title: Combination

text: Together with the basic cases formula_27, these allow successive computation of respectively all numbers of combinations from the same set (a row in Pascal's triangle), of "k"-combinations of sets of growing sizes, and of combinations with a complement of fixed size .


title: Combination

text: As a specific example, one can compute the number of five-card hands possible from a standard fifty-two card deck as:


title: Combination

text: Alternatively one may use the formula in terms of factorials and cancel the factors in the numerator against parts of the factors in the denominator, after which only multiplication of the remaining factors is required:


title: Combination

text: When evaluated in the following order, , this can be computed using only integer arithmetic. The reason is that when each division occurs, the intermediate result that is produced is itself a binomial coefficient, so no remainders ever occur.


title: Combination

text: Using the symmetric formula in terms of factorials without performing simplifications gives a rather extensive calculation:


title: Combination

text: One can enumerate all "k"-combinations of a given set "S" of "n" elements in some fixed order, which establishes a bijection from an interval of formula_16 integers with the set of those "k"-combinations. Assuming "S" is itself ordered, for instance "S" = { 1, 2, ..., "n" }, there are two natural possibilities for ordering its "k"-combinations: by comparing their smallest elements first (as in the illustrations above) or by comparing their largest elements first. The latter option has the advantage that adding a new largest element to "S" will not change the initial part of the enumeration, but just add the new "k"-combinations of the larger set after the previous ones. Repeating this process, the enumeration can be extended indefinitely with "k"-combinations of ever larger sets. If moreover the intervals of the integers are taken to start at 0, then the "k"-combination at a given place "i" in the enumeration can be computed easily from "i", and the bijection so obtained is known as the combinatorial number system. It is also known as "rank"/"ranking" and "unranking" in computational mathematics.


title: Combination

text: There are many ways to enumerate "k" combinations. One way is to visit all the binary numbers less than 2. Choose those numbers having "k" nonzero bits, although this is very inefficient even for small "n" (e.g. "n" = 20 would require visiting about one million numbers while the maximum number of allowed "k" combinations is about 186 thousand for "k" = 10). The positions of these 1 bits in such a number is a specific "k"-combination of the set { 1, ..., "n" }. Another simple, faster way is to track "k" index numbers of the elements selected, starting with {0 .. "k"−1} (zero-based) or {1 .. "k"} (one-based) as the first allowed "k"-combination and then repeatedly moving to the next allowed "k"-combination by incrementing the last index number if it is lower than "n"-1 (zero-based) or "n" (one-based) or the last index number "x" that is less than the index number following it minus one if such an index exists and resetting the index numbers after "x" to {"x"+1, "x"+2, ...}.


title: Combination

text: A "k"-combination with repetitions, or "k"-multicombination, or multisubset of size "k" from a set "S" of size "n" is given by a set of "k" not necessarily distinct elements of "S", where order is not taken into account: two sequences define the same multiset if one can be obtained from the other by permuting the terms. In other words, it is a sample of "k" elements from a set of "n" elements allowing for duplicates (i.e., with replacement) but disregarding different orderings (e.g. {2,1,2} = {1,2,2}). Associate an index to each element of "S" and think of the elements of "S" as "types" of objects, then we can let formula_34 denote the number of elements of type "i" in a multisubset. The number of multisubsets of size "k" is then the number of nonnegative integer (so allowing zero) solutions of the Diophantine equation:


title: Combination

text: a notation that is analogous to the binomial coefficient which counts "k"-subsets. This expression, "n" multichoose "k", can also be given in terms of binomial coefficients:


title: Combination

text: A solution of the above Diophantine equation can be represented by formula_38 "stars", a separator (a "bar"), then formula_39 more stars, another separator, and so on. The total number of stars in this representation is "k" and the number of bars is "n" - 1 (since a separation into n parts needs n-1 separators). Thus, a string of "k" + "n" - 1 (or "n" + "k" - 1) symbols (stars and bars) corresponds to a solution if there are "k" stars in the string. Any solution can be represented by choosing "k" out of positions to place stars and filling the remaining positions with bars. For example, the solution formula_40 of the equation formula_41 ("n" = 4 and "k" = 10) can be represented by


title: Combination

text: The number of such strings is the number of ways to place 10 stars in 13 positions, formula_43 which is the number of 10-multisubsets of a set with 4 elements.


title: Combination

text: As with binomial coefficients, there are several relationships between these multichoose expressions. For example, for formula_44,


title: Combination

text: For example, if you have four types of donuts ("n" = 4) on a menu to choose from and you want three donuts ("k" = 3), the number of ways to choose the donuts with repetition can be calculated as


title: Combination

text: This result can be verified by listing all the 3-multisubsets of the set "S" = {1,2,3,4}. This is displayed in the following table. The second column lists the donuts you actually chose, the third column shows the nonnegative integer solutions formula_47 of the equation formula_48 and the last column gives the stars and bars representation of the solutions.


title: Combination

text: The number of "k"-combinations for all "k" is the number of subsets of a set of "n" elements. There are several ways to see that this number is 2. In terms of combinations, formula_49, which is the sum of the "n"th row (counting from 0) of the binomial coefficients in Pascal's triangle. These combinations (subsets) are enumerated by the 1 digits of the set of base 2 numbers counting from 0 to 2 − 1, where each digit position is an item from the set of "n".


title: Combination

text: There are various algorithms to pick out a random combination from a given set or list. Rejection sampling is extremely slow for large sample sizes. One way to select a "k"-combination efficiently from a population of size "n" is to iterate across each element of the population, and at each step pick that element with a dynamically changing probability of formula_51 (see Reservoir sampling). Another is to pick a random non-negative integer less than formula_52 and convert it into a combination using the combinatorial number system.


title: Combination

text: A combination can also be thought of as a selection of "two" sets of items: those that go into the chosen bin and those that go into the unchosen bin. This can be generalized to any number of bins with the constraint that every item must go to exactly one bin. The number of ways to put objects into bins is given by the multinomial coefficient


title: Combination

text: where "n" is the number of items, "m" is the number of bins, and formula_54 is the number of items that go into bin "i".


