title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's government also faced international conflicts. Given the government's desperate financial straits, Juárez contemplated suspending payments on foreign debt, which could trigger international intervention. The British government sent diplomat Sir Charles Lennox Wyke to find a solution to the financial crisis. Juárez's Minister of Finance Manuel María de Zamacona negotiated an agreement with Wyke, concluded on 21 November 1861, but the treaty was repudiated by congress. When Juárez suspended repayments of interest on foreign loans taken out by the defeated conservatives on 17 July, it set in motion intervention from European powers. Spain, Britain, and France infuriated over unpaid Mexican debts, agreed to the Convention of London, a joint effort to ensure that debt repayments from Mexico would be forthcoming and sent a joint expeditionary force that seized the Veracruz Customs House in December 1861. Spain and Britain soon withdrew, but French Emperor Napoleon III intended to overthrow the Juárez government and establish a Second Mexican Empire with the support of remaining Conservatives, beginning the Second French intervention, with Liberals attempting to oust the foreign invaders and their Conservative allies and restore the Republic.


title: Benito Juárez

text: The outbreak of the conflict occurred during the American Civil War, which broke out in April 1861. Despite that, U.S. President Abraham Lincoln's government was aware of the liberals' peril. U.S. Secretary of State William Seward attempted to find a solution to the debt crisis, floating the possibility of the U.S. assuming the interest charges on the Mexican debt and placing a lien on public lands in Mexican northern states of Baja California, Chihuahua, Sonora, and Sinaloa. Mexican representative in the U.S. Matías Romero attempted to promote the resolution but was rejected by the U.S. Senate. The European powers invited the U.S. to join their coalition but declined given its adherence to the Monroe Doctrine.


title: Benito Juárez

text: After much contention among the liberals and after it became clear that the European powers would indeed intervene, Juárez was granted extraordinary powers by congress to deal with the crisis. The sole restriction on his taking any step necessary in the current crisis was that "he must maintain the nation's independence and territorial integrity, the form of government established by the constitution, and the principles of the laws of Reform."


title: Benito Juárez

text: During the French invasion following Juárez's decision to cancel debt payments to European powers, Juárez came to embody implacable Mexican nationalism against foreign invaders and during the crisis led a largely unified liberal republic. As with the Reform War, Mexico again had two governments, the conservatives with their French allies and that of the constitutional, elected president Juárez. The French invasion challenged the political order in Mexico, but Republican forces under Ignacio Zaragoza won an initial victory over the monarchists on 5 May 1862, the Battle of Puebla, celebrated annually as Cinco de Mayo. The French were forced to retreat to the coast for a year, but they advanced again in 1863 and captured Mexico City on 10 June 1863. With the invasion, congress ratified the grant to Juárez of extraordinary powers on 27 October 1862 and again on 27 May 1863.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez left the capital to set up a government in internal exile, though the rump United Mexican States had very little authority or territorial control over most of the non-occupied territory. Juárez headed north, first to San Luis Potosí (9 June – 22 December 1863), Saltillo (9 January; 14 February – 2 April opposed by his old rival Santiago Vidaurri); then to the arid north of Chihuahua near the U.S. border, (12 October 1864 – 10 December 1866), with time in El Paso del Norte (present-day Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua) and finally to the capital of the state, Chihuahua City, where he set up his cabinet. Juárez deposed Vidaurri from his stronghold in Nuevo León-Coahuila, separating the states on 26 February 1863 and Vidaurri defected to the conservative monarchists on 7 September 1863.


title: Benito Juárez

text: A conservative regency council comprising Juan Nepomuceno Almonte, natural son of José María Morelos; Bishop Pelagio Antonio de Labastida, and General Mariano Salas established a conservative, monarchist regime 18 June 1863. Maximilian von Habsburg, younger brother of Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria, accepted the invitation to become emperor on 3 October 1863 and was proclaimed Emperor as Maximilian I of Mexico on 20 April 1864, with the backing of Napoleon III and Mexican conservatives.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's term as president expired on 1 December 1865, and arguably the head of the Supreme Court would succeed as president. Jesús González Ortega could legally claim the presidency. Juárez issued two decrees to undermine Ortega's claims and retain office. One decree extended the terms of the President and head of the Supreme Court until elections could be held. Juárez "believed he had the power to extend his term ... [and] became convinced that the nation would approve his continuing his term." Juárez exceeded his constitutional powers in remaining in office, but given the extraordinary times, he had considerable support.


title: Benito Juárez

text: In response to the French invasion and the elevation of Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico, Juárez sent General Plácido Vega y Daza to California to gather Mexican American sympathy for republican Mexico. Maximilian offered Juárez amnesty and later the post of prime minister, but Juárez refused to accept a government imposed by foreigners, or a monarchy. The US government was sympathetic to Juárez, refusing to recognize Maximilian and opposing the French invasion as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Most of its attention was taken up by the American Civil War.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's wife, Margarita Maza, and their children spent the invasion in exile in New York, where she met several times with U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, who received her as the First Lady of Mexico. The careers of Juárez and Abraham Lincoln have been compared, as the two presidents had shared humble social origins, a law career, a rapidly ascending political career in their home states, and a presidency that began under the auspices of a civil war that made long-lasting reform a necessity, but they never met nor exchanged correspondence.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Following the end of the American Civil War and Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson succeeded in the US presidency. He demanded that the French evacuate Mexico and imposed a naval blockade in February 1866. When Johnson could not get sufficient support in Congress to aid Juárez, he allegedly had the Army "lose" some supplies (including rifles) "near" (across) the border with Mexico, according to U.S. General Philip Sheridan's journal account. In his memoirs, Sheridan stated that he had supplied arms and ammunition to Juárez's forces: "... which we left at convenient places on our side of the river to fall into their hands".


title: Benito Juárez

text: Faced with US opposition to a continuing French presence and a growing threat on the European mainland from Prussia, French troops began pulling out of Mexico in late 1866. Maximilian's liberal views had cost him support from Mexican conservatives as well. In 1867, the last of the Emperor's forces were defeated. Maximilian was sentenced to death by a military court, a retaliation for Maximilian's earlier orders for the execution of republican soldiers (although some historians point to the fact that the original "Black Decree" was from Juárez – who had people executed, without trial, for "helping" his enemies, whereas Maximilian often pardoned people who had fought against him). Despite national and international pleas for amnesty, Juárez refused to commute the sentence. Maximilian was executed by firing squad on 19 June 1867 at Cerro de las Campanas in Querétaro. His body was returned to Vienna for burial.


title: Benito Juárez

text: The period following the expulsion of the French and up to the revolt of Porfirio Díaz in 1876 is now known in Mexico as the Restored Republic. The period includes the last years of the Juárez presidency and, following his death in office in 1872, that of fellow civilian politician Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Under ordinary circumstances, Juárez's presidential term would have ended in 1865 and elections held, but during the French invasion, he continued in the presidency as head of state in domestic exile. With the ouster of the French in 1867, other liberals now objected to Juárez's remaining in power without an electoral mandate. The broad liberal front against the French had splintered and rivals to Juárez emerged. Liberals had not been unified in their support of the Constitution of 1857, and with the exit of the French, simmering conflicts between liberal factions in abeyance during the intervention came to the fore. Juárez sought the legal means to extend his time in power, proposing that the Constitution be amended to allow for a third term and increase the power of the executive against that of the legislature. For Juárez's opponents, this was seen as a confirmation that Juárez wished to keep a personal grip on power. The Constitution had been aimed at limiting the power of the Catholic Church and the army as institutions and invigorating the power of Mexican states against the power of the central government. The constitution also made the legislative branch superior to the executive, to forestall personalist power. During the intervention, the republic barely continued to exist and the structure of the constitutional division of powers was inoperative. Juárez realized when he returned to the presidency in 1867 that presidential powers were diminished. In the face of opposition, Juárez built a set of alliances to strengthen the power of the central government and make the constitutional system work. His critics saw his actions as building a personal dictatorship.


title: Benito Juárez

text: The Restored Republic was a politically unstable time in Mexico, with multiple insurrections. A perceived challenge to Juárez came early. In 1867, the liberals' former nemesis, General Antonio López de Santa Anna, and the President of Mexico multiple times sought to return to Mexico from exile. The U.S. had pledged to support Juárez and prevented Santa Anna from disembarking in Veracruz, his home region and political base. Veracruz was still in French imperial hands when Santa Anna attempted to land in June 1867, and the possibility that he might seize the port from them was a distinct possibility. This could have paved the way for a political comeback threatening Juárez. Juárez's forces diverted the general, who landed in Sisal, Yucatán. He was arrested before a military court on 14 July 1867. He was accused of being a traitor to Mexico, and Juárez sought the use of the law of 25 January 1862 that mandated death for traitors, a fate for Maximilian and two of his generals. The military tribunal decided that Santa Anna should be sentenced to eight years of further exile. Juárez had been expecting a sentence of death and was proceeding to have Santa Anna's landed property confiscated and sold off. Juárez issued a general amnesty for all political opponents in October 1870 but explicitly excluded Santa Anna. The general responded angrily, listing his military deeds for Mexico, asking contemptuously where the civilian Juárez was then, and calling him a "dark Indian," a "hyena," and "a symbol of cruelty." But only after Juárez died in office was Santa Anna able to return to Mexico.


title: Benito Juárez

text: The War of the Reform and the French Intervention had forestalled any serious implementation of the Liberal reforms. With the defeat of the French and their Mexican conservative allies, the way seemed clear to institute changes. Juárez had turned the opposition to the French Intervention into a war of national liberation of the Republic from a foreign invader rather than as a victory of Mexican liberalism. For that reason, he had considerable political support which could be translated into actions.


