds from Disaster" episode, "Bali Bombings", was a documentary telling the story of what happened, and looking at what happened after the incident.


title: 2002 Bali bombings

text: In 2022 (20 years after the incident), the Australian-Indonesian historical drama "Bali 2002", aired on Stan and Nine Network.


title: National park

text: A national park is a natural park in use for conservation purposes, created and protected by national governments. Often it is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently, there is a common idea: the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride.


title: National park

text: The United States established the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people", Yellowstone National Park, in 1872. Although Yellowstone was not officially termed a "national park" in its establishing law, it was always termed such in practice and is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world. However, the Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve (in what is now Trinidad and Tobago; established in 1776), and the area surrounding Bogd Khan Uul Mountain (Mongolia, 1778), which were restricted from cultivation in order to protect surrounding farmland, are seen as the oldest legally protected areas.


title: National park

text: An international organization, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), and its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), has defined "National Park" as its "Category II" type of protected areas. According to the IUCN, 6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006. IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park.


title: National park

text: In 1969, the IUCN declared a national park to be a relatively large area with the following defining characteristics:


title: National park

text: In 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include:


title: National park

text: While the term national park is now defined by the IUCN, many protected areas in many countries are called national park even when they correspond to other categories of the IUCN Protected Area Management Definition, for example:


title: National park

text: While national parks are generally understood to be administered by national governments (hence the name), in Australia, with the exception of six national parks, national parks are run by state governments and predate the Federation of Australia; similarly, national parks in the Netherlands are administered by the provinces. In Canada, there are both national parks operated by the federal government and provincial or territorial parks operated by the provincial and territorial governments, although nearly all are still national parks by the IUCN definition.


title: National park

text: In many countries, including Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, national parks do not adhere to the IUCN definition, while some areas which adhere to the IUCN definition are not designated as national parks.


title: National park

text: As many countries do not adhere to the IUCN definition, the term “national park” may be used loosely. In the United Kingdom, and in some other countries such as Taiwan, a “national park” simply describes a general area that is relatively undeveloped, scenic, and attracts tourists. There may be substantial human settlements within the bounds of a national park.


title: National park

text: Conversely, parks that meet the criteria may be not be referred to as “national parks”. Terms like “preserve” or “reserve” may be used instead.


title: National park

text: Starting in 1735 the Naples government undertook laws in order to protect Natural areas, which could be used as a game reserve by the royal family; Procida was the first protected site; the difference between the many previous royal hunting preserves and this one, which is considered to be closer to a Park rather than a hunting preserve, is that Neapolitan government already considered the division into the present-day wilderness areas and non-strict nature reserves.


title: National park

text: In 1810, the English poet William Wordsworth described the Lake District as a "sort of national property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy." The painter George Catlin, in his travels through the American West, wrote during the 1830s that Native Americans in the United States might be preserved "(by some great protecting policy of government) ... in a "magnificent park" ... A "nation's Park", containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!"


title: National park

text: The first effort by the U.S. Federal government to set aside such protected lands was on 20 April 1832, when President Andrew Jackson signed legislation that the 22nd United States Congress had enacted to set aside four sections of land around what is now Hot Springs, Arkansas, to protect the natural, thermal springs and adjoining mountainsides for the future disposal of the U.S. government. It was known as Hot Springs Reservation, but no legal authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877. The work of important leaders who fought for animal and land conservation were essential in the development of legal action. Some of these leaders include President Abraham Lincoln, Laurance Rockefeller, President Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, and First Lady, Lady Bird Johnson to name a few.


title: National park

text: John Muir is today referred to as the "Father of the National Parks" due to his work in Yosemite. He published two influential articles in The Century Magazine, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation.


title: National park

text: President Abraham Lincoln signed an Act of Congress on 1 July 1864, ceding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of giant sequoias (later becoming Yosemite National Park) to the state of California. According to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for "public use, resort, and recreation". Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation and improvement. A public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone was put under national control at its establishment six years later.


title: National park

text: In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established as the United States' first national park, being also the world's first national park. In some European and Asian countries, however, national protection and nature reserves already existed - though typically as game reserves and recreational grounds set aside for royalty, such as a part of the Forest of Fontainebleau (France, 1861).


