title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Popular Mobilization Forces rose to prominence in 2014 when Shia groups banded together during the Iraq-ISIL War. The PMF, aided by Iran and Syria and supported internally by al-Maliki and Haider al-Abadi, defeated ISIL internally by December 2017, however, refused to disarm, and waged attacks against American forces in Syria and Iraq. These groups also supported other 'Islamic Resistance Movements' such as Hezbollah, Hamas, Al-Mukhtar Brigades, the Houthi movement, the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and Hezbollah Al-Hejaz, as part of the Axis of Resistance. The PMF also engaged in the 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis against CJTF-OIR.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: These groups fight the Bahraini government in order to overthrow the House of Khalifa. These groups are backed by Iran and Kata'ib Hezbollah financially, militarily, verbally, and ideologically. These groups, in turn, support Iran and the Axis of Resistance in conflicts in Syria, Palestine, and Iraq. Exceptionally, the February 14 Youth Coalition, founded during the 2011 Bahraini uprising, became a paramilitary group during the Shia insurgency.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Gulf Cooperation Council, an alliance of Sunni Arab States of the Gulf region including Saudi Arabia, has often been described as a Saudi headed alliance to counter Iran, which engaged pro-Saudi interests in Bahrain.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Bahrain is a major ally to Saudi interests, and a major member of the Gulf Cooperation Council. Bahrain is a member of the Saudi coalition against the Houthis. However, Bahrain's population is somewhere between 70 and 85% Shia, and has led to protests, of which, the most notable was the 2011 protests, which were suppressed by the Peninsular Shield Force.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Iran has been accused of supporting militant groups in the Shia insurgency in Bahrain, especially the Al-Ashtar Brigades. Iran also formerly supported the Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain in attempting to overthrow the Bahraini monarchy, as such in 1981.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Bahrain has also historically on the Saudi side, as it sent weapons to Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War, aided the Syrian opposition, sent troops to the Saudi Arabian–led coalition in Yemen, severed ties with Iran in the aftermath of the 2016 attack on the Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran, and signed the Abraham Accords in 2020 with Israel.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Kuwait is a strategic ally to Saudi interests in the Gulf area. Kuwait has involved itself in the Yemeni Civil War as part of the Saudi coalition, along with formerly supporting the Syrian opposition.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The U.A.E has been a major contributor to the Saudi Arabian–led coalition in Yemen, has supported the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, and joined up with Saudi Arabia and Egypt to support the Libyan National Army and its leader Khalifa Haftar.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: People's Muhajedin of Iran, also known as Mujahedin-e-Khalq (MEK), is a long existing rebel Iranian group that has received an increasing support from Saudi Arabia. The MEK has also maintained ties with Iran's enemies, including Ba'athist Iraq, Israel, the U.S., and the Taliban.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia has allegedly provided support to the Kurdish militants within the KDPI, PAK, and PJAK through its consulate in Erbil, the capital of the Kurdistan Regional Government in Iraqi Kurdistan. Saudi Arabia and the UAE has also supported the Kurdish-led Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria, as part of CJTF-OIR. Saudi Arabia also support Iraqi Kurdistan against Iraq and Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Due to Albania's decision to welcome the MEK to take refuge in the country, tensions between Iran and Albania increased. Since 2018, Albania has accused Iran of hounding Iranian dissidents and has expelled several Iranian diplomats. In January 2020, following the death of Qasem Soleimani, the Iranian government lashed out Albania for hosting MEK members and Iran has increased cyberattacks and agent hunting on Iranian dissidents against Albania. Saudi Arabia, in response, announced its support for Albania in its effort against Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The rebel group Jaish ul-Adl, active in the Sistan and Baluchestan region of Iran, is accused by Iranian authorities of receiving Saudi and American support.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The speaker of Iran's parliament, Ali Larijani, stated that Saudi Arabia gave "strategic" intelligence information to Israel during the 2006 Lebanon War. In May 2018, Israeli defense minister Avigdor Lieberman supported greater discussion between Israel, Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states, stating "It's time for the Middle East to [...] have an axis of moderate countries," opposed to the network of Iranian allies and proxies. As of 2018, several sources described alleged intelligence ties between Saudi Arabia and Israel as a "covert alliance", with a joint interest to counter Iran in the region. The New York Times remarked that such cooperation was made more difficult by controversy over Israel's attitude towards Palestinians.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: When the Iranian Revolution occurred, revolutionaries began to support other uprisings and rebellions throughout the Muslim world, including in Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. Iran used this policy to undermine their sovereignty while fighting in proxy warfare. This caused Saudi Arabia and the other Gulf allies to turn to the U.S. for support.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The U.S., Saudi Arabia, and the GCC jointly backed Iraq under Saddam Hussein during the Iran–Iraq War and the U.S. and Iran directly attacked each other during the Tanker War.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The U.S. and Iran again opened in mistrust during the Iraq War, with the U.S. and the GCC accusing Iran of funding and militarizing its proxies and Shia groups within Iraq. The highest point of mutual distrust happened in 2005 after details of Iran's nuclear program were leaked, and sanctions by the UN were put in place. The sanctions were put in place until 2015, when the JCPOA was implemented.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Iran and U.S. have also been embroiled in tensions due to the wars in Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, and disputes surrounding the Strait of Hormuz. In the 2011–2012 Strait of Hormuz dispute, Iran threatened to close Hormuz, however, was forced to back down after the EU placed sanctions.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The U.S. and Iran were brought to the brink of war during the 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis, when the U.S. assassinated Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, leaders of the Quds Force and the Popular Mobilization Forces, respectively. This was after the December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria and the Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad, and Iran retaliated by bombing Al Asad Airbase in Iraq.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: U.S.-Saudi relations have deteriorated due to the Yemeni civil war and Syrian civil war. Saudi Arabia formerly supported the Al-Nusra Front, an Al-Qaeda affiliate in Syria. Saudi Arabia has also been involved in war crimes in Yemen due to civilian airstrikes and a humanitarian blockade. The U.S. supported the Saudi Arabian–led invasion until 2022, when Joe Biden repealed support for it and halted arm sales to Saudi Arabia and the U.A.E.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: US Secretary of State Mike Pompeo denounced the attacks on the Saudi oil industry, on 14 September 2019, as an “act of war”. President Donald Trump called for an increase in sanctions against Iran opposing the strikes. President Trump approved the deployment of additional U.S. troops to Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates following the attack on Saudi oil facilities that the United States blamed on Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Jordan has historically been on the Saudi bloc despite its slight rivalry. Jordan and Iran have sour relations with each other.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Turkish involvement in this conflict has been by large, exploiting the difficulties of both sides to reinstate their neo-Ottomanism, especially under the Erdoğan Presidency, who is determined to begin the project in 2023. Turkey has long seen Iran's expansions as threats but also perceived Saudi Arabia's influence with a similar reception, and is seeking to build itself as an alternative replacement to both Saudi and Iranian influences, in a degree.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: However, the growing Turkish military, political and economic expansions have caused some concern on the Saudi and Iranian sides. Iran considers Turkish military adventurism in Syria and its growing encounter against Iran in the Levant and Iraq as a challenge, not to mention its good relationship with Azerbaijan, which is very antagonistic to Iran. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia has also begun a systematic campaign to rewrite history, changing the Ottoman Caliphate into the occupier of Arabia; while it has also partially financed other megaprojects to counter the growing Turkish presence in Qatar, Sudan, Maghreb, Somalia, Kuwait and Oman.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Qatar–Saudi Arabia relations have been strained since the beginning of the Arab Spring. Qatar has been a focus of controversy in the Saudi-Iranian rivalry due to Saudi Arabia's longstanding concern about the country's relationship with Iran and Iranian-backed militant groups.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In June 2017, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Egypt, the Maldives, Mauritania, Sudan, Senegal, Djibouti, Comoros, Jordan, the Tobruk-based Libyan government, and the Hadi-led Yemeni government severed diplomatic relations with Qatar and blocked their airspace and sea routes, in addition to Saudi Arabia blocking the only land crossing. The reasons cited were Qatar's relations with Iran, Al-Jazeera's coverage of other GCC states and Egypt, and Qatar's alleged support of Islamist groups. Qatar was also expelled from the anti-Houthi coalition. Qatar's defense minister Khalid bin Mohammed Al Attiyah called the blockade akin to a bloodless declaration of war, and Qatar's finance minister Ali Sharif Al Emadi stated that Qatar was rich enough to withstand the blockade. As of 2020, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain and Egypt have maintained the blockade, whereas all other countries mentioned above had rebuilt their relations with Qatar. The blockade ended in 2021 when the four countries and Qatar agreed to restore relations.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The bloc sought a guarantee that Qatar will in the future align in all matters with other Gulf states, discuss all of its decisions with them, and provide regular reports on its activity (monthly for the first year, quarterly for the second, and annually for the following ten years). They also demanded the deportation of all political refugees who live in Qatar to their countries of origin, freezing their assets, providing any desired information about their residency, movements, and finances, and revoking their Qatari citizenship if naturalized. They also demanded that Qatar be forbidden from granting citizenship to any additional fugitives. Upon Qatar's rejection of these demands, the countries involved announced that the blockade would remain in place until Qatar changed its policies. On 24 August 2017, Qatar announced that they would restore full diplomatic relations with Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia together with the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Egypt and Bahrain, restored bilateral relations with Qatar on January 5, 2021. Diplomatic and trade ties were severed and a land, sea and air blocked on Qatar were imposed in June 2017.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Qatar also has a history of funding the Houthi movement, the Muslim Brotherhood, Hezbollah, the Al-Ashtar Brigades, and al-Qaeda.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Russia has been aligned with Iran and Syria for years. It intervened in Syria to provide support for the Assad government and to target rebel groups, working together with Iran and using Iranian air bases to stage air strikes. It also joined Iran, Iraq, and Syria in forming a joint intelligence-sharing coalition as part of the fight against ISIL. The alliance coincided with the US-led coalition created a year earlier to fight ISIL. The competing military actions were seen as part of a larger proxy conflict between the United States and Russia. However, Russia's tie with Saudi Arabia has become increasingly warmed since 2010s despite numerous differences, thus sometimes affected Iran's stance on relations with Russia.