title: Hobo

text: The origin of the term is unknown. According to etymologist Anatoly Liberman, the only certain detail about its origin is the word was first noticed in American English circa 1890. The term has also been dated to 1889 in the Western—probably Northwestern—United States, and to 1888. Liberman points out that many folk etymologies fail to answer the question: "Why did the word become widely known in California (just there) by the early Nineties (just then)?" Author Todd DePastino notes that some have said that it derives from the term "hoe-boy", coming from the hoe they are using and meaning "farmhand", or a greeting such as "Ho, boy", but that he does not find these to be convincing explanations. Bill Bryson suggests in "Made in America" (1998) that it could either come from the railroad greeting, "Ho, beau!" or a syllabic abbreviation of "homeward bound". It could also come from the words "homeless boy" or "homeless Bohemian". H. L. Mencken, in his "The American Language" (4th ed., 1937), wrote:


title: Hobo

text: Tramps and hobos are commonly lumped together, but in their own sight they are sharply differentiated. A "hobo" or "bo" is simply a migratory laborer; he may take some longish holidays, but soon or late he returns to work. A "tramp" never works if it can be avoided; he simply travels. Lower than either is the "bum", who neither works nor travels, save when impelled to motion by the police.


title: Hobo

text: While drifters have always existed, it is unclear exactly when hoboes first appeared on the American railroading scene. With the end of the American Civil War in the 1860s, many discharged veterans returning home began hopping freight trains. Others looking for work on the American frontier followed the railways west aboard freight trains in the late 19th century.


title: Hobo

text: In 1906, Professor Layal Shafee, after an exhaustive study, put the number of tramps in the United States at about 500,000 (about 0.6% of the US population at the time). His article "What Tramps Cost Nation" was published by "The New York Telegraph" in 1911, when he estimated the number had surged to 700,000.


title: Hobo

text: The number of hoboes increased greatly during the Great Depression era of the 1930s. With no work and no prospects at home, many decided to travel for free by freight train and try their luck elsewhere.


title: Hobo

text: Life as a hobo was dangerous. In addition to the problems of being itinerant, poor, and far from home and support, plus the hostility of many train crews, they faced the railroad police, nicknamed "bulls", who had a reputation of violence against trespassers. Moreover, riding on a freight train is dangerous in itself. British poet W. H. Davies, author of "The Autobiography of a Super-Tramp", lost a foot when he fell under the wheels when trying to jump aboard a train. It was easy to be trapped between cars, and one could freeze to death in cold weather. When freezer cars were loaded at an ice factory, any hobo inside was likely to be killed.


title: Hobo

text: Around the end of World War II, railroads began to transition from steam to diesel locomotives, making jumping freight trains more difficult. This, in combination with increased postwar prosperity, led to a decline in the number of hoboes. In the 1970s and 1980s hobo numbers were augmented by returning Vietnam War veterans, many of whom were disillusioned with settled society. Overall, the national economic demand for a mobile surplus labor force has declined over time, leading to fewer hoboes.


title: Hobo

text: According to Ted Conover in "Rolling Nowhere" (1984), at some unknown point in time, as many as 20,000 people were living a hobo life in North America. Modern freight trains are much faster and thus harder to ride than in the 1930s, but they can still be boarded in railyards.


title: Hobo

text: Hoboes were noted for, among other things, the distinctive lingo that arose among them. Some examples follow:


title: Hobo

text: Many hobo terms have become part of common language, such as "big house", "glad rags", "main drag", and others.


title: Hobo

text: Almost from the beginning of the existence of hoboes, as early as the 1870s, it was reported that hoboes communicated with each other by way of a system of cryptic "hobo signs", which would be chalked in prominent or relevant places to clandestinely alert future hoboes about important local information. Many listings of these symbols have been made. A few symbols include:


title: Hobo

text: Reports of hoboes using these symbols appeared in newspapers and popular books straight through the Depression, and continue to turn up in American popular culture; for example, John Hodgman's book "The Areas of My Expertise" features a section on hobo signs listing signs found in newspapers of the day as well as several whimsical ones invented by Hodgman, and the Free Art and Technology Lab released a QR Hobo Code, with a QR stenciler, in July 2011. Displays on hobo signs have been exhibited in the Steamtown National Historic Site at Scranton, Pennsylvania, operated by the National Park Service, and in the National Cryptologic Museum in Annapolis Junction, Maryland, and Webster's "Third New International Dictionary" supplies a listing of hobo signs under the entry for "hobo".


title: Hobo

text: Despite an apparently strong record of authentication, however, there is doubt as to whether hobo signs were ever actually in practical use by hoboes. The alternative hypothesis is that the signs were invented early on by a writer or writers seeking to add to the fantastical mythos that began to surround hoboes soon after they first appeared; this fabrication, then, was perpetuated and embellished by writers over the years, aided occasionally by hoboes willing to make up a colorful story or pose for a photo. Several hoboes during the days that the signs were reportedly most in use asserted that they were in fact a "popular fancy" or "a fabrication". Nels Anderson, who both hoboed himself and studied hoboes extensively for a University of Chicago master's thesis, wrote in 1932,Another merit of the book [Godfrey Irwin's 1931 "American Tramp and Underworld Slang"] is that the author has not subscribed to the fiction that American tramps have a sign language, as so many professors are wont to believe. Though newspapers in the early and peak days of hoboing (1870s through the Depression) printed photos and drawings of hoboes leaving these signs, these may have been staged in order to add color to the story.


title: Hobo

text: Nonetheless, it is certain that hoboes have used some graffiti to communicate, in the form of "monikers" (sometimes "monicas"). These generally consisted simply of a road name (moniker), a date, and the direction the hobo was heading then. This would be written in a prominent location where other hoboes would see it. Jack London, in recounting his hobo days, wrote,Water-tanks are tramp directories. Not all in idle wantonness do tramps carve their monicas, dates, and courses. Often and often have I met hoboes earnestly inquiring if I had seen anywhere such and such a "stiff" or his monica. And more than once I have been able to give the monica of recent date, the water-tank, and the direction in which he was then bound. And promptly the hobo to whom I gave the information lit out after his pal. I have met hoboes who, in trying to catch a pal, had pursued clear across the continent and back again, and were still going.The use of monikers persists to this day, although since the rise of cell phones a moniker is more often used simply to "tag" a train car or location. Some moniker writers have tagged train cars extensively; one who tagged under the name Bozo Texino during the 1970s and ’80s estimated that in one year ("where I went overboard") he marked over 30,000 train cars. However, not all moniker writers (or "boxcar artists") are hoboes; Bozo Texino in fact worked for the railroad, though others such as "A No. 1" and "Palm Tree Herby" rode trains as tramps or hoboes.


title: Hobo

text: Hobo culture—though it has always had many points of contact with the mainstream American culture of its day—has also always been somewhat separate and distinct, with different cultural norms. Hobo culture's ethics have always been subject to disapproval from the mainstream culture; for example, hopping freight trains, an integral part of hobo life, has always been illegal in the U.S. Nonetheless, the ethics of hobo culture can be regarded as fairly coherent and internally consistent, at least to the extent that any culture's various individual people maintain the same ethical standards. That is to say, any attempt at an exhaustive enumeration of hobo ethics is bound to be foiled at least to some extent by the diversity of hoboes and their ideas of the world. This difficulty has not kept hoboes themselves from attempting the exercise. An ethical code was created by Tourist Union #63 (a hobo union created in the mid-1800s to dodge anti-vagrancy laws, which did not apply to union members) during its 1889 National Hobo Convention:


title: Hobo

text: There are numerous hobo conventions throughout the United States each year. The ephemeral ways of hobo conventions are mostly dependent on the resources of their hosts. Some conventions are part of railroad conventions or "railroad days". Others are quasi-private affairs, hosted by long-time hoboes. Still others are ad hoc—that is, they are held surreptitiously on private land. Some of these conventions are held in abandoned quarries along major rivers.


title: Hobo

text: Most non-mainstream conventions are held at current or historical railroad stops. The most notable is the National Hobo Convention held in Britt, Iowa. The town first hosted the Convention in 1900, but there followed a hiatus of thirty-three years. Since 1934 the convention has been held annually in Britt, on the second weekend in August.


title: Hobo

text: Musicians known for hobo songs include: Tim Barry, Baby Gramps, Railroad Earth, Harry McClintock, Ramblin' Jack Elliott, Utah Phillips, Jimmie Rodgers, Seasick Steve, and Boxcar Willie.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Das Boot is a German television series produced by Bavaria Fiction for Sky One and a sequel to "Das Boot" (1981). Based on Lothar-Günther Buchheim's 1973 book of the same name with additions from his 1995 sequel, "Die Festung", the series continues the anti-war narrative at sea in the Battle of the Atlantic on board various U-boats, and on land, in France and other locations in Europe associated with the resistance to German occupation during World War II, as well as America.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The series picks up in late 1942, nine months after the events of 1941. In season one, the narrative is split into two strands: one at sea, on board "", and the other, on land, in La Rochelle, France, with the French resistance. The sea-land dual storyline continues in subsequent seasons, providing multiple points of view towards World War II. The second season takes place in 1943, following captain von Reinhartz of "U-822" as he attempts to defect to America, while deposed captain Hoffmann of "U-612" attempts to return to Germany. In season three, war continues to exert its forces on Europe in unexpected territories, namely neutral Portugal, and Kiel, Germany, home of the U-boats; while at sea, Royal Navy Commander Swinburne relentlessly pursues "U-949" towards the Southern Hemisphere.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: In June 2015, it was announced that a television series adaptation of Wolfgang Petersen's 1981 film, "Das Boot", would be made. In July 2016, it was further announced that the series would be in eight parts, to be directed by Andreas Prochaska and produced by Bavaria Fiction, Sky Deutschland and Sonar Entertainment. The new story would be based on Lothar-Günther Buchheim's books, "Das Boot" (1973) and "Die Festung" (1995), about submarine warfare in World War II.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Director of season one, Andreas Prochaska, explained that it was important for the series to maintain the anti-war stance and "explore the perennial theme of what war does to people", but it would not be possible to sustain "the original film's relentless focus on a submarine crew ... over an eight-part TV series". Therefore, the decision by the creators and co-writers, Tony Saint and Johannes W. Betz, to set the series in late 1942, "after the Allies have cracked the German military's Enigma code and can track the movement of their submarine fleets", enabled a foretelling of the impacts of these events, not only upon the U-boat crews but also their loved ones and others connected to them.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The cast for season one, announced in September 2017, included Vicky Krieps, Tom Wlaschiha, Vincent Kartheiser, James D'Arcy and Thierry Frémont, Lizzy Caplan, , August Wittgenstein, Rainer Bock, , Robert Stadlober, , and .