title: National park

text: Yellowstone was part of a federally governed territory. With no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, the federal government took on direct responsibility for the park, the official first national park of the United States. The combined effort and interest of conservationists, politicians and the Northern Pacific Railroad ensured the passage of enabling legislation by the United States Congress to create Yellowstone National Park. Theodore Roosevelt and his group of conservationists, the Boone and Crockett Club, were active campaigners and were highly influential in convincing fellow Republicans and big business to back the bill. Yellowstone National Park soon played a pivotal role in the conservation of these national treasures, as it was suffering at the hands of poachers and others who stood at the ready to pillage what they could from the area. Theodore Roosevelt and his newly formed Boone and Crockett Club successfully took the lead in protecting Yellowstone National Park from this plight, resulting in laws designed to conserve the natural resources in Yellowstone and other parks under the Government's purview.


title: National park

text: American Pulitzer Prize-winning author Wallace Stegner wrote: "National parks are the best idea we ever had. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic, they reflect us at our best rather than our worst."


title: National park

text: The first area to use "national park" in its creation legislation was the U.S.'s Mackinac National Park, in 1875. (The area was later transferred to the state's authority in 1895, thus losing its official "national park" status.)


title: National park

text: Following the idea established in Yellowstone and Mackinac, there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, what is now Royal National Park was established just south of Sydney, Colony of New South Wales, on 26 April 1879, becoming the world's second official national park Since Mackinac lost its national park status, the Royal National Park is, by some considerations, the second oldest national park now in existence.


title: National park

text: Banff National Park became Canada's first national park in 1885. New Zealand established Tongariro National Park in 1887.


title: National park

text: In Europe, the first national parks were a set of nine parks in Sweden in 1909, followed by the Swiss National Park in 1914. Africa's first national park was established in 1925 when Albert I of Belgium designated an area of what is now Democratic Republic of Congo centred on the Virunga Mountains as the Albert National Park (since renamed Virunga National Park). In 1926, the government of South Africa designated Kruger National Park as the nation's first national park, although it was an expansion of the earlier Sabie Game Reserve established in 1898 by President Paul Kruger of the old South African Republic, after whom the park was named. Argentina became the third country in the Americas to create a national park system, with the creation of the Nahuel Huapi National Park in 1934, through the initiative of Francisco Moreno.


title: National park

text: After World War II, national parks were founded all over the world. The United Kingdom designated its first national park, Peak District National Park, in 1951. This followed perhaps 70 years of pressure for greater public access to the landscape. By the end of the decade a further nine national parks had been designated in the UK. Europe has some 359 national parks as of 2010. The Vanoise National Park in the Alps was the first French national park, created in 1963 after public mobilization against a touristic project.


title: National park

text: In 1971, Lahemaa National Park in Estonia was the first area to be designated a national park in the former Soviet Union.


title: National park

text: In 1973, Mount Kilimanjaro was classified as a National Park and was opened to public access in 1977.


title: National park

text: In 1989, the Qomolangma National Nature Preserve (QNNP) was created to protect 3.381 million hectares on the north slope of Mount Everest in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. This national park is the first major global park to have no separate warden and protection staff—all of its management being done through existing local authorities, allowing a lower cost basis and a larger geographical coverage (in 1989 when created, it was the largest protected area in Asia). It includes four of the six tallest mountains in the world: Everest, Lhotse, Makalu, and Cho Oyu. The QNNP is contiguous to four Nepali national parks, creating a transborder conservation area equal in size to Switzerland.


title: National park

text: The world's first national park service was established May 19, 1911, in Canada. The "Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act" placed the dominion parks under the administration of the Dominion Park Branch (now Parks Canada), within the Department of the Interior. The branch was established to "protect sites of natural wonder" to provide a recreational experience, centred on the idea of the natural world providing rest and spiritual renewal from the urban setting. Canada now has the largest protected area in the world with 450,000 km of national park space.


title: National park

text: Even with the creation of Yellowstone, Yosemite, and nearly 37 other national parks and monuments, another 44 years passed before an agency was created in the United States to administer these units in a comprehensive way – the U.S. National Park Service (NPS). The 64th United States Congress passed the National Park Service Organic Act, which President Woodrow Wilson signed into law on 25 August 1916. Of the sites managed by the National Park Service of the United States, only 63 carry the designation of National Park.