title: Benito Juárez

text: In a controversial move, Juárez ran for re-election in 1871. His loyal political ally, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada had expected to succeed Juárez in that election, since Juárez had already been criticized for apparently holding onto power. When Lerdo served in Juárez's cabinet post-1867 and had forged political alliances with a number of state governors and with congressmen. It became clear that Juárez was going to run for re-election, and Lerdo resigned from the cabinet. Lerdo and Díaz ran for the presidency with none of them achieving a majority on his own, but rivals Díaz and Lerdo together got more votes than Juárez. Juárez got 5,837 electoral votes, Díaz 3,555, and Lerdo 2,874 in the 1871 general election, throwing the outcome for congress to decide. The decision in congress was for Juárez since it was packed with his supporters, and opponents considered the election fraudulent.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Defeated opposition candidate Díaz issued the Plan of la Noria call to arms against Juárez. Díaz had not been involved in the many insurrections that broke out after 1867 and had it not gathered other opponents of Juárez it would have just one more insurrection. Although Juárez had lost support, many political opponents did not want civil war as a means to power. Juárez kept the loyalty of key military figures and was able to outlast the rebellion. Díaz's plan was not a compelling argument for violence. Díaz showed himself at this juncture to be a flawed political and military leader. Juárez called Díaz a "latter-day Santa Anna", invoking the liberals' archenemy. Juárez took the opportunity of the rebellion to attack entrenched groups within various states, using government forces to neutralize rebellious elements in state militias. Having outlasted Díaz's serious rebellion, Juárez again tried to institute constitutional reform but was blocked by congress.


title: Benito Juárez

text: On 31 October 1843, when he was in his late 30s, Juárez married Margarita Maza, the adoptive daughter of his sister's patron. Margarita was 20 years younger than Juárez. Her father Antonio Maza Padilla was from Genoa and her mother Petra Parada Sigüenza was Mexican and of Spanish descent. They were part of Oaxaca's upper-class society. Margarita Maza accepted his proposal and said of Juárez, "He is very homely, but very good." With his marriage to a white woman, Juárez gained social standing. Although legal racial categories were abolished shortly after independence, in social life, ethnic categories were still used. Their ethnically mixed (white/indigenous) marriage was unusual at the time, but it is not often explicitly noted in standard biographies. Their marriage lasted until Margarita's death from cancer in January 1871, when Juárez was planning his run for reelection. Juárez and Maza had ten children together, who were ethnically mixed mestizos, including twins María de Jesús and Josefa, born in 1854. Two boys and three girls died in early childhood. Two of their sons died while they were in exile in New York with their mother during the French Intervention. Their only surviving son was , b. 29 October 1852, was a diplomat and politician, and Governor of Oaxaca 1911–12; he married but had no children. Juárez's daughter Manuela married Cuban poet and separatist in May 1863.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Benito Juárez also had an extramarital relationship with Andrea Campa, with whom he had a daughter Beatriz Juárez. Benito Juarez recognized Beatriz as his own, giving her his last name in her birth certificate. Beatriz Juárez married Robert Savage, and together they had a son, Carlos Savage Juárez, who became a cadet in Mexico's Heroic Military Academy and participated in the famous "" or "March of Loyalty" of Mexican ex-president Francisco I. Madero. Carlos Savage Juárez's children were renowned in the movie industry:Carlos Savage (1919-2000) is a renowned Mexican film editor who worked in more than 1,000 award winning films and documentaries.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Benito Juárez is also known to have had two other children with other women. He had fathered a son and a daughter before he married Margarita, a son, Tereso, perhaps around 1838; and Susana. Little is known about them. One of his biographers, Charles Allen Smart, citing the work of Jorge L. Tamayo, the editor of Juárez's letters, says that Juárez's natural son might be alluded to in a letter from a certain Refugio Álvarez, an officer during the French invasion. Juárez's son was taken prisoner by conservative general Tomás Mejía when the conservatives captured San Luis Potosí in December 1863. Juárez's two sons with Margarita Maza were minors at the time and the third not yet born, so the conclusion is that the letter refers to Tereso. In his research for the biography, Smart found no explicit references to Tereso. Juárez's daughter Susana was mentioned by Tamayo, and Smart includes that information, but without page citations to Tamayo's publication. Susana was said to have become an invalid and a narcotics addict who was cared for by Juárez's friends Sr. Miguel Castro and his wife when Castro was governor of Oaxaca. The natural children's mother died before Juárez married Margarita, when Susana was three years old. Juárez and his wife formally adopted Susana, who never married and was with her adoptive mother at her death. Margarita Maza de Juárez was buried in the Juárez mausoleum in Mexico City.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez wrote books for his children, such as the book ""Apuntes para mis Hijos"" ("Notes for my Children" in English). However, this book only briefly talked about his indigenous heritage, describing his parents as "Indians of the country's primitive race." His vision of Mexico was that individual indigenous Mexicans would assimilate culturally and become full citizens of Mexico, equal before the law. "Everything that Juárez and the Liberal circle stood for militated against [his] identification" as an indigenous person. According to one biographer, he "has been the object of so much mythology that it is almost impossible to uncover the facts of his life."


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez was a 33rd Scottish Rite Freemason and a member of the directive of the Mexican brotherhood. He was initiated under the name of Guglielmo Tell.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's health suffered in 1870, but he recovered. His wife Margarita died in 1871 and his health began to fail in 1872. He suffered a heart attack in March 1872, the day before his birthday. He suffered another attack on July 8 and a fatal attack on 17 July.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez was initiated into Freemasonry in the York Rite in Oaxaca. He then moved to the Mexican National Rite, where he ascended to the highest degree, the ninth, which is equivalent to the 33rd degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. The York Rite was of more liberal and republican ideas with respect to the Scottish Rite that also existed in Mexico, which was of centralist political ideas. The Mexican National Rite emerged from a group of Yorkist Masons and another group of Scottish Masons whose common objective was to gain independence from foreigners and promote a nationalist mentality.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez was fervent in Masonic practice. His name is held in veneration in many rites. Many lodges and philosophical bodies have adopted him as a sacred symbol.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's initiation ceremony was attended by distinguished Masons, such as Manuel Crescencio Rejon, author of the Yucatán Constitution of 1840; Valentin Gomez Farias, President of Mexico; Pedro Zubieta, General Commander in the Federal District and the State of Mexico; Congressman Fernando Ortega; Congressman Tiburcio Cañas; Congressman Francisco Banuet; Congressman Agustin Buenrostro; Congressman Joaquin Navarro and Congressman Miguel Lerdo de Tejada. After the proclamation, the apprentice mason Juárez adopted the symbolic name of Guillermo Tell.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez died of a heart attack on 18 July 1872, aged 66. He had been ill for two days, seemingly without alarming symptoms, but he appears to have suffered an attack similar to the one in October 1870. "At daybreak on the morning of the 19th [of July] the inhabitants of this capital were startled by the roar of artillery, followed by a gun [shot] each quarter of an hour, which indicated the death of the head of the government. A death mask was made and Juárez was given a state funeral. He is buried in the Panteón de San Fernando, where other Mexican notables are interred. There is an account in Ralph Roeder's 1947 lengthy biography of Juárez about his death, but although the work has many direct quotations from sources, it is flawed because there are no scholarly citations.


title: Benito Juárez

text: When Juárez died, Díaz's reasons for rebellion – fraudulent elections, presidential coercion of states – no longer existed. He was succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, the head of the Supreme Court. Díaz was amnestied for his rebellion by Lerdo in November 1872. Díaz later rebelled against Lerdo in 1876. Although Díaz was a rival of Juárez during his life, after Díaz seized power he helped shape the historical memory of Juárez.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Today Benito Juárez is remembered as being a progressive reformer dedicated to democracy, equal rights for his nation's indigenous peoples, reduction in the power of organized religion, especially the Catholic Church, and a defense of national sovereignty. The period of his leadership is known in Mexican history as "La Reforma del Norte" (The Reform of the North). It constituted a liberal political and social revolution with major institutional consequences: the expropriation of church lands, the subordination of the army to civilian control, liquidation of peasant communal land holdings, the separation of church and state in public affairs, and the disenfranchisement of bishops, priests, nuns and lay brothers, codified in the "Juárez Law" or "Ley Juárez".


title: Benito Juárez

text: "La Reforma" represented the triumph of Mexico's liberal, federalist, anti-clerical, and pro-capitalist forces over the conservative, centralist, corporatist, and theocratic elements that sought to reconstitute a locally run version of the colonial era. It replaced a semi-feudal social system with a more market-driven one. But, following Juárez's death, the lack of adequate democratic and institutional stability soon resulted in a return to centralized autocracy and economic exploitation under the regime of Porfirio Díaz. The "Porfiriato" (1876–1911), in turn, collapsed at the beginning of the Mexican Revolution.


title: Benito Juárez

text: In the National Palace in Mexico City, where he lived while in power, there is a small museum in his honor. It contains his furniture and personal effects.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Juárez's quote continues to be well-remembered in Mexico: "Entre los individuos, como entre las naciones, el respeto al derecho ajeno es la paz", meaning "Among individuals, as among nations, respect for the rights of others is peace". The portion of this motto in bold is inscribed on the coat of arms of Oaxaca. A portion is inscribed on the Juárez statue in Bryant Park in New York City, "Respect for the rights of others is peace." This quote summarizes Mexico's stances toward foreign affairs.


title: Benito Juárez

text: Another notable quote: ""La ley ha sido siempre mi espada y mi escudo"", or "The law has always been my shield and my sword", is a phrase often displayed inside court and tribunals buildings.


title: Ubba

text: Ubba (Old Norse: "Ubbi"; died 878) was a 9th-century Viking and one of the commanders of the Great Heathen Army that invaded Anglo-Saxon England in the 860s. The Great Army appears to have been a coalition of warbands drawn from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and Continental Europe. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the Viking forces specifically originated in Frisia, where some Viking commanders are known to have held fiefdoms on behalf of the Franks. Some sources describe Ubba as " of the Frisians, which could be evidence that he also associated with a Frisian benefice.


title: Ubba

text: In 865, the Great Army, apparently led by Ivar the Boneless, overwintered in the Kingdom of East Anglia, before invading and destroying the Kingdom of Northumbria. In 869, having been bought off by the Mercians, the Vikings conquered the East Angles, and in the process killed their king, Edmund, a man who was later regarded as a saint and martyr. While near-contemporary sources do not specifically associate Ubba with the latter campaign, some later, less reliable sources associate him with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom. In time, Ivar and Ubba came to be regarded as archetypal Viking invaders and opponents of Christianity. As such, Ubba features in several dubious hagiographical accounts of Anglo-Saxon saints and ecclesiastical sites. Non-contemporary sources also associate Ivar and Ubba with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok, a figure of dubious historicity. Whilst there is reason to suspect that Edmund's cult was partly promoted to integrate Scandinavian settlers in Anglo-Saxon England, the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may have originated in attempts to explain why they came to settle. Ubba is largely non-existent in the Icelandic traditions of Ragnar Lodbrok.