title: Combination

text: One way to see why this equation holds is to first number the objects arbitrarily from "1" to "n" and put the objects with numbers formula_55 into the first bin in order, the objects with numbers formula_56 into the second bin in order, and so on. There are formula_57 distinct numberings, but many of them are equivalent, because only the set of items in a bin matters, not their order in it. Every combined permutation of each bins' contents produces an equivalent way of putting items into bins. As a result, every equivalence class consists of formula_58 distinct numberings, and the number of equivalence classes is formula_59.


title: Combination

text: The binomial coefficient is the special case where "k" items go into the chosen bin and the remaining formula_60 items go into the unchosen bin:


title: A Serious Man

text: A Serious Man is a 2009 American black comedy-drama film written, produced, edited and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen. Set in 1967, the film stars Michael Stuhlbarg as a Minnesota Jewish man whose life crumbles both professionally and personally, leading him to questions about his faith.


title: A Serious Man

text: "A Serious Man" received widespread positive critical response, including a place on both the American Film Institute's and National Board of Review of Motion Pictures's Top 10 Film Lists of 2009. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, and Stuhlbarg was nominated for a Golden Globe Award.


title: A Serious Man

text: A Jewish man in a 19th-century Eastern European shtetl tells his wife that he was helped on his way home by Reb Groshkover, whom he has invited in for soup. She says Groshkover is dead and the man he invited must be a dybbuk. Groshkover arrives and laughs off the accusation, but she plunges an ice pick into his chest. Bleeding, he exits their home into the snowy night.


title: A Serious Man

text: In 1967, Larry Gopnik is a professor of physics living in St. Louis Park, Minnesota. His wife, Judith, tells him that she needs a "get" so she can marry widower Sy Ableman, with whom she has fallen in love. Meanwhile, their son Danny owes twenty dollars to an intimidating Hebrew school classmate for marijuana. He has the money, but it is hidden in a transistor radio that was confiscated by his teacher. Their daughter, Sarah, is always washing her hair, going out and avoiding school. Larry's brother, Arthur, is homeless and sleeps on the couch, spending his free time filling a notebook with what he calls a "probability map of the universe" or a "mentaculus".


title: A Serious Man

text: Clive Park, a South Korean student worried about losing his scholarship, meets with Larry in his office to argue he should not fail the class. After he leaves, Larry finds an envelope stuffed with cash. When Larry attempts to return it, Clive's father threatens to sue Larry either for defamation if Larry accuses Clive of bribery, or for keeping the money if he does not give him a passing grade. Larry faces an impending vote on his application for tenure, and his department head informs him that anonymous letters have urged the committee to deny him.


title: A Serious Man

text: At the insistence of Judith and Sy, Larry and Arthur move into a nearby motel. Judith empties the couple's bank accounts, leaving Larry penniless, so he enlists the services of a divorce attorney. Larry learns that Arthur faces charges of solicitation and sodomy.


title: A Serious Man

text: Larry turns to his Jewish faith for consolation. He consults a junior rabbi, who advises Larry to change his "perspective". Larry and Sy are involved in separate, simultaneous car crashes. Larry is unharmed, but Sy dies. Larry consults a second rabbi for solace, who recounts a parable about a dentist who finds Hebrew inscriptions on a patient's teeth. Larry also tries to contact Marshak, the synagogue's senior rabbi, who isn't available. At Judith's insistence, Larry pays for Sy's funeral. At the funeral, Sy is eulogized as "a serious man".


title: A Serious Man

text: Larry calls on his neighbor, Vivienne Samsky, whom he has seen sunbathing naked. She introduces him to marijuana. He later dreams that he is having sex with her, but this turns into a nightmare.


title: A Serious Man

text: Arthur is despondent about the charges levied at him, and Larry consoles him. Larry then has another nightmare in which he gives Arthur the money Clive left him and drives him to cross into Canada by boat, whereupon his neighbors shoot Arthur in the neck. Larry is proud and moved by Danny's Bar Mitzvah, unaware that his son is under the influence of marijuana. During the service, Judith apologizes to Larry for all the recent trouble and informs him that Sy respected him so much that he even wrote letters to the tenure committee. Danny meets with Marshak, a brief encounter in which Marshak only quotes Jefferson Airplane's "Somebody to Love", names some members of the band, returns the radio, and tells Danny to "be a good boy".


title: A Serious Man

text: Larry's department head compliments him on Danny's Bar Mitzvah and hints that he will receive tenure. The mail brings a $3,000 bill from Arthur's lawyer. Larry decides to change Clive's grade from F to C−, whereupon Larry's doctor calls, asking to see him immediately about the results of a chest X-ray. Meanwhile, Danny's teacher struggles to open the emergency shelter as a massive tornado closes in on the school.


title: A Serious Man

text: Considerable attention was paid to the setting; it was important to the Coens to find a neighborhood of original-looking suburban rambler homes as they would have appeared in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, in the late 1960s. Locations were scouted in nearby Edina, Richfield, Brooklyn Center, and Hopkins before a suitable location was found in Bloomington. The film's look is partly based on the Brad Zellar book "Suburban World: The Norling Photographs", a collection of photographs of Bloomington in the 1950s and 60s.


title: A Serious Man

text: Location filming began on September 8, 2008, in Minnesota. An office scene was shot at Normandale Community College in Bloomington. The film also used a set built in the school's library, as well as small sections of the second floor science building hallway. The synagogue is the B'nai Emet Synagogue in St. Louis Park. The Coens also shot some scenes in St. Olaf College's old science building because of its similar period architecture. Scenes were also shot at the Minneapolis legal offices of Meshbesher & Spence, the name of whose founder and president, Ronald I. Meshbesher, is mentioned as the criminal lawyer recommended to Larry in the film. Filming wrapped on November 6, 2008, after 44 days, ahead of schedule and within budget.


title: A Serious Man

text: Longtime collaborator Roger Deakins rejoined the Coens as cinematographer, following his absence from "Burn After Reading". This was his tenth film with them. Costume designer Mary Zophres returned for her ninth collaboration with the directors.


title: A Serious Man

text: The Coens themselves stated that the "germ" of the story was a rabbi from their adolescence: a "mysterious figure" who had a private conversation with each student at the conclusion of their religious education. Ethan Coen said that it seemed appropriate to open the film with a Yiddish folk tale, but as the brothers did not know any suitable ones, they wrote their own.