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In the past, Saudi Arabia backed Chechen and Dagestani fighters as well as Arab Mujahedeen in the North Caucasus during the First and Second Chechen Civil Wars in the 1990s, in which Russia has fought against them. In recent years however, Saudi Arabia has shifted its diplomacy to become friendlier to Russia, with King Salman became the first Saudi head of state to visit Russia, heralding possible political change. Since then, Saudi Arabia and Russia have started to support each other in various conflicts in Syria and Libya, with Saudi Arabia supported Russian intervention in Syria, while Russia and Saudi Arabia have together backed Khalifa Haftar's forces in Libya. In addition, Saudi Arabia and Russia are also becoming more antagonistic to Iranian ambitions in the Middle East, as revealed by their secret cooperation alongside Israel and Jordan against Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Likewise, since late 2010s, sign of Iranian–Russian friction emerged, following Iran's attempt to turn Bashar al-Assad to align with the Islamist ideology of the Iranian regime which opposed to Russia's desire for a secular state. Russia's attitude toward Iran is also becoming more negative due to Iranian desire to control the Middle East, resulting in growing cooperation with Saudi Arabia.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Oman is a member of the GCC and thus, maintains a close relationship with Saudi Arabia. However, unlike the majority of GCC countries, Oman doesn't perceive Iran as a threat. Oman has long promoted itself as the main stabilizing force amidst the intensified Iranian–Saudi conflict and often prefers a diplomatic solution to end the proxy wars. However, it is alleged of Houthi support and Iranian arms smuggling.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Pakistan is a major partner of Saudi Arabia, but is also a neighbor of Iran, sharing historical ties as well. Prior to 1979, the three countries formed a moderate relationship and acted as responsible Muslim states. However, since 1979, Pakistan has fallen into sectarian discord due to growing attempt by Iran and Saudi Arabia to spread influence to the country, with Pakistan having a balance of Sunni and Shi'a Muslims.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Pakistan's relations with Saudi Arabia has been historically strong, and often Pakistan has feared Iran is trying to recruit its large Shi'a population to serve for Iran's military adventures, given by increasing number of vanishing Shi'as in Pakistan. Its link with Iran is also marred with a number of problems regarding not just Shia issue, but also due to conflict in Afghanistan, with Iran-backed proxies have fought against Pakistan and its ally Taliban, further strengthens Pakistan's relations with Saudi Arabia. However, Pakistan has refrained from criticizing Iran, but rather seeks to preserve the relations, given its long historical relationship with Iran. Pakistan has backed Iran on its effort to maintain border security in the restive Balochistan region, and have cooperated against the Soviets in the 1980s.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Pakistan prefers to remain neutral in Saudi-Iran rivalry. It remained neutral during the 2017 Qatar-Gulf crisis. In 2019, Pakistani prime minister Imran Khan, during a visit to Tehran, said that he was trying promote talks between Iran and Saudi Arabia to defuse the tension between the two countries.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Syria has been a major theater in the proxy conflict throughout its ongoing civil war, which began in 2011. Iran and the GCC states have provided varying degrees of military and financial support to opposing sides, with Iran backing the government and Saudi Arabia supporting rebel militants.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Syria is an important part of Iran's sphere of influence, and the government under Bashar al-Assad has long been a major ally. During the early stages of the Arab Spring, Supreme Leader Khamenei initially expressed support for the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, characterizing them as an "Islamic awakening" akin to its own revolution in 1979. When protests broke out in Syria, Iran changed its position and condemned them, comparing the uprising to its own presidential election protests in 2009 and accusing the United States and Israel of being behind the unrest.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The war threatens Iran's position, and Saudi Arabia and its allies have sided with Sunni rebels in part to weaken Iran. For years Iranian forces have been involved on the ground, with soldiers in Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps facing heavy casualties. In 2014, with no end in sight to the conflict, Iran increased its ground support for the Syrian Army, providing elite forces, intelligence gathering, and training. Iran also backs pro-Assad Hezbollah fighters. Although Iran and Saudi Arabia agreed in 2015 to participate in peace talks in Vienna in participation with United States Secretary of State John Kerry and Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov, the talks ultimately failed.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia countered Russia's intervention in Syria by increasing its support for the rebels and supplying American-made anti-tank TOW missiles, a move which slowed initial progress made by Russian and Syrian forces.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Yemen has been called one of the major fronts in the conflict as a result of the revolution and subsequent civil war. Yemen had for years been within the Saudi sphere of influence. The decade-long Houthi insurgency in Yemen stoked tensions with Iran, with accusations of covert support for the rebels. A 2015 UN report alleged that Iran provided the Houthi rebels with money, training, and arms shipments beginning in 2009. However, the degree of support has been subject to debate, and accusations of greater involvement have been denied by Iran. The 2014–2015 coup d'état was viewed by Saudi leadership as an immediate threat, and as an opportunity for Iran to gain a foothold in the region. In March 2015, a Saudi-led coalition of Arab states, including all GCC members except Oman, intervened and launched airstrikes and a ground offensive in the country, declaring the entire Saada Governorate a military target and imposing a naval blockade.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The United States intervened in October 2016 after missiles were fired at a US warship, which was in place to protect oil shipments along the sea lane passing through the Mandeb Strait. The US blamed the rebels and responded by targeting radar sites with missile strikes along the Red Sea coast. In response, rebels called the strikes evidence of American support for the Saudi campaign.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: While the majority of Muslims in Iraq are Shia, the country has been ruled for decades by Sunni-dominated governments under the Ottoman Empire, the British-installed Hashemites, and the Ba'athists. Under the rule of Saddam Hussein, Iraq was hostile to both Iran and Saudi Arabia and acted as a counterbalancing regional power. The American-led invasion in 2003 caused a power vacuum in the region. With the antagonistic Ba'athist regime removed, Iran sought a more friendly Shia-dominated government and supported sympathetic rebel factions as part of an effort to undermine the coalition, which Iran feared would install a government hostile to its interests.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia remained more passive during the occupation of Iraq, taking caution to preserve its relations with the United States by avoiding any direct support of Sunni insurgent groups. Riyadh supported the Bush administration's commitment to stay in the country, as it limited Iran's influence. The edicts issued in May 2003 by Coalition Provisional Authority Administrator Paul Bremer to exclude members of the Ba'ath Party from the new Iraqi government and to disband the Iraqi Army undermined the occupation effort. The orders empowered various insurgent factions and weakened the new government's functional capabilities, leaving Iraq vulnerable to future instability.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Following the United States withdrawal from Iraq in December 2011, the country drifted further into Iran's sphere of influence. The instability that resulted from the Iraqi Civil War and the rise of ISIL threatened the existence of the Iraqi regime and led to an Iranian intervention in 2014. Iran mobilized Shia militia groups to halt and ultimately push back the advancing Sunni insurgency, though the resurgence of ISIL in Iraq remains more than a possibility.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Iraqi government remains particularly influenced by Iran, and consults with it on most matters. As of 2018 Iran has become Iraq's top trading partner, with an annual turnover of approximately $12 billion USD compared to the US$6 billion in trade between Iraq and Saudi Arabia. In addition to fostering economic ties, Tehran furthered its influence by aiding the Iraqi government in its fight against the push for independence in Iraqi Kurdistan, which is mainly Sunni. Saudi Arabia has responded by strengthening its ties to the Kurdistan Regional Government, seeing it as a barrier to the expansion of Iranian influence in the region, while also adopting a soft power approach to improve relations with the Iraqi government.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, former Ba'athist official and leader of the Naqshbandi Army insurgent group, has repeatedly praised Saudi efforts to constrain Iranian clout in Iraq.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Recently, Saudi Arabia has developed a close relationship with Shia cleric Muqtada al-Sadr, the leader of the Sadrist Movement and the Peace Companies militia as well as a critic of both U.S. and Iranian involvement.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia and Iran have sought to extend their influence in Bahrain for decades. While the majority of Muslims in Bahrain are Shia, the country is ruled by the Sunni Al Khalifa family – who are widely viewed as being subservient to the Saudi government. Iran claimed sovereignty over Bahrain until 1970, when Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi abandoned claims after negotiations with the United Kingdom. The Iranian Revolution led to resumed interest in Bahraini affairs. In 1981, the front organization Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain led a failed coup attempt to install a Shia theocratic regime led by Hadi al-Modarresi. Since then, the government has accused Iran of supporting terrorist plots within its borders.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Sunni states have long feared that Iran might stir up unrest among regional Shia minority populations, especially in Bahrain. Bahrain government's stability depends heavily on Saudi support. The island is connected to Saudi Arabia by the 25 kilometer King Fahd Causeway, and its proximity to Saudi Arabia's oil-rich, the Saudi Shia minority in Eastern Province is viewed by Riyadh as a security concern. Any political gains by the Shia in Bahrain are seen by the Saudis as gains for Iran.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In response to the Arab Spring in 2011, the GCC governments sought to maintain their power through social reform, economic handouts, and violent repression. Member states also distributed a share of their combined oil wealth to Bahrain and Oman to maintain stability. Saudi-led GCC forces quickly intervened in support of the government of Bahraini to put down the anti-government uprising in Bahrain.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Bahraini government publicly blamed Iran for the protests, but an independent commission established by King Hamad rejected the claim, instead highlighting human rights abuses committed in the crackdown. The protests, along with the Iran nuclear deal, strained Bahrain's relationship with the United States. Bahrain has sought closer ties with Russia as a result, but this has been limited due to Saudi Arabia's alliance with the US.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Following the onset of the Arab Winter, Bahrain accused Iran of orchestrating several domestic incidents as part of a campaign to destabilize the country. Tehran denied all allegations and accused the government of Bahrain of blaming its own internal problems on Iran after every incident. In August 2015, authorities in Bahrain arrested five suspects over a bombing in Sitra. Officials linked the attacks to the Revolutionary Guard and Hezbollah, although Iran denied any involvement. In January 2016, Bahrain joined Saudi Arabia in cutting diplomatic ties with Tehran following the attacks on Saudi diplomatic missions in Iran. In November 2017, Bahrain called an explosion on its main oil pipeline "terrorist sabotage" linked to Iran, drawing a rebuke from Tehran. Saudi Arabia also referred to the incident as an "attack on the pipeline".