title: Ubba

text: After the fall of the East Anglian kingdom, leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to Bagsecg and Halfdan, who campaigned against the Mercians and West Saxons. In 873, the Great Army is recorded to have split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum, Oscytel and Anwend struck out southwards and campaigned against the West Saxons. In the winter of 877–878, Guthrum launched a lightning attack deep into Wessex. There is reason to suspect that this strike was coordinated with the campaigning of a separate Viking force in Devon. This latter army is reported to have been destroyed at " in 878. According to a near-contemporary source, this force was led by a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and some later sources identify this man as Ubba himself.


title: Ubba

text: In the mid-9th century, an invading Viking army coalesced in Anglo-Saxon England. The earliest version of the 9th- to 12th-century "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" variously describes the invading host as """", an Old English term that can translate as "big army" or "great army". Archaeological evidence and documentary sources suggest that this Great Army was not a single unified force, but more of a composite collection of warbands drawn from different regions.


title: Ubba

text: The exact origins of the Great Army are obscure. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" sometimes identifies the Vikings as Danes. The 10th-century "Vita Alfredi" seems to allege that the invaders came from Denmark. A Scandinavian origin may be evinced by the 10th-century "Chronicon Æthelweardi", which states that "the fleets of the tyrant Ivar" arrived in Anglo-Saxon England from "the north". By the mid-9th century, this Ivar (died 870/873) was one of the foremost Viking leaders in Britain and Ireland.


title: Ubba

text: The Great Army may have included Vikings already active in Anglo-Saxon England, as well as men directly from Scandinavia, Ireland, the Irish Sea region and the Continent. There is reason to suspect that a proportion of the army specifically originated in Frisia. For example, the 9th-century "Annales Bertiniani" reveals that Danish Vikings devastated Frisia in 850, and the 12th-century "Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses" states that a Viking force of Danes and Frisians made landfall on the Isle of Sheppey in 855. The same source, and the 10th- or 11th-century "Historia de sancto Cuthberto", describe Ubba as "" of the Frisians.


title: Ubba

text: Whilst the Old English "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" calls the Viking army ', the Latin "Historia de sancto Cuthberto" instead gives ', a term of uncertain meaning that is employed three times in reference to the leadership of the Viking forces. One possibility is that the word means "people from the River Scheldt". This could indicate that Ubba was from Walcheren, an island in the mouth of the Scheldt. Walcheren is known to have been occupied by Danish Vikings over two decades before. For example, the "Annales Bertiniani" reports that Lothair I, King of Middle Francia (died 855) granted the island to a Viking named Herioldus in 841. Another possibility is that this term simply refers to Scyldings, an ancient lineage from which Danish monarchs of the time claimed descent.


title: Ubba

text: According to the same source and the 9th-century "Annales Fuldenses", another Viking named Roricus was granted a large part of Frisia as a benefice or fief from Lothair in 850. As men who held military and judicial authority on behalf of the Franks, Herioldus and Roricus can also be regarded as Frisian "". Although it is uncertain whether Ubba was a native Frisian or a Scandinavian expatriate, if he was indeed involved with a Frisian benefice his forces would have probably been partly composed of Frisians. If his troops were drawn from the Scandinavian settlement started by Herioldus over two decades before, many of Ubba's men might well have been born in Frisia. In fact, the length of Scandinavian occupation suggests that some of the Vikings from Frisia would have been native Franks and Frisians. The considerable time that members of the Great Army appear to have spent in Ireland and on the Continent suggests that these men were well accustomed to Christian society, which in turn may partly explain their successes in Anglo-Saxon England.


title: Ubba

text: In the autumn of 865, the "Anglo Saxon Chronicle" records that the Great Army invaded the Kingdom of East Anglia, where they afterwards made peace with the East Anglians and overwintered. The terminology employed by this source suggests the Vikings attacked by sea. The invaders evidently gained valuable intelligence during the stay, as the Great Army is next stated to have left on horses gained from the subordinated population, striking deep into the Kingdom of Northumbria, a fractured realm in the midst of a bitter civil war between two competing kings: Ælla (died 867) and Osberht (died 867).


title: Ubba

text: Late in 866 the Vikings seized York—one of only two archiepiscopal sees in Anglo-Saxon England, and one of the richest trading centres in Britain. Although Ælla and Osberht responded to this attack by joining forces against the Vikings, the chronicle indicates that their assault on York was a disaster that resulted in both their deaths. According to "Annales Lindisfarnenses et Dunelmenses", and "Historia de sancto Cuthberto", the Northumbrians and their kings were crushed by Ubba himself.


title: Ubba

text: Also that year, "Annales Bertiniani" reports that Charles II, King of West Francia (died 877) paid off a Viking fleet stationed on the Seine. After proceeding down the Seine towards the sea, where they repaired and rebuilt their fleet, a portion of the force is reported to have left for the district of IJssel (either Hollandse IJssel or Gelderse IJssel). Although the destination of the rest of the fleet is unrecorded, one possibility is that it participated in the sack of York. The fact that the Great Army remained in East Anglia for about a year before it attacked Northumbria could mean that it had been reinforced from the Continent during the layover. The part of the fleet that went to Frisia is later stated to have been unable to secure an alliance with Lothair. This statement seems to suggest that these Vikings had intended to acquire a grant of lands in the region, which could mean that they thereafter took part in the Great Army's campaigning across the Channel. Furthermore, "Annales Bertiniani" notes that Roricus was forced from Frisia the following year. This ejection could also account for the evidence of a Frisian dimension to the Great Army, and for the attestations of Ubba himself.


title: Ubba

text: With the collapse of the Northumbrian kingdom, and the destruction of its regime, the 12th-century "Historia regum Anglorum", and "Libellus de exordio", reveal that a certain Ecgberht (died 873) was installed by the Vikings as client king over a northern region of Northumbria. In the following year, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that the Great Army attacked Mercia, after which the Vikings seized Nottingham and overwintered there. Although the Mercian and West Saxon kings, Burgred (died 874?) and Æthelred (died 871), responded by joining forces and besieging the occupied town, both the chronicle and "Vita Alfredi" report that this combined Anglo-Saxon force was unable to dislodge the army. According to both sources, the Mercians made peace with the Vikings. It was probably on account of this seemingly purchased peace that the Great Army relocated to York, as reported by the chronicle, where it evidently renewed its strength for future forays.


title: Ubba

text: The earliest source to make specific note of Ubba is "Passio sancti Eadmundi", which includes him in its account of the downfall of Edmund, King of East Anglia (died 869). Almost nothing is known of this king's career, and all that remains of his reign are a few coins. The first contemporary documentary source to cast any light upon his reign is the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle". According to this account, the Great Army invaded East Anglia in the autumn of 869, before setting up winter quarters at Thetford. The chronicle relates that the kingdom was conquered and Edmund was amongst the slain.


title: Ubba

text: Although the specific wording employed by most versions of the chronicle suggests that Edmund was killed in battle, and "Vita Alfredi" certainly states as much—with neither source making note of a martyrdom ordeal—later hagiographical accounts portray the king in an idealised light, and depict his death in the context of a peace-loving Christian monarch, who willingly suffered martyrdom after refusing to shed blood in defence of himself.


title: Ubba

text: One such account is "Passio sancti Eadmundi", a source that makes no mention of a battle. Whilst this source's claim that Edmund was martyred after being captured is not implausible, the fact that he came to regarded as a martyr does not negate the possibility that he was slain in battle (as suggested by the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"). The apparent contradictory accounts of Edmund's demise given by these sources may stem from the telescoping of events surrounding an East Anglian military defeat and the subsequent arrest and execution of the king. In any case, surviving numismatic evidence of coins bearing Edmund's name—the so-called St Edmund memorial coinage—reveals that he was certainly regarded as a saint about twenty years after his death.


title: Ubba

text: The reliability of "Passio sancti Eadmundi" is nevertheless uncertain. Although this source was composed over a century after the event, it may convey some credible material as the latest useful source. Nevertheless, there is also reason to suspect that the account is little more than a collection of well-known hagiographical elements, and that the composer knew little to nothing of Edmund's demise and early cult. The lurid depictions of Viking invaders presented by "Passio sancti Eadmundi" appears to owe much to the author's otherwise known association with Fleury, and specifically to the account of the Viking invasion of the Loire Valley detailed by "Miracula sancti Benedicti", a 9th-century work composed by the Fleurian monk Adrevaldus (fl. 860s).


title: Ubba

text: In specific regard to Ubba, "Passio sancti Eadmundi" states that Ivar left him in Northumbria before launching his assault upon the East Angles in 869. If this source is to be believed, it could indicate that Ubba stayed behind to ensure the cooperation of the conquered Northumbrians. Although "Vita Alfredi" and the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" fail to note any Viking garrisons in the conquered Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, this may merely be a consequence of their otherwise perceptible West Saxon bias. In contrast to "Passio sancti Eadmundi", the 12th-century "F" version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" specifically identifies Ubba and Ivar as the chiefs of the men who killed the king. Whilst this identification could be derived from "Passio sancti Eadmundi" or the 10th-century "Lives of the Saints", it could merely be a mistake on the chronicler's part. In any case, later and less reliable literature covering the martyrdom associates both men with the event, revealing that this version of events was current as early as the 12th century.


title: Ubba

text: Ubba is associated with the martyrdom of Æbbe, an alleged abbess of Coldingham said to have been slain by Vikings in 870. The historicity of this woman is nevertheless uncertain. The earliest accounts of the alleged events at Coldingham date to the 13th century. They include "Chronica majora", and both the Wendover and Paris versions of "Flores historiarum". According to these sources, Æbbe compelled the nuns of Coldingham to disfigure themselves to preserve their virginity from an incoming horde of Vikings. Leading by example, Æbbe is said to have cut off her nose and upper lip with a razor. When the Viking arrived the following morning, the sight of the mutilated and bloody women repelled the raiders. Nevertheless, Ivar and Ubba are stated to have ordered the razing of the monastery, burning to death Æbbe and her faithful nuns.