title: A Serious Man

text: Open auditions for the roles of Danny and Sarah were held on May 4, 2008, at the Sabes Jewish Community Center in St. Louis Park, Minnesota, one of the scheduled shooting locations. Open auditions for the role of Sarah were also held in June 2008 in Chicago, Illinois.


title: A Serious Man

text: All of the film's original music is by Carter Burwell, who also worked on every previous Coen brothers film except "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" The film also contains pieces of Yiddish music including "Dem Milner's Trern" by Mark Warshawsky and performed by Sidor Belarsky, which deals with the abuse and recurring evictions of Jews from Shtetlekh.


title: A Serious Man

text: The film began a limited release in the United States on October 2, 2009. It premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 12, 2009.


title: A Serious Man

text: "A Serious Man" grossed $9,228,768 domestically, and $22,201,566 internationally, making for a worldwide gross of $31,430,334.


title: A Serious Man

text: "A Serious Man" received mostly positive reviews from critics, and holds a 89% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 227 reviews, with an average rating of 7.94/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Blending dark humor with profoundly personal themes, the Coen brothers deliver what might be their most mature—if not their best—film to date." The film also holds a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on 38 critics, indicating "Universal acclaim".


title: A Serious Man

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated the film four out of four stars. His review highlighted the film's Yiddish folktale prologue, suggesting that though the Coens maintain it has no relation to the rest of the film, "maybe because an ancestor invited a dybbuk (wandering soul) to cross his threshold, Larry is cursed." In an essay in "Jung Journal: Culture and Psyche", Steve Zemmelman considers that the prologue may link to the Jefferson Airplane soundtrack motif, reflecting Larry's normal sense of order becoming increasingly disrupted. He writes, "what can happen when 'the wheel falls off the cart', as Velvel says happened to him on the road that night, or 'when the truth is found to be lies', that lyric from 'Somebody to Love' that serves as bookends for this film."


title: A Serious Man

text: Claudia Puig of "USA Today" wrote, ""A Serious Man" is a wonderfully odd, bleakly comic and thoroughly engrossing film. Underlying the grim humor are serious questions about faith, family, mortality and misfortune." "Time" magazine critic Richard Corliss called it "disquieting" and "haunting".


title: A Serious Man

text: Some critics commented on the link between the film and the Biblical Book of Job. K. L. Evans wrote, "we identify it as a Job story because its central character is tormented by his failure to account for the miseries that befall him". In his essay "Job of Suburbia?", David Tollerton wrote, "the more substantial connection between "A Serious Man" and the Book of Job—the connection that reaches deeper—is their similarly absurd presentations of the human struggle with anguish and the divine." "Slate" magazine critic Juliet Lapidos considered that the folktale prologue may be an endorsement of the "gumption" of "taking matters into her own hands".


title: A Serious Man

text: "The Wall Street Journal" Joe Morgenstern disliked what he saw as the film's misanthropy, saying that "their caricatures range from dislikable through despicable, with not a smidgeon of humanity to redeem them." David Denby of "The New Yorker" enjoyed the film's look and feel, but found fault with the script and characterization: ""A Serious Man", like "Burn After Reading", is in their bleak, black, belittling mode, and it's hell to sit through ... As a piece of movie-making craft, "A Serious Man" is fascinating; in every other way, it's intolerable." Zemmelman wrote that this kind of viewer response results from the film's lack of narrative resolution: "The film is perplexing and the dialogue reminds the viewer repeatedly that we are in an encounter with the ever-conflictual and the infinitely mysterious."


title: A Serious Man

text: Todd McCarthy said, ""A Serious Man" is the kind of picture you get to make after you've won an Oscar." Awarding the film five stars in "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw said, "this strange and wonderful film is rounded off with a gloriously well-crafted apocalyptic vision and a chilling intimation of divine retribution for earthly wrongdoing. The Coens have finished the noughties as America's preeminent filmmakers".


title: A Serious Man

text: "A Serious Man" was later voted the 82nd greatest film since 2000 in a BBC international critics' poll.


title: A Serious Man

text: "A Serious Man" received numerous awards and nominations, particularly for its screenplay, acting, and cinematography. Joel and Ethan Coen were awarded Best Original Screenplay at the 2009 National Board of Review Awards and the 2010 National Society of Film Critics Awards. The screenplay was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay at the 2010 Academy Awards, and received nominations from the Writers Guild of America Awards, the BAFTA Awards, the 15th Annual Critics' Choice Awards, and the 2009 Boston Society of Film Critics Awards.


title: A Serious Man

text: The film was nominated for Best Picture at the 82nd Academy Awards; the BBC News called it "one of the less talked about nominees". It was also nominated for Best Picture by the Critics' Choice Awards, the Boston Society of Film Critics, and the Chicago Film Critics Association. The National Board of Review, the American Film Institute, the Satellite Awards, and the Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards all listed the film as one of the ten best of 2009.


title: A Serious Man

text: Stuhlbarg was awarded the Chaplin Virtuoso Award at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival and was nominated for Best Actor at the 2010 Golden Globe Awards. Stuhlbarg, Kind, Melamed and Lennick were nominated for a Gotham Award for Best Performance by an Ensemble Cast. At the 2010 Independent Spirit Awards, Roger Deakins won the award for Best Cinematography, and the film's directors, ensemble cast, and casting directors were awarded with the Robert Altman Award.