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In 2008, Saudi Arabia proposed creating an Arab force backed by US and NATO air and sea power to intervene in Lebanon and destroy Iranian-backed Hezbollah, according to a US diplomatic cable released by WikiLeaks. According to the cable Saudi argued that a Hezbollah victory against the Siniora government "combined with Iranian actions in Iraq and on the Palestinian front would be a disaster for the US and the entire region".


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In February 2016 Saudi Arabia banned their citizens from visiting Lebanon and suspended military aid due to possible Iranian influence and Lebanon's refusal to condemn the attack on Saudi embassy. Furthermore, Bahrain, Kuwait, and the United Arab Emirates advised all their citizens not to travel to Lebanon and urged them to leave immediately.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Lebanese Prime Minister Saad Hariri resigned on 4 November 2017. The situation was seen as a power play by Saudi Arabia to increase its influence in Lebanon and counterbalance Iran's victories in Iraq and Syria. In a televised speech from Saudi Arabia, Hariri criticized Hezbollah and blamed Iran for causing "disorder and destruction" in Lebanon. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah responded by accusing Hariri of resigning on Riyadh's orders.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The rivalry has contributed to the ongoing instability in Afghanistan. Afghanistan shares ties with Iran through the Persian language, but is strategically important to Saudi Arabia. After the Cold War, Saudi policy shifted from fighting the spread of communism to containing Iranian influence in South and Central Asia.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia was one of three countries to officially recognize the Sunni Taliban government in 1996, along with its allies Pakistan and the United Arab Emirates. During the Afghan Civil War, Iran and Saudi Arabia supported opposing militant factions. Iran assisted the Shia Hezb-e Wahdat, while Saudi Arabia provided financial support to the Wahhabist Ittihad-e Islami.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and the removal of the Taliban in the wake of the September 11 attacks benefited Iran, which had previously been on the brink of war with the group. The regime change removed Iran's primary threat along its eastern borders, and the removal of Saddam Hussein two years later further bolstered its position, allowing it to refocus its efforts on other areas, especially Syria and Yemen. In the ensuing years, Iran sought to expand its influence over Afghanistan. It provided limited support to the Taliban as a potential means of increasing leverage with the Afghan central government and creating a deterrent to conflict with the United States, although the support waned amid growing backlash in Afghanistan against perceived Iranian interference. Iran has also sought to expand soft influence by building pro-Iranian schools, mosques, and media centers, and by maintaining close ties with Afghanistan's Tajik and Hazara populations. Originally Iran support the central government against the Taliban, which was still funded by Saudi Arabia in the months following 9/11. However, due to American presence , Iran resorted to funding the Taliban, while Saudi Arabia helped the Afghan Government in reconstruction.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Since the 1980s, Pakistan has been dealing with sporadic sectarian conflict, and the Muslim population is predominantly Sunni with about 10–15% Shia adherents. The Saudi Arabia enjoys a strong public support from the county's conservative sphere and has occupied a unique statue in Pakistan's foreign policy stature.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Pakistan is economically dependent on oil imports from Saudi Arabia, a key strategic ally but shares some historical cultural ties with Iran. The foreign employees Saudi oil industry from Pakistan plays a crucial role in Pakistan's economic stability who sends large remittances back home. The largest amount comes from the 1.5 million Pakistanis working in Saudi Arabia who sent home about US$5.5 billion in remittances in 2017. There are also allegations of Saudi Arabia's financial grants to Pakistan's national laboratories that built Pakistan's nuclear weapons program. The Saudi monarchy also views the Balochistan province of Pakistan as a potential means of stirring ethnic unrest in neighboring Iran, with its province of Sistan and Baluchestan.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: In February 2018, Saudi Arabia, acting on behalf of the GCC, joined China and Turkey in opposing a US-led initiative to place Pakistan on an international terror-financing watch list through the Financial Action Task Force. This move came days after Prime Minister Imran Khan went onto to deploy ~1,000 military troops to the Gulf kingdoms for what it described as an "advisory mission."


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: At home, the Pakistani lawmakers have been levelling accusations at Iran of influencing Pakistani Shias to act as proxies to further Iranian interests in Pakistan. The Iranian government has been suspected of militarizing Shias amongst Pakistan's local population and promoting sectarian sentiments to further achieve its goals. According to the Pakistani intelligence assessments, many Pakistani Shias have also been suspected of traveling to parts of the Middle East including Syria and Lebanon to fight on behalf of the Iranian government.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: The Islamic Movement of Nigeria (IMN), a Shiite religious and political organisation founded and headed by Sheikh Ibrahim Zakzaki, constitutes another proxy in the conflict. It constitutes another asset that could enable Iran in disrupting Sunni States in West Africa. Thus, Saudi Arabia by supporting the Nigerian government in its suppressing efforts, and by providing support to rival Sunni groups such as Izala and not seriously condemning Boko Haram's actions, aims to limit its influence and growth in the region.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Both Iran and Saudi Arabia have employed different methods to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Iran has preferred a confrontational approach, arming and financing proxies such as Hamas and Hezbollah (and lesser proxies such as PIJ and PFLP) in its ongoing proxy conflict with Israel. Saudi Arabia has taken a diplomatic approach, such as backing Fatah's negotiations with Israel and the Arab Peace Initiative announced in 2002 and re-endorsed in 2007 and 2013 to bring about a comprehensive peace accord with Israel. Saudi Arabia strengthened ties with Israel in 2018 when Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman stated that Israelis have a right to their own land.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Iran and Saudi Arabia have waged a proxy war in Libya, with Saudi Arabia, along with the U.A.E, Egypt, and Sudan, have provided support to the Libyan National Army, and its leader warlord Khalifa Haftar. Iran, Qatar, and Turkey support the Government of National Accord and other Islamist forces in the country. According to the UN, Iran also sent weapons to the GNA and its affiliates.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Although both Iran and Saudi Arabia signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1970 and 1988 respectively, a potential nuclear arms race has been a concern for years. Both governments claim that their programs are for peaceful purposes, but foreign governments and organizations have accused both of taking steps to obtain nuclear weapons capabilities.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Iran's ongoing nuclear program began in the 1950s under the Shah in cooperation with the United States as part of the Atoms for Peace program. The cooperation continued until the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Sanctions have been in place since then, and were expanded in 2006 with the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1737 and Resolution 1696 in response to Iran's uranium enrichment program.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Saudi Arabia has considered several options in response to the Iranian program: acquiring its own nuclear capability as a deterrent, entering into an alliance with an existing nuclear power, or pursuing a regional nuclear-weapon-free zone agreement. It is believed that Saudi Arabia has been a major financier of Pakistan's integrated nuclear program since 1974, a project begun under former Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 2003 it was reported that Saudi Arabia had taken the "strategic decision" to acquire "off-the-shelf" atomic weapons from Pakistan, according to senior American officials. In 2003, "The Washington Times" reported that Pakistan and Saudi Arabia had entered a secret agreement on nuclear cooperation to provide the Saudis with nuclear weapons technology in return for access to cheap oil for Pakistan.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: Following several years of negotiations for a nuclear deal framework between Iran and the P5+1 countries, the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) was signed in 2015. The deal raised concerns for Saudi Arabia, which saw it as a step toward reducing Iran's international isolation and potentially exacerbating the proxy conflict. However, Riyadh did not publicly denounce the deal at the time as Israel did. In 2018, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman stated that Saudi Arabia would move to obtain nuclear weapons if Iran's program is successful. He led a delegation to the United States to meet with Trump administration officials to discuss mutual concerns, including a potential US withdrawal from the Iran nuclear agreement. In April 2018, Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu gave a televised speech accusing Iran of covertly continuing the AMAD Project in violation of the JCPOA.