title: Ubba

text: Despite many lurid 12th-century tales of ecclesiastical devastation wrought by Vikings, the principal contemporary source for this period, the 9th- or 10th-century "A" version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", fails to note the destruction of a single Anglo-Saxon church by Scandinavians during the 8th and 9th centuries. Although "Passio sancti Eadmundi" presents the invasion of East Anglia by Ubba and Ivar as a campaign of wanton rape and murder, the account does not depict the destruction of the kingdom's monasteries. In fact, there is reason to suspect that most Anglo-Saxon monastic sites probably survived the Viking invasions of the era, and that the East Anglian Church withstood the Viking invasions and occupation.


title: Ubba

text: Whilst Viking depredations of monasteries tend not to feature in sources intended for royal audiences, religious desecrations appear in sources composed for ecclesiastical audiences. There are several reasons why 12th-century sources associate the Vikings with seemingly unhistorical atrocities against particular monasteries. For example, such depredations could explain changes in monastic observance, or the switch from monastic- to clerical observance. Stories of Viking attacks could be used as evidence of the former possession of property claimed by religious houses centuries after the fact. The 9th-century Viking onslaught may have also been a way in which 12th-century commentators sought to explain what was regarded as monastic decay in 10th-century Anglo-Saxon England. This imagined or exaggerated religious extirpation could well have been a convenient way of accounting for the scarcity of documentary evidence concerning early religious institutions. Twelfth-century ecclesiastical historians availed themselves of sources such as the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and "Passio sancti Eadmundi". The fact that the latter was particularly influential to mediaeval historians is evidenced by the frequent occurrences of Ivar and Ubba in reports of religious atrocities. To medieval hagiographers and historians, these two figures were archetypal Viking invaders and emblematic opponents of Christianity.


title: Ubba

text: The accounts of Æbbe could be an example of such a constructed tale. The story appears be ultimately derived from the account of Coldingham preserved by the eighth-century "Historia ecclesiastica". According to this source, Æthelthryth (died 679), wife of Ecgfrith, King of Northumbria (died 685), entered the monastery under the tutelage of an abbess named Æbbe (died 683?). At some point after Æthelthryth left Coldingham to found a monastery at Ely, "Historia ecclesiastica" reports that the monastery of Coldingham burned to the ground. This account of Coldingham's burning was later incorporated into "Liber Eliensis", a 12th-century chronicle covering the history of Æthelthryth's establishment at Ely. The account of the burning given by "Historia ecclesiastica" may well be the inspiration behind the tale of facial mutilation and fiery martyrdom first associated with Coldingham by the Wendover version of "Flores historiarum". To 12th-century ecclesiasts, invented tales of 9th-century violence—particularly violence inflicted by Ivar and Ubba—may have been intended to validate the refoundation of certain religious communities.


title: Ubba

text: The earliest Anglo-Saxon virgin-martyr is Osyth. A now-lost 12th-century "" of this woman associated Ivar and Ubba with her seventh-century martyrdom. According to this source, Ivar and Ubba commanded the pirates who beheaded her after she refused to worship their pagan idols. This work may have been the inspiration behind the Anglo-Norman hagiography "Vie seinte Osith", a composition that also attributes Osyth's killing to Ivar and Ubba and their followers.


title: Ubba

text: The history of East Anglia immediately after Edmund's demise is extremely obscure. The account of events presented by "Passio sancti Eadmundi" seems to show that Edmund was killed in the context of the Great Army attempting to impose authority over him and his realm. Such an accommodation appears to have been gained by the Vikings in Northumbria and Mercia. In any case, numismatic evidence appears to indicate that two client kings—a certain Æthelred and Oswald—thereafter ruled over the East Angles on behalf of the Viking conquerors.


title: Ubba

text: It is at about this point that Ivar disappears from English history. According to "Chronicon Æthelweardi", he died in the same year as Edmund. However, this record may partly stem from the fact that he did not take part in the subsequent war against the Kingdom of Wessex, beginning in the autumn or winter of 870. In any case, the leadership of the Great Army appears to have fallen to kings Bagsecg (died 871) and Halfdan (died 877), the first principal Viking leaders attested by all versions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" after the army's recorded arrival.


title: Ubba

text: For about a year, the Great Army campaigned against the West Saxons, before overwintering in London. Late in 872, after spending nearly a year in London, the Vikings were drawn back to Northumbria, and afterwards to Mercia. By the end of 874, the kingdoms of East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria were finally broken. At this point, the Great Army split. Whilst Halfdan settled his followers in Northumbria, the army under Guthrum (died 890), Oscytel (fl. 875) and Anwend (fl. 875), struck out southwards, and based itself at Cambridge. In 875, the Vikings invaded Wessex and seized Wareham. Although Alfred, King of Wessex (died 899) sued for peace in 876, the Vikings broke the truce the following year, seized Exeter, and were finally forced to withdraw back to Mercia.


title: Ubba

text: Although much of Guthrum's army started to settle in Mercia, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" and "Vita Alfredi" reveal that Guthrum launched a surprise attack against the West Saxons in the winter of 877/878. Setting off from their base in Gloucester, the latter source specifies that the Vikings drove deep into Wessex, and sacked the royal vill of Chippenham. It is possible that this operation was coordinated with another Viking attack in Devon that culminated in the Battle of " in 878.


title: Ubba

text: Most versions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" locate the battle to Devon. "Vita Alfredi" specifies that it was fought at a fortress called "", a name which appears to equate to what is today Countisbury, in North Devon. This source also states that the Vikings made landfall in Devon from a base in Dyfed, where they had previously overwintered. As such, the Viking army could have arrived in Dyfed from Ireland, and overwintered in Wales before striking forth into Devon.


title: Ubba

text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" does not identify the army's commander by name. It merely describes him as a brother of Ivar and Halfdan, and observes that he was slain in the encounter. Although Ubba is identified as the slain commander by the 12th-century "Estoire des Engleis", it is unknown whether this identification is merely an inference by its author, or if it is derived from an earlier source. For example, this identification could have been influenced by the earlier association of Ubba and Ivar in the legends surrounding Edmund's martyrdom. In any case, "Estoire des Engleis" further specifies that Ubba was slain at "'"—which may refer to Penselwood, near the Somerset–Wiltshire border—and buried in Devon within a mound called "'".


title: Ubba

text: The clash at "" culminated in a West Saxon victory. Whilst "Vita Alfredi" attributes the outcome to unnamed thegns of Alfred, "Chronicon Æthelweardi" identifies the victorious commander as Odda, Ealdorman of Devon (fl. 878). Most versions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" number the Viking fleet at twenty-three ships, and most versions number the Viking casualties at eight hundred and forty dead. These numbers roughly give about thirty-six-and-a-half men per ship, which is comparable to the 32-oared Gokstad ship, a 9th-century Viking ship unearthed in Norway.


title: Ubba

text: On one hand, it is possible that the Viking commander at ' seized upon Guthrum's simultaneous campaigning against the West Saxons to launch a Viking foray of his from Dyfed. On the other hand, the location and timing of the engagement at ' may indicate that the slain commander was cooperating with Guthrum. As such, there is reason to suspect that the two Viking armies coordinated their efforts in an attempt to corner Alfred in a pincer movement after his defeat at Chippenham and subsequent withdrawal into the wetlands of Somerset. If the Vikings at ' were indeed working in cooperation with those at Chippenham, the record of their presence in Dyfed could also have been related to Guthrum's campaign against Alfred. As such, they could have been campaigning against Hyfaidd ap Bleddri, King of Dyfed (died 892/893) before their attack at '.


title: Ubba

text: It is possible that the defeat at ' left Guthrum overextended in Wessex, allowing Alfred's forces to assail Guthrum's exposed lines of communication. Although Alfred's position may have been still perilous in the aftermath, with his contracted kingdom close to collapse, the victory at ' certainly foreshadowed a turn of events for the West Saxons. A few weeks later in May, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" records that Alfred was able to assemble his troops, and launch a successful attack against Guthrum at Edington. Following Guthrum's crushing defeat, the Vikings were forced to accept Alfred's terms for peace. Guthrum was baptised as a Christian, and led the remainder of his forces into East Anglia, where they dispersed and settled. Guthrum thereafter kept peace with the West Saxons, and ruled as a Christian king for more than a decade, until his death in 890.


title: Ubba

text: Although Ubba and Ivar are associated with each other by "Passio sancti Eadmundi", the men are not stated to be related in any way. The earliest source claiming kinship between the two is the "Annals of St Neots", an 11th- or 12th-century account stating that they were brothers of three daughters of Lodbrok ('). This source further states that these three sisters wove a magical banner named ' that was captured at the ' conflict. Although certain versions of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" also note the capture of a raven banner, named ' ("Raven"), they do not mention any magical attributes, or refer to Lodbrok and his progeny.


title: Ubba

text: Lodbrok appears to be an early reference to Ragnar Lodbrok, a saga character of dubious historicity, who could be an amalgam of several historical 9th-century figures. According to Scandinavian sources, Ragnar Lodbrok was a Scandinavian of royal stock, whose death at the hands of Ælla in Northumbria was the catalyst of the invasion of Anglo-Saxon England—and Ælla's own destruction—by Ragnar Lodbrok's vengeful sons. None of the saga-sources for the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok accord him a son that corresponds to Ubba. The latter is only specifically attested by sources dealing with the East Scandinavian tradition. One of these sources is the 13th-century "Gesta Danorum". According to this text, Ubba was the son of Ragnar Lodbrok and an unnamed daughter of a certain Hesbernus. "Gesta Danorum" does not associate Ubba with Anglo-Saxon England in any way. According to the 13th- or 14th-century "Ragnarssona þáttr", a source that forms part of the West Scandinavian tradition, Ivar had two bastard brothers, Yngvar and Husto, who tortured Edmund on Ivar's instructions. No other source mentions these sons. It is possible that these figures represent Ivar and Ubba, and that the composer of "Ragnarssona þáttr" failed to recognise the names of Ivar and Ubba in English sources concerned with the legend of Edmund's martyrdom.