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: In season two, Clemens Schick, Thomas Kretschmann, Michael McElhatton, Ulrich Matthes and Rochelle Neil joined the cast.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The new cast in season three included Ray Stevenson, , Elisa Schlott, Anna Schudt, Joana Ribeiro, , , Jo Hartley, Fritzi Haberlandt, , , Franz Hartwig, and Ernst Stötzner who replaced Ulrich Matthes as Wilhelm Hoffmann. Jürgen Prochnow, who starred as U-boat Captain "Der Alte" ("Old Man") in the original film, was offered a role in the third season but turned it down.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Joining the cast season four are , Steffan Rhodri, Marco Leonardi, Wilson Gonzalez Ochsenknecht, , , Benjamin Dilloway, Joshua Collins, and Rosalie Thomass, who replaces Luise Wolfram as Hannie Hoffmann Lessing.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: From 2020, the series is filmed in 8K resolution. Cinematographer explains that an advantage of the larger 8K format is not having to use wide camera lenses such as the 21mm when shooting inside the small enclosed interiors of the submarine sets. By using longer focal lengths, such as the 29mm, 35mm and 50mm, the subjects are brought closer to the camera, thus allowing the audience to "be closer to the characters' emotions" as the tragedies of war mount.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Filming for season one started on 31 August 2017 and finished after 105 days on 20 February 2018. The budget was 33 million euro (USD 39 million). In December 2018, plans for a second season were announced. Malta, Germany (Munich), France (La Rochelle) and Czech Republic (Prague) were chosen for the location shooting.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Filming for season two began in April and completed in July 2019, taking place again again in Malta, Prague and La Rochelle, and a new location, England. In England, specifically, Liverpool and Manchester were used for the scenes set in New York. When the COVID-19 pandemic struck in 2020 and it was no longer possible for the production team to travel to the Prague studios, some of the post-production work, such as visual effects and sound mixing, were completed by the remote work arrangement.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: In season three, Prague was the location for the exterior scenes set in Kiel and Liverpool, while Malta was used for the interiors of Lisbon and Liverpool.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: For the fourth season, filming of the six episodes began in June 2022 and wrapped in September 2022. The locations for season four included Kalkara, Marsa and Kordin in Malta.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: With dialogue in German, French, English, Portuguese and Italian, the series features characters (e.g., Simone and Frank Strasser) who not only speak in multiple languages but also embody different language identities. German and British writers, Johannes W. Betz, Tony Saint, Colin Teevan and Judith Angerbauer, among others, collaborate to ensure that the nuances of the languages are appropriately translated and deployed.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: For the opening theme, composer added to composer Klaus Doldinger's anthem for the 1981 film "a simple piano" melody and "an underlying bass pulse". Working with director Andreas Prochaska in season one, their goal was to find a balance between the emotional and the abstract in order to express "a sense of loneliness" as well as "vast space". For the remainder of the score, Weber also wanted to achieve a contemporary feel in a similar way to Doldinger by employing only the sounds of the Haken Continuum without accompaniment and adding drone-like rhythms. After previewing the first episode of the series in 2018, Doldinger commented: "it was fascinating to see how the world of "Das Boot" is brought to life together with the play of images and Matthias Weber's interpretation of the main motif. I'm happy to be back on board "Das Boot" and compliments to Matthias Weber". The score for season one was nominated for the 2019 German Television Award for "Best Music", and the score for season three won the 2022 Hollywood Music in Media Awards for "Score - TV Show/Limited Series (Foreign Language)".


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Like "U-96", the featured submarine of the 1981 film, the U-boats in the series are also of the Type VIIC.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The submarine used in filming the series was the non-diving replica built in Malta as the 'modified' "S-33" for the film "U-571", also shot in Malta. Footage, sets and models from that movie have been reused for other productions, including "Submerged", depicting the loss of , and the fictional HMS "Scorpion" in "Ghostboat". The replica is still afloat, moored at Cassar ship repair yard, Marsa, in the inner part of the Grand Harbour. A special rig was built for the production by a Maltese armoury team, that allowed the submarine's anti-aircraft gun to both fire and recoil, which had not been done before with a blank-firing gun.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The submarine set is designed by production designer Nick Palmer and is constructed in Barrandov Studios in Prague, Czech Republic. It is 45 metres long, 5 metres wide, filling up an area of 235 square metres, and able to simulate the motion of a submarine in water.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Like the iconic laughing swordfish "(Der lachende Schwertfisch)" emblem that adorned "U-96" in the 1981 film, each featured U-boat in the series also bears an emblem on either side of the conning tower which represents, at times incongruously, the characters of the boat's captain and its crew. The emblem for Wrangel's "U-113" is a skeleton; Hoffmann's "U-612", a scorpion; Reinhartz's "U-822", a falcon; Buchner's "U-949", a sewer rat; and the boat scuttled by Swinburne, a fox.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The trope of the "hunter becomes the hunted", a plot device that was used in the 1981 film, continues to be developed in the series. Other nautical fiction and non-fiction tropes include: mutiny, sailors' superstitions, Ahab-like obsessions, and the ones that are on film critic Anne Billson's list for the submarine screen genre, namely "claustrophobia, fire and flood, creaking hulls, dwindling oxygen, an unstable crew member, ... periscope POV, playing possum, depth charges, silent running", and frantic calls of "Alarm!"


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The series premiered on 23 November 2018 on Sky One in Germany. The broadcast rights were sold to more than 100 countries before the series premiered. Outside Germany, it was broadcast on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom in February 2019, Hulu in the United States in June 2019, SBS in Australia, and TVNZ in New Zealand. Season three was originally scheduled to screen in Europe on 9 April 2022 but was deferred until 14 May 2022 out of consideration for the conflict in Ukraine.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: According to Samsung, in 2020, "the series was the first native 8K produced TV series ... [to be] launched exclusively in 8K on Samsung TV Plus in Germany". In 2022, streaming for season three was available on Samsung QLED 8K SmartTVs via Sky Q in Germany.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: For season one, it was reported in Europe that there were 1.44 million viewers on Sky Deutschland during the first month of screening, between 23 November to 16 December 2018, and an additional 2.8 million viewers on non-linear distribution platforms. Outside Europe, one source in the United States reported 1.13 million linear viewers and 1.89 million on-demand viewers.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds a "certified fresh" approval rating of 85% based on 34 reviews. The critics' consensus reads: "Das Boot possesses the atmospheric pressure of its cinematic forebear while adding new depth to its compelling ensemble, making for a riveting international production".


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: The reviews for season one from Germany were mixed. German historian, Sven Felix Kellerhoff, criticised the plot around the industrial family Greenwood and their financial ties with Nazi Germany as potentially German guilt. Kathleen Hildebrandt from "Süddeutsche Zeitung" found the portrayal of the women to be rather clichéd, and the series could have been more relevant if it had not cared so much about getting good audience numbers. Thomas Klein from "Berliner Zeitung" noted that there were "no Nazis in "Das Boot", no 'Heil Hitler', no staunch party members", and the series was more about the commercialisation of a famous brand.


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Irish writer Colin Teevan, who became the lead writer of season two, found that "critics everywhere love the show, except in Germany" because, in Germany, the critics considered to be unacceptable the perspective that "Germany is not totally and wholly responsible, wrong and guilty".


title: Das Boot (TV series)

text: Outside Germany, the reviews were more favourable. Some critics found season one to be "clever and utterly thrilling", season two, innovative in taking the WWII film and television genre to "somewhere new", and season three, sensitive to the grief that was experienced on both sides of the war. According to Adam Sweeting of "i" [newspaper], "Das Boot" stands apart from its predecessor by going beyond inducing the feeling of claustrophobia inside a submarine and offers instead a "satellite-vision scope". In season two, in particular, this perspective shows how the protagonists, von Reinhartz, Simone and Frank Strasser, and Margot Bostal, react to the pains of war and make compromises which they know to be "soul-destroying" in order to survive and stand up to the Nazis.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: The Little Albert experiment was a controlled experiment showing empirical evidence of classical conditioning in humans. The study also provides an example of stimulus generalization. It was carried out by John B. Watson and his Doctoral student, Rosalie Rayner, at Johns Hopkins University. The results were first published in the February 1920 issue of the "Journal of Experimental Psychology".


title: Little Albert experiment

text: After observing children in the field, Watson hypothesized that the fearful response of children to loud noises is an innate unconditioned response. He wanted to test the notion that by following the principles of the procedure now known as "classical conditioning", he could use this unconditioned response to condition a child to fear a distinctive stimulus that normally would not be feared by a child (in this case, furry objects).


title: Little Albert experiment

text: The aim of Watson and Rayner was to condition a phobia in an emotionally stable child. For this study they chose a nine-month old infant from a hospital. The child was referred to as "Albert" for the experiment. Watson followed the procedures which Ivan Pavlov had used in his experiments with dogs.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Before the experiment, Albert was given a battery of baseline emotional tests: the infant was exposed, briefly and for the first time, to a white rat, a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks (with and without hair), cotton, wool, burning newspapers, and other stimuli. Albert showed no fear of any of these items during the baseline tests.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: For the experiment proper, by which point Albert was 11 months old, he was put on a mattress on a table in the middle of a room. A white laboratory rat was placed near Albert and he was allowed to play with it. At this point, Watson and Rayner made a loud sound behind Albert's back by striking a suspended steel bar with a hammer each time the baby touched the rat. Albert responded to the noise by crying and showing fear. After several such pairings of the two stimuli, Albert was presented with only the rat. Upon seeing the rat, Albert became very distressed, crying and crawling away. Apparently, the infant associated the white rat with the noise. The rat, originally a neutral stimulus, had become a conditioned stimulus, and was eliciting an emotional response (conditioned response) similar to the distress (unconditioned response) originally given to the noise (unconditioned stimulus).