title: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict

text: President Trump announced on 8 May 2018 that the United States would withdraw from the JCPOA and reinstate previous sanctions against Iran in addition to imposing new sanctions. In anticipation of the decision, Iranian President Rouhani stated that Iran would remain in the deal if the remaining parties did the same, but was otherwise vague on how the country would respond to the US decision.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: Ferdinand is a 2017 American computer-animated adventure comedy film produced by Blue Sky Studios and distributed by 20th Century Fox. The film, a loose remake of Ferdinand the Bull, and loosely based on Munro Leaf and Robert Lawson's 1936 children's book "The Story of Ferdinand", was written by Robert L. Baird, Tim Federle, and Brad Copeland, and directed by Carlos Saldanha. The film features an ensemble voice cast that includes John Cena, Kate McKinnon, Bobby Cannavale, Peyton Manning, Anthony Anderson, David Tennant, Tim Nordquist, Lily Day, Juanes, Jerrod Carmichael, Miguel Ángel Silvestre, Raúl Esparza, Gina Rodriguez, Daveed Diggs, Gabriel Iglesias, Flula Borg, Boris Kodjoe, and Sally Phillips. The music for the film was composed by John Powell, making it his eighth and final collaboration with Blue Sky before it shut down on April 10, 2021. The story, written by Ron Burch, David Kidd, and Don Rhymer, follows a gentle pacifist bull named Ferdinand who refuses to participate in bullfighting but is forced back into the arena where his beliefs are challenged when he faces off against the world's greatest bullfighter.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: "Ferdinand" premiered on December 10, 2017 in Los Angeles, and was theatrically released in the United States on December 15, 2017 in 3D and 2D formats and received mixed-to-positive reviews from critics and audiences. It was a box office bomb at the North American box office, but fared better internationally, grossing $296 million worldwide against a production budget of $111 million. "Ferdinand" received a nomination for Best Animated Feature at the 90th Academy Awards (losing against "Coco") while also receiving nominations for Best Animated Feature Film (also lost against "Coco") and Best Original Song ("Home") at the 75th Golden Globe Awards (losing against "This Is Me"). It was also the last film by Blue Sky Studios to be nominated for both an Oscar and a Golden Globe, as the studio was shut down in April 2021.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: In Spain, young Ferdinand lives with other calves and bulls at Señor Moreno's "Casa del Toro", where bulls are trained for bullfighting. Ferdinand is a pacifist and loves flowers, and is bullied by the other calves Valiente, Guapo, and Bones. A matador arrives, and the calves' fathers fight to impress him. Ferdinand's father Raf is picked, so Valiente crushes Ferdinand's favorite flower in retaliation. Raf does not come back from the ring, and Valiente's father states his belief that "soft" bulls always die. Ferdinand runs away from Casa del Toro, and he winds up on a flower farm owned by Juan and his daughter Nina, who adopt him.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: Two years later, Ferdinand has grown into an enormous but still gentle bull. Juan determines that Ferdinand looks too scary to take along to the annual Flower Festival, as in previous years. Ferdinand follows them anyway, but is stung by a bee and panics, accidentally destroying the town square. Animal Control officers deem him dangerous, and take him away before Nina and Juan can explain.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: The officers decide to give Ferdinand to Casa del Toro, where he meets his old bullies Valiente, Bones, and Guapo, plus new additions such as Lupe the goat and two new bulls, Angus and Maquina. Ferdinand tries to escape but is stopped by three German Lipizzan horses.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: The next day, snooty matador El Primero arrives, needing a bull for his final bullfight before retirement. Moreno puts all the bulls in a ring to fight it out, but Ferdinand refuses to take part, causing a chain of mishaps when he tries to help Guapo recover from a stage fright-induced faint. El Primero gives Moreno two days to get the bulls into shape. Guapo is sent to the slaughterhouse and Valiente informs a horrified Ferdinand that non-fighters now become meat.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: That night, Ferdinand comforts Bones as he grieves for Guapo, making a friend of him. The next day, he fixes Angus' hair so he can see better, earning another friend. Ferdinand, Bones and Angus then challenge the horses to a dance off and Maquina joins in the fun, helping them win. Valiente mocks them for bonding and wasting valuable practice time, causing the other bulls to sadly abandon Ferdinand and return to training.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: With the help of the three hedgehog siblings Una, Dos and Cuatro, Ferdinand and Lupe try to escape through the house. Ferdinand finds a wall of horns in a trophy room, including his father's. Realizing that bulls die whether they are selected or not, Ferdinand goes back and warns the others to run for their lives. Valiente refuses to accept the truth and starts fighting Ferdinand, accidentally breaking off his own horn. He is taken to the slaughterhouse and Ferdinand is chosen by El Primero, who believes he deliberately injured Valiente.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: Ferdinand rescues Valiente, as well as Guapo, who had not yet been killed. Together, Lupe, the bulls and the hedgehogs steal Moreno's truck and flee to Madrid. El Primero threatens Moreno that if his staff does not catch Ferdinand, El Primero will fight Moreno in the ring instead. They abandon the truck and flee on foot to the Atocha train station. Ferdinand helps the others get aboard the train, but sacrifices himself to buy them time to get away. He is captured and brought to the ring, but a video of the bulls' escape has made the news. Recognizing Ferdinand on TV, Paco alerts Juan and Nina, who hurry to Madrid to save Ferdinand.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: In Las Ventas Arena, Ferdinand refuses to fight and starts running around in blind panic, accidentally knocking over and humiliating El Primero. El Primero wounds him with a banderilla and Ferdinand nearly retaliates until he sees a carnation crushed beneath his hoof. Not wishing to hurt anyone, Ferdinand spares El Primero and sits down, waiting to be killed. The crowd yells for El Primero to let Ferdinand live and he decides to put down his sword and leave with dignity. Through his pacifism, Ferdinand becomes the first bull to survive a bullfight and is reunited with Nina. Moreno then brings Lupe, Ferdinand and the rest of the bulls to live at Nina's farm.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: In 2011, it was reported that 20th Century Fox Animation had acquired the rights to the children's book "The Story of Ferdinand" by Munro Leaf to adapt it into a computer-animated feature film with Carlos Saldanha attached to direct it. In May 2013, Fox titled the film simply "Ferdinand", which would be produced by Blue Sky Studios. John Powell, a frequent collaborator with Saldanha, would be composing the film's score. In November 2016, it was reported that Gabriel Iglesias would voice a character named Cuatro, a chubby blue hedgehog, Una and Dos' brother.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: On September 19, 2017, it was announced that singer Nick Jonas wrote and recorded a song called "Home" for the film, released as the promotional single of the soundtrack on October 20, 2017. A second original song by Jonas, "Watch Me", was released alongside the six-song EP on December 1. It features three original tracks, with the third song "Lay Your Head On Me" by Juanes.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: It was the last time Powell composed a Blue Sky film before the studio shut down on April 10, 2021. His score was released by Fox Music on December 15, 2017.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: In May 2013, Fox scheduled the film for April 7, 2017 release. In February 2016, the release date was pushed back from its original release date of April 7, 2017 to July 21, 2017. In August 2016, the release date was again pushed back, this time from July 21, 2017 to December 22, 2017, taking over the release date of DreamWorks Animation's "", before that film was temporarily cancelled, put back in production, and eventually released on November 25, 2020 by its new distributor Universal Pictures. In February 2017, the film was moved up by one week from December 22, 2017 to December 15, 2017. The first trailer premiered on March 28, 2017, followed by the second trailer on June 14, 2017.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: "Ferdinand" was released on Digital HD on February 27, 2018, and was released on DVD and Blu-ray on March 13, 2018.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: "Ferdinand" has grossed $84.4 million in the United States and Canada, underperforming at the North American box office, and $211.6 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $296 million, against a production budget of $111 million.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Ferdinand" was released alongside "", and was projected to gross $15–20 million from 3,621 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $350,000 from Thursday night previews at 2,385 theaters, which began at 5 P.M. and $3.6 million on its first day. It went on to open to $13.3 million, finishing second behind "The Last Jedi".


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . The site's critical consensus reads, ""Ferdinand"s colorful update on a classic tale doesn't go anywhere unexpected, but its timeless themes – and John Cena's engaging voice work in the title role – make for family-friendly fun." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audience polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: Spanish bullfighting critic of El País, Antonio Lorca, in a critique of the film said that the film's message is "profoundly unnatural", and that the "renunciation" of the lead character to its "animal nature" is a lie that manipulates children, who will become "tomorrow's anti-bullfighters". El Diario.es commented on this article by Lorca, saying that it had been widely commented on social networks and that the anti-bullfighting narrative of the film "raised hackles" for its message against animal abuse, which can also be interpreted as "fight against school bullying" and "implicit defense of sexual and gender diversity". Ben Kenigsberg of "The New York Times" gave the film a positive review, saying, "Unlike in the book, Ferdinand earns the arena's cheers for not fighting, but the crowd's sense of surprise will elude audiences attending "Ferdinand"." Susan Wloszczyna of "Rogerebert.com" gave the film a three out of four stars and said, "Enough of that kind of bull. What the world needs now is Ferdinand, sweet Ferdinand, a rare breed of bovine who takes a stand against aggression, competitive rivalry and conforming to the expectations of others." James Dyer of "Empire Magazine" gave the film a three out of five stars, saying, "Inoffensive fun, but unlike its paperback forbear, the cinematic Ferdinand is unlikely to stand the test of time."


title: Ferdinand (film)

text: Simran Hans of "The Guardian" gave the film a four out of five stars and said, "A flower-sniffing bull goes on a journey of self-discovery in this fun adaptation of a 30s children's book." Michael Rechtshaffen of "The Hollywood Reporter" also gave a positive review for the film, saying, "It's no "Coco", but "Ferdinand", a CG-animated adaptation of the classic 1936 Munro Leaf and Robert Lawson book about a flower-loving bull who'd rather sniff than fight, manages to squeak by with enough charming set-pieces and amusing sight gags to compensate for a stalling storyline." Katie Welsh of "Chicago Tribune" gave the film a negative review of two stars, saying, "With a lovely voice performance from Cena, the spirit of Ferdinand does shine through. But the rest of the story filler is mostly forgettable." Tara Brady of "The Irish Times" also gave the film a three out of five stars, saying, ""Ferdinand" may lack the all-out charm offensive of the studio's 2015 Snoopy and Charlie Brown vehicle, but it's not too far off in terms of quality and sweetness."


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Daphne Eurydice Zuniga (; born October 28, 1962) is an American actress. She made her film debut in the 1982 slasher film "The Dorm That Dripped Blood" (1982) at the age of 19, followed by a lead role in another slasher film "The Initiation" (1984) two years later.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: She went on to star in several comedies, including Rob Reiner's "The Sure Thing" (1985), opposite John Cusack, and the cult comedies "Modern Girls" (1986), and "Spaceballs" (1987). She also starred opposite Lucille Ball in the television drama film "Stone Pillow" (1986), and in the science-fiction horror sequel "The Fly II" (1989). Zuniga later gained major exposure as a television actress for her role as Jo Reynolds on the Fox primetime soap opera "Melrose Place" from 1992 to 1996. Other television credits include roles as Victoria Davis on "One Tree Hill" (2008–2012), and as Lynn Kerr on the drama series "Beautiful People".