title: National park

text: The largest national park in the world meeting the IUCN definition is the Northeast Greenland National Park, which was established in 1974 and is in area.


title: National park

text: The smallest official national park in the world is Isles des Madeleines National Park. Its area of just was established as a national park in 1976.


title: National park

text: Countries with a large ecotourism industry, such as Costa Rica, often experience a huge economic effect on park management as well as the economy of the country as a whole.


title: National park

text: Tourism to national parks has increased considerably over time. In Costa Rica for example, a megadiverse country, tourism to parks has increased by 400% from 1985 to 1999. The term "national park" is perceived as a brand name that is associated with nature-based tourism and it symbolizes a "high quality natural environment with a well-designed tourist infrastructure".


title: National park

text: The duties of a park ranger are to supervise, manage, and/or perform work in the conservation and use of park resources. This involves functions such as park conservation; natural, historical, and cultural resource management; and the development and operation of interpretive and recreational programs for the benefit of the visiting public. Park rangers also have fire fighting responsibilities and execute search and rescue missions. Activities also include heritage interpretation to disseminate information to visitors of general, historical, or scientific information. Management of resources such as wildlife, lake shores, seashores, forests, historic buildings, battlefields, archaeological properties, and recreation areas are also part of the job of a park ranger. Since the establishment of the National Park Service in the US in 1916, the role of the park ranger has shifted from merely being a custodian of natural resources to include several activities that are associated with law enforcement. They control traffic, manage permits for various uses, and investigate violations, complaints, trespass/encroachment, and accidents.


title: National park

text: While national parks are often seen as positive environmental service, many authors have discussed the darker side of its history. National parks were created by individuals who felt that pristine, natural sections of nature should be set aside and preserved from urban development. In America, this movement came about during the Great American Frontier and were meant to be monuments to America’s true history. Yet the lands that were to be set aside and protected were already being inhabited by native communities, who were removed and set aside to create ″pristine″ sites for public consumption. Critics claim that the removal of people from national parks enhanced the belief that nature can only be protected when humans do not exist within it, and that this leads to perpetuating the dichotomy between nature and humans (also known as the nature–culture divide). They see creation of national parks as a form of eco-land grabbing. Others claim that travelling to national parks to appreciate nature there leads people to ignore the nature that exists around them every day. Some argue that tourism can actually negatively impact the areas that are being visited.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Antonie Philips van Leeuwenhoek ( ; ; 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723) was a Dutch microbiologist and microscopist in the Golden Age of Dutch science and technology. A largely self-taught man in science, he is commonly known as "the Father of Microbiology", and one of the first microscopists and microbiologists. Van Leeuwenhoek is best known for his pioneering work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Raised in Delft, Dutch Republic, van Leeuwenhoek worked as a draper in his youth and founded his own shop in 1654. He became well recognized in municipal politics and developed an interest in lensmaking. In the 1670s, he started to explore microbial life with his microscope. This was one of the notable achievements of the Golden Age of Dutch exploration and discovery ().