title: Little Albert experiment

text: In further experiments, Little Albert seemed to generalize his response to the white rat. He became distressed at the sight of several other furry objects, such as a rabbit, a furry dog, and a seal-skin coat, and even a Santa Claus mask with white cotton balls in the beard. However, this stimulus generalization did not extend to everything with hair.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Watson's experiment had many failings by modern standards. For example, it had only a single subject and no control subjects. Furthermore, such an experiment could be hard to conduct in compliance with current law and regulations, given the expected risks to the subject.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Albert was about one year old at the end of the experiment, and he reportedly left the hospital shortly thereafter. Though Watson had discussed what might be done to remove Albert's conditioned fears, he chose not to attempt such desensitization with Albert, and it is thought likely that the infant's fear of furry things continued post-experimentally.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Watson later gave a series of weekend lectures describing the Little Albert study. One of these lectures was attended by Mary Cover Jones, which sparked her interest in pursuing graduate work in psychology. Jones conducted an experiment to figure out how to eliminate fear responses in children and studied a boy named Peter, who was two years old. Peter shared similar fears of white rabbits and furry objects as Little Albert. Jones was able to increase Peter's tolerance of white rabbits by exposing him to the animal, known as direct conditioning, and having Peter interact with children who were not afraid of the rabbit. Mary Cover Jones was the first psychologist to desensitize or uncondition a fear response and become known as the "Mother of Behavior Therapy".


title: Little Albert experiment

text: According to some textbooks, Albert's mother worked in the same building as Watson and did not know the tests were being conducted. When she found out, she took Albert and moved away, letting no one know where they were going. A 2009 report, however, disputes that. The original report had stated that the baby's mother was a wet nurse at the hospital, who may have felt coerced and unable to turn down a request for her baby to be used in Watson's experiment.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: In 2009, psychologists Hall P. Beck and Sharman Levinson published an article in which they claimed to have discovered the true identity of "Albert B." After reviewing Watson's correspondence and publications, as well as research in public documents (such as the 1920 United States Census and state birth and death records), Beck argued that "Albert B." was a pseudonym for Douglas Merritte, the son of Arvilla Merritte, then a woman who appears to have been a wet nurse at the Harriet Lane Home.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: It was later found that Douglas Merritte had hydrocephalus, from which he died at the age of 6. With this condition, which is when there is an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid on the brain, Merritte may have had severe trouble seeing at the time of the experiment, and this disputes the claim that the child in question was average and healthy. According to researchers who looked at this case years later, if Douglas Merritte was, indeed, Little Albert, his actions during the conditioning sessions align with signs of neurological impairment. This includes Little Albert's use of hand-scooping, rather than grasping gestures typical of this age, as well as poor eye-scanning abilities and his lack of facial expressions. Other research has argued, however, that Douglas Merritte may not have been "Little Albert", who may in fact have been young William Albert Barger.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: The identity claimed by Beck, Levinson and Irons has been contested by psychology researchers Russ Powell and Nancy Digdon, who offer an alternative identity based on available data. William Barger had been born within a day of Merritte, was known by friends and family as "Albert", which was his middle name, and his mother had also worked at the hospital where the experiment was conducted. In addition, his size and developmental condition much more closely matched the experiment's documentation of the subject baby's condition.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Through the use of a professional genealogist, the researchers learned Barger had died in 2007 at age 87 and identified one close living relative, a niece. In an interview, Barger's niece stated that she and her uncle had been quite close throughout his life, acknowledged Barger's antipathy toward dogs as a well-known fact that family members, particularly his wife, would tease him about (the researchers noted there was no way to determine whether or not this behavior was linked to Watson's experiment). She also informed researchers of her uncle's aversion to animals in general, not just dogs. Though it was not a particularly strong aversion, family members would often have to keep their dogs in a separate room when he visited. Outside of this, Barger's niece stated that she did not recall any other phobias he may have had. The researchers concluded that Barger would have been unaware of his role as an infant test subject.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: The experiment today would be considered unethical according to the American Psychological Association's ethic code, and legislation has been passed to prevent such potentially harmful experiments. In the early 1970s, following widely publicized cases of research abuse, the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (NCPHS) was created to study issues surrounding the protection of humans in research. In 1979, the Commission issued a report entitled "Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research" (commonly called the "Belmont Report"), which provided the ethical framework on which current federal regulations for the protection of human participants in research are based. Under the NCPHS standards set in the late 1970s, an experiment such as Watson's would not have been allowed. Research with human participants is also regulated by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 and the Public Health Service Act. In addition, training of researchers in the use of human participants has been required by the National Institutes of Health since 2000.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: A detailed review of the original study and its subsequent interpretations by Ben Harris (1979) stated:


title: Little Albert experiment

text: It is difficult to be certain exactly what happened during the Little Albert experiment since concrete evidence and scientific records are lacking. Though a film was shot during the experiment, textbooks interpret the movie differently. Various sources give contradicting accounts of events that took place, and they raise questions about exactly what stimuli were used, which stimuli the baby came to fear, and what happened to the child after the experiment. It was said that most textbooks "suffer from inaccuracies of various degrees" while referring to Watson and Rayner's study. Texts often misrepresent, exaggerate, or minimize the range of Albert's post-conditioning fears.


title: Little Albert experiment

text: Other criticisms stem from the health of the child (cited as Douglas Merritte) who was not a "healthy", "normal" infant as claimed in the study, but one who was very ill and had exhibited symptoms of hydrocephalus since birth—according to relatives he never learned to walk or talk later in life. The child would die five years after the experiment due to complications from the congenital disease. It is stated that the study's authors were aware of the child's severe cognitive deficit, abnormal behavior, and unusually frequent crying, but continued to terrify the sick infant and generalize their findings to healthy infants, an act criticized as academic fraud. These accusations have been challenged in another academic article which states that the child was actually William (called Albert by his family) Barger, and that the child was, in fact, healthy.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol is an organic compound, more specifically a monoterpenoid, made synthetically or obtained from the oils of corn mint, peppermint, or other mints. It is a waxy, clear or white crystalline substance, which is solid at room temperature and melts slightly above.


title: Menthol

text: The main form of menthol occurring in nature is (−)-menthol, which is assigned the (1"R",2"S",5"R") configuration. Menthol has local anesthetic and counterirritant qualities, and it is widely used to relieve minor throat irritation. Menthol also acts as a weak κ-opioid receptor agonist.


title: Menthol

text: Natural menthol exists as one pure stereoisomer, nearly always the (1"R",2"S",5"R") form (bottom left corner of the diagram below). The eight possible stereoisomers are:


title: Menthol

text: In the natural compound, the isopropyl group is in the "trans" orientation to both the methyl and hydroxyl groups. Thus, it can be drawn in any of the ways shown:


title: Menthol

text: The (+)- and (−)-enantiomers of menthol are the most stable among these based on their cyclohexane conformations. With the ring itself in a chair conformation, all three bulky groups can orient in equatorial positions.


title: Menthol

text: The two crystal forms for racemic menthol have melting points of 28 °C and 38 °C. Pure (−)-menthol has four crystal forms, of which the most stable is the α form, the familiar broad needles.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol's ability to chemically trigger the cold-sensitive TRPM8 receptors in the skin is responsible for the well-known cooling sensation it provokes when inhaled, eaten, or applied to the skin. In this sense, it is similar to capsaicin, the chemical responsible for the spiciness of hot chilis (which stimulates heat sensors, also without causing an actual change in temperature).


title: Menthol

text: Menthol's analgesic properties are mediated through a selective activation of κ-opioid receptors. Menthol blocks calcium channels and voltage-sensitive sodium channels, reducing neural activity that may stimulate muscles.


title: Menthol

text: Some studies show that menthol acts as GABA receptor positive allosteric modulator and increases Gabaergic transmission in PAG neurons. Menthol also shares anaesthetic properties similar to propofol, by modulating the same sites of the GABA receptor.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol is widely used in dental care as a topical antibacterial agent, effective against several types of streptococci and lactobacilli. Menthol also lowers blood pressure and antagonizes vasoconstriction through TRPM8 activation.


title: Menthol

text: "Mentha arvensis" (wild mint) is the primary species of mint used to make natural menthol crystals and natural menthol flakes. This species is primarily grown in the Uttar Pradesh region in India.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol occurs naturally in peppermint oil (along with a little menthone, the ester menthyl acetate and other compounds), obtained from "Mentha × piperita" (peppermint). Japanese menthol also contains a small percentage of the 1-epimer neomenthol.


title: Menthol

text: The biosynthesis of menthol has been investigated in "Mentha × piperita" and the enzymes involved in have been identified and characterized. It begins with the synthesis of the terpene limonene, followed by hydroxylation, and then several reduction and isomerization steps.


title: Menthol

text: More specifically, the biosynthesis of (−)-menthol takes place in the secretory gland cells of the peppermint plant. Geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS), first catalyzes the reaction of IPP and DMAPP into geranyl diphosphate. Next (−)-limonene synthase (LS) catalyzes the cyclization of geranyl diphosphate to (−)-limonene. (−)-Limonene-3-hydroxylase (L3OH), using O and NADPH, then catalyzes the allylic hydroxylation of (−)-limonene at the 3 position to (−)-trans-isopiperitenol. (−)-"trans"-Isopiperitenol dehydrogenase (iPD) further oxidizes the hydroxyl group on the 3 position using NAD to make (−)-isopiperitenone. (−)-Isopiperitenone reductase (iPR) then reduces the double bond between carbons 1 and 2 using NADPH to form (+)-"cis"-isopulegone. (+)-"cis"-Isopulegone isomerase (iPI) then isomerizes the remaining double bond to form (+)-pulegone. (+)-Pulegone reductase (PR) then reduces this double bond using NADPH to form (−)-menthone. (−)-Menthone reductase (MR) then reduces the carbonyl group using NADPH to form (−)-menthol.