title: Ubba

text: Whilst Scandinavian sources—such as the 13th-century "Ragnars saga loðbrókar"—tend to locate the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok in a Northumbrian context, English sources tend to place them in an East Anglian setting. The earliest source to specifically associate the legend with East Anglia is "Liber de infantia sancti Eadmundi", a 12th-century account depicting the Viking invasion of East Anglia in the context of a dynastic dispute. According to this source, Lodbrok (') was extremely envious of Edmund's fame. As such, it is Lodbrok's taunts that provoke his sons, Ivar, Ubba and Björn ('), to slay Edmund and destroy his kingdom. Although this text is heavily dependent upon "Passio sancti Eadmundi" for its depiction of Edmund's death, it appears to be the first source to meld the martyrdom with the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok.


title: Ubba

text: By the 13th century an alternate rendition of the story appears in sources such as "Chronica majora", and both the Wendover and Paris versions of "Flores historiarum". For example, the Wendover account states that Lodbrok (') washed ashore in East Anglia, where he was honourably received by Edmund, but afterwards murdered by Björn ('), an envious huntsman. Although the latter is expelled from the realm, he convinces Lodbrok's sons, Ivar and Ubba, that the killer of their father was Edmund. As such, East Anglia is invaded by these two sons, and Edmund is killed in a case of misplaced vengeance. A slightly different version of events is offered by "Estoire des Engleis", which states that the Vikings invaded Northumbria on behalf of Björn (""), who sought vengeance for the rape of his wife by the Northumbrian king, Osberht. On one hand, it is possible that the theme of vengeance directed at Edmund is derived from the tradition of Ælla's demise in Northumbria at the hands of Ragnar's progeny. On the other hand, the revenge motifs and miraculous maritime journeys presented in the accounts of Edmund are well-known elements commonly found in contemporaneous chivalric romances.


title: Ubba

text: There is reason to suspect that the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok originated from attempts to explain why the Vikings came to settle in Anglo-Saxon England. The core of the tradition may have been constructed as a way to rationalise their arrival without assigning blame to either side (as illustrated by the sympathetic Wendover account). As such, the legend could have been intended to justify Edmund's violent demise. The tales may have evolved at an early stage of Viking settlement, and may have functioned as an origin myth of the emerging Anglo-Scandinavian culture. The shared kinship assigned to Ivar and Ubba within the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok may stem from their combined part in Edmund's downfall as opposed to any historical familial connection.


title: Ubba

text: Ubba appears as a character in modern historical fiction. For example, the unnamed Danish king that appears in "", a musical play with a libretto by James Thomson (died 1748) and David Mallet (died 1765)—first presented in 1740—may be a composite of Ubba, Guthrum, Ivar and Halfdan. Ubba certainly appears in "Alfred the Great, Deliverer of His Country", an anonymous play that first appears on record in 1753; and "The Magick Banner; or, Two Wives in a House", a play by John O'Keeffe (died 1833), first presented in 1796. He also appears in the "Sketch of Alfred the Great: Or, the Danish Invasion", a ballet by Mark Lonsdale, first performed in 1798; and "Alfred; An Epic Poem", a long piece of epic poetry by Henry James Pye (died 1813), published in 1801; and the similarly named "Alfred, an Epic Poem", by Joseph Cottle (died 1853)—a poem almost twice as long as Pye's—first published in 1800.


title: Ubba

text: Ubba later appears in "Alfred the Great; Or, The Enchanted Standard", a musical drama by Isaac Pocock (died 1835), based upon O'Keeffe's play, and first performed in 1827; and "Alfred the Great", a play by James Magnus, dating to 1838. He further appears in "Alfred of Wessex", an epic poem by Richard Kelsey, published in 1852; and in the 1899 novel "King Alfred's Viking", by Charles Whistler (died 1913); and the 2004 novel "The Last Kingdom" by Bernard Cornwell. Ubba is also a character in "Vikings", a television series first aired on the History network in 2013. His name was changed to Ubbe, and he was portrayed by Jordan Patrick Smith from season 4B through the end.


title: Ubba

text: In 2015, BBC Two released "The Last Kingdom", a fictional television series (based upon Cornwell's "The Saxon Chronicles" series of novels). It was later aired on Netflix. Although the series and many of its characters were based on real events and people, the series also contains fictional events. The character was portrayed a little differently than the real-life Ubba. Ubba is played by actor Rune Temte.


title: Ubba

text: Ubba, Halfdan and Ivar the Boneless appear in the Ubisoft video game "Assassin's Creed Valhalla" as brothers, sharing significant roles in the story of Viking conquests of England during the 9th century.


title: Mafia II

text: Mafia II is a 2010 action-adventure game developed by 2K Czech and published by 2K Games. It was released in August 24 2010 for PlayStation 3, Windows, and Xbox 360. The game is a standalone sequel to 2002's "Mafia", and the second installment in the "Mafia" series. Set within the fictional city of Empire Bay from 1945 to 1951, the story follows Vito Scaletta, a young Sicillian-American mobster and war veteran, who becomes caught in a power struggle among the city's Mafia crime families while attempting to pay back his father's debts and secure a better lifestyle alongside his best friend.


title: Mafia II

text: The game is played from a third-person perspective and its world is navigated on-foot or by vehicle. The player character's criminal activities may incite a response from law enforcement agencies, measured by a "wanted" system that governs the aggression of their response. Development began in 2003, soon after the release of the first "Mafia" game. Upon release, "Mafia II" received positive reviews, with praise particularly directed at its story, characters, and gameplay; however, the restrictive world design and lack of certain features present in other sandbox games was criticized.


title: Mafia II

text: A version of the game including all previously released downloadable content, entitled "Mafia II: Director's Cut," was released by Feral Interactive in December 2011. A sequel, "Mafia III", developed by 2K Czech's successor Hangar 13, was published in October 2016. To coincide with the of the first game of the series, "Mafia II: Definitive Edition," a remastered version of the game developed by D3T, was released by 2K Games on 19 May 2020, to mostly negative critical reception. This "Definitive Edition" was later bundled in the "Mafia: Trilogy", released on 25 September 2020.


title: Mafia II

text: "Mafia II" is an action-adventure game set in an open world environment and played from a third-person perspective. Most of the game is set in the fictional city of Empire Bay, based on New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Boston, and Detroit, during the mid-1940s and early 1950s. The core gameplay revolves around shooting and driving; a limited melee combat system is also included, which combines punching and dodging. There are 50 era-accurate vehicles in the game as well as licensed music. Depending on the weather during the course of the game, vehicles handle differently. For example, during the early chapters in winter, vehicles are more likely to slip on the road due to the ice. Many firearms from the previous game return, such as the Thompson submachine gun and Colt 1911, as well as a pump-action shotgun. New World War II–era weapons, such the MG 42 and the Beretta Model 38, also appear in the game.


title: Mafia II

text: Interacting with objects in the environment involves two action buttons: a standard action and a "violent" action, used in context-sensitive situations; for example, when stealing a car, the player may choose to either pick its lock or break the window glass. A map is included as in the original "Mafia" game, but the checkpoint system has been completely overhauled. New controls include a cover system that allows the player to take cover behind objects and shoot enemies, rather than just entering an arbitrary crouch pose behind them as in the first game. This feature provides tactical support against enemies and has become a crucial technique of the genre.


title: Mafia II

text: The game's cutscenes are created by the game engine in real-time. For example, if the player is riding in a car and a cutscene starts, the player will be driving the same car with the same condition (damaged or intact) and will be wearing the same clothes. There are exceptions, however, such as the opening sequence and a cutscene in the tenth chapter, which are pre-rendered video clips.


title: Mafia II

text: The game features three different in-game radio stations (Empire Central Radio, Empire Classic Radio and Delta Radio) with licensed music, news, and commercials. The radio stations include music from different genres including rock and roll, big band, rhythm and blues, and doo-wop, with licensed songs by Chuck Berry, The Everly Brothers, Dean Martin, Little Richard, Muddy Waters, Buddy Holly & The Crickets, Bing Crosby, Bill Haley & His Comets, The Chordettes, Ritchie Valens, Bo Diddley, Ricky Nelson, Eddie Cochran, The Champs, The Drifters, The Fleetwoods, Screamin' Jay Hawkins, Nat King Cole, The Chords, and The Andrews Sisters.


title: Mafia II

text: Set nearly a decade after the first game, "Mafia II" takes place between two distinct time periods – 1945 and 1951 – within the fictional U.S. city of Empire Bay; the game's first chapter takes place in the fictional town of San Celeste in Sicily, while the sixth is set within a prison located outside Empire Bay. The city is situated on the United States' eastern coastline and divided by a river, and consists of several districts, including wealthy suburbs, slums and tenement blocks for the city's different immigrant races, including Irish, African-American, Chinese, and Italian, and large-scale industrial complexes, with the city supported by a large port, a railroad station, a major prison outside its city limits, several parks, and a collection of shopping malls and supermarkets.


title: Mafia II

text: The game's main story sees the city divided between a number of criminal outfits, including three mafia families — the Falcone family, Vinci family, and Clemente family — a Chinese Triad outfit, the Irish Mob, and several street gangs. The city's design, including the architectural styles, cultures, public transportation and landmarks, are influenced by various real-life American cities, including New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Boston and Detroit, from within the two respective time periods used in the game.


title: Mafia II

text: Two of the game's DLC packs, "The Betrayal of Jimmy" and "Jimmy's Vendetta", also take place in the early 1950s, but in a different canon from the base game, while the third, "Joe's Adventures", is set during the events of the main storyline, bridging the gap between the two time periods.


title: Mafia II

text: In 1943, Sicilian immigrant Vito Scaletta is arrested during a robbery and opts to join the United States Army to avoid prison time, being enlisted in the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment as a jeep driver. Vito first experiences the power of the Mafia when an operation in Sicily goes awry, and Don Calò arrives, ordering the Italian soldiers to stand down.


title: Mafia II

text: In February 1945, Vito returns home on leave to Empire Bay and reunites with his childhood friend and partner Joe Barbaro, who has joined the Clemente crime family in his absence. Joe supplies Vito with counterfeit discharge papers and introduces him to some of his contacts for work. Learning that his late father left the family in debt to a loan shark, Vito seeks work with his father's former employer, Derek Pappalardo, who has ties with the Mafia. Later, he carries out several jobs alongside Joe and Henry Tomasino, a Clemente made man, securing enough money to pay off his father's debt. However, Vito is arrested again, this time for the theft and sale of ration stamps, and sentenced to ten years in prison. While serving the time, Vito befriends Leo Galante, the consigliere of Don Frank Vinci, but learns from his sister Francesca that their mother died and all the money Vito had obtained was spent on her funeral.