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Using single-lensed microscopes of his own design and make, van Leeuwenhoek was the first to observe and to experiment with microbes, which he originally referred to as "dierkens", "diertgens" or "diertjes" (Dutch for "small animals" [translated into English as "animalcules", from Latin "animalculum" = "tiny animal"]). He was the first to relatively determine their size. Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as unicellular organisms, although he observed multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, red blood cells, crystals in gouty tophi, and among the first to see blood flow in capillaries. Although van Leeuwenhoek did not write any books, he described his discoveries in letters to the Royal Society, which published many of his letters, and to persons in several European countries.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was born in Delft, Dutch Republic, on 24 October 1632. On 4 November, he was baptized as "Thonis". His father, Philips Antonisz van Leeuwenhoek, was a basket maker who died when Antonie was only five years old. His mother, Margaretha (Bel van den Berch), came from a well-to-do brewer's family. She remarried Jacob Jansz Molijn, a painter. Antonie had four older sisters: Margriet, Geertruyt, Neeltje, and Catharina. When he was around ten years old his step-father died. He attended school in Warmond for a short time before being sent to live in Benthuizen with his uncle, an attorney. At the age of 16 he became a bookkeeper's apprentice at a linen-draper's shop in Amsterdam, which was owned by the Scot William Davidson. Van Leeuwenhoek left there after six years.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek married Barbara de Mey in July 1654, with whom he fathered one surviving daughter, Maria (four other children died in infancy). That same year he returned to Delft, where he would live and study for the rest of his life. He opened a draper's shop, which he ran throughout the 1650s. His wife died in 1666, and in 1671, van Leeuwenhoek remarried to Cornelia Swalmius with whom he had no children. His status in Delft had grown throughout the years. In 1660 he received a lucrative job as chamberlain for the assembly chamber of the Delft sheriffs in the city hall, a position which he would hold for almost 40 years. In 1669 he was appointed as a land surveyor by the court of Holland; at some time he combined it with another municipal job, being the official "wine-gauger" of Delft and in charge of the city wine imports and taxation.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek was a contemporary of another famous Delft citizen, the painter Johannes Vermeer, who was baptized just four days earlier. It has been suggested that he is the man portrayed in two Vermeer paintings of the late 1660s, "The Astronomer" and "The Geographer", but others argue that there appears to be little physical similarity. Because they were both relatively important men in a city with only 24,000 inhabitants, it is possible that they were at least acquaintances; van Leeuwenhoek acted as the executor of Vermeer's will after the painter died in 1675.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: While running his draper shop, van Leeuwenhoek wanted to see the quality of the thread better than what was possible using the magnifying lenses of the time. He developed an interest in lensmaking, although few records exist of his early activity. By placing the middle of a small rod of soda lime glass in a hot flame, one can pull the hot section apart to create two long whiskers of glass. Then, by reinserting the end of one whisker into the flame, a very small, high-quality glass lens is created. Significantly, a May 2021 neutron tomography study of a high-magnification Leeuwenhoek microscope captured images of the short glass stem characteristic of this lens creation method. For lower magnifications he also made ground lenses. To help keep his methods confidential he apparently intentionally encouraged others to think grinding was his primary or only lens construction method.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: After developing his method for creating powerful lenses and applying them to the study of the microscopic world, van Leeuwenhoek introduced his work to his friend, the prominent Dutch physician Reinier de Graaf. When the Royal Society in London published the groundbreaking work of an Italian lensmaker in their journal "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", de Graaf wrote to the editor of the journal, Henry Oldenburg, with a ringing endorsement of van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes which, he claimed, "far surpass those which we have hitherto seen". In response, in 1673 the society published a letter from van Leeuwenhoek that included his microscopic observations on mold, bees, and lice.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's work fully captured the attention of the Royal Society, and he began corresponding regularly with the society regarding his observations. At first he had been reluctant to publicize his findings, regarding himself as a businessman with little scientific, artistic, or writing background, but de Graaf urged him to be more confident in his work. By the time van Leeuwenhoek died in 1723, he had written some 190 letters to the Royal Society, detailing his findings in a wide variety of fields, centered on his work in microscopy. He only wrote letters in his own colloquial Dutch; he never published a proper scientific paper in Latin. He strongly preferred to work alone, distrusting the sincerity of those who offered their assistance. The letters were translated into Latin or English by Henry Oldenburg, who had learned Dutch for this very purpose. He was also the first to use the word "animalcules" to translate the Dutch words that Leeuwenhoek used to describe microorganisms. Despite the initial success of van Leeuwenhoek's relationship with the Royal Society, soon relations became severely strained. His credibility was questioned when he sent the Royal Society a copy of his first observations of microscopic single-celled organisms dated 9 October 1676. Previously, the existence of single-celled organisms was entirely unknown. Thus, even with his established reputation with the Royal Society as a reliable observer, his observations of microscopic life were initially met with some skepticism.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Eventually, in the face of van Leeuwenhoek's insistence, the Royal Society arranged for Alexander Petrie, minister to the English Reformed Church in Delft; Benedict Haan, at that time Lutheran minister at Delft; and Henrik Cordes, then Lutheran minister at the Hague, accompanied by Sir Robert Gordon and four others, to determine whether it was in fact van Leeuwenhoek's ability to observe and reason clearly, or perhaps, the Royal Society's theories of life that might require reform. Finally in 1677, van Leeuwenhoek's observations were fully acknowledged by the Royal Society.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was elected to the Royal Society in February 1680 on the nomination of William Croone, a then-prominent physician. Van Leeuwenhoek was "taken aback" by the nomination, which he considered a high honor, although he did not attend the induction ceremony in London, nor did he ever attend a Royal Society meeting.