title: Menthol

text: Natural menthol is obtained by freezing peppermint oil. The resultant crystals of menthol are then separated by filtration.


title: Menthol

text: Total world production of menthol in 1998 was 12,000 tonnes of which 2,500 tonnes was synthetic. In 2005, the annual production of synthetic menthol was almost double. Prices are in the $10–20/kg range with peaks in the $40/kg region but have reached as high as $100/kg. In 1985, it was estimated that China produced most of the world's supply of natural menthol, although it appears that India has pushed China into second place.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol is manufactured as a single enantiomer (94% e.e.) on the scale of 3,000 tonnes per year by Takasago International Corporation. The process involves an asymmetric synthesis developed by a team led by Ryōji Noyori, who won the 2001 Nobel Prize for Chemistry in recognition of his work on this process:


title: Menthol

text: The process begins by forming an allylic amine from myrcene, which undergoes asymmetric isomerisation in the presence of a BINAP rhodium complex to give (after hydrolysis) enantiomerically pure "R"-citronellal. This is cyclised by a carbonyl-ene-reaction initiated by zinc bromide to , which is then hydrogenated to give pure (1"R",2"S",5"R")-menthol.


title: Menthol

text: Another commercial process is the Haarmann–Reimer process (after the company Haarmann & Reimer, now part of Symrise) This process starts from "m"-cresol which is alkylated with propene to thymol. This compound is hydrogenated in the next step. Racemic menthol is isolated by fractional distillation. The enantiomers are separated by chiral resolution in reaction with methyl benzoate, selective crystallisation followed by hydrolysis.


title: Menthol

text: Racemic menthol can also be formed by hydrogenation of thymol, menthone, or pulegone. In both cases with further processing (crystallizative entrainment resolution of the menthyl benzoate conglomerate) it is possible to concentrate the -enantiomer, however this tends to be less efficient, although the higher processing costs may be offset by lower raw material costs. A further advantage of this process is that -menthol becomes inexpensively available for use as a chiral auxiliary, along with the more usual -antipode.


title: Menthol

text: In organic chemistry, menthol is used as a chiral auxiliary in asymmetric synthesis. For example, sulfinate esters made from sulfinyl chlorides and menthol can be used to make enantiomerically pure sulfoxides by reaction with organolithium reagents or Grignard reagents. Menthol reacts with chiral carboxylic acids to give diastereomic menthyl esters, which are useful for chiral resolution.


title: Menthol

text: Menthol reacts in many ways like a normal secondary alcohol. It is oxidised to menthone by oxidising agents such as chromic acid or dichromate, though under some conditions the oxidation can go further and break open the ring. Menthol is easily dehydrated to give mainly 3-menthene, by the action of 2% sulfuric acid. Phosphorus pentachloride (PCl) gives menthyl chloride.


title: Menthol

text: In the West, menthol was first isolated in 1771, by the German, Hieronymus David Gaubius. Early characterizations were done by Oppenheim, Beckett, Moriya, and Atkinson. It was named by F. L. Alphons Oppenheim (1833–1877) in 1861.


title: Menthol

text: The estimated lethal dose for menthol (and peppermint oil) in humans may be as low as 50–500 mg/kg, (LD50 Acute: 3300 mg/kg [Rat]. 3400 mg/kg [Mouse]. 800 mg/kg [Cat]).


title: Menthol

text: Survival after doses of 8 to 9 g have been reported. Overdose effects are abdominal pain, ataxia, atrial fibrillation, bradycardia, coma, dizziness, lethargy, nausea, skin rash, tremor, vomiting, vertigo.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: The Pelican Brief is a 1993 American legal thriller film based on the 1992 novel by John Grisham. Directed by Alan J. Pakula, the film stars Julia Roberts in the role of young law student Darby Shaw and Denzel Washington as "Washington Herald" reporter Gray Grantham. The film, which features music composed by James Horner, was the last film that featured Pakula as both writer and director before his death.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: After an assassin named Khamel kills two Supreme Court justices, Jensen and Rosenberg, Tulane University law student Darby Shaw writes a legal brief detailing her theory on why they were killed. She gives the brief to her law professor and lover Thomas Callahan, a former clerk of Rosenberg's, who in turn gives a copy to his good friend Gavin Verheek, special counsel to the Director of the FBI. Soon after, a car bomb kills Callahan, but Darby avoids the same fate, because the drunk Callahan refused to let Darby drive his car. Now realizing that her brief was accurate, she goes into hiding and reaches out to Verheek for assistance.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: An informant calling himself Garcia contacts "Washington Herald" reporter Gray Grantham with information about the assassinations, but disappears. Darby also contacts Grantham, who verifies her information as accurate. Darby's computer, disks, and files disappear from her home. She is attacked at a hotel where she's hiding. She escapes the attack unharmed, but scared. She contacts and agrees to meet Verheek, but Khamel kills Verheek and impersonates him at the meet. Before Khamel can kill Darby, an unknown person shoots and kills him.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: Darby agrees to meet Grantham in New York City, where she shares the theory expressed in her brief: the assassinations were done for oil tycoon Victor Mattiece, who intends to exploit the oil he found beneath Louisiana marshland that is habitat for an endangered sub-species of brown pelicans. A court appeal to deny Mattiece the drilling rights is expected to reach the Supreme Court. Darby has surmised that Mattiece, hoping to turn the case in his favor, is behind the justices' murders; these two justices differ in their opinions on everything except protecting the environment. As a generous contributor to the President, Mattiece expects that he would appoint justices that favor oil and gas exploitation over environmental issues while the next President may not do so. When Grantham tells her about Garcia, they discover that the man is Curtis Morgan, a lawyer in the oil and gas division at the Washington, D.C. law firm of White & Blazevich.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: Darby visits the firm, pretending to have an appointment with Morgan, and is told that he had been killed in a mugging. Suspecting that his murder was related to the incriminating information, she and Grantham visit his widow, who eventually gives them a key to a safe deposit box. Darby visits the bank to retrieve the contents of the box. After barely escaping death via car bomb, they reach the "Washington Herald" building, where they review the documents and a videotape recovered from Morgan's box. The tape corroborates Darby's theory, as Morgan's documents verify that Mattiece ordered the Justices to be assassinated. With this evidence, Grantham writes his story. He gives the FBI a chance to comment and FBI Director Voyles confirms that Darby's "Pelican Brief" was delivered to the White House. He reveals the President ordered the FBI to "back off," and that the CIA is investigating Mattiece, with one of them killing Khamel to save Darby's life. A plane that the FBI arranges for Darby flies her away to safety under the witness protection program.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: Sometime later, Darby is watching a TV interview of Grantham where it is revealed that Mattiece and four of his aides and lawyers have been indicted, the President's chief of staff Fletcher Coal has resigned, and the President (who received $4.2million in contributions from Mattiece) is unlikely to run for reelection. Grantham deflects speculation that Darby is fictional, but does agree that she is "almost" too good to be true, causing Darby to smile.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: "The Pelican Brief" grossed $100.8million in the United States and Canada, and $94.5million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $195.3million, against a production budget of $45million.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 54% based on 54 reviews, with an average rating of 5.5/10. The site's consensus states: "Julia Roberts and Denzel Washington are a compelling team in the overlong "Pelican Brief", a pulpy thriller that doesn't quite justify the intellectual remove of Alan J. Pakula's direction." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 50 out of 100, based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: Pat Collins, from WWOR-TV, said that the film was "A heart-stopping, spine-chilling, adrenaline-pumping, run-for-your-life thriller." In "The Chicago Sun-Times", Roger Ebert gave it 3 out of a possible 4 stars, writing "the movie delivers while it's onscreen" but also believed "The Pelican Brief" was inferior to the film adaptation of Grisham's "The Firm" (also 1993) and ranked as one of Pakula's lesser efforts.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: Film critic Brian Lowry of "Variety" wrote in his review: Pakula does a remarkable job in weaving and making sense of these complex strands. Although there's plenty of suspense as Darby and Gray evade her pursuers, the director eschews the cheaper tricks of the trade, respecting the audience's ability to keep track of what's going on. Also, "Brief" is a relatively gore-free thriller, with most of the violence effectively conveyed offscreen.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: "The Pelican Brief" is best watched as a celebration of liquid brown eyes and serious star quality, thanks to the casting of Ms. Roberts and Denzel Washington in its leading roles. Neither of these first-rate actors is shown to great dramatic advantage, but they both do a lot to make the movie shine.


title: The Pelican Brief (film)

text: "The Pelican Brief" was released on VHS on June 15, 1994, by Warner Home Video. The film was released on Blu-ray on February 10, 2009, by Warner Home Video. "The Pelican Brief" was released on DVD on September 7, 2010, by Warner Home Video.


title: Russian Blue

text: The Russian Blue Cat (), commonly referred to as just Russian Blue, is a cat breed with colors that vary from a light shimmering silver to a darker, slate grey. The short, dense coat, which stands out from the body, has been the breed's hallmark for more than a century.


title: Russian Blue

text: The Russian Blue is a naturally occurring breed that may have originated in the port of Arkhangelsk in Russia. They are also sometimes called Archangel Blues. It is believed that sailors took them from the Archangel Isles to Great Britain and Northern Europe in the 1860s. The first reference to an Archangel Cat appears in British print in 1862. The first recorded appearance of one in a show was in 1872 at The Crystal Palace in England as the Archangel Cat. However, Harrison Weir writing in 1895 reported that the early show cats under the Russian Blue name were British-bred grey tabbies, with separate grey cats arriving from Archangel in Britain in the 1800s with features consistent with the modern breed. The Russian Blue competed in a class including all other blue cats until 1912, when it was given its own class. The breed was developed mainly in England and Scandinavia until after World War II.