title: Mafia II

text: In April 1951, Vito is released early due to his connections to Leo. Reuniting with Joe, the pair work their way up the ranks of the Falcone family, led by Don Carlo Falcone and his underboss Eddie Scarpa. After several jobs, Vito and Joe become made men within Falcone's organization, allowing them to secure a better lifestyle. Learning that the Clementes are conducting drug operations against the traditions of the Commission, Carlo orders the pair to assassinate Don Alberto Clemente. Following the hit, Henry approaches Eddie through Vito in search of new employment and is ordered to kill Leo to prove himself. Although Vito manages to warn Leo in time and help him leave the city, the Falcones nonetheless welcome Henry into the family.


title: Mafia II

text: Vito quickly finds his life falling into turmoil after Francesca distances herself from him because of his mobster lifestyle, and his house is destroyed in a firebombing by the Irish Mob. To rebuild his fortunes, Vito joins Joe and Henry to profit from the sale of heroin bought from the city's Triads. However, Carlo, who is also conducting drug operations behind the Commission's back, learns about this and demands a cut of their profits. When Vito and Joe go to meet with Henry to discuss the matter, they witness the Triads publicly executing him and escaping with their money. The pair pursue them, killing a high-ranking Triad lieutenant in the process, but fail to retrieve the money. Indebted to loan shark Bruno Levine, whose money they borrowed for the heroin deal, Vito and Joe take on various jobs to raise money, including the assassination of retired mobster Tommy Angelo. When Vito visits Derek in search of work, he discovers that the latter ordered his father's death, and kills him in revenge. Meanwhile, the Vinci family kidnaps and tortures Joe. Vito manages to save him, but the pair learn that their actions have sparked a war between the Mafia and the Triads.


title: Mafia II

text: After paying off the debt to Bruno, revealed to be the same loan shark his father was indebted to, Vito is called by Carlo to the planetarium for a meeting. On the way there, Leo picks him up and chastises him for the problems he caused, before confirming that Henry was a federal informant and that Carlo wants to kill Vito for vouching for him. However, grateful to Vito for previously saving his life, Leo has arranged for him to be spared by both the Commission and the Triads as long as he kills their common enemy: Carlo. At the planetarium, Vito discovers that Carlo offered to make Joe a caporegime if he killed him. However, Joe refuses and helps Vito kill Carlo. Outside, the pair are greeted by Leo, who takes Vito with him to celebrate, while Joe is driven off in a separate car. When Vito asks where Joe is being taken, Leo reveals that he was not part of their deal, leaving Vito to watch helplessly as his friend is taken away to whatever fate awaits him.


title: Mafia II

text: Preliminary work on "Mafia II" began in 2004; the work on the script began in 2003. Originally intended for a PlayStation 2 and Xbox release, the game was moved to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2005, following difficulties with the developer of the game engine. It was officially revealed in August 2007 at the Leipzig Games Convention. A playable version of the game was achieved in 2007 or 2008. "Mafia II" was expected to release in late 2009, but was delayed until its release in August 2010.


title: Mafia II

text: 2K Czech wrote a new engine for the game which was named the “Illusion engine”. The new engine was the successor to the IS' LS3D engine which was used to make the first "Mafia" game.


title: Mafia II

text: A promotional trailer was released for the game in August 2007. A second trailer was released on the Spike VGA show on 14 December 2008. An extended version of the trailer was released on 15 January with an extra 30 seconds of cut scene footage. The first gameplay footage debuted on GameSpot on 17 April 2009 as part of an interview with "Mafia II"s producer, Denby Grace. The video shows driving and gunplay aspects to gameplay as well as portraying the physics engine. A third trailer was uploaded to the website on 28 May 2009. From 1 June 2009, four short videos are to be added to the "Mafia II" website. The first of these is called "The Art of Persuasion" and features the song "Mercy, Mr Percy" by the female singer Varetta Dillard. Another video was released featuring footage from the mission "The Buzzsaw". The video reveals the fate of "The Fat Man" who appeared in the earlier trailers. On 27 March 2010, a new trailer was released showcasing the PhysX-based cloth and physics system used in the game.


title: Mafia II

text: On 3 August 2010, Sheridyn Fisher, the face of Playboy Swim 2010, became the official ambassador for "Mafia II". Sheridyn's involvement with "Mafia II" highlights the agreement between 2K Games and "Playboy" magazine to use 50 of their vintage covers and Centerfolds in "Mafia II" as part of the in-game collectibles integration. A demo for the game was released on 10 August 2010 on Steam, Xbox Live Marketplace and PlayStation Network.


title: Mafia II

text: "Mafia II" was released on 24 August 2010 in North America, 26 August in Australia, and 27 August internationally.


title: Mafia II

text: On 22 August 2015, digital sales of the PC version of "Mafia II" were suspended on Steam and other digital retailers for unexplained reasons. The game was restored to Steam on 1 June 2016.


title: Mafia II

text: On 26 May 2010 four content packs were offered as pre-order bonuses in America and European countries, each one available through different retailers. The "Vegas Pack" containing two additional cars and suits for Vito and the "War Hero Pack" containing two military-style vehicles and suits was available from GameStop and EBGames. The "Renegade Pack" containing two sports cars and two jackets was available from Amazon and the "Greaser Pack" featuring two hot-rods and two suits were available to Best Buy customers. These pre-order packs are available for purchase as game add-ons on the PlayStation Network, Xbox Live and Steam.


title: Mafia II

text: The PlayStation 3 version became subject to controversy on 2K's "Mafia II" forums when 2K's interactive marketing manager Elizabeth Tobey stated that the PlayStation 3 version would be missing certain graphical details that were present in the Windows and Xbox 360 versions including three dimensional grass, pools of blood forming under dead bodies and realistic cloth physics. These details were said to be present in earlier builds of the game, but had to be removed to increase the game's frame rate.


title: Mafia II

text: Upon release, the PlayStation 3 version received the same or higher review scores than the Xbox 360 version from Destructoid and Nowgamer (sites that review the game on multiple platforms rather than the normal practice of reviewing a single platform) due to additional content.


title: Mafia II

text: The Betrayal of Jimmy is the first DLC pack, announced by Sony on 15 June 2010 at E3 2010. It was initially released exclusively to the PlayStation 3 as a free add-on to the base game, before being later ported to the other platforms. Set in a different canon from the base game, the story follows a gun-for-hire named Jimmy, who works for several criminal syndicates to undermine their rivals, until he is eventually set up by his employers and arrested. Missions are structured in a non-linear manner (similarly to the "Grand Theft Auto" series), and include a score attack feature in which players earn points for doing certain actions; both features would return in the second and third DLC packs. This DLC also contains the exclusive Waybar Hot Rod vehicle.


title: Mafia II

text: Jimmy's Vendetta is the second DLC pack for the game. It was released on PlayStation Network, Xbox Live Marketplace, and Steam on 7 September 2010. The story picks up from the events of "The Betrayal of Jimmy", as Jimmy escapes from prison and exacts revenge on those who betrayed him. This DLC also contains the exclusive Police Bus vehicle.


title: Mafia II

text: Joe's Adventures is the third and final DLC pack for "Mafia II", released on 23 November 2010. The story bridges the gap between the two time periods in the base game's story, and features Joe Barbaro as the playable protagonist. The DLC's plot revolves around Joe's return to Empire Bay in 1950, having been forced to go into hiding for five years because of a hit put on him by the Clemente family. He slowly works his way up the ranks of the Falcone family in hopes they could help him, but soon uncovers a plot to overthrow Don Carlo Falcone, which he must thwart. The DLC combines standard missions with score-based, open world missions. It is estimated to provide eight hours of gameplay. The DLC also contains the exclusive Delizia Grandeamerica vehicle.


title: Mafia II

text: Mafia II: Collector's Edition is a steelbook which includes 9 items: Made Man Pack (two classic luxury automobiles and two "made man" suits, including a vintage tuxedo), Art Book (photo album-style about the design process of the game), CD of the Orchestral Soundtrack (recorded by the Prague FILMHarmonic Orchestra), and a Map of Empire Bay. Mafia II: Digital Deluxe Edition is effectively the same as the physical edition, inclusive of the Made Man Pack, as well as digitalized versions of the soundtrack, art book and map.


title: Mafia II

text: Mafia II: Special Extended Edition is a compilation package published by 1C Company for the Russian market. It includes the base game, the three DLC packs ("The Betrayal of Jimmy", "Jimmy's Vendetta" and "Joe's Adventures"), and four style packs ("Vegas Pack", "Renegade Pack", "Greaser Pack", and "War Hero Pack"). It was released on 3 December 2010 for Windows. The same package was released on 1 December 2011 for Western markets as Mafia II: Director's Cut on Windows, OS X and their respective budget labels on consoles. In July 2015, this full edition of the game became unavailable on Steam in Western countries. However, The Made Man Pack, previously only available in the Collector's Edition, is now available as DLC on Xbox Live.


title: Mafia II

text: A version of "Mafia II" was developed for mobile phones by Twistbox Games and published by Oasys Mobile; the iOS version was published Connect2Media. Instead of being a direct adaptation of "Mafia II", the game bridges the gap between it and its predecessor, taking place largely in 1938. The story centers around Marco Russotto, a soldato in the Salieri crime family and the nephew of the family's gunsmith Vincenzo, who travels to Empire Bay to find and kill Tommy Angelo, the protagonist of the first "Mafia" game, for his betrayal of the family. The game features two possible endings, but only one is canon and leads into the events of "Mafia II".


title: Mafia II

text: A remastered version of "Mafia II" with updated graphics titled "Mafia II: Definitive Edition" was released on PlayStation 4, Windows, and Xbox One on 19 May 2020. The owners of the original Steam version had their copy of the game updated to "Definitive Edition" at no additional cost. The "Definitive Edition", which includes all of the story expansion and style packs, was developed by D3T. The "Definitive Edition" was later included in the "Mafia: Trilogy" pack, which was released on 25 September 2020 and also includes a remake of the first game, titled "", and a version of "Mafia III" including all story expansion packs.