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga has been active in environmental issues since the mid-2000s, and was a founding member of the Earth Communications Office. She has also worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Waterkeeper Alliance, and Environment California.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga was born in San Francisco, California on October 28, 1962, to Agnes A. (née Janawicz) and Joaquín Alberto Zúñiga Mazariegos. Her mother is a Unitarian minister, of Polish and Finnish descent, and her father, originally from Guatemala, was an emeritus professor of philosophy at California State University, East Bay. Zuniga has a sister, Jennifer Zuniga.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In her early teens, Zuniga expressed interest in acting, and attended the Young Conservatory program of the American Conservatory Theater of San Francisco. After her parents divorced, Zuniga moved with her mother and sister from Berkeley, California, to Reading, Vermont, where she spent the remainder of her teen years. Zuniga graduated from Woodstock Union High School in Woodstock, Vermont, in 1980, after which she returned to California and enrolled at the University of California, Los Angeles to study theater arts. After leaving college, Zuniga was close friends and roommates with fellow actress Meg Ryan.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga made her film debut in Stephen Carpenter's slasher film "The Dorm That Dripped Blood" (1982), playing a supporting role as a college student. Two years later, she made her lead debut in "The Initiation", another college-themed slasher co-starring Vera Miles and Clu Gulager. "It was a great part," Zuniga recalled. "I got to play twins: a good sister and an evil sister. I got shot in the back on-screen. It was pretty heavy for a first role."


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: She then appeared in the drama "Vision Quest" (1985), followed by a lead role in Rob Reiner's "The Sure Thing" (1985), opposite John Cusack. The film was critically praised; critic Roger Ebert said of the film: "The movie industry seems better at teenage movies like "Porky's", with its sleazy shower scenes, than with screenplays that involve any sort of thought about the love lives of its characters. That's why "The Sure Thing" is a small miracle." Shortly after, Zuniga was cast in the television drama film "Stone Pillow" (1985), playing a social worker in New York City who forms a bond with an elderly homeless woman, played by Lucille Ball. She also appeared in the comedy "Modern Girls" (1986), opposite Cynthia Gibb and Virginia Madsen.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 1987, Zuniga was cast as Princess Vespa in Mel Brooks's cult comedy "Spaceballs", opposite Rick Moranis, Bill Pullman, and John Candy. Though the film received mixed critical reception, it later garnered a cult following. The next year, Zuniga appeared in a lead role in the blockbuster horror film "The Fly II" (1988), followed by the drama-comedy "Staying Together" (1989), and as a med student opposite Matthew Modine in the drama "Gross Anatomy" (1989).


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 1992, she was cast as Jo Reynolds in the Fox soap opera "Melrose Place", and appeared on the show as a recurring character until 1996. The role garnered Zuniga major exposure to television audiences, though her television career had begun in the early eighties with a minor role on "Family Ties" (1984) as a girlfriend of Alex P. Keaton. She also appeared in the 1995 miniseries "Degree of Guilt".


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 1994, Zuniga appeared in the release of a video for Bob Seger's previously released 1976 hit "Night Moves". In the video version of the song, she and a pre-"Friends" Matt LeBlanc are shown in a 1960s drive-in theater, where Zuniga as a dark, edgy young woman becomes a visual fascination for LeBlanc as a clean-cut young man. In 2000, Zuniga appeared as a bartender in the music video for Evan and Jaron's single "Crazy for This Girl".


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Later, Zuniga would work as a voice actor on the animated television series "Stories from My Childhood" (1998), and also had a lead role in the miniseries "Pandora's Clock" (1996), an action thriller filmed in Seattle, Washington.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: From 2005 to 2006, she was cast as Lynn Kerr on the ABC family series "Beautiful People", and also had a recurring role in the series "American Dreams". She also appeared in a recurring role as Victoria Davis on The CW series "One Tree Hill" between 2008 and 2012, appearing in over forty episodes. During this time, she appears in several made-for-television movies including "Secret Lives" (2005), "The Obsession" (2006), "Christmas Do-Over" (2006), "Mail Order Bride" (2008), and "On Strike for Christmas" (2010).


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 2007, Zuniga co-produced and co-directed (with Steven Latham) the documentary "The Future We Will Create: Inside the World of TED" — a look at the annual Technology, Entertainment and Design conference held in Monterey, California. She also starred in the scripted web series "Novel Adventures", which premiered November 3, 2008 from CBS Interactive. In February and March 2008, Zuniga appeared onstage in a production of "The Scene" by Theresa Rebeck, at the San Francisco Playhouse.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga reprised her role as Princess Vespa from the 1987 film "Spaceballs", by voice-over in the television spin-off "". She also reprised her role from "Melrose Place" in an updated version, but it was short-lived, as the series was cancelled after just one season in 2009–10. She starred in 2010 in the hit Hallmark Channel film "A Family Thanksgiving". In 2013, Zuniga appeared as a postal worker in the Hallmark Channel series "Signed, Sealed, Delivered", as well as the television film based on the series and in "Gone Missing" with Lauren Bowles.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga appeared in a guest starring role in the VH1 scripted series "Hindsight" as Libby. In 2016, she was cast in a new TV movie for Hallmark Channel, "When Duty Calls", with Judd Nelson and Daniella Monet.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: More recently, Daphne Zuniga starred in "Heartbeats", "Witness Unprotected" and "A Christmas Arrangement" with Miles Fisher.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 2018, Zuniga directed her first feature film, "The Protégé", with Keenan Tracey and Jeannette Sousa. It was released in 2019 under the title Deadly Assistant.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 2019, she co-starred in the television film "Gates Of Paradise", opposite Lizzie Boys and Jason Priestley, and "Christmas In Paris" with Karl E. Ländler.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 2021, she was a guest star in "Fantasy Island" as Margot, with her old "Melrose Place" co-stars Josie Bissett and Laura Leighton.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga has cited her family's camping trips to Yosemite National Park and Yellowstone as sparking her lifelong interest in the environment. "The planet does nothing but support us," she said in a 2007 interview, "and we are constantly committing crimes against nature."


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga has supported several environmental campaigns. In 2009, she was appointed by Los Angeles Mayor Antonio Villaraigosa to the Board of Directors of the Los Angeles River Revitalization Corporation, a not-for-profit development corporation charged with catalyzing sustainable development along the Los Angeles River.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga was a founding member of the Earth Communications Office (ECO), and has worked with the Natural Resources Defense Council, the Waterkeeper Alliance, and Environment California.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga's younger sister Jennifer, also an actress, debuted in the film "A Woman, Her Men, and Her Futon" (1992). Zuniga attends private Buddhist meditation retreats to manage stress in her life.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: In 2004, Zuniga suffered from mercury poisoning, which she attributed to overconsumption of fish. She said she had eaten sushi four times in the week prior to being taken to the emergency room and that her symptoms included weak memory, headaches, crying spells, skin rashes, and mild depression. After her diagnosis, Zuniga stopped consuming fish in addition to other meat.


title: Daphne Zuniga

text: Zuniga began dating businessman David Mleczko, whom she met on a blind date, in 2006. The two married in a private ceremony in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on June 8, 2019.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian: "Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina"), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the independent island of Hawaiʻi, conquered the independent islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi and Lānaʻi and unified them under one government. In 1810, the whole Hawaiian archipelago became unified when Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the Hawaiian Kingdom voluntarily. Two major dynastic families ruled the kingdom: the House of Kamehameha and the House of Kalākaua.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The kingdom won recognition from the major European powers. The United States became its chief trading partner and watched over it to prevent other powers (such as Britain and Japan) from asserting hegemony. In 1887 King Kalākaua was forced to accept a new constitution in a coup by the Honolulu Rifles, an anti-monarchist militia. Queen Liliʻuokalani, who succeeded Kalākaua in 1891, tried to abrogate the new constitution. She was overthrown in 1893, largely at the hands of the Committee of Safety, a group including Hawaiian subjects and resident foreign nationals of American, British and German descent, many educated in the US. Hawaiʻi was briefly an independent republic until the U.S. annexed it through the Newlands Resolution on July 4, 1898, which created the Territory of Hawaiʻi. United States Public Law 103-150 of 1993 (known as the Apology Resolution), acknowledged that "the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi occurred with the active participation of agents and citizens of the United States" and also "that the Native Hawaiian people never directly relinquished to the United States their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people over their national lands, either through the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi or through a plebiscite or referendum."