title: Russian Blue

text: Right after the war, a lack of numbers of Russian Blues led to cross breeding with the Siamese. Although Russian Blues were in the United States before the war, it was not until the post-war period that American breeders created the modern Russian Blue that is seen in the United States today. American breeders combined the bloodlines of both the Scandinavian and British Russian Blues. The Siamese traits have now largely been bred out. The short hair and slate-gray/blue color is often seen in mixed-breed cats, which can affect breeders and showers due to mislabeling a cat as a Russian Blue.


title: Russian Blue

text: Russian Blues are plush short-haired, shimmering pale blue-gray cats with emerald green eyes. Guard hairs are distinctly silver-tipped giving the cat a silvery sheen or lustrous appearance. They have been used on a limited basis to create other breeds such as the Havana Brown or alter existing breeds such as the Nebelung. They are being used in Italy as a way to make Oriental Shorthairs healthier and more robust called RUS4OSH in FIFe.


title: Russian Blue

text: Russian Whites and Russian Blacks were created from crosses with domestic white cats which were allegedly imported from Russia. The first line was developed by Frances McLeod (Arctic) in the United Kingdom during the 1960s and the second line produced by Dick and Mavis Jones (Myemgay) in Australia in the 1970s. By the late 1970s, the Russian White and Russian Black colors were accepted by cat fanciers in Australia as well as in South Africa and now also in the United Kingdom as Russian cats (in different classes). However, the Cat Fanciers' Association and FIFe does not recognize any variation of the Russian Blue.


title: Russian Blue

text: The Russian Blue has bright green eyes, pinkish lavender or mauve paws, two layers of short thick fur, and a blue-grey-black coat. The color is a bluish-gray that is the dilute expression of the black gene. However, as dilute genes are recessive ("d") and each parent will have a set of two recessive genes ("dd") two non-Color-Point Carrier (non-CPC) Russian Blues will always produce a blue cat. Due to the breeding with Siamese after World War II, there are color-point genes floating around. If two carriers are bred together, then they will produce a litter of mixed colors—solid blue or white with blue-point like a Siamese. People call these CPC cats "color-point", "whites" or "pointed" Russians. In most registries, one cannot register, breed or show a color-point Russian. These color-point (blue-point) cats are called Color-Point-Russian Blue (Blue Point Russian Blue) or more informally as Pika Blu (or pika blue) cats and have the same general characteristics as the Russian Blue cats.


title: Russian Blue

text: The coat is known as a "double coat", with the undercoat being soft, downy and equal in length to the guard hairs, which are an even blue with silver tips. However, the tail may have a few very dull, almost unnoticeable stripes. The coat is described as thick, plush and soft to the touch. The silver tips give the coat a shimmering appearance. Its eyes are almost always a dark and vivid green. Any white patches of fur or yellow eyes in adulthood are seen as flaws in show cats. Russian Blues should not be confused with British Blues (which are not a distinct breed, but rather a British Shorthair with a blue coat as the British Shorthair breed itself comes in a wide variety of colors and patterns), nor the Chartreux or Korat which are two other naturally occurring breeds of blue cats, although they have similar traits.


title: Russian Blue

text: The Russian Blue is a curious and tranquil animal. They are known for their friendliness and intelligence and are somewhat reserved. They have been known to play fetch and open doors, and are sensitive to human emotions. They enjoy playing with a variety of toys and develop loyal bonds to their loved ones and other family pets. They are generally considered to be a quiet breed but there are always exceptions. They are normally reserved around strangers, unless they are brought up in an active household. Many Russian Blues have been trained to do tricks. They can also be fierce hunters, often catching rodents, birds, rabbits, small mammals, or reptiles. As loving and easy going as Russian Blues are, they do not like change, and prefer predictable, routine schedules.


title: Russian Blue

text: Russian Blue kittens are energetic and require adequate playmates or toys as they can become mischievous if bored. They have exceptional athleticism and rival even Abyssinians for their ability to leap and climb. Slow to mature, Russian Blues retain many of their adolescent traits both good and otherwise until they are 3–4 years old and even much older Blues can be easily enticed into play by their owners. Russian Blues are also highly intelligent. They have an excellent memory and will learn the hiding place of favorite toys (e.g., laser pointers) and lead their owners to them when they want a game. They also have a keen ability to remember favorite visitors and will race to greet familiar faces even if quite some time has passed between visits—a radical departure from their normally very reserved behavior around unfamiliar people.


title: Russian Blue

text: Russian Blues have a life expectancy of around 10–20 years, but some have lived 25 years. They usually have few health issues as they tend to have little to no genetic problems and are not prone to illness. They are small to moderate-sized cats with an average weight of when fully grown. Males will typically be larger than females. Their gestation period is approximately 64 days.


title: Russian Blue

text: Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Russian Blue may be better tolerated by individuals with mild to moderate allergies. There is speculation that the Russian Blue produces less glycoprotein Fel d 1, one source of cat allergies. The thicker coat may also trap more of the allergens closer to the cat's skin. Glycoprotein is one source of cat allergies, but this does not mean that all allergies will be stopped. You can still get allergies, just nowhere near as extreme, and for a much less amount of time than other cat breeds. Because of this, Russian Blues are very popular with people with allergies all around the world.


title: Yogeeta Bali

text: Yogeeta Bali Chakraborty (born 13 August 1952) is a former Indian Bollywood actress. She was active in the late 1970s and through the 1980s.


title: Yogeeta Bali

text: Bali married Kishore Kumar in 1976 and divorced him in 1978. She then married Mithun Chakraborty in 1979. They have three sons-Mahaakshay, Ushmey, Namashi and a daughter-Dishani. Mahaakshay, "Mimoh" is an actor, while Namashi is going to debut in the film "Bad Boy".


title: Black tie

text: Black tie is a semi-formal Western dress code for evening events, originating in British and American conventions for attire in the 19th century. In British English, the dress code is often referred to synecdochically by its principal element for men, the dinner suit or dinner jacket. In American English the equivalent term tuxedo (or tux) is common. The dinner suit is a black, midnight blue or white two- or three-piece suit, distinguished by satin or grosgrain jacket lapels and similar stripes along the outseam of the trousers. It is worn with a white dress shirt with standing or turndown collar and link cuffs, a black bow tie, typically an evening waistcoat or a cummerbund, and black patent leather dress shoes or court pumps. Accessories may include a semi-formal homburg, bowler, or boater hat. For women, an evening gown or other fashionable evening attire may be worn.


title: Black tie

text: The first dinner jacket is traditionally traced to 1865 on the then Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII (1841–1910). The late 19th century saw gradual introduction of the lounge jacket without tails as a less formal and more comfortable leisure alternative to the frock coat. Similarly, the shorter dinner jacket evolved as a less formal alternative to the dress coat out of the informal smoking jacket, itself derived from out of the banyan. Thus in many non-English languages, a dinner jacket is still known as the false friend "smoking". In American English, its synonym "tuxedo" was derived from the village of Tuxedo Park in New York State, where it was introduced in 1886 following the example of Europeans. Following the counterculture of the 1960s, black tie has increasingly replaced white tie for more formal settings in the United States, along with cultures influenced by American culture.


title: Black tie

text: Traditionally worn only for events after 6 p.m., black tie is less formal than white tie but more formal than informal or business dress. As semi-formal, black tie are worn for dinner parties (public, fraternities, private) and sometimes even to balls and weddings, although etiquette experts discourage wearing of black tie for weddings. Traditional semi-formal day wear equivalent is black lounge suit. Supplementary semi-formal alternatives may be accepted for black tie: mess dress uniform, religious clothing (such as cassock), folk costumes (such as highland dress), etc.


title: Black tie

text: "Dinner jacket" in the context of menswear first appeared in the United Kingdom around 1887 and in the United States around 1889. In the 1960s it became associated in the United States with white or coloured jackets specifically. In modern British English, "Dinner Jacket" may be abbreviated to simply a "DJ".


title: Black tie

text: "Tuxedo" in the context of menswear originated in the United States around 1888. It was named after Tuxedo Park, a Hudson Valley enclave for New York's social elite where it was often seen in its early years. The term was capitalized until the 1930s and traditionally referred only to a white jacket. When the jacket was later paired with its own unique trousers and accessories in the 1900s the term began to be associated with the entire suit. Sometimes it is shortened to ""tux"".


title: Black tie

text: In French, Italian, Portuguese, German, Polish, Russian, Spanish, Persian, Turkish, and other European languages the style is referred to with the pseudo-anglicism "smoking" (). This generic colloquialism is a false friend deriving from its similarity with the 19th century smoking jacket. In French the dress code may also be called "cravate noire", a term that is sometimes adopted directly into English.


title: Black tie

text: The suit with accompanying accessories is sometimes nicknamed a "monkey suit" and, since 1918, "soup and fish" – a term derived from the sort of food thought to be served at black tie dinners.


title: Black tie

text: In the 1860s, the increasing popularity of outdoor activities among the middle and upper classes of the UK led to a corresponding increase in the popularity of the then casual lounge suit as a country alternative to the more formal day wear frock coat that was traditionally worn in town. Men also sought a similar alternative to the formal evening tailcoat, then known as a "dress coat", worn every evening.


title: Black tie

text: The earliest record of a tailless coat being worn with evening wear is an 1865 midnight blue smoking jacket in silk with matching trousers ordered by the Prince of Wales, later Edward VII of the United Kingdom, from Savile Row tailors Henry Poole & Co. The smoking jacket was tailored for use at Sandringham, the British Royal Family's informal country estate. Henry Poole never saw his design become known as a dinner jacket or cross the Atlantic and be called a tuxedo over there; he died in 1876 leaving behind a well-respected business to be run by his cousin Samuel Cundey.