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: By the end of the seventeenth century, van Leeuwenhoek had a virtual monopoly on microscopic study and discovery. His contemporary Robert Hooke, an early microscope pioneer, bemoaned that the field had come to rest entirely on one man's shoulders. He was visited over the years by many notable individuals, such as the Russian Tsar Peter the Great. To the disappointment of his guests, van Leeuwenhoek refused to reveal the cutting-edge microscopes he relied on for his discoveries, instead showing visitors a collection of average-quality lenses.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek was visited by Leibniz, William III of Orange and his wife, Mary II of England, and the burgemeester (mayor) Johan Huydecoper of Amsterdam, the latter being very interested in collecting and growing plants for the Hortus Botanicus Amsterdam, and all gazed at the "tiny creatures". In 1698, van Leeuwenhoek was invited to visit the Tsar Peter the Great on his boat. On this occasion van Leeuwenhoek presented the Tsar with an "eel-viewer", so Peter could study blood circulation whenever he wanted.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek made more than 500 optical lenses. He also created at least 25 single-lens microscopes, of differing types, of which only nine have survived. These microscopes were made of silver or copper frames, holding hand-made lenses. Those that have survived are capable of magnification up to 275 times. It is suspected that van Leeuwenhoek possessed some microscopes that could magnify up to 500 times. Although he has been widely regarded as a dilettante or amateur, his scientific research was of remarkably high quality.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: The single-lens microscopes of van Leeuwenhoek were relatively small devices, the largest being about 5 cm long. They are used by placing the lens very close in front of the eye, while looking in the direction of the Sun. The other side of the microscope had a pin, where the sample was attached in order to stay close to the lens. There were also three screws to move the pin and the sample along three axes: one axis to change the focus, and the two other axes to navigate through the sample.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek maintained throughout his life that there are aspects of microscope construction "which I only keep for myself", in particular his most critical secret of how he made the lenses. For many years no one was able to reconstruct van Leeuwenhoek's design techniques, but in 1957, C. L. Stong used thin glass thread fusing instead of polishing, and successfully created some working samples of a van Leeuwenhoek design microscope. Such a method was also discovered independently by A. Mosolov and A. Belkin at the Russian Novosibirsk State Medical Institute. In May 2021 researchers in the Netherlands published a non-destructive neutron tomography study of a Leeuwenhoek microscope. One image in particular shows a Stong/Mosolov-type spherical lens with a single short glass stem attached (Fig. 4). Such lenses are created by pulling an extremely thin glass filament, breaking the filament, and briefly fusing the filament end. The nuclear tomography article notes this lens creation method was first devised by Robert Hooke rather than Leeuwenhoek, which is ironic given Hooke's subsequent surprise at Leeuwenhoek's findings.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek used samples and measurements to estimate numbers of microorganisms in units of water. He also made good use of the huge advantage provided by his method. He studied a broad range of microscopic phenomena, and shared the resulting observations freely with groups such as the British Royal Society. Such work firmly established his place in history as one of the first and most important explorers of the microscopic world. Van Leeuwenhoek was one of the first people to observe cells, much like Robert Hooke.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: In 1687, van Leeuwenhoek reported his research on the coffee bean. He roasted the bean, cut it into slices and saw a spongy interior. The bean was pressed, and an oil appeared. He boiled the coffee with rain water twice and set it aside.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek has been attributed as the first person to use a histological stain to color specimens observed under the microscope using saffron.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Like Robert Boyle and Nicolaas Hartsoeker, van Leeuwenhoek was interested in dried cochineal, trying to find out if the dye came from a berry or an insect.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: Van Leeuwenhoek's religion was "Dutch Reformed" Calvinist. He often referred with reverence to the wonders God designed in making creatures great and small, and believed that his discoveries were merely further proof of the wonder of creation.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: By the end of his life, van Leeuwenhoek had written approximately 560 letters to the Royal Society and other scientific institutions concerning his observations and discoveries. Even during the last weeks of his life, van Leeuwenhoek continued to send letters full of observations to London. The last few contained a precise description of his own illness. He suffered from a rare disease, an uncontrolled movement of the midriff, which now is named "van Leeuwenhoek's disease". He died at the age of 90, on 26 August 1723, and was buried four days later in the Oude Kerk in Delft.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: In 1981, the British microscopist Brian J. Ford found that van Leeuwenhoek's original specimens had survived in the collections of the Royal Society of London. They were found to be of high quality, and all were well preserved. Ford carried out observations with a range of single-lens microscopes, adding to our knowledge of van Leeuwenhoek's work. In Ford's opinion, Leeuwenhoek remained imperfectly understood, the popular view that his work was crude and undisciplined at odds with the evidence of conscientious and painstaking observation. He constructed rational and repeatable experimental procedures and was willing to oppose received opinion, such as spontaneous generation, and he changed his mind in the light of evidence.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: On his importance in the history of microbiology and science in general, the British biochemist Nick Lane wrote that he was "the first even to think of looking—certainly, the first with the power to see." His experiments were ingenious and he was "a scientist of the highest calibre", attacked by people who envied him or "scorned his unschooled origins", not helped by his secrecy about his methods.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: The Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital in Amsterdam, named after van Leeuwenhoek, is specialized in oncology. In 2004, a public poll in the Netherlands to determine the greatest Dutchman ("De Grootste Nederlander") named van Leeuwenhoek the 4th-greatest Dutchman of all time.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: On 24 October 2016, Google commemorated the 384th anniversary of van Leeuwenhoek's birth with a Doodle that depicted his discovery of "little animals" or animalcules, now known as bacteria.