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In ancient Hawaiʻi, society was divided into multiple classes. At the top of the class system was the "aliʻi" class with each island ruled by a separate "aliʻi nui". All of these rulers were believed to come from a hereditary line descended from the first Polynesian, Papa, who would become the earth mother goddess of the Hawaiian religion. Captain James Cook became the first European to encounter the Hawaiian Islands, on his third voyage (1776–1780) in the Pacific. He was killed at Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawaiʻi in 1779 in a dispute over the taking of a longboat. Three years later the island of Hawaiʻi was passed to Kalaniʻōpuʻu's son, Kīwalaʻō, while religious authority was passed to the ruler's nephew, Kamehameha.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The warrior chief who became Kamehameha the Great, waged a military campaign lasting 15 years to unite the islands. He established the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1795 with the help of western weapons and advisors, such as John Young and Isaac Davis. Although successful in attacking both Oʻahu and Maui, he failed to secure a victory in Kauaʻi, his effort hampered by a storm and a plague that decimated his army. Eventually, Kauaʻi's chief swore allegiance to Kamehameha (1810). The unification ended the ancient Hawaiian society, transforming it into an independent constitutional monarchy crafted in the traditions and manner of European monarchs. The Hawaiian Kingdom thus became an early example of the establishment of monarchies in Polynesian societies as contacts with Europeans increased.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: From 1810 to 1893 two major dynastic families ruled the Hawaiian Kingdom: the House of Kamehameha (to 1874) and the Kalākaua dynasty (1874–1893). Five members of the Kamehameha family led the government, each styled as "Kamehameha", until 1872. Lunalilo () was also a member of the House of Kamehameha through his mother. Liholiho (Kamehameha II, ) and Kauikeaouli (Kamehameha III, ) were direct sons of Kamehameha the Great.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: During Liholiho, Kamehameha II's reign (1819–1824), arrival of Christian missionaries and whalers accelerated rapid changes in the kingdom.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Kauikeaouli's reign (1824–1854) as Kamehameha III began as a young ward of the primary wife of Kamehameha the Great, Queen Kaʻahumanu, who ruled as Queen Regent and "Kuhina Nui", or Prime Minister until her death in 1832. Kauikeaouli's rule of three decades was the longest in the monarchy's history. He acted on the Mahele land revolution of 1848, promulgated the first Constitution (1840) and its successor (1852) and witnessed cataclysmic losses of his people through Western-introduced diseases.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Until the change from the Kamehameha dynasty to the Kalakaua dynasty (1874), the ruling monarchs' tenures were short-lived. Alexander Liholiho, Kamehameha IV, (r. 1854–1863), introduced Victorian Anglican religion and royal habits to the kingdom.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Lot, Kamehameha V (r. 1863–1872), who ruled under pressure from rapidly expanding American sugar production, struggled to solidify Hawaiian nationalism in the kingdom.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: William Lunalilo (r. 1873–74), cousin of Kauikeaouli and Lot, was the first elected Hawaiian monarch. Upon his death, David Kalakaua defeated Kamehamehameha IV's wife, Queen Emma, in a contested election for the dynastic change.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Dynastic rule by the Kamehameha family ended in 1872 with the death of Kamehameha V. Upon his deathbed, he summoned High Chiefess Bernice Pauahi Bishop to declare his intentions of making her heir to the throne. Bernice refused the crown, and Kamehameha V died without naming an heir.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The refusal of Bishop to take the crown forced the legislature of the kingdom to elect a new monarch. From 1872 to 1873, several relatives of the Kamehameha line were nominated. In the monarchal election of 1873, a ceremonial popular vote and a unanimous legislative vote, William C. Lunalilo, grandnephew of Kamehameha I, became Hawaiʻi's first of two elected monarchs but reigned only from 1873 to 1874 because of his early death due to tuberculosis at the age of 39.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Like his predecessor, Lunalilo failed to name an heir to the throne. Once again, the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom needed an election to fill the royal vacancy. Queen Emma, widow of Kamehameha IV, was nominated along with David Kalākaua. The 1874 election was a nasty political campaign in which both candidates resorted to mudslinging and innuendo. David Kalākaua became the second elected King of Hawaiʻi but without the ceremonial popular vote of Lunalilo. The choice of the legislature was controversial, and U.S. and British troops were called upon to suppress rioting by Queen Emma's supporters, the "Emmaites".


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Kalākaua officially proclaimed his sister, Liliʻuokalani, would succeed to the throne upon his death. Hoping to avoid uncertainty in the monarchy's future, Kalākaua had named a line of succession in his will, so that after Liliʻuokalani the throne should succeed to Princess Victoria Kaʻiulani, then to Queen Consort Kapiʻolani, followed by her sister, Princess Poʻomaikelani, then Prince David Laʻamea Kawānanakoa and last was Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole. Although, the will was not an official line of succession or a proper proclamation according to kingdom law. There were also protests about nominating lower ranking aliʻi after Kaʻiulani who were not eligible to the throne while there were still high ranking aliʻi who were eligible, such as High Chiefess Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau. However, it was now the royal prerogative of Queen Liliʻuokalani and she officially proclaimed her niece Princess Kaʻiulani as heir to the throne. She then later proposed a new constitution adding Prince David Kawānanakoa and Prince Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole, according to the wishes of Kalākaua, but it was never approved or ratified by the legislature.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Kalākaua's prime minister Walter M. Gibson indulged the expenses of Kalākaua and attempted a Polynesian confederation sending the "homemade battleship" Kaimiloa to Samoa in 1887.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1887, a constitution was drafted by Lorrin A. Thurston, Minister of Interior under King Kalākaua. The constitution was proclaimed by the king after a meeting of 3,000 residents including an armed militia demanded he sign it or be deposed. The document created a constitutional monarchy like the one that existed in the United Kingdom, stripping the King of most of his personal authority, empowering the legislature and establishing a cabinet government. It has since become widely known as the "Bayonet Constitution" because of the threat of force used to gain Kalākaua's cooperation.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The 1887 constitution empowered the citizenry to elect members of the House of Nobles (who had previously been appointed by the King). It increased the value of property a citizen must own to be eligible to vote above the previous Constitution of 1864 and denied voting rights to Asians who comprised a large proportion of the population (a few Japanese and some Chinese had previously become naturalized and now lost voting rights they had previously enjoyed). This guaranteed a voting monopoly to wealthy native Hawaiians and Europeans. The Bayonet Constitution continued allowing the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1891, Kalākaua died and his sister Liliʻuokalani assumed the throne. She came to power during an economic crisis precipitated in part by the McKinley Tariff. By rescinding the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875, the new tariff eliminated the previous advantage Hawaiian exporters enjoyed in trade to U.S. markets. Many Hawaiian businesses and citizens were feeling the pressures of the loss of revenue, so Liliʻuokalani proposed a lottery and opium licensing to bring in additional revenue for the government. Her ministers and closest friends tried to dissuade her from pursuing the bills, and these controversial proposals were used against her in the looming constitutional crisis.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Liliʻuokalani wanted to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Constitution. The queen launched a campaign resulting in a petition to proclaim a new Constitution.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Many citizens and residents who in 1887 had forced Kalākaua to sign the "Bayonet Constitution" became alarmed when three of her recently appointed cabinet members informed them that the queen was planning to unilaterally proclaim her new Constitution. Some cabinet ministers were reported to have feared for their safety after upsetting the queen by not supporting her plans.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1893, local businessmen and politicians, composed of six non-native Hawaiian Kingdom subjects, five American nationals, one British national, and one German national, all of whom were living and doing business in Hawaiʻi, overthrew the queen, her cabinet and her marshal, and took over the government of the Hawaiian Kingdom.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Historians suggest that businessmen were in favor of overthrow and annexation to the U.S. in order to benefit from more favorable trade conditions with its main export market. The McKinley Tariff of 1890 eliminated the previously highly favorable trade terms for Hawaiʻi's sugar exports, a main component of the economy.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: United States Government Minister John L. Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the and two companies of U.S. sailors to land on the Kingdom and take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. This deployment was at the request of the Committee of Safety, which claimed an "imminent threat to American lives and property." Stevens was accused of ordering the landing on his own authority and inappropriately using his discretion. Historian William Russ concluded that "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: On July 17, 1893, Sanford B. Dole and his committee took control of the government and declared itself the Provisional Government of Hawaii "to rule until annexation by the United States" and lobbied the United States for it. Dole was president of both the Provisional Government and the later Republic of Hawaii. During this time, members of the former government lobbied in Washington D.C. for the United States to restore the Hawaiian Kingdom. President Grover Cleveland considered the overthrow to have been an illegal act of war; he refused to consider annexation of the islands and initially worked to restore the queen to her throne. Between December 14, 1893, and January 11, 1894, a standoff occurred between the United States, Japan and the United Kingdom against the Provisional Government to pressure them into returning the Queen known as the Black Week. This incident drove home the message that President Cleveland wanted Queen Liliʻuokalani's return to power, and so on July 4, 1894, the Republic of Hawaii was requested to wait for President Cleveland's second term to finish. As lobbying continued in Washington during 1894, the royalist faction was secretly amassing an army 600 strong led by former Captain of the Guard Samuel Nowlein. In 1895 they attempted a counter-rebellion, and Liliʻuokalani was arrested when a weapons cache was found on the palace grounds. She was tried by a military tribunal of the Republic, convicted of treason, and placed under permanent house arrest in her own home.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: On January 24, 1895, while under house arrest Liliʻuokalani was forced to sign a five-page declaration as "Liliuokalani Dominis" in which she formally abdicated the throne in return for the release and commutation of the death sentences of her jailed supporters, including Minister Joseph Nāwahī, Prince Kawānanakoa, Robert Wilcox and Prince Jonah Kūhiō:


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Economic and demographic factors in the 19th century reshaped the islands. Their consolidation into one unified political entity led to international trade. Under Kamehameha (1795–1819), sandalwood was exported to China. That led to the introduction of money and trade throughout the islands.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Following Kamehameha's death the succession was overseen by his principal wife, Kaʻahumanu, who was designated as regent over the new king, Liholiho, who was a minor.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Queen Kaʻahumanu eliminated various prohibitions (kapu) governing women's behavior. They included men and women eating together and women eating bananas. She also overturned the old religion as the Christian missionaries arrived in the islands. A major contribution of the missionaries was to develop a written Hawaiian language. That led to very high levels of literacy in Hawaiʻi, above 90 percent in the latter half of the 19th century. The development of writing aided in the consolidation of government. Written constitutions enumerating the power and duties of the King were developed.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1848, the Great Māhele was promulgated by King Kamehameha III. It instituted official property rights to the land, formalizing the customary land tenure prior to this declaration. Ninety-eight percent of the land was assigned to the aliʻi, chiefs or nobles, with only two percent to the commoners. No land could be sold, only transferred to a lineal descendant land manager.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Contact with the outer world exposed the natives to a disastrous series of imported plagues such as smallpox. The native Hawaiian population fell from approximately 128,000 in 1778 to 71,000 in 1853, reaching a low of 24,000 in 1920. Most lived in remote villages.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: American missionaries converted most of the natives to Christianity. The missionaries and their children became a powerful elite into the mid-19th century. They provided the chief advisors and cabinet members of the kings and dominated the professional and merchant class in the cities.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The elites promoted the sugar industry to allow Hawaiʻi to enter the international economy. American capital set up a series of plantations after 1850. Few natives were willing to work on the sugar plantations, so recruiters fanned out across Asia and Europe. As a result, between 1850 and 1900 some 200,000 contract laborers from China, Japan, the Philippines, Portugal and elsewhere came to Hawaiʻi under fixed term contracts (typically for five years). Most returned home on schedule, but large numbers stayed permanently. By 1908 about 180,000 Japanese workers had arrived. No more were allowed in, but 54,000 remained permanently.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The Hawaiian army and navy developed from the warriors of Kona under Kamehameha I, who unified Hawaiʻi in 1810. The army and navy used both traditional canoes and uniforms including helmets made of natural materials and loincloths (called the Malo) as well as western technology like artillery cannons, muskets and European ships. European advisors were captured, treated well and became Hawaiian citizens. When Kamehameha died in 1819 he left his son Liholiho a large arsenal with tens of thousands of soldiers and many warships. This helped put down the revolt at Kuamoʻo later in 1819 and Humehume's rebellion on Kauaʻi in 1824.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: During the Kamehameha dynasty the population in Hawaiʻi was ravaged by epidemics following the arrival of outsiders. The military shrank with the population, so by the end of the dynasty there was no Hawaiian navy and only an army, consisting of several hundred troops. After a French invasion that sacked Honolulu in 1849, Kamehameha III sought defense treaties with the United States and Britain. During the outbreak of the Crimean War in Europe, Kamehameha III declared Hawaiʻi a neutral state. The United States government put strong pressure on Kamehameha IV to trade exclusively with the United States, even threatening to annex the islands. To counterbalance this situation Kamehameha IV and Kamehameha V pushed for alliances with other foreign powers, especially Great Britain. Hawaiʻi claimed uninhabited islands in the Pacific, including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, many of which came into conflict with American claims.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Following the Kamehameha dynasty the royal guards were disbanded under Lunalilo after a barracks revolt in September 1873. A small army was restored under King Kalākaua but failed to stop the 1887 Rebellion by the Missionary Party. In 1891, Queen Liliʻuokalani came to power. The elections of 1892 were followed with petitions and requests from her administration to change the constitution of 1887. The U.S. maintained a policy of keeping at least one cruiser in Hawaiʻi at all times. On January 17, 1893, Liliʻuokalani, believing the U.S. military would intervene if she changed the constitution, waited for the to leave port. Once it was known that Liliʻuokalani was revising the constitution, the "Boston" was recalled and assisted the Missionary Party in her overthrow. Following the overthrow and the establishment of the Provisional Government of Hawaii, the Kingdom's military was disarmed and disbanded. One hundred years later, in 1993, the U.S. Congress passed the Apology Resolution, admitting wrongdoing and issuing a belated apology.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Under the rule of Queen Kaʻahumanu, the powerful, newly converted Protestant widow of Kamehameha the Great, Catholicism was illegal in Hawaiʻi, and in 1831 French Catholic priests were forcibly deported by chiefs loyal to her. Native Hawaiian converts to Catholicism claimed to have been imprisoned, beaten and tortured after the expulsion of the priests. Resistance toward the French Catholic missionaries remained the same under the reign of her successor, the Kuhina Nui Kaʻahumanu II.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Under the threat of war, King Kamehameha III signed the Edict of Toleration on July 17, 1839, and paid the $20,000 in compensation for the deportation of the priests and the incarceration and torture of converts, agreeing to Laplace's demands. The kingdom proclaimed:


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu returned unpersecuted and as reparation Kamehameha III donated land for them to build a church upon.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: An even more serious threat occurred on February 13, 1843. Lord George Paulet of the Royal Navy warship , entered Honolulu Harbor and demanded that King Kamehameha III cede the islands to the British Crown. Under the guns of the frigate, Kamehameha III surrendered to Paulet on February 25, writing to his people:


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Hear ye! I make known to you that I am in perplexity by reason of difficulties into which I have been brought without cause, therefore I have given away the life of our land. Hear ye! but my rule over you, my people, and your privileges will continue, for I have hope that the life of the land will be restored when my conduct is justified.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Gerrit P. Judd, a missionary who had become the minister of finance for the Kingdom, secretly arranged for J.F.B. Marshall to be sent to the United States, France and Britain, to protest Paulet's actions. Marshall, a commercial agent of Ladd & Co., conveyed the Kingdom's complaint to the vice consul of Britain in Tepec. Rear Admiral Richard Darton Thomas, Paulet's commanding officer, arrived at Honolulu harbor on July 26, 1843, on from Valparaíso, Chile. Admiral Thomas apologized to Kamehameha III for Paulet's actions, and restored Hawaiian sovereignty on July 31, 1843. In his restoration speech, Kamehameha III declared that ""Ua Mau ke Ea o ka ʻĀina i ka Pono"" (The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness), the motto of the future State of Hawaii. The day was celebrated as Lā Hoʻihoʻi Ea (Sovereignty Restoration Day).


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In August 1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor with the "La Poursuivante" and "Gassendi". De Tromelin made ten demands to King Kamehameha III on August 22, mainly demanding that full religious rights be given to Catholics, (a decade earlier, during the French Incident the ban on Catholicism had been lifted, but Catholics still enjoyed only partial religious rights). On August 25 the demands had not been met. After a second warning was made to the civilians, French troops overwhelmed the skeleton force and captured Honolulu Fort, spiked the coastal guns and destroyed all other weapons they found (mainly muskets and ammunition). They raided government buildings and general property in Honolulu, causing damage that amounted to $100,000. After the raids the invasion force withdrew to the fort. De Tromelin eventually recalled his men and left Hawaiʻi on September 5.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Anticipating foreign encroachment on Hawaiian territory, King Kamehameha III dispatched a delegation to the United States and Europe to secure the recognition of Hawaiian independence. Timoteo Haʻalilio, William Richards and Sir George Simpson were commissioned as joint ministers plenipotentiary on April 8, 1842. Simpson left for Great Britain while Haʻalilio and Richards to the United States on July 8, 1842. The Hawaiian delegation secured the assurance of U.S. president John Tyler on December 19, 1842, of Hawaiian independence and then met Simpson in Europe to secure formal recognition by the United Kingdom and France. On March 17, 1843, King Louis Philippe of France recognized Hawaiian independence at the urging of King Leopold I of Belgium. On April 1, 1843, Lord Aberdeen, on behalf of Queen Victoria, assured the Hawaiian delegation, "Her Majesty's Government was willing and had determined to recognize the independence of the Sandwich Islands under their present sovereign."


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: On November 28, 1843, at the Court of London, the British and French governments formally recognized Hawaiian independence. The "Anglo-Franco Proclamation", a joint declaration by France and Britain, signed by King Louis-Philippe and Queen Victoria, assured the Hawaiian delegation:


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Her Majesty the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the King of the French, taking into consideration the existence in the Sandwich Islands (Hawaiian Islands) of a government capable of providing for the regularity of its relations with foreign nations, have thought it right to engage, reciprocally, to consider the Sandwich Islands as an Independent State, and never to take possession, neither directly or under the title of Protectorate, or under any other form, of any part of the territory of which they are composed.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The undersigned, Her Majesty's Principal Secretary of State of Foreign Affairs, and the Ambassador Extraordinary of His Majesty the King of the French, at the Court of London, being furnished with the necessary powers, hereby declare, in consequence, that their said Majesties take reciprocally that engagement.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In witness whereof the undersigned have signed the present declaration, and have affixed thereto the seal of their arms.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Hawaiʻi was the first non-European indigenous state whose independence was recognised by the major powers. The United States declined to join with France and the United Kingdom in this statement. Even though President John Tyler had verbally recognized Hawaiian independence, it was not until 1849 that the United States did formally.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: November 28, Lā Kūʻokoʻa (Independence Day), became a national holiday to celebrate the recognition of Hawaiʻi's independence. The Hawaiian Kingdom entered into treaties with most major countries and established over 90 legations and consulates.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1839, King Kamehameha III created the Chief's Children's School (Royal School) and selected of the 16 highest-ranking aliʻi to be eligible to rule and befitted them with the highest education and proper etiquette. They were required to board under the direction of Amos Starr Cooke and his wife. The princes and chiefs eligible to be rulers were: Moses Kekūāiwa, Alexander Liholiho, Lot Kamehameha, Victoria Kamāmalu, Emma Rooke, William Lunalilo, David Kalākaua, Lydia Kamakaʻeha, Bernice Pauahi, Elizabeth Kekaʻaniau, Jane Loeau, Abigail Maheha, Peter Young Kaeo, James Kaliokalani, John Pitt Kīnaʻu and Mary Paʻaʻāina, officially declared by King Kamehameha III in 1844.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: The Kingdom came about in 1795 in the aftermath of the Battle of Nuʻuanu with the conquest of Maui, Molokaʻi and Oʻahu. Kamehameha I had conquered Maui and Molokaʻi five years prior in the Battle of Kepaniwai, but they were abandoned when Kamehameha's Big Island possession was under threat and later reconquered by the aged King Kahekili II of Maui. His domain comprised six of the major islands of the Hawaiian chain, and with Kaumualiʻi's peaceful surrender, Kauaʻi and Niʻihau were added to his territories. Kamehameha II assumed de facto control of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau when he kidnapped Kaumualiʻi, ending his vassal rule over the islands.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: In 1822, Queen Kaʻahumanu and her husband King Kaumualiʻi traveled with Captain William Sumner to find Nīhoa, as her generation had only known the island through songs and myths. Later, King Kamehameha IV sailed there to officially annex the island. Kamehameha IV and Kalākaua would later claim other islands in the Hawaiian Archipelago, including Holoikauaua or Pearl and Hermes Atoll, Mokumanamana or Necker Island, Kauō or Laysan, Papa‘āpoho or Lisianski Island, Hōlanikū or Kure Atoll, Kauihelani or Midway Atoll, Kānemilohaʻi or French Frigate Shoals, Nalukākala or Maro Reef and Pūhāhonu or Gardner Pinnacles, as well as Palmyra Atoll, Johnston Atoll and Jarvis Island. Several of these islands had previously been claimed by the United States under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. The Stewart Islands, or Sikaiana Atoll, near the Solomon Islands, were ceded to Hawaiʻi in 1856 by its residents, but the cession was never formalized by the Hawaiian government.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: Early in its history, the Hawaiian Kingdom was governed from several locations including coastal towns on the islands of Hawaiʻi and Maui (Lāhainā). It wasn't until the reign of Kamehameha III that a capital was established in Honolulu on the Island of Oʻahu.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: By the time Kamehameha V was king, he saw the need to build a royal palace fitting of the Hawaiian Kingdom's new-found prosperity and standing with the royals of other nations. He commissioned the building of the palace at Aliʻiōlani Hale. He died before it was completed. Today, the palace houses the Supreme Court of the State of Hawaiʻi.