title: A Serious Man

text: Deakins also received awards at both the 2009 Hollywood Awards and the 2009 San Francisco Film Critics Circle Awards, along with the Nikola Tesla Award at the Satellite Awards.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus Augustus ( 465 – after 511), nicknamed Augustulus, was Roman emperor of the West from 31 October 475 until 4 September 476. Romulus was placed on the imperial throne by his father, the "magister militum" Orestes, and, at that time, still a minor, was little more than a figurehead for his father. After Romulus ruled for just ten months, the barbarian general Odoacer defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. As Odoacer did not proclaim any successor, Romulus is typically regarded as the last Western Roman emperor, his deposition marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as a political entity, despite the fact that Julius Nepos would continue to be recognised as the western emperor by the east. The deposition of Romulus Augustulus is also sometimes used by historians to mark the transition from antiquity to the medieval period.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Very few records survive of Romulus' reign. There are no known policies, laws or inscriptions of significance of the emperor, which leaves the impression that he was a shadowy and relatively inconsequential figure. The nickname 'Augustulus' means "little Augustus" and was a derisive nickname referencing his young age. Romulus' immediate family, including his father and possibly his mother, and maybe both his paternal and maternal grandparents, were from the Roman province of Pannonia, and many of his family members had military backgrounds.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus came to power through the usurpation of his predecessor, Julius Nepos (474–475 in Italy) in 475. Nepos fled to Dalmatia and continued to claim the imperial title in exile, which hampered Romulus' legitimacy and ensured that he was never recognised by the eastern Roman emperor Zeno. In 476, the barbarian "foederati" (ally troops) in Italy demanded Italian lands to settle on, which was refused by Orestes. Under their leader Odoacer, the "foederati" defeated and killed Orestes and deposed Romulus, whereafter Odoacer became the first King of Italy and accepted Emperor Zeno as his nominal superior.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus's life was spared by Odoacer, and he was allowed to retire to the "castellum Lucullanum", a great fortress in Campania, located in Naples. Little certain information is known concerning Romulus's life in exile. He might have played a role in founding a monastery at "castellum Lucullanum" in the 480s or 490s, dedicated to Saint Severinus of Noricum. Romulus could have been alive as late as 507 or 511 when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer's successor, wrote a letter to a "Romulus" concerning a pension. Romulus was likely dead before the mid-540s, as accounts of the eastern Roman invasion of Italy at that time do not mention him.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus Augustus' birth name was simply Romulus. Upon his accession to the imperial throne, he also took Augustus as a proper name, not just a title. The full style used on his coinage was "Dominus Noster Romulus Augustus Pius Felix Augustus". Romulus Augustus was often colloquially referred to as 'Augustulus' (meaning "little Augustus") even in his own time, in reference to his youth. "Augustulus" was a derisive nickname and was never in official use; all of Romulus' coins use the names "Romulus Augustus". In Greek, his first name Romulus was also changed derisively into the nickname "Momylus" ("little disgrace").