title: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek

text: The Leeuwenhoek Medal, Leeuwenhoek Lecture, Leeuwenhoek crater, "Leeuwenhoeckia", "Levenhookia" (a genus in the family Stylidiaceae), "Leeuwenhoekiella" (an aerobic bacterial genus), and the scientific publication "" are named after him.


title: Sámi

text: The Sámi ( ; also spelled Sami or Saami) are a Finno-Ugric-speaking people inhabiting the region of Sápmi (formerly known as Lapland), which today encompasses large northern parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and of the Murmansk Oblast, Russia, most of the Kola Peninsula in particular. The Sámi have historically been known in English as Lapps or Laplanders, but these terms are regarded as offensive by the Sámi, who prefer the area's name in their own languages, e.g. Northern Sámi . Their traditional languages are the Sámi languages, which are classified as a branch of the Uralic language family.


title: Sámi

text: Traditionally, the Sámi have pursued a variety of livelihoods, including coastal fishing, fur trapping, and sheep herding. Their best-known means of livelihood is semi-nomadic reindeer herding. about 10% of the Sámi were connected to reindeer herding, which provides them with meat, fur, and transportation; around 2,800 Sámi people were actively involved in reindeer herding on a full-time basis in Norway. For traditional, environmental, cultural, and political reasons, reindeer herding is legally reserved for only Sámi in some regions of the Nordic countries.


title: Sámi

text: Speakers of Northern Sámi refer to themselves as (the Sámis) or (of Sámi kin), the word being inflected into various grammatical forms. Other Sámi languages use cognate words. As of around 2014, the current consensus among specialists was that the word "Sámi" was borrowed from the Proto-Baltic word , meaning 'land' (cognate with Slavic (), of the same meaning).


title: Sámi

text: The word "Sámi" has at least one cognate word in Finnish: Proto-Baltic was also borrowed into Proto-Finnic, as . This word became modern Finnish (Finnish for the region of Tavastia; the second "ä" of is still found in the adjective ). The Finnish word for Finland, , is also thought probably to derive ultimately from Proto-Baltic , though the precise route is debated and proposals usually involve complex processes of borrowing and reborrowing. and its adjectival form must come from '/'. In one proposal, this Finnish word comes from a Proto-Germanic word , itself from Proto-Baltic , in turn borrowed from Proto-Finnic , which was borrowed from .


title: Sámi

text: The Sámi institutions—notably the parliaments, radio and TV stations, theatres, etc.—all use the term "Sámi", including when addressing outsiders in Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, or English. In Norwegian and Swedish, the Sámi are today referred to by the localized form .


title: Sámi

text: The first probable historical mention of the Sámi, naming them , was by Tacitus, about AD 98. Variants of "Finn" or were in wide use in ancient times, judging from the names and () in classical Roman and Greek works. "Finn" (or variants, such as , 'striding Finn') was the name originally used by Norse speakers (and their proto-Norse speaking ancestors) to refer to the Sámi, as attested in the Icelandic Eddas and Norse sagas (11th to 14th centuries).