title: Black tie

text: Other accounts of the Prince's experimentation appear around 1885, referring variously to "a garment of many colours, such as was worn by our ancestors" and "short garments coming down to the waist and made on the model of the military men's jackets". The suit jacket with tailcoat finishes, as is most commonly known, was first described around the same time and often associated with Cowes, a seaside resort in southern England and centre of British yachting that was closely associated with the Prince. It was originally intended for warm weather use but soon spread to informal or stag winter occasions. As it was simply an evening tailcoat substitute, it was worn with all the same accoutrements as the tailcoat, including the trousers. As such, in these early days, black tie, in contrast to formal white tie, was considered informal wear.


title: Black tie

text: In the following decades of the Victorian era, the style became known as a dinner jacket: a fashionable, formal alternative for the tailcoat which men of the upper classes wore every evening. Thus it was worn with the standard accompaniments for the evening tailcoat at the time: matching trousers, white or black waistcoat, white bow tie, white detachable wing-collar formal shirt, and black formal shoes. Lapels were often faced or edged in silk or satin in varying widths. In comparison with a full dress such as a cutaway tailcoat, etiquette guides declared dinner jacket inappropriate for wear in mixed company, meaning together with ladies.


title: Black tie

text: During the Edwardian era, the practice of wearing a black waistcoat and black bow tie with a dinner jacket became the convention, establishing the basis of the current black tie and white tie dress codes. The dinner jacket was also increasingly accepted at less formal evening occasions such as warm-weather gatherings or intimate dinners with friends.


title: Black tie

text: After World War I, the dinner jacket became established as a semi-formal evening wear, while the evening tailcoat was limited to the most formal or ceremonial occasions. During this interwar period, double-breasted jackets, turndown-collar shirts and cummerbunds became popular for black tie evenings as white jackets were experimented with in warm weather. Since then, black tie is often referred to as being semi-formal.


title: Black tie

text: In the decades following the World War II, black tie became special occasion attire rather than standard evening wear. In the 1950s, some experimented with coloured and patterned jackets, cummerbunds and bow ties. The 1960s and 1970s saw the colour palette move from muted to bright day-glow and pastel, as well as ruffled-placket shirts as lapels got wider and piping was revived. The 1980s and 1990s saw a return to traditional styles, with black jackets and trousers again becoming nearly universal. Some insist the 21st century has seen increased variation and a relaxation of previous strict standards; midnight blue once again became popular and lapel facings were sometimes reduced to wide edging.


title: Black tie

text: The earliest references to a dress coat substitute in America are from the summer and fall of 1886 and, like the British references from this time, vary between waist-length mess-jacket style and the conventional suit jacket style. The most famous reference originates from Tuxedo Park, an upstate New York countryside enclave for Manhattan's wealthiest citizens. A son of one of the community's founders, Griswold Lorillard, and his friends were widely reported in society columns for showing up at the club's first Autumn Ball in October 1886 wearing "a tailless dress coat". Although it is not known whether this garment was a mess jacket or a conventional dinner jacket, it has no doubt cemented the tailcoat substitute's association with Tuxedo Park in the mind of the public.


title: Black tie

text: An essay in the Tuxedo Park archives attributes the jacket's importation to America to resident James Brown Potter, a merchant banker who had worked in London for Brown Brothers. However, this claim for Potter cannot be verified through independent sources.


title: Black tie

text: Period newspaper accounts indicate that at first the jacket was worn by young mavericks to gatherings considered strictly formal. This led the American establishment to reject it out of hand. It was only by 1888 that polite society accepted its role solely as summer and informal evening substitute, at which point it became very popular.


title: Black tie

text: The earliest dinner jackets were of the same black material as the dress coat with one, two or no buttons, and a shawl collar faced in satin or ribbed silk. By the turn of the twentieth century, the peaked lapel was equally popular and the one-button model had become standard. When trousers were sold with the jacket they were of the same material. Edwardian dandies often opted for Oxford grey or a very dark blue for their evening wear.


title: Black tie

text: By World War I, the grey option had fallen out of favor but the "midnight blue" alternative became increasingly popular and rivalled black by the mid-1930s. Notch lapels, imported from the ordinary business suit, were a brief vogue in the 1920s. A single stripe of braid covering the outseam on each leg was an occasional variation at first but became standard by the 1930s. At this time double-breasted jackets and white jackets became popular for wear in hot weather.


title: Black tie

text: Colour, texture and pattern became increasingly popular in warm-weather jackets in the 1950s. In the 1960s, these variations became increasingly common regardless of season or climate. Notch lapels were once again a fad. By the 1970s, mass-market retailers began offering white and coloured versions of the entire suit to its rental customers. The 1980s vogue for nostalgic and retro styles returned evening wear to its black tone. Notch lapels returned for good in the 1980s, and in the 1990s tuxedo jackets increasingly took on other traits of the business suit, such as two- and three-button styling, flap pockets, and centre vents. These trends have continued into the early 21st century, and midnight blue is now once again a popular alternative.


title: Black tie

text: The dinner suit's accompaniments have also evolved over time. The most traditional interpretations of these elements – dress shirt, low cut waistcoat (in the "V" or "U" shape), black bow tie, oxford dress shoes – are incorporated in the black tie dress code.


title: Black tie

text: Unlike white tie, which is very strictly regulated, black tie ensembles can display more variation. More extensively, the traditional components for men are:


title: Black tie

text: The original and most formal model of dinner jacket is the single-breasted model. The typical black tie jacket is single-breasted with one button only, with jetted, or besom, pockets and is of black or midnight blue; usually of wool or a wool-mohair, or wool-polyester blend, although other materials, especially silk, are seen. Although other materials are used, the most appropriate and traditional for the dinner jacket are wool barathea or superfine herringbone. Double-breasted models have become less common, but are generally considered equally appropriate for most black tie occasions. Dinner jackets were commonly ventless before World War I, but in the 21st century come ventless, with side vents, or, less commonly, with centre vents. The ventless style is considered more formal, whilst the centre vent is the least formal. The lapels, traditionally pointed and shawl, are usually faced with silk in either a grosgrain or a satin weave, but can also be silk barathea. A notched lapel is usually considered more appropriate for a business suit that a dinner jacket but is commonly seen on inexpensive off the rack dinner jackets. According to the Black Tie Guide, the peaked lapel and shawl collar are equally authentic and correct, with the latter being slightly less formal. The buttons are covered in similarly coloured material to the main part of the jacket, which would typically be either self-faced or covered with the same material as the lapels. Some higher-end single-breasted jackets, both new and vintage, tend to be fastened with a link front closure which is visually similar to a cufflink; this traditional method of closure is common in the United Kingdom.


title: Black tie

text: The double-besomed jetted or slit hip pocket is the only style understated enough to complement the dinner jacket. Flap pockets are not considered appropriate for formal attire's refined minimalism due to their busier and bulkier design, and some believe that they are simply an attempt by dinner jacket manufacturers to save money by using standard suit patterns, although sometimes they will trim the edges of a flap pocket so that the flap can be tucked in or removed if desired. Besom welts can be of self fabric or trimmed with the lapel's silk facing, though classic menswear scholar Nicholas Antongiavanni suggests that for the English this latter touch "is a sure sign of hired clothes". The dinner jacket also has a welt breast pocket to hold a pocket handkerchief, which is generally self-faced rather than covered with silk.


title: Black tie

text: Emily Post, a resident of Tuxedo Park, New York, stated in 1909 that "[Tuxedos] can have lapels or be shawl-shaped, in either case they are to have facings of silk, satin or grosgrain". She later republished this statement in her 1922 book "Etiquette", adding that only single-breasted jackets are appropriately called "tuxedos". There is a fashion movement suggesting that a man's appearance when wearing the wider and higher peak lapel is superior to the narrower notch lapel.


title: Black tie

text: White dinner jackets are often worn in warm climates. They are ivory in colour rather than pure white, and have self-faced lapels, i.e., made of the same fabric as the jacket, rather than silk-faced lapels. They are generally worn with the same types of shirts and accessories as black dinner jackets, though the turndown collar and cummerbund preferred to the wing collar or waistcoat. Similarly, the shawl lapel is more common in white dinner jackets. In the United Kingdom, the 20th-century etiquette was that white dinner jackets are never worn, even on the hottest day of summer, but are reserved for wear abroad. In the 21st century, white dinner jackets are frequently seen at weddings, formal beach events, and high-school proms, in the United States and at some concerts, famously for instance the Last Night of the Proms, in the United Kingdom. In tropical climates, such as in Imperial Burma, the desert fawn was historically used as the less formal colour. At one time, the civilian mess jacket was also an option in warmer climates.


title: Black tie

text: It is generally considered inappropriate for a man to remove his jacket during a formal social event, but when hot weather and humidity dictate, the ranking man of the royal family or the guest of honour may give men permission by noticeably taking off his jacket. In anticipated hot weather, Red Sea rig is specified in the invitation, although this dress is esoteric in civilian circles, and is particular to certain expatriate communities.


title: Black tie

text: Traditionally, the only neckwear appropriate is the black bow tie that is a self-tie and always matches the lapel facing of the dinner jacket and braiding of the trouser seams. The bow tie is tied using a common shoelace knot, which is also called the bow knot for that reason.


title: Black tie

text: Black tie trousers traditionally have no turn-ups, also called cuffs in American English, or belt loops. The outer seams are usually decorated with a single braid of silk or a material that matches or complements the lapel facing. Traditionally, braces, called suspenders in US English, hidden by the waistcoat, are used to support the trousers. Belts are never worn with black tie trousers. Evening trousers may be flat-fronted or pleated, with pleats first coming into fashion in the 1930s. Whilst flat-fronted trousers have become more fashionable, pleated trousers may be considered more comfortable by men who have wider hips and a narrow waist.


title: Black tie

text: A waist covering is generally worn as part of a black tie ensemble. Either a low cut waistcoat or cummerbund may be worn, but never both at the same time. Although the English authority Debrett's consider that wearing a waistcoat is smart, they no longer consider either waist covering to be essential. The American authority, The Emily Post Institute, considers them to be an essential component of proper black tie attire. Waist coverings are not matched to wedding theme colours.