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: By the time of emperor Diocletian (284–305), the idea that the Roman Empire had grown so large that it would be better managed by two co-ruling emperors, rather than one, had become established. After various divisions were made throughout the 4th century, the empire was firmly and permanently divided into a western and eastern sphere of imperial administration from the death of emperor Theodosius I (379–395) in 395 onwards. Though modern historians typically use the terms Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire to describe the new political situation, the Romans themselves never considered the empire to have been formally divided, still viewing it as a single unit, although most often having two rulers rather than one. Over the course of the 5th century, the western empire experienced a period of catastrophic decline. Not only were many of the rulers in the west generally lacking in competence, but they also faced enormous problems. In comparison with the eastern provinces, much of the west was more rural, with fewer people and a less stable economy. An increasing number of Germanic barbarian invasions and settlements throughout the west only added to these issues.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: In 410, the Visigoths under Alaric I had sacked Rome and in 455, the last western emperor of Theodosius' dynasty, Valentinian III (425–455), was deposed and murdered. That same year, Rome was sacked again for the second time in less than fifty years, this time by the Vandals. The Roman army became increasingly reliant on barbarian mercenaries and after Valentinian's murder, the most powerful barbarian generals, such as Ricimer ( 418–472), became politically dominant, ruling through proclaiming puppet emperors. In the twenty years between the death of Valentinian and the accession of Romulus Augustus, eight different emperors ruled in the west. By 475, the western empire was in critical condition. Outside of Italy, authority was only exercised in Raetia and some regions of Gaul.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: The ruling emperor in 475 was Julius Nepos, who had been in power for less than a year. Nepos had been appointed western emperor in 474 by the eastern emperors Leo I (457–474) and Zeno (474–491), but had little real support in the west. In 475, Nepos named Orestes as a patrician and "magister militum" ('master of soldiers'; effectively commander-in-chief), replacing the previous holder of that office, Ecdicius. Orestes was a distinguished late Roman figure, once having served as "notarius" (secretary) to the Hunnic king Attila. As "magister militum", Orestes was tasked by Nepos to lead an army against Visigoths and Burgundians, "foederati" (barbarian allies of the empire) who were rebelling in southern Gaul. The army given to Orestes by Nepos was multi-ethnic, with many "foederati" soldiers. obeying to the grievances of his troops, among other things learning that Nepos had refused requests for land grants, Orestes betrayed the emperor's orders and marched on Ravenna, the capital of the western empire. On 28 August 475, Orestes entered Ravenna with his army and Nepos escaped across the Adriatic Sea to Salona in Dalmatia.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: There is little surviving concrete evidence in regards to Romulus' ancestry beyond Orestes being known to have been a Roman citizen from Pannonia and sparse information on his immediate family. Orestes' father was a Pannonian Roman officer by the name of Tatulus, and Tatulus had at least one other son, Paulus, who served as a "comes". The name of Romulus' mother is not known, but it might have been Barbaria. The name Barbaria, otherwise rarely attested, may derive either from the "gens" (family) Barbii, attested in Roman Pannonia, or it may simply be the feminine version of the name "Barbarius", attested from a few Roman individuals in southern Gaul. Romulus' maternal grandfather was a "comes", also by the name of Romulus, attested as alive in 449, when he was sent on an embassy to Attila by the general Aetius. Orestes and Romulus Augustus' mother married at some point before 449. It is believed that Romulus' mother, and thus perhaps her immediate family, were, like Orestes, from Roman Pannonia.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: It is possible that Romulus Augustus had older siblings, especially given that Romulus was born several years after the marriage of his parents. In ancient Rome, it was customary for the eldest son to be named after his grandfather. That Romulus was not named Tatulus thus indicates that he was not the firstborn boy.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: After an interregnum in the west lasting two months, Romulus, perhaps as young as ten years old, was proclaimed emperor in Nepos' stead by Orestes on 31 October 475. He was the last emperor to be proclaimed in the west. Why the interregnum since Nepos lasted so long and why Orestes, a high-ranking military official and a Roman by birth, did not take the imperial title for himself is not known. It is possible that Orestes was waiting for some form of formal recognition or response from emperor Zeno in the east, which never came. Romulus would throughout his brief ten-month reign be little more than a figurehead, with his father, who retained the position of "magister militum", actually running much of the imperial administration. Zeno never recognised the rule of Romulus as emperor in the west, given that Nepos, invested as emperor by Zeno's predecessor Leo I, still ruled in exile in Dalmatia.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Problems with the Western Roman army, mainly composed of barbarian "foederati", had escalated throughout the 470s. The issues the army had with the central government had been what allowed Orestes to depose Nepos. In 476, the barbarian "foederati" in Italy, composed mainly of the Herules, Scirians and Turcilingians, demanded land in Italy to settle on. Orestes refused. The leader of the "foederati" was Odoacer, a barbarian officer of undetermined tribal affiliation. Orestes had once worked alongside Odoacer's father Edeko at the court of Attila. On 28 August 476, Odoacer defeated Orestes in battle at Ticinum, captured him and had him executed.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: On 4 September, Odoacer captured Ravenna, killing Orestes' deputy and brother Paulus during the fighting. Romulus was captured and deposed, whereafter Odoacer assumed control of Italy as its first king. Odoacer sent Romulus' western imperial regalia to emperor Zeno in the east, and swore allegiance to him, ruling without further imperial successors in the west. According to the 5th-century Eastern Roman writer and historian Malchus, Odoacer may have forced Romulus himself, as his last official act as emperor, to send the imperial regalia and a "letter of resignation" to Zeno, writing that the Roman Empire from this point only required a single emperor, ruling from Constantinople. Though Zeno granted Odoacer the distinction of patrician, he also urged the king to accept Julius Nepos back as emperor in Italy. Though Odoacer nominally accepted Nepos as his sovereign, minting coins in his name, Nepos was never able to reoccupy Italy.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Odoacer spared the life of the young Romulus on account of his "youth and beauty". Romulus was granted an annual pension of 6,000 "solidi" (the normal income of a wealthy Roman senator) and granted an estate in Campania near Naples called the "castellum Lucullanum" (today called Castel dell'Ovo), originally built by the consul and general Lucius Licinius Lucullus in the 60s BC. "Castellum Lucullanum" had once served as the retirement villa of Tiberius (14–37), Rome's second emperor. By late antiquity, "castellum Lucullanum" must have been fortified, and it likely functioned as a small administrative and military centre in Campania. Romulus was accompanied to Campania by a large retinue and some of his surviving relatives.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus may have been alive as late as 507 or 511, when Theodoric the Great, Odoacer's successor as king of Italy, wrote to a "Romulus" to confirm a grant made to him and his mother by Petrus Marcellinus Felix Liberius, the praetorian prefect of Italy, on Theoderic's authority. Per Thomas Hodgkin, who translated the letter in 1886, the identification of Romulus in the letter as Romulus Augustus is strengthened by the name "Romulus" by this point not being very common and by the letter not giving the Romulus in question any titles or honorifics. The absence of titles differentiates the letter from the vast majority of other letters preserved from Theodoric, as if neither the king nor his scribe were quite sure how to address a former emperor. If the Romulus in the letter is the same person as Romulus Augustulus, it is possible that the letter indicates that Romulus and his family had to renegotiate their financial arrangements and pension with the king, seeing as they had been drawn up under the reign of a different king. Given that Romulus is not mentioned in accounts of the later eastern Roman invasion of Italy in the mid-530s, he had likely died some time before the conflict.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus may have played a role in founding a monastery around the remains of Saint Severinus of Noricum at "castellum Lucullanum" in the 480s or early 490s. A Roman noblewoman by the name of Barbaria, possibly Romulus' mother, also aided in founding the monastery. This monastery became prominent under Pope Gregory I (590–604) and was active until the 10th century.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Very few records survive of Romulus' reign. Any policies that he might have pursued are not known. The scant narrative record and few known coins, in addition to there not being any known inscriptions of significance or laws issued by the emperor, make him a shadowy and relatively inconsequential figure. Ralph W. Mathisen considered him in 1997 to have been the "perhaps even the least significant" of the short-lived emperors near the end of the Western Roman Empire. When not seen as only inconsequential, opinions by historians on Romulus Augustus have been negative. In "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" (1776–1788), Edward Gibbon wrote that he "assumed and disgraced the names of Romulus [and] Augustus".


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus Augustus is typically regarded as the last Western Roman emperor, or even the last Roman emperor overall, with his deposition seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire as a political entity. The deposition of Romulus is also one of the most commonly used dates by historians to mark the transition from antiquity to the medieval period. Romulus being seen as the last emperor over other contenders derives not only from Romulus having been the last emperor proclaimed in the west, but also from the poetic nature of being named after both Romulus, the founder of Rome, and Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Many historians have noted the coincidence that the last emperor combined the names of both the city's founder and the first emperor. In "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Gibbon wrote that "the appellations of the two great founders of the city and of the monarchy were thus strangely united in the last of their successors".Some modern scholars consider Romulus' distinction as the last western emperor to be dubious. In particular, some historians, such as Ralph W. Mathisen and Marjeta Šašel Kos, have pointed to Julius Nepos as the actual last Western Roman emperor. Though he never regained Italy, Nepos continued to rule in Dalmatia, with support from Zeno and with nominal recognition by Odoacer, until he was murdered in 480. Throughout the duration of his brief reign, Romulus was never recognised in Constantinople, with the eastern court instead continuing to recognise Nepos as the legitimate western emperor.


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Though none would be widely recognised thereafter, Nepos also was not the last person to claim the western empire. From about 477 to 516, the Moorish "dux" Masties in North Africa claimed to be an emperor. In Visigothic Hispania, two Roman usurpers rose from the Ebro valley, attempting to claim imperial authority: Burdunellus (496) and Petrus (506).