title: Sámi

text: The etymology is somewhat uncertain, but the consensus seems to be that it is related to Old Norse , from proto-Germanic ('to find'), the logic being that the Sámi, as hunter-gatherers "found" their food, rather than grew it. This etymology has superseded older speculations that the word might be related to "fen".


title: Sámi

text: As Old Norse gradually developed into the separate Scandinavian languages, Swedes apparently took to using "Finn" to refer to inhabitants of what is now Finland, while the Sámi came to be called "Lapps". In Norway, however, Sámi were still called "Finns" at least until the modern era (reflected in toponyms like , , and ), and some northern Norwegians will still occasionally use "Finn" to refer to Sámi people, although the Sámi themselves now consider this to be an inappropriate term. Finnish immigrants to Northern Norway in the 18th and 19th centuries were referred to as Kvens to distinguish them from the Sámi "Finns". Ethnic Finns () are a distinct group from Sámi.


title: Sámi

text: The word "Lapp" can be traced to Old Swedish , Icelandic (plural) perhaps of Finnish origin; compare Finnish "Lapp", "Lapland" (possibly meaning "wilderness in the north"), the original meaning being unknown. It is unknown how the word "Lapp" came into the Norse language, but one of the first written mentions of the term is in the by the twelfth-century Danish historian , who referred to 'the two Lappias', although he still referred to the Sámi as s. In fact, Saxo never explicitly connects the Sámi with the "two Laplands". The term "Lapp" was popularized and became the standard terminology by the work of , (1673).


title: Sámi

text: The Sámi are often known in other languages by the exonyms "Lap", "Lapp", or "Laplanders", although these are considered derogatory terms by some, while others accept at least the name "Lappland". Variants of the name "Lapp" were originally used in Sweden and Finland and, through Swedish, adopted by many major European languages: ; German, ; ; (); ; ; ; ; ; ; . In Russian the corresponding term is () and in Ukrainian ().


title: Sámi

text: In Finland and Sweden, "Lapp" is common in place names, such as (), (South Karelia) and (North Savo) in Finland; and (Stockholm County), () and () in Sweden. As already mentioned, "Finn" is a common element in Norwegian (particularly Northern Norwegian) place names, whereas "Lapp" is exceedingly rare.


title: Sámi

text: Terminological issues in Finnish are somewhat different. Finns living in Finnish Lapland generally call themselves , whereas the similar word for the Sámi people is . This can be confusing for foreign visitors because of the similar lives Finns and Sámi people live today in Lapland. is also a common family name in Finland. In Finnish, is the most commonly used word nowadays, especially in official contexts.


title: Sámi

text: The western Uralic languages are believed to spread from the region along the Volga, which is the longest river in Europe. The speakers of Finnic and Sámi languages have their roots in the middle and upper Volga region in the Corded Ware culture. These groups presumably started to move to the northwest from the early home region of the Uralic peoples in the second and third quarters of the 2nd millennium BC. On their journey, they used the ancient river routes of northern Russia. Some of these peoples, who may have originally spoken the same western Uralic language, stopped and stayed in the regions between Karelia, Ladoga and Lake Ilmen, and even further to the east and to the southeast. The groups of these peoples that ended up in the Finnish Lakeland from 1600 to 1500 BC later "became" the Sámi. The Sámi people arrived in their current homeland some time after the beginning of the Common Era.


title: Sámi

text: The Sámi language first developed on the southern side of Lake Onega and Lake Ladoga and spread from there. When the speakers of this language extended to the area of modern-day Finland, they encountered groups of peoples who spoke a number of smaller ancient languages (Paleo-Laplandic languages), which later became extinct. However, these languages left traces in the Sámi language (Pre-Finnic substrate). As the language spread further, it became segmented into dialects. The geographical distribution of the Sámi has evolved over the course of history. From the Bronze Age, the Sámi occupied the area along the coast of Finnmark and the Kola Peninsula. This coincides with the arrival of the Siberian genome to Estonia and Finland, which may correspond with the introduction of the Finno-Ugric languages in the region.