title: Mafia II

text: "Mafia II" received "generally favorable reviews" for the Windows and PlayStation 3 versions, and "mixed or average reviews" for the Xbox 360 version and "Definitive Edition" remaster from critics, according to review aggregator Metacritic. Greg Miller of "IGN" gave the game 7/10, calling it "a solid little game that'll give you a fun ride – just don't expect the world." Kevin VanOrd of "GameSpot" gave it 8.5 and stated: ""Mafia II"s exciting action and uncompromising mob story make for an impressive and violent adventure." Matt Bertz of "Game Informer" gave it a 9.0/10, writing that "in an era when video games are moving away from relying on cinematics for storytelling, "Mafia II" draws on the rich mobster film history to weave a gripping drama about family, friendship, loyalty, betrayal, and pragmatism."


title: Mafia II

text: The most negative review came from John Teti of "Eurogamer" who gave the game a 4/10 and wrote that ""Mafia II" gets the last word by destroying the myth that the mafia is interesting at all. It contends that the mob world is a hell of boredom populated by aggressively stupid automatons. These drones wake up each morning, carry out a series of repetitious tasks, and return home." "Zero Punctuation" Ben Croshaw called the game "generic", and noted the main characters' similarities with the main characters of "Grand Theft Auto IV", but criticised the lack of features prevalent in other sandbox games. He also criticised the mundane parts of the game, such as driving, making the game feel "unnecessarily padded".


title: Mafia II

text: "Mafia II" has the most profanity in a video game, particularly the word "fuck", which is spoken 397 times, beating previous record holder, "".


title: Mafia II

text: There was a significant amount of content removed from the final release of "Mafia II". This removed content includes cut storylines, locations, characters, game modes, melee weapons and stores; various players have found leftover remnants for all of these features in the game's files. There was particular controversy caused when a car-destruction mission from the main game, as previewed at Gamescom 2009, was removed from the final release, and ended up re-appearing in the "Joe's Adventures" DLC, leading fans to wonder if content had been withheld from the game to sell separately.


title: Mafia II

text: In November 2021, designer and lead writer Daniel Vávra showcased prototype images from "Mafia II" which had recently been uploaded to a colleague's online portfolio, explaining that there was going to be a full campaign in Sicily rather than just the one mission. When a fan asked Vávra on Facebook how much content was cut, Vávra replied, "A lot".


title: Mafia II

text: Sonia Alfano, a member of the European Parliament and president of Italy's association for the families of Mafia victims, called for the game to be banned. Alfano's father Beppe was murdered by the Mafia in 1993. Take-Two Interactive quickly responded to the issue, stating that the game's depiction of the American Mafia was no different from organized crime films such as "The Godfather". They also responded to allegations of racism from Unico National, who claimed that the game portrayed Italian Americans unfairly and "indoctrinating" youth into violent stereotypes.


title: Mafia II

text: On 28 July 2015, 2K Games announced the sequel "Mafia III". The game, which was released on 7 October 2016, takes place in the city of "New Bordeaux", based on New Orleans, Louisiana, in 1968, seventeen years after the events in "Mafia II". The protagonist, Lincoln Clay, is a black veteran of the Vietnam War, who returns home to find that his former gang is facing problems. The developers stated that they wanted to stray away from traditional Italian mob characters from the first two "Mafia" games in this installment, although the game still features an Italian Mafia family that serve as the game's main antagonists. The game features several callbacks to "Mafia II", including the return of Vito Scaletta, who plays a supporting role in the game.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Valentine's Day is a 2010 American romantic comedy film directed by Garry Marshall. The screenplay and the story were written by Katherine Fugate, Abby Kohn, and Marc Silverstein. The film features an ensemble cast led by Jessica Alba, Kathy Bates, Jessica Biel, Bradley Cooper, Eric Dane, Patrick Dempsey, Héctor Elizondo, Jamie Foxx, Jennifer Garner, Topher Grace, Anne Hathaway, Carter Jenkins, Ashton Kutcher, Queen Latifah, Taylor Lautner, George Lopez, Shirley MacLaine, Emma Roberts, Julia Roberts, Bryce Robinson and Taylor Swift in her film acting debut. The film received negative reviews but was a box office success.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Florist Reed Bennett wakes up and proposes to his girlfriend Morley Clarkson, who accepts. However, Reed's closest friends, Alfonso Rodriguez and Julia Fitzpatrick, aren't surprised when Morley suddenly changes her mind and leaves Reed a few hours later.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: On a flight to Los Angeles, Kate Hazeltine, a captain in the U.S. Army on a one-day leave, befriends Holden Wilson. Kate is travelling a long distance to get back home only for a short time, and Holden states that she must really be in love to do so. When the plane lands and Kate has to wait hours for the taxi, Holden offers his limousine to allow her to be there on time.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Julia, an elementary school teacher, has fallen in love with cardiothoracic surgeon Dr. Harrison Copeland, but does not know that he is married to Pamela. Harrison tells her that he needs to go to San Francisco for a business trip: on his way, he stops by at Reed's flower shop and orders two flower bouquets - asking for discretion. Wanting to surprise him and despite Reed's warnings, Julia flies to San Francisco, convinced that Reed was wrong. Julia finds out that he is married and finds him at a local restaurant. Dressed as a waitress, Julia makes a scene at the restaurant, making Pamela suspicious.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: One of Julia's students, Edison orders flowers from Reed, to be sent to his teacher. Julia suggests to Edison to give the flowers to a girl named Rani in his class who has a crush on him after telling Edison the meaning of love.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Edison's babysitter Grace Smart is planning to lose her virginity to her boyfriend Alex Franklin. The planned encounter goes awry when Grace's mother discovers a naked Alex in Grace's room, rehearsing a song he wrote for Grace.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Edison's grandparents, Edgar and Estelle Paddington are facing the troubles of a long marriage. Estelle admits to Edgar about an affair she had with one of his business partners long ago. Although she is deeply sorry, Edgar is very upset.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Grace's high school friends, Willy Harrington and Felicia Miller are experiencing the freshness of new love and have agreed to wait to have sex.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Sean Jackson, a closeted gay professional football player, is contemplating the end of his career with his publicist Kara Monahan and his agent Paula Thomas. Kara is organizing her annual "I Hate Valentine's Day" party, but soon becomes interested in sports reporter Kelvin Moore, who was ordered to do a Valentine's Day report by his boss Susan Moralez, and who shares Kara's hatred of the holiday.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Substituting for Paula's absent secretary is one of the firm's receptionists, Liz Curran, who dates mail-room clerk Jason Morris. Jason is shocked when Liz turns out to be moonlighting as a phone sex operator. Liz explains that she is only doing this because she has a $100,000 student loan to pay off. Jason is upset, but eventually reconciles with her after seeing Edgar forgive Estelle.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Sean finally comes out on national television, and Holden, Sean's lover, goes back to him. Kate arrives home late at night to greet not her supposed boyfriend but her son Edison. Willy drops Felicia off at home after a date and they kiss. Kelvin and Kara hang out at Kelvin's news station where they later kiss. Alfonso dines with his wife, and Grace and Alex agree to wait to have sex. Edgar and Estelle reconcile and redo their marriage vows, Harrison's wife has left him because of his infidelity and Morley tries to call Reed, who is instead starting a new relationship with Julia. Paula receives a call from one of Liz's masochistic clients and takes delight in expressing her dominance and sadism.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: The score to "Valentine's Day" was composed by John Debney, who recorded his score with the Hollywood Studio Symphony at the Sony Scoring Stage. He also wrote a song for the film, "Every Time You Smiled", with award-winning lyricist Glen Ballard which was performed by Carina Round.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: The movie's official soundtrack was released on February 9, 2010 via Big Machine Records. It features the movie's leading song, Jewel's "Stay Here Forever", which was released as a single on January 19, 2010 and has charted on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart. The soundtrack also includes "Today Was a Fairytale" by Taylor Swift, which debuted at No. 2 on the U.S. "Billboard" Hot 100, breaking a record for highest first-week sales by a female artist. Swift's song "Jump Then Fall" from the Platinum edition of her album "Fearless" was also featured on the soundtrack. Debney's score album, including "Every Time You Smiled" (written by Debney and Glen Ballard, and not included on the song CD), was released digitally on April 7, 2010 by Watertower Music.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Jamie Foxx also recorded a song for the film which is called "Quit Your Job". It appears in the film but not on the soundtrack however, because of its vulgar lyrics. "I Gotta Feeling" by The Black Eyed Peas was used for the film's trailer.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: The film debuted in the US on February 12, 2010 with $52.4 million its opening weekend, grabbing the number 1 spot over the holiday that shares its name. The film ousted two other high-profile openings; 20th Century Fox's action fantasy "", which debuted at number 2 with $31.1 million over three days, and Universal's werewolf film "The Wolfman", with $30.6 million. It is currently the third-highest opening weekend in February, and the second highest-grossing President's Day weekend film. On Monday, February 15, 2010, "Valentine's Day" went down to #2 behind "Percy Jackson and the Olympians: The Lightning Thief", but then went back up #1 on Tuesday. On Friday, February 19, it went down to #2 behind "Shutter Island" then to #3 the next day. By Friday, February 26, it went down to #5 behind "Shutter Island", "The Crazies", "Cop Out" and "Avatar". By March 18, it went down to #14. It stayed in theaters until May 6, 2010. With that record, it is the second biggest opening for a romantic comedy film behind "Sex and the City" with $57 million. The passing of the Valentine's Day holiday later had the film's box office results quickly declining with a total of $110 million in the United States and Canada as well as an additional $106 million overseas for a grand total of $216 million worldwide.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 18% based on 190 reviews and an average rating of 4.00/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Eager to please and stuffed with stars, "Valentine's Day" squanders its premise with a frantic, episodic plot and an abundance of rom-com cliches." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100 based on 33 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Yahoo movies critics averaged the film's grade as a C−. Giving the film 3/4 stars, the overall opinion of Carrie Rickey's review for "The Philadelphia Inquirer" is that "It is a pleasant, undemanding movie that takes place over 18 hours on V-Day and considers Very Attractive People whose romantic destinies converge, diverge, and cloverleaf like the interstates threading through California's Southland".