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Romulus Augustus being identified as the last emperor of the western empire is a tradition that began already among eastern Roman historians and writers in the early 6th century. The earliest known writer to consider him as such was Marcellinus Comes (died 534), who wrote the following passage concerning Romulus:


title: Romulus Augustulus

text: Later Eastern Roman authors continued to regard him as the last emperor of the western empire. Procopius ( 500–after 565) considered Romulus to have been the last legitimate ruler in the west, as did Jordanes (also 6th century).


title: Premam

text: Premam (transl. Love) is a 2015 Indian Malayalam-language coming of age romance film written and directed by Alphonse Puthren. Produced by Anwar Rasheed, it features Nivin Pauly and Sai Pallavi in the prominent roles. The plot follows George (Nivin) and his friends from their teens to adulthood. While George's first love turns out to be a disappointment, Malar (Pallavi), a college lecturer, rekindles his love interest. His romantic journey takes him through several stages, helping him find his purpose. The film also features an ensemble supporting cast including Madonna Sebastian, Anupama Parameswaran, Shabareesh Varma, Krishna Sankar, Siju Wilson, Ananth Nag, Vinay Forrt, and Soubin Shahir.


title: Premam

text: Produced on a budget of ₹4crore, the film was a commercial success grossing ₹60 crore. The film was included in The Hindu's top 25 Malayalam movies of the decade and eventually attained a cult status. The film garnered awards and nominations in several categories, with particular praise for its direction, screenplay, Nivin and Pallavi's performance, music, cinematography, and editing. The film had a theatrical run of 175 days in Kerala and over 300 days in Tamil Nadu. The film was also remade in Telugu in 2016 with the same name.


title: Premam

text: At the 63rd Filmfare Awards South, "Premam" was nominated in seven categories, winning Best Female Debut (Sai Pallavi) and Best Male Playback Singer (Vijay Yesudas for "Malare"). At the 5th South Indian International Movie Awards, it received fifteen nominations and won seven, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Music Director, Best Lyricist, and Best Male Playback Singer (Vijay Yesudas). Nivin and Sai Pallavi won the Best Actor Critics and Best Debut Actress awards. At the 1st IIFA Utsavam, it received nine nominations and won four, including Best Performance in a Comic Role, Best Music Direction, Best Lyricist and Best Male Playback Singer. Among other wins, the film received six Asianet Film Awards, six Vanitha Film Awards, three Asianet Comedy Awards, four Asiavision Awards and two CPC Cine Awards. But the movie was not considered by the Kerala State Film Awards, the official state film award given by the Government of Kerala. Pallavi and Nivin's performances were ranked by "Film Companion" amongst the 100 Greatest Performances of the Decade.


title: Premam

text: George David, a 16-year-old pre-degree student studied at Holy Spirit Convent College, Aluva. He is infatuated with Mary, the prettiest school girl in his area, a small village Uliyannoor-Thottakkattukara in the region of Aluva, Kerala. George along with his friends Shambu and Koya, often follow Mary around in an attempt to talk to her but he is afraid of her father, who beats up boys pestering his daughter. Mary is famous for her beauty and is followed by other men too. Nonetheless, every time he gathers the courage to talk to her, something or the other comes up, and George ends up disappointed. He is heartbroken when he learns that Mary is in a relationship with another boy, also named George. She also asks for his help to date safely without her family knowing. He helps her with a painful heart. The seriousness of life finally sinks in when George, Shambu, and Koya introspect about their academic future after a dismal performance in their year-end examination.


title: Premam

text: George and his friends get admission to Union Christian College, Aluva. One day, while on a ragging streak, George and his friends meet Malar, a new lecturer in their college, who happens to have a Tamil background. George instantly falls for her and seemingly gets her to feel the same about him. He is also impressed by her dancing talents as she performs an outstanding dance with his team. Convinced about their love for each other, he extends their relationship and contemplates marriage. Simultaneously, George's college teacher, Vimal Sir also falls for her and tries to woo her with the help of his friend, a PT teacher, Shivan sir. Later that year, Malar goes to visit her family in Kodaikanal, with her cousin, Arivazhagan. who, by tradition is supposed to be her would be. Weeks later, it is announced in the college that Malar met with an accident and consequently had left her job as the lecturer. George and his friends immediately ride to Kodaikanal to see Malar. It turned out Malar lost part of her memory due to the injuries suffered in the accident. She fails to recognize George and is not able to recall her relationship with him. Subsequently, Malar marries her cousin, Arivazhagan, and a heartbroken George attends her wedding reception with his friends.


title: Premam

text: George, now 30, runs a café with his childhood friend Jojo. George meets 22-year-old Celine in his café and feels an affinity towards her. He later realizes that she is the girl who used to walk with Mary, and they quickly become friends. Despite the age- difference, George decides to propose to Celine. However, she is about to get engaged to a man named Roney Varghese, a cocaine addict. Roney continually insults Celine during their engagement, which results in their wedding being called off. Roney keeps calling and pesters Celine and this upsets George, who, in response with his friends and beat him up.


title: Premam

text: Finally, George marries Celine. During their wedding reception, Malar arrives with her husband. Celine invited Malar to their wedding. Even though Malar had regained her memory, she did not reveal this to George as he was happy with Celine, and she needed to let things be the way they were.


title: Premam

text: Following the success of the bilingual thriller "Neram" (2013), writer-director Alphonse Puthren planned for a Hindi remake for this project. But he decided to remake another film "Shutter" in Hindi, with Prithviraj Sukumaran being cast as the lead, despite reports stating that Anil Kapoor and Abhay Deol as the leads were surfaced. However, Alphonse eventually shelved the project and decided to work on a fresh script instead. He announced that the film will be titled as "Premam", and as the title suggests, the film is said to be a romantic-drama. The project was bankrolled by director-producer Anwar Rasheed under his banner Anwar Rasheed Entertainment and Nivin Pauly was announced playing the lead role, which was his second project with Puthren in the studio album "Yuvvh" and "Neram". The scripting process began during the same month. Rajesh Murugeshan who has previously composed music for Alphonse's "Neram" was roped as the music composer.


title: Premam

text: In February 2014, Jude Anthany Joseph announced that he would play a cameo in the film, which will mark his acting debut. Though, the shooting of the film commenced without any leading lady for the film, the team announced that the film would feature three heroines playing the lead. Alphonse invited applications from Malayalam-speaking women between the ages of 16 and 25. Later they released an ad in September 2014 saying the film needed only two heroines and they must be aged between 15 and 22 and "both of them should be able to speak Malayalam and English fluently as well as have a very good smile". The same month, Vinay Forrt was announced playing a comic role in the film, and also joined the shoot during the filming.