title: Black tie

text: A low cut waistcoat should be worn when wearing a single-breasted coat. The waistcoat plays an important part in black tie's refined minimalism by helping to conceal its working parts by discreetly covering the trousers' exposed waistband and the shirt bosom's bottom edge. Waistcoats come in the 'V' or rarer 'U' shape, in backless or fully backed versions, double- or single-breasted, with or without lapels. Single-breasted styles typically have three buttons, and double-breasted ones three or four rows. Before World War II, while black tie was still gaining acceptance, men would wear a white waistcoat, along with other details now associated primarily with white tie, such as stiff fronted shirts. However, this style, though increasingly viewed as an affectation, is still acceptable in the United States. The waistcoat may be made from either the same fabric as the dinner jacket, as is traditional, or the same silk as the jacket's lapels, which is more popular. When a waistcoat has lapels, they are faced in the same silk as those of the jacket; in this case it is considered more refined if the body is made from the same fabric as the jacket. The buttons may be self-faced or covered in the same silk as the lapels. Vintage waistcoats were sometimes closed with studs made from onyx or mother-of-pearl, which were often surrounded by a setting of silver or gold.


title: Black tie

text: A waistcoat is never worn with a double-breasted jacket. Since this style of jacket is never unbuttoned, the waist of the trousers is never exposed, and therefore does not need to be covered, though before World War II an edge of the waistcoat was often shown between the jacket and shirt.


title: Black tie

text: A cummerbund may be worn with a dinner jacket in lieu of a waistcoat and, although it is considered slightly less formal, it is equally correct. It looks especially well with a shawl collar dinner jacket but may be worn in conjunction with peak lapels. The material of the cummerbund should be silk satin, grosgrain, also called faille, or barathea to match that of the bow tie. It features upward-facing folds, which were originally used to store theatre or opera tickets, and are now considered to be more decorative than functional. Just like the waistcoat, cummerbunds are not worn with a double-breasted jacket.


title: Black tie

text: As the cummerbund is seen as an extension of the trousers, traditionally it is the same colour, i.e. black. However, the "Black Tie Guide" endorses deep and rich colours as a tasteful way to introduce some colour into an outfit that is otherwise monochromatic. Bright colours, such as those often worn by members of wedding parties, should be avoided and the bow tie must remain black in any case. Some higher quality models feature a hidden pocket and an elastic loop to fasten to the trousers.


title: Black tie

text: Dress shirts designed to be worn with black tie are sometimes called "tuxedo shirts" in American English. Traditionally, the shirt is white, has a bibbed front that is either marcella or pleated, a turndown collar, and double, or "french" cuffs. In the early-20th century, a piqué shirt with a detachable wing collar and single cuffs such as is worn with white tie was used, and in the 1960s and 1970s ruffled bibs were popular, but have since become uncommon. The wing collar originally disappeared in black tie after the 1920s when the appropriately semi-formal attached turndown collar shirt became preferred, but it has been popular with American men in a less substantial, attached form since the 1980s. However, many style authorities argue that the wing collar should remain the domain of white tie for aesthetic reasons. Etiquette maven Miss Manners is one of those who feel that while the bow tie's uncovered band is fine in a white-on-white scheme, "gentlemen with their black ties exposed all-around their necks look silly".


title: Black tie

text: Although some style authorities consider the wing collar to be an acceptable option for black tie shirts, they are not be worn with double cuffs or a pleated bib, and are better suited to the more formal single-breasted peak lapel jacket. They may feature a bib that is either marcella or starched and include stiff single cuffs secured with cufflinks, made of the same fabric as the bib; this type of shirt is exactly the same as one worn with white tie attire. The collar in this case is tall and stiff, which may be attached or detachable. When a full dress shirt is worn in this fashion, it is accompanied by the white marcella waistcoat ordinarily associated with white tie. Wearing white tie accessories in this manner is considered by many to be an affectation. Debrett's do not endorse the wing collar as being compatible with the black tie dress code.


title: Black tie

text: The more formal marcella version of the shirt fastens with matching shirt studs. These are most commonly in silver or gold settings, featuring onyx or mother-of-pearl; various geometrical shapes are worn, e.g., circles, which are most common for studs, octagons, or rectangles, which are most common for cufflinks. There has been no consistent fashion preference for gold or silver, but studs with mother-of-pearl are more formal and therefore often associated with white tie. The soft-front pleated version of the shirt should be fastened with mother-of-pearl buttons, typically supplied with the shirt on a separate strip of fabric. Alternatively, a fly-front shirt, appropriate with both the marcella and pleated bibs, conceals the placket for a more minimalistic look.


title: Black tie

text: There are several types of cufflinks that may be worn with black tie. The most formal and decorative are the double-panel type, which dress both sides of the cuff and are connected by a chain or link of metal; this model conceals the mechanism by which the cuff is secured. The most common, and least decorative, are the swivel bar type; whilst these are acceptable, they leave the inner side of the cuffs and mechanism exposed which is incongruous with formal dress.


title: Black tie

text: The most formal and traditional shoes are patent leather opera pumps, also called court shoes, decorated with grosgrain bows. The more popular alternative is the black lace-up Oxford shoe, in patent leather or calfskin, with a rounded plain toe. Brogueing or any other decorative patterns should never be seen on black tie footwear. Matte finish pumps are also seen. Shoes are almost invariably black and patent leather is considered more formal than matte finishes while pumps are considered more formal than lace-ups. Generally considered too informal for black tie are shoes with open lacing, such as the Derby shoe, called "bluchers" in American English. Notable alternatives include the black button boot, primarily of historical interest only, and the monogrammed Albert slipper which was originally worn only at home. Hosiery is black socks made from fine wool or silk.


title: Black tie

text: Most etiquette and fashion guides of the current decade recommend keeping colour touches and favouring a single colour, usually dark; muted reds, such as maroon, are a traditional choice.


title: Black tie

text: Handkerchief: A handkerchief in linen traditionally, or silk, or cotton is usually worn in the breast pocket. Although precedents for tasteful exceptions exist, pocket squares are normally white, and may not match the waist covering or bow tie.


title: Black tie

text: Boutonnière: A flower may be worn. Red and white carnation, blue cornflower, and rosebud have all been popular at times. In France, the boutonnière is usually a gardenia.


title: Black tie

text: Outerwear: Black tie events do not involve outerwear and coats and gloves are no longer considered part of the dress code. However, etiquette for what to wear in public in transit to and from black tie occasions was stiffer in earlier eras and remain an option: Matching overcoats are usually black, charcoal, or dark blue, and traditionally of the Chesterfield style. A guards coat was also once popular, and a lighter topcoat can be worn in summer. Historically, an Inverness coat was also worn. Until the mid-20th century, gloves and scarves were always worn, and are still occasionally seen in grey leather and white silk, respectively. White kid gloves have never been standard with black tie, remaining exclusive to white tie dress.


title: Black tie

text: Hat: The 20th-century standard hat for black tie was a black or midnight blue Homburg in winter, or straw boater in spring and summer. Fedoras were originally regarded as too informal but have become more common. Top hats were originally worn with black tie, but had been reserved to white tie and morning dress from World War I. In the 1960s, it became optional to wear a hat with black tie, while from the 1970s onwards hats became less common.


title: Black tie

text: Decorations and orders: Military, civil, and organizational decorations are usually worn only to full dress events, generally of formal governmental or diplomatic significance. Miniature orders and awards are typically worn on the left lapel of the jacket, and neck badges, breast stars, and sashes are worn according to country-specific or organizational regulations. Unlike in white tie, where decorations are always permitted, the dress code will usually give some indication when decorations are to be worn with black tie.


title: Black tie

text: Timepiece: Traditionally visible timepieces are not worn with formal evening dress, because timekeeping is not supposed to be considered a priority. Pocket watches are acceptable.


title: Black tie

text: Other fashionable evening attire may be worn. Unlike the men's standard, the specifics of black tie for women are linked to whatever evening wear is currently in fashion. Today ladies' dress for black tie occasions covers a much wider level of formality ranging from just below the white tie standard to something more informal such as a little black dress. Specifically it can also include:


title: Black tie

text: Still, while "black tie" dress code traditionally implies evening dress for women, in 1966 famous couturier Yves Saint Laurent proposed "Le Smoking", a dinner suit designed for women. Most initial reactions to the collection were negative. The designer took bits and pieces from both men's suit and women's clothing and combined it with new ideas. As this dinner suit was designed for women, it was different from the normal male dinner suit. The collar was more feminine, as the shape and curve were more subtle. The waistline of the blouse was narrowed to show the body shape, and pants were adjusted to help elongate the leg. It pioneered long, minimalist, androgynous styles for women, as well as the female use of power suits and the pantsuit in modern-day society. Some described Saint Laurent's initiative as empowerment of women by giving them the option to wear clothes that were normally worn by men with influence and power. Fashion photography echoes the influence of this suit in shoots that feature androgynous models with slicked-back hair in a mannish three-piece suit, a style that was first popularized in photographs by Helmut Newton. This suit has continued to influence fashion designers' collections through the 2000s.


title: Black tie

text: In traditional Western dress codes etiquette black tie is intended for adult men's evening wear. Traditionally, in the 20th century black tie, in contrast to formal white tie, was considered informal. In the 21st century black tie is often referred to as being semi-formal.


title: Black tie

text: Black tie is worn to private and public dinners, balls, and parties. At the more formal end of the social spectrum, it has to a large extent replaced the more formal white tie. Once more common, white tie dress code is fairly rare, being reserved for only the most formal occasions. Black tie is traditionally worn only after six o'clock in the evening, or after sundown during winter months. Black tie's rough daytime equivalent is the stroller, which is less formal than morning dress because, as with black tie, it replaces the tailcoat with a lounge coat. Contrary to the trend seen in evening dress, the less formal stroller is now extraordinarily rare, whereas morning dress is still relatively common.