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Betsy Sharkey of the "Los Angeles Times" commented that "The effect of all those spinning songs, stars and scenarios is merry-go-round-like, producing a sort of dizzying collage that no doubt some will adore, while others will just get nauseous...". British film critic Mark Kermode called the film a "greeting card full of vomit". Rene Rodriguez for the "Miami Herald" gave the film 2/4 stars, describing the film as "surfing through the channels of an all-chick-flick cable service". Rodriguez also criticized the film's blandness, stating the film should have "shed some of its blander plotlines[…] and spent a little more time exploring the thrill and elation of being in love – or at least just being horny".


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" gave the film one star out of four. Travers' analysis of the film simply states that ""Valentine's Day" is a date movie from hell".


title: Valentine's Day (2010 film)

text: Jonathan Ross was not complimentary either on his "Film 2010" show. He said "I thought the film was just awful". Journalist Sady Doyle, in a very hostile review of the film, argued that "Valentine's Day" was the worst film ever made. "Valentine's Day" is noted for sharing similarities with the British film "Love Actually", particularly the basic premise of multiple storylines occurring around a popular holiday, and sometimes identical subplots. Many British bloggers and online critics described "Valentine's Day" as "an American copycat version of "Love Actually", focusing on how "Valentine's Day", like "Love Actually", has an all-star cast whose characters' storylines intertwine with one another. "Time" named it one of the top 10 worst chick flicks.


title: Richard III (play)

text: Richard III is a play by William Shakespeare. It was probably written c. 1592–1594. It is labelled a history in the First Folio, and is usually considered one, but it is sometimes called a tragedy, as in the quarto edition. "Richard III" concludes Shakespeare's first tetralogy (also containing "Henry VI, Part 1", "Henry VI, Part 2", and "Henry VI, Part 3") and depicts the Machiavellian rise to power and subsequent short reign of King Richard III of England.


title: Richard III (play)

text: It is the second longest play in the Shakespearean canon and is the longest of the First Folio, whose version of "Hamlet", otherwise the longest, is shorter than its quarto counterpart. The play is often abridged for brevity, and peripheral characters removed. In such cases, extra lines are often invented or added from elsewhere to establish the nature of the characters' relationships. A further reason for abridgment is that Shakespeare assumed his audiences' familiarity with his "Henry VI" plays, frequently referring to these plays.


title: Richard III (play)

text: The play begins with Richard of Gloucester describing the re-accession to the throne of his brother, King Edward IV of England, eldest son of the late Richard, Duke of York (implying the year is 1471):


title: Richard III (play)

text: Richard is an ugly hunchback, "rudely stamp'd", "deformed, unfinish'd", cannot "strut before a wanton ambling nymph", and says he is "determined to prove a villain / And hate the idle pleasures of these days." Through a prophecy, that "G of Edward's heirs the murderer shall be", he has contrived to have his brother Clarence conducted to the Tower of London (the king interpreted the prophecy as George of Clarence, but the prophecy could just as easily refer to Richard of Gloucester). Speaking to Clarence en route, Richard blames the queen and says that he will himself try to help Clarence. Richard continues plotting:


title: Richard III (play)

text: Lady Anne attends the corpse of Henry VI with Trestle and Berkeley going from St Paul's Cathedral. She bids them set down the "honourable load" then laments. Richard appears, and Lady Anne says that "Henry's wounds [...] bleed afresh". He confesses the murder, and she spits at him. He offers himself to her sword, but she drops it. He offers to kill himself at her order, but she accepts his ring. Richard exults at having won her over so and tells the audience that he will discard her once she has served his purpose.


title: Richard III (play)

text: The atmosphere at court is poisonous. The established nobles are at odds with the upwardly mobile relatives of Queen Elizabeth, a hostility fueled by Richard's machinations. Queen Margaret, Henry VI's widow, returns, though banished, and she warns the squabbling nobles about Richard, cursing extensively. The nobles, all Yorkists, unite against this last Lancastrian and ignore the warnings.


title: Richard III (play)

text: Richard orders two murderers to kill Clarence in the tower. Clarence relates a distressing dream to his keeper before going to sleep. The murderers arrive with a warrant, and the keeper relinquishes his office. While the murderers are pondering what to do, Clarence wakes. He recognises their purpose and pleads with them. Presuming that Edward has offered them payment, he tells them to go to Gloucester, who will reward them better for having kept him alive. One of the murderers explains that Gloucester hates him and sent them. Pleading again, he is eventually interrupted by "Look behind you, my lord" and stabbing (1478).


title: Richard III (play)

text: The compacted nobles pledge absent enmities before Edward, and Elizabeth asks Edward to receive Clarence into favour. Richard rebukes her, saying: "Who knows not that the gentle duke is dead?". Edward, who has confessed himself near death, is much upset by this news and led off. Richard blames those attending Edward. Edward IV soon dies (1483), leaving Richard as Protector. Lord Rivers, Lord Grey, and Sir Thomas Vaughan, have been imprisoned. The uncrowned Edward V and his brother are coaxed (by Richard) into an extended stay at the Tower of London.


title: Richard III (play)

text: Assisted by his cousin Buckingham, Richard mounts a campaign to present himself as the true heir to the throne, pretending to be a modest and devout man with no pretensions to greatness. Lord Hastings, who objects to Richard's accession, is arrested and executed on a trumped-up charge of treason. Richard and Buckingham spread the rumour that Edward's two sons are illegitimate and therefore have no rightful claim to the throne, and they are assisted by Catesby, Ratcliffe, and Lovell. The other lords are cajoled into accepting Richard as king despite the continued survival of his nephews (the Princes in the Tower).


title: Richard III (play)

text: Richard asks Buckingham to secure the death of the princes, but Buckingham hesitates. Richard then recruits Sir James Tyrrell who kills both children. When Richard denies Buckingham a promised land grant, Buckingham turns against Richard and defects to the side of Henry, Earl of Richmond, who is currently in exile. Richard has his eye on Elizabeth of York, Edward IV's next remaining heir, and poisons Lady Anne so he can be free to woo the princess. The Duchess of York and Queen Elizabeth mourn the princes' deaths. Queen Margaret meets them. As predicted, Queen Elizabeth asks Queen Margaret for help in cursing. Later, the Duchess applies this lesson and curses her only surviving son before leaving. Richard asks Queen Elizabeth to help him win her daughter's hand in marriage. She is not taken in by his eloquence, and stalls him by saying that she will let him know her daughter's answer in due course.


title: Richard III (play)

text: The increasingly paranoid Richard loses what popularity he had. He faces rebellions, led first by Buckingham and subsequently by the invading Richmond. Buckingham is captured and executed. Both sides arrive for a final battle at Bosworth Field. Prior to the battle, Richard is sleeping and visited by the ghosts of his victims, each telling him to "Despair and die". They likewise attend and wish victory on Richmond. Richard wakes, screaming "Jesus", then realises that he is all alone and cannot even pity himself.


title: Richard III (play)

text: At the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), Lord Stanley (who is also Richmond's stepfather) and his followers desert Richard, whereupon Richard calls for the execution of George Stanley, hostage and Lord Stanley's son. But this does not happen, as the battle is in full swing, and Richard is at a disadvantage. Richard is unhorsed on the field, and cries out, "A horse, a horse, my kingdom for a horse". Richmond kills Richard and claims the throne as Henry VII.


title: Richard III (play)

text: "Richard III" is believed to be one of Shakespeare's earlier plays, preceded only by the three parts of "Henry VI" and perhaps "Titus Andronicus" and a handful of comedies. It is believed to have been written c. 1592–1594. Although "Richard III" was entered into the Register of the Stationers' Company on 20 October 1597 by the bookseller Andrew Wise, who published the first Quarto (Q1) later that year (with printing done by Valentine Simmes), Christopher Marlowe's "Edward II", which cannot have been written much later than 1592 (Marlowe died in 1593), is thought to have been influenced by it. A second Quarto (Q2) followed in 1598, printed by Thomas Creede for Andrew Wise, containing an attribution to Shakespeare on its title page. Q3 appeared in 1602, Q4 in 1605, Q5 in 1612, and Q6 in 1622, the frequency attesting to its popularity. The First Folio version followed in 1623.


title: Richard III (play)

text: The Folio is longer than the Quarto and contains some fifty additional passages amounting to more than two hundred lines. However, the Quarto contains some twenty-seven passages amounting to about thirty-seven lines that are absent from the Folio. The two texts also contain hundreds of other differences, including the transposition of words within speeches, the movement of words from one speech to another, the replacement of words with near-synonyms, and many changes in grammar and spelling.


title: Richard III (play)

text: At one time, it was thought that the Quarto represented a separate revision of the play by Shakespeare. However, since the Quarto contains many changes that can only be regarded as mistakes, it is now widely believed that the Quarto was produced by memorial reconstruction. It is thought likely that the Quarto was collectively produced by a company of actors remembering their lines. It is unknown why the actors did this, but it may have been to replace a missing prompt book. The Folio is regarded as having much higher authority than the Quarto, but because the Folio edition was collated by the printers against a Quarto (probably Q3), some errors from the Quarto found their way into the Folio. Some parts of the Folio (the beginning of Act III and much of Act V) are clearly copied, with little change, direct from the Quarto. The Folio also has its own corruptions and omissions, and corrections have to be supplied, where possible, from the Quarto.


title: Richard III (play)

text: Unlike his previous tragedy "Titus Andronicus", the play avoids graphic demonstrations of physical violence; only Richard and Clarence are shown being stabbed on-stage, while the rest (the two princes, Hastings, Brackenbury, Grey, Vaughan, Rivers, Anne, Buckingham, and King Edward) all meet their ends off-stage. Despite the villainous nature of the title character and the grim storyline, Shakespeare infuses the action with comic material, as he does with most of his tragedies. Much of the humour rises from the dichotomy between how Richard's character is known and how Richard tries to appear.


title: Richard III (play)

text: Richard himself also provides some dry remarks in evaluating the situation, as when he plans to marry Queen Elizabeth's daughter: "Murder her brothers, then marry her; Uncertain way of gain ..." Other examples of humour in this play include Clarence's reluctant murderers, and the Duke of Buckingham's report on his attempt to persuade the Londoners to accept Richard ("I bid them that did love their country's good cry, God save Richard, England's royal king!" Richard: "And did they so?" Buckingham: "No, so God help me, they spake not a word ...")


title: Richard III (play)

text: Puns, a Shakespearean staple, are especially well represented in the scene where Richard tries to persuade Queen Elizabeth to woo her daughter on his behalf.