title: Sámi

text: Petroglyphs and archeological findings such as settlements, dating from about 10,000 BC can be found in Lapland and Finnmark, although these have not been demonstrated to be related to the Sámi people. These hunter-gatherers of the late Paleolithic and early Mesolithic were named Komsa by the researchers.


title: Sámi

text: The Sámi have a complex relationship with the Scandinavians (known as Norse people in the medieval era), the dominant peoples of Scandinavia, who speak Scandinavian languages and who founded and thus dominated the kingdoms of Norway and Sweden in which most Sámi people live. While the Sámi have lived in Fennoscandia for around 3,500 years, Sámi settlement of Scandinavia does not predate Norse/Scandinavian settlement of Scandinavia, as sometimes popularly assumed. The migration of Germanic-speaking peoples to Southern Scandinavia happened independently and separate from the later Sámi migrations into the northern regions. For centuries, the Sámi and the Scandinavians had relatively little contact; the Sámi primarily lived in the inland of northern Fennoscandia, while Scandinavians lived in southern Scandinavia and gradually colonised the Norwegian coast; from the 18th and especially the 19th century, the governments of Norway and Sweden started to assert sovereignty more aggressively in the north, and targeted the Sámi with Scandinavization policies aimed at forced assimilation from the 19th century. Before the era of forced Scandinavization policies, the Norwegian and Swedish authorities had largely ignored the Sámi and did not interfere much in their way of life. While Norwegians moved north to gradually colonise the coast of modern-day Troms og Finnmark to engage in an export-driven fisheries industry prior to the 19th century, they showed little interest in the harsh and non-arable inland populated by reindeer-herding Sámi. Unlike the Norwegians on the coast who were strongly dependent on their trade with the south, the Sámi in the inland lived off the land. From the 19th century Norwegian and Swedish authorities started to regard the Sámi as a "backward" and "primitive" people in need of being "civilized", imposing the Scandinavian languages as the only valid languages of the kingdoms and effectively banning Sámi language and culture in many contexts, particularly schools.


title: Sámi

text: How far south the Sámi extended in the past has been debated among historians and archeologists for many years. The Norwegian historian Yngvar Nielsen, commissioned by the Norwegian government in 1889 to determine this question in order to settle contemporary questions of Sámi land rights, concluded that the Sámi had lived no farther south than Lierne in Nord-Trøndelag county until around 1500, when they started moving south, reaching the area around Lake Femund in the 18th century. This hypothesis is still accepted among many historians, but has been the subject of scholarly debate in the 21st century. In recent years, several archaeological finds indicate a Sámi presence in southern Norway in the Middle Ages, and in southern Sweden, including finds in Lesja, in Vang, in Valdres and in Hol and Ål in Hallingdal. Proponents of the Sámi interpretations of these finds assume a mixed population of Norse and Sámi people in the mountainous areas of southern Norway in the Middle Ages.


title: Sámi

text: Until the arrival of bubonic plague in northern Norway in 1349, the Sámi and the Norwegians occupied very separate economic niches. The Sámi hunted reindeer and fished for their livelihood. The Norwegians, who were concentrated on the outer islands and near the mouths of the fjords, had access to the major European trade routes so that, in addition to marginal farming in the Nordland, Troms, and Finnmark counties, they were able to establish commerce, trading fish for products from the south. According to old Nordic texts, the Sea Sámi and the Mountain Sámi are two classes of the same people and not two different ethnic groups, as had been erroneously believed.


title: Sámi

text: This socioeconomic balance greatly changed when bubonic plague came to northern Norway in December 1349. The Norwegians were closely connected to the greater European trade routes, along which the plague traveled; consequently, they were infected and died at a far higher rate than Sámi in the interior. Of all the states in the region, Norway suffered the most from this plague. Depending on the parish, 60 to 76 percent of northern Norwegian farms were abandoned following the plague, while land-rents, another measure of population, dropped to 9-28% of pre-plague levels. Although the population of northern Norway is sparse compared to southern Europe, the disease spread just as fast. The spread of the plague-carrying flea ("Xenopsylla cheopsis") from the south was facilitated by the transport of wooden barrels holding wheat, rye, or wool, where the fleas were able to live, and even reproduce, for several months at a time. The Sámi lived on fish and reindeer meat, and did not eat wheat or rye. They lived in communities detached from the Norwegians; being only loosely connected to the European trade routes, they fared far better than the Norwegians.