title: Black tie

text: The most popular uses of the dinner suit in the United States in the early 21st century are for balls, galas, proms, cruise ship dinners and weddings. In these circumstances the dinner suit's styling and accessories are most commonly chosen according to the wearer's tastes. Less popular are black tie events, such as gala fundraisers, where men typically wear more traditional dinner suits and accessories as dictated by the dress code. They are also often worn by male musicians at concerts.


title: Black tie

text: As a general rule, boys do not wear dinner jackets much before they are 15, or dress coat before they are about 18.


title: Black tie

text: Some British university debating societies, such as at Oxford, Durham and University College London conduct at least some of their debates in black tie. Notably, the Cambridge Union abolished the long-standing mandatory wearing of black tie at debates in 2002. The Irish Times hosts an annual black tie debating competition.


title: Black tie

text: Historically, white tie was worn for the opera. Since the 20th century, however, black tie has been worn increasingly and today a dark lounge suit is generally acceptable. In the 21st century, many opera houses in the English-speaking world do not stipulate black tie. For example, neither the Royal Opera House nor the Sydney Opera House maintain a black tie dress code. Notwithstanding, black tie is customary at English country house operas, such as during the summer Festival at Glyndebourne. Black tie is also worn at a ballet or orchestra gala.


title: Black tie

text: At more formal dinners on cruise ships the dress code will typically be black tie although a dark lounge suit may be worn as a substitute. In 2013 Cunard, noted for its adherence to formal dress codes, relaxed its dress standards. Cunard requires one of a dinner jacket, a dark suit, formal national dress or military uniform for gentlemen diners on formal evenings. Similarly, the luxury cruise liner, Seabourn, stipulates either a dinner suit or a dark business suit on formal evenings.


title: Black tie

text: Black tie has been increasingly seen in the United States at weddings in place of the traditional morning dress. However, etiquette and clothing experts continue to discourage or condemn the wearing of black tie before 6 p.m. Prior to the late 1930s, black tie was even discouraged as too informal for evening weddings, with Amy Vanderbilt arguing that "no man should ever be caught in a church in a tuxedo". Emily Post would continue to argue in preference of white tie at evening weddings into the 1950s.


title: Black tie

text: In the United Kingdom and the rest of Europe, although a minority accepts black tie at evening wedding receptions, including some Jewish weddings, it is seldom worn at church weddings or civil ceremonies where morning dress or a lounge suit is normally favoured.


title: Black tie

text: Other than that, supplementary alternatives include local variations of white tie etiquette, such as highland dress in Scotland, if neither white tie nor black tie is preferred.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: Grace is a British television crime drama series, based in the English city of Brighton & Hove, that stars John Simm in the title role of DSU Roy Grace, a dogged detective who, haunted by the disappearance of his wife some years previously, uses his interests in the paranormal to help him solve cases.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: The series, based on the bestselling novels by novelist Peter James, was brought to life by acclaimed screenwriter Russell Lewis, with a pair of films, comprising the novels "Dead Simple" and "Looking Good Dead", filmed in 2020 for broadcast in 2021. "Dead Simple", broadcast in March 2021, attracted an estimated 7.2m viewers, which made it the fifth-most-watched programme for the week of 8–14 March, according to BARB.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: Following strong viewing figures for the opening episode, a second series of three films was then commissioned in 2021, for broadcast in 2022. A third series has subsequently been commissioned for 2023, with filming to begin in August 2022.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: The first series was predominently filmed in Brighton and Hove; however, location filming also took place in Sussex, particularly around the border between East and West Sussex. The first episode, "Dead Simple", was shifted forward in the schedules by a week, originally set to air on March 21. This was to avoid a clash with the launch of the sixth series of the BBC's "Line of Duty". Subsequently, this led to the decision to postpone "Looking Good Dead" until a later date. Subsequently, when the first series aired in the United States, it meant that "Looking Good Dead" was available to stream for more than a year before its British broadcast.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: In May 2021, "Grace" was commissioned for a second series. Filming began in September 2021 in the West Sussex town of Burgess Hill. The second series adapts the next three novels in the Grace series, "Not Dead Enough", "Dead Man's Footsteps" and "Dead Tomorrow". Broadcast of the second series commenced in the UK on 24 April 2022, with "Looking Good Dead" as the opening episode.


title: Grace (TV series)

text: A third series was subsequently commissioned in May 2022, with the novels "Dead Like You", "Dead Man's Grip" and "Not Dead Yet" set to be adapted. For this series, Russell Lewis will step down as showrunner and prinicipal writer, with former "Whitechapel" writers Ben Court & Caroline Ip to pen two episodes, and prolific screenwriter Ed Whitmore to pen the other. The series will also feature a new ACC, following the departure of Rakie Ayola at the end of series two.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: The Volkswagen Scirocco is a three-door, front-engine, front-wheel-drive, sport compact hatchback manufactured and marketed by Volkswagen in two generations from 1974 to 1992 and a third generation from 2008 until 2017. Production ended without a successor.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: Volkswagen began work on the car during the early 1970s as the replacement for the aging Karmann Ghia coupe, and designated it the "Typ 53" internally. Although the platform of the Golf was used to underpin the new Scirocco, almost every part of the car was re-engineered in favour of a new styling (penned by Giorgetto Giugiaro) which was sleeker and sportier than that of the Golf. The Scirocco debuted at the 1973 Geneva Motor Show.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: Launched six months before the Golf, in order to resolve any teething troubles before production of the high volume hatchback started, the Scirocco went on sale in Europe in 1974 and in North America in 1975. Type 1 models featured a range of four-cylinder engines with displacements from 1.1 to 1.6 litres, with a 1.7 also offered in North America, all featuring a single-overhead camshaft and two valves per cylinder.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: The design of the vehicle combined with the lack of D.O.T.-approved rectangular headlights, made it necessary to have four round headlights, two for low beam use and two for high beam use for all the cars imported to the US. Many European owners of Scirocco with smaller engines replaced the two rectangular headlights with four round headlights as to eliminate the differentiation between smaller and less powerful engines and larger and more powerful ones. However, the European "TS" version, for which maximum power was listed as , was easily distinguishable from the less powerful "L" and "S" (50 and 70 PS) versions which came with just two rectangular headlights. An automatic transmission option was added in January 1975. Automatic transmission-equipped Sciroccos were generally rare outside of North America.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: The Scirocco GTi entered production in the summer of 1976, while the later cult Golf GTI wasn't unveiled until the autumn of the same year.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: Its high-revving, 81 kW / 110 horsepower 1.6-litre engine featured mechanical fuel injection, 175/70HR13 tires on 5.5Jx13 wheels, a larger duckbill style front spoiler, a red frame for the grille, and the standard car's solid front brake discs were replaced with 9.4 in (239 mm) ventilated discs. Anti-roll bars were also fitted front and rear.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: During the production of the "Type 53", there were subtle changes to the body and trim. On cars produced after the summer break in August 1975 (for the 1976 model year), the conventional two wiper system changed to a single wiper which parks on the passenger side of the windscreen, while the driver also benefited from improved, lighter, steering linkage. However, air conditioning became available as an option on the domestic market in August 1975. The possibility to retrofit the installation, together with a larger battery, was offered to existing owners. In August 1977 (for model year 1978) the separate front side marker and turn signal, changed to a combination wrap-around orange lens. At the same time, behind the doors the B-pillar colour changed from body colour to black, which was thought to give the car a more pleasing profile. Other mid-life changes include the move from chrome bumpers with rubberised end caps to a plastic-coated one-piece wrap around bumper. In 1979, the one-piece "flag" style outside mirrors transitioned to a two-piece shrouded mirror. The car changed little before being replaced by the second generation in March 1981 (Europe).


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: There were also special variants throughout the Type 1 production. Most distinguishable by paint schemes and trim, there were special versions called "Sidewinder", "Sidewinder II", "Champagne Edition", "Champagne Edition II" and the "S". The Champagne Edition II only came in white with black accents and a Zender front spoiler. On the NA models the 1980 "S" versions came in only three colours, Alpine White, Black and Mars Red with unique colour accents. This "S" model differed from the base model by having blacked out chrome trim, day glow additions to the exterior trim, Recaro designed sports seats, white letter tires, sport strips and a standard five-speed transmission. This was followed by the 1981 "S" versions which only came in Cosmos Silver Metallic, Cirrus Gray Metallic and Mars Red without the colour accents. Steel sunroofs were an available option on both the "S" non-"S" vehicles. Unlike the sunroofs on the second-generation Sciroccos introduced in 1982, these earlier versions only tilted open. They did not slide back but could be removed and stored in a special fabric folder and placed in the trunk hatch. Not forgetting the addition of the "Storm" models, available in two colours with a run of 250 cars in each colour.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: The Scirocco was sold in Japan at Yanase dealerships that specialize in North American and European vehicles with right hand drive starting in 1976, initially offering the TS trim package with the 1.4L engine and a 4-speed manual transmission. In 1977, the GTE and LS were offered with the 1.5L engine and the fuel injection technology from Bosch. The GTE was available with either the 4-speed manual transmission or the 3-speed automatic, while the LS offered the automatic only. Sales of the Scirocco continued for this entire generation to Japanese buyers, and it was in compliance with Japanese Government dimension regulations which helped sales. The engines offered to Japanese buyers were the smaller displacement versions to reduce the annual Japanese road tax obligation.


title: Volkswagen Scirocco

text: The 1975-1978 model year USA vehicles had four-speed manual transmissions; for the 1979-1980 model years, USA vehicles were offered a five-speed manual transmissions as an option. In 1981 the five-speed became standard. The engine option was mostly limited to one, although it changed frequently over the years. The 1975 models are 1.5 L (1471 cc), followed by a larger 1.6 with in 1976 and 1977. For 1978 Volkswagen reverted to a short-stroke 1.5 (now of 1457 cc), stating that this made meeting emissions requirements easier. Power dropped accordingly, down to but with some fuel economy improvements. Buyers demanded otherwise and for 1979 the 1.6 (1588 cc) was reinstated, now with power up somewhat to . 1981 USA models had a standard 1.7 (1,715 cc), all featuring a single-overhead camshaft and two valves per cylinder.