title: Hawaiian Kingdom

text: David Kalākaua shared the dream of Kamehameha V to build a palace, and eagerly desired the trappings of European royalty. He commissioned the construction of ʻIolani Palace. In later years, the palace would become his sister's makeshift prison under guard by the forces of the Republic of Hawaii, the site of the official raising of the U.S. flag during annexation, and then territorial governor's and legislature's offices. It is now a museum.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: Octopath Traveler is a role-playing video game developed by Square Enix, in collaboration with Acquire. The game was released for the Nintendo Switch in July 2018, for Microsoft Windows in June 2019, for Stadia in April 2020, and for Xbox One in March 2021. It received generally favorable reviews, with praise for its presentation, music, and battle system, while its story received more mixed responses. The game had sold over 3 million copies worldwide by September 2022.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: A prequel, "", launched for Android and iOS in 2020 in Japan, followed by a worldwide release in 2022. A sequel, "Octopath Traveler II", is set to be released worldwide for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows on February 24, 2023.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: "Octopath Traveler" is a role-playing game that sports a graphical aesthetic known as "HD-2D", defined by the developers as combining retro Super NES-style character sprites and textures with polygonal environments and high-definition effects. Players start the game by choosing a protagonist from one of eight adventurers, each of whom begins their journey in different parts of the world. Each character is paired with a distinct character class ("job"). Once a protagonist character is chosen, they cannot be removed from the active party until their story arc, which consists of four chapters, is concluded. Any other character not chosen as the protagonist may be recruited at their starting locations.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: Each player character has a unique "Path Action" command that can be used when interacting with NPCs that are divided into two categories: Noble, the ability's effectiveness dependent by the character's level or amount of in-game currency, and Rogue, which has a risk of its user losing credibility upon other NPCs. When the player loses enough reputation in a given town, they can no longer use their Path Actions on any NPCs in that town. For example, the Warrior Olberic and the Hunter H'aanit can challenge characters; the Scholar Cyrus and the Apothecary Alfyn can inquire about certain bits of information that can be used for completion of quests or in the form of hidden items; the Merchant Tressa and the Thief Therion can acquire items directly from NPCs; and the Cleric Ophilia and the Dancer Primrose can guide NPCs and use them as guest summons.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: The game features a turn-based battle system, in which the player can attack using different kinds of weapons or elemental attacks, as well as use abilities and items. Each party member receives a Boost Point at the end of every turn, of which they can store up to five at a time. During their turn, a player can use up to three Boost Points to boost a command, allowing their character to attack multiple times, raise their defense, or increase the potency of an ability. A Boost Point is not gained the turn after using them. Enemies have a shield counter that lowers whenever they are attacked with a weapon or element they are weak against. When the counter is depleted, they enter a stunned state where they can receive more damage and lose a turn.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: Set in the land of Orsterra, the Order of the Sacred Flame believed their world was created by thirteen deities. One of them, the fallen god Galdera, was sealed away within the afterworld by the other deities after he refused to relinquish what they created. The player follows the stories of eight heroes as they journey through Orsterra: Ophilia Clement, a priestess of the Sacred Flame who undertakes a religious pilgrimage; Cyrus Albright, a teacher at the Royal Academy who attempts to recover a stolen tome of dark arts called "From the Far Reaches of Hell"; Tressa Colzione, a merchant who is inspired to go traveling after acquiring a journal detailing a past adventurer's travels; Olberic Eisenberg, a former knight of the Kingdom of Hornburg seeking renewed purpose after his kingdom was destroyed in an attack by a sellsword named Werner; Primrose Azelhart, a dispossessed noblewoman seeking revenge against the Obsidians, a criminal organization that murdered her father; Alfyn Greengrass, a traveling healer inspired to take up the apothecary trade after a stranger saved him from a terminal disease as a child; Therion, a criminal tasked by a noble family to recover a set of dragonstones belonging to them; and H'aanit, a huntress who is tracking her mentor after he left their village to hunt a beast called Redeye.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: After progressing through all the characters' various stories, the heroes' quests become intermingled as Ophilia's enemy Mattias, Cyrus' enemy Lucia, the Obsidians, and Olberic’s enemy Werner are all revealed to have been under the employ of the immortal witch Lyblac. Revealed to be Galdera's daughter, Lyblac orchestrated the acquirement of "From the Far Reaches of Hell" and the dragonstones, along with the destruction of Hornburg, to unseal the Gate of Finis in order to access the afterworld. Using the Obsidians as her personal army to eliminate threats like Primrose's father, Lyblac also attempted to use Graham Crossford, the man who wrote Tressa's journal and saved Alfyn as a boy, as a vessel for Galdera to gain corporeal form due to his bloodline's ties to the god. Graham escaped from her clutches, but was mutated into H’aanit’s enemy Redeye. This forced Lyblac to seek out Graham's only living son Kit to complete the ritual. After tracking down the Gate's location in Hornburg, Lyblac fully resurrects Galdera and is absorbed into him. The eight heroes fight a vicious battle against Galdera, sealing him back into the afterworld and saving Kit, who receives closure with his father's spirit.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: "Octopath Traveler" was announced on January 13, 2017, under the working title of "Project Octopath Traveler". The project was started by producers Masashi Takahashi and Tomoya Asano, who previously headed the Nintendo 3DS titles "Bravely Default" and "". Acquire was chosen as development partner for the game based on their previous work on the "What Did I Do to Deserve This, My Lord?" series. During the development process, various graphics options such as the depth, resolution, saturation, as well as other features such as whether water should be pixel or photorealistic are taken into consideration to perfect the "HD-2D" look. The eight main characters, four male and four female, are chosen to provide different party variations. All characters have different classes, and the character design, as well as the field commands, are based on different occupations in Medieval Europe. Each playable character is accompanied by unique themes during specifics sections of their story arcs. For example, Primrose's theme is intended to project a femininity that exudes sadness and melancholy. According to sound producer Yasunori Nishiki, the developers wanted to create a sense of wistfulness as well for her music theme even though her story is driven by revenge against her father's killers. Metallic sounds were incorporated into the theme to evoke a desert setting to reflect the beginning of Primrose's journey in the desert city of Sunshade.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: The game's first public demo was released on the Nintendo eShop on September 13, 2017, For the demo, Olberic and Primrose were chosen to be the protagonists due to the relative proximity of their stories' starting points, and the developers wanted people to be able to recruit the other character after beating the story. Consideration was also given towards presenting the appeal of the game's mechanics through these characters.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: "Octopath Traveler" was released worldwide on July 13, 2018. A special edition that includes the game's soundtrack, a replica of the game's in-game currency, a pop-up book, and a replica map of Orsterra was also released the same day. The game was released for Microsoft Windows on June 7, 2019. A prequel for Android and iOS, titled "Octopath Traveler: Conquerors of the Continent", was originally scheduled to be released in Japan in 2019, but was delayed to 2020. A Stadia version released on April 28, 2020. The game was released for Xbox One on March 25, 2021, and added to the Xbox Game Pass service on the same day. According to Takahashi, no downloadable content or other large post-release content updates are planned for the game.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: "Octopath Traveler" received "generally favorable" reception, according to review aggregator Metacritic. "Polygon" Jeremy Parish hailed the game as "the magical RPG the Nintendo Switch needed". "GameSpot" Peter Brown praised the game for its "innovative battle system", character progression and presentation but found that the main drawbacks were the stories of the eight playable characters, which he described as "lackluster" and "repetitive".


title: Octopath Traveler

text: The depiction of female characters in "Octopath Traveler" was met with a mixed response from critics. While some commentators singled out Primrose's story arc as a highlight of the game, others felt that it was cliched or mishandled due to its reliance on sexist tropes. Edwin Evans-Thirlwell of "Eurogamer" found Primrose's gameplay mechanic of seducing people to help her in battle to be problematic due to Primrose's backstory of misogyny and sex trafficking. Jess Joho criticized the writers for exploiting the trauma experienced by its female characters like Primrose and Ophelia to give their thin characterization "some semblance of personality or depth".


title: Octopath Traveler

text: Square Enix issued two apologies after many in Japan were unable to purchase a physical copy due to stock shortages the week, and the following week, of its release. The game sold 188,238 physical copies within its first two months on sale in Japan, and placed at number one on the all-format sales chart. By August 2018, the game had sold over a million copies worldwide. As of March 2019, the combined physical and digital sales of the game have exceeded 1.5 million copies worldwide. The PC version was among the best-selling new releases of the month on Steam. Square Enix wrote in March 2020 that combined retail and digital sales of "Octopath Traveler" had surpassed two million copies. As of February 2021, the combined physical and digital sales of the game have exceeded 2.5 million copies worldwide.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: Three future "HD-2D" styled games have been announced as well: a new tactical role-playing game called "Triangle Strategy" and remakes of "Dragon Quest III" and "Live A Live". Primrose and Olberic appears in "Final Fantasy Record Keeper" as part of a September 2018 crossover event.


title: Octopath Traveler

text: A prequel for Android and iOS, "", was released in Japan in 2020 and worldwide in 2022. A sequel, "Octopath Traveler II", is set to be released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, and Windows on February 24, 2023.