title: Premam

text: Though the details of the female lead were not disclosed initially, it was later revealed that newcomers Anupama Parameswaran, Sai Pallavi and Madonna Sebastian were announced as the female leads. Madonna was initially a playback singer, trained under Carnatic and western music, had sung for composers Deepak Dev and Gopi Sundar. Alphonse initially approached Madonna at one of the television shows she hosted, whether he asked her to act in one of her films for which she agreed. Pallavi, a doctor-cum-dancer, was approached by Alphonse six years before, through clippings from a reality show which she had participated, showcased in Facebook. Alphonse initially gave her an offer to act in his film which she refused, and after six years, he phoned to Pallavi, in which she thought him as a stalker and wanted to lodge a police complaint on him. But later misunderstood after Alphonse forcibly introduced himself. In an interview, Alphonse revealed that Asin was initially considered for the character Malar, played by Pallavi, following a fan's request. The film introduced 17 new actors in the Malayalam film industry.


title: Premam

text: Following the completion of pre-production, the principal photography began in July 2014. The team began filming the first schedule in Goa in August 2014, and returned to Kerala for filming major portions of the film. Major part of the film's shooting took place in locations in and around Aluva, with some scenes were filmed at Union Christian College, Fort Kochi, Chokkampatti Hills and Marthandavarma Bridge. The café which was run by George in the film was set at Pepper House restaurant in Fort Kochi. The entire filming was wrapped up in November 2014.


title: Premam

text: The original soundtrack and background score were composed by Rajesh Murugesan, who had collaborated with Puthren in the film "Neram" (2013). Shabareesh Varma, beside singing, wrote the lyrics for eight of the nine songs. One song "Rockaankuthu" which had lyrics written by Pradeep Palarr was sung by Tamil film composer Anirudh Ravichander. The soundtrack album was released by the record label Muzik 247 on 14 February 2015. All the audio songs released prior to the film release went viral on the internet. In March 2015, video for the song "Aluva Puzha" sung by Vineeth Sreenivasan was released and became the chart topper. "Malare" was released on YouTube on 6 June. The song received 1 million hits within 14 hours of release and trended on all social networking platforms. Apple Music selected it as the "Best Malayalam album" of 2015.


title: Premam

text: "Premam" was originally scheduled for a release on the occasion of Christmas (25 December 2014), however, following the post-production delays, the film was postponed to 13 February 2015, in order to coincide with the Valentine's Day weekend. Anwar Rasheed later confirmed that the film will be released within March 2015, although the film was later pushed to April. In the end, the producers announced that the film will be released on 28 May 2015 in Kerala, and the following day in India, clashing with another Nivin Pauly-starrer film "Ivide" and Tamil film "Massu Engira Masilamani". "International Business Times" called it one of the most awaited film of the year.


title: Premam

text: A & A Release distributed the film in India, which opened in 85 screens in Kerala alone on 28 May and outside the state, it released the following day in Bangalore, Pune, Mumbai, Coimbatore, Gujarat, Hyderabad, Mysore, Vizag, Delhi, Mangalore, Manipal, Chennai and Goa. It became the first Malayalam film to be released in 43 screens in the UAE on 11 June. Great India Films distributed the film on 12 June in 25 locations in the United States. Indienwood distributed in the Europe, while Tricolor Entertainment released it on 11 June in Australia. Blue Planet Entertainment Ltd handled the release in the UK. Singapore Coliseum released the film in Singapore on 13 June.


title: Premam

text: The first look of "Premam" was unveiled on 24 January 2015, which featured a simple title logo designed in the shape of a butterfly. In a unique promotional activity, the film does not have a trailer release instead, two video songs were released as a part of the film promotions. According to Gokul Nath, the head of social media marketing company DigiFaktory, for which Premam became their first venture, he stated that "From the very beginning, I and Alphonse [Puthren] had a need for an element of suspense. The aim was to present the film as the story of a young lover-boy and nothing else. Alphonse had a clear vision about the film, he knew how he wanted the film to be projected, what about it would draw audiences to the theatre." However, a fan-edited trailer was released in November 2015.


title: Premam

text: After completing over 250 days theatrical run in Chennai box office, LA Cinema Maris in Trichy and Ram Muthuram Cinemas in Tirunelveli re-released the film on 18 March 2016. It is the first Malayalam film to have a re-release in Tamil Nadu. The film was further re-released in Chennai by Jazz Cinemas along with "Vinnaithaandi Varuvaayaa" and "Raja Rani", for the occasion of Valentine's Day weekend for 10–16 February 2017. It was re-released again in Kerala on the occasion of Nivin Pauly's birthday (11 October 2019).


title: Premam

text: In June 2015, a pirated version of "Premam" appeared online. The copy had a watermark indicating that it was a "censor copy", or a copy intended for censor board officials to review prior to the film's release. The film's producer, Anwar Rasheed, threatened to resign from Film Producers Association citing their lack of action after the leak was discovered. The police arrested three teenagers in connection with the case, believing them to be involved with film piracy groups. Later, cinema theatre owners protested against the piracy issue by shutting down the theatres.


title: Premam

text: "IB Times"'s reviewer Nicy V.P rated the film 5/5 and stated: "Premam is nothing but entertainment at its best and the movie deserves nothing less than a standing ovation." About the technicalities of the film, she said: "They are just flawless. From background score, songs, sound departments, art, cinematography, editing, costumes and others have come together to make Alphonse Putharen's dream a reality."


title: Premam

text: Veeyen of "Nowrunning.com" rated the movie 3.5 out of 5 and wrote: "'Premam' elevates Alphonse Puthren onto a pedestal of sharp film makers who have figured out the actual potential of the medium that cinema is. And in their competent hands long-standing tales assume ground-breaking forms and enthuse the viewers in ways and manners never seen before. Much more than an unabashed crowd-pleaser, which it surely is, 'Premam' is a bracingly alive film where almost everything, seems to have fallen right into place." "Sify.com" rated the film 3.5 in a scale of 5 and said, "Premam is all for some genuine fun and perhaps, a few nostalgic moments as well for 80's and 90's generation. It's a lengthy ride for sure, but it will leave you wanting for more". Paresh C Palicha of "Rediff.com" rated the film 3 in a scale of 5 and said, "With Premam, Alphonse Putheran proves that he has the knack of presenting themes that have blockbuster written all over." Aswin J Kumar of "The Times of India" rated the film 3.5/5 and said that "Premam" is a "movie with a high likeability quotient because it unearths the beauty in trifles." Litty Simon of "Malayala Manorama" rated 3 out of 5 stars and highly appreciated Alphonse Puthraren's direction, cinematography, music, lead performances, editing and humour. "The simple story is told with amazing visuals. It is humour at its best", "the director has rightly kept his word of expecting nothing big and aptly sticks with the tagline 'The second film in the history of world cinema with nothing fresh'", says the reviewer.


title: Premam

text: S. R. Praveen of "The Hindu" said, "Alphonse Puthren's understanding of the medium is evident and he does not appear to try hard at any point." He praised Putharen's script, saying, "The strong point of Alphonse's script is its humour, which is very organic and does not stick out as a separate track." Rejith RG of "Kerala Kaumudi" said, "Filled with unforgettable moments, characters and song sequences, Premam is a delight to watch. It's after a long time that we got to see such a hugely enjoyable Malayalam film." Mythily Ramachandran of "Gulf News" called it "A delightful entertainer with Nivin Pauly in the lead" and said, "Premam is a fun film, a simple love story of the boy next door, like its tagline that reads 'nothing extraordinary in it'." Pramod Thomas of "The New Indian Express" concluded his review saying, "'Premam' is a watchable flick for its realistic treatment of the plot, performance of the newcomers, wits, good songs and for Nivin Pauly."


title: Premam

text: The Movie earned a gross of in Kerala On its first day of release. According to trade analyst Sreedhar Pillai, the net collection in Kerala in 3 days is approximately 5.60 crore with a distributor share of 3.50 crore. But "Rediff.com" reported a 2.35 crore collection within the first four days. Sreedhar Pillai also reported as the film's collection in Kerala alone within the first week of release, adding that it broke the previous records of "Drishyam" and "Bangalore Days". However "Gulf News" reported, it collected at the box office in the first week in India. P. V. Basheer also said that the film "would have earned a gross of about 5 crore in a week of its release in Kerala, with a distributor share close to 3 crore."


title: Premam

text: The earnings doubled in the second weekend from the first weekend. The film garnered a producer share of in two weeks and became the most profitable film produced by Anwar Rasheed. The gross collection from Kerala theatres crossed in 14 day (June 12) of release. The film experienced a 90% to 100% theatre occupancy in the third weekend. In Ernakulam city the film grossed in two weeks from Shenoys, Padma and Sridhar theatres. It grossed in 25 days, which is a record in Malayalam film industry. In 50 days, the film collected over ₹60 crore from Worldwide box office of which ₹38 crore from Kerala, ₹7.5 crore from Rest of India, ₹2.6 crore from United States and United Kingdom combined and ₹11.5 crore from GCC box office.


title: Premam

text: The film was released on 12 June in 25 locations in the US distributed by Great India Films. The opening day gross was $26,000 and it raked up over $97,000 in three days in the Us. The US collection reached $106,000 in 4 days, giving tough competition to Bollywood and Tamil cinemas at the US. In two weeks, collection reached $150,000. The film collected $159,398 (₹1.01 crore) in second weekend from Australia.


title: Premam

text: In its final run, "Premam" film becomes the highest grossing Malayalam film in UAE-GCC territory by collecting ₹24 crore, in United States by collecting US$236,000 (₹1.76 crore) and also Rest of India box office at that time. The film collected ₹2 crore from Tamil Nadu box office in its 300 days theatrical run making it the highest grossing Malayalam film in Tamil Nadu at that time. The final box office collection is estimated as worldwide. The film had theatrical run over 151 days in Kerala and 300 days in Tamil Nadu box office.


title: Premam

text: "The Hindu" reported, "Youngsters are literally mobbing theaters, cash registers are ringing without non-stop, theater owners are being pressured into squeezing in an extra show, and even recommendations are being made for tickets. Due to its right timing in bringing the film onto the screens after a long dullness in the mollywood industry, this love-fantasy film is well accepted in the hearts of Malayalis. The movie seems well on the expressway to becoming a cult movie." P. V. Basheer Ahamed, president of the Kerala Film Exhibitors Federation, said that a similar euphoria was last seen when Mohanlal-starrer "Narasimham" hit theatres in 2000. Nivin Pauly and Sai Pallavi's performance was also appreciated by people inside the film industry.


title: Premam

text: In Apsara theatre in Kozhikode, a group of audience turned violent and vandalized after some minor technical snag disturbed the screening of the film. The violent mob went on a rampage within minutes and the screening was suspended. The screen was torn apart and chairs were destroyed in the melee. The ruckus continued even after the police reached the spot and resorted to lathi charge. A police officer was injured in the clash. Seven youngsters were taken into custody in connection with the incident.


title: Premam

text: At least 60 students of various local colleges were caught on Monday, 15 June, by the police for bunking classes to watch "Premam". The police action was a part of Operation Gurukulam following complaints that students of various schools and colleges were skipping classes to watch the film. The demand for the tickets led "Premam" to be the film with maximum additional shows in theatres after "Narasimham" starring Mohanlal.


title: Premam

text: "Premam" was remade into Telugu under the same name, which released in 2016. The film stars Naga Chaitanya and Shruthi Hassan in the lead role reprising Nivin and Pallavi and was directed by Chandoo Mondeti.


title: Premam

text: In July 2015, reports have surfaced that "Premam" will be remade in Tamil, with Vijay Sethupathi and Hansika Motwani in the lead role reprising Nivin and Pallavi and Dhanush had bagged the remake rights. However, Dhanush had claimed that he did not have the rights for the film. In January 2016, fans of the original film trended the hashtag #SayNoToPremamTamil in the microblogging site Twitter, claiming that Tamil audience do not want to remake the film.


title: Premam

text: Fans started trolling Naga Chaitanya and Shruti Haasan after the release of the promo song "Evare" (a remake of the Malayalam original song "Malare"), for its Telugu remake claiming that it spoilt the flavour of the original song, and trended their reactions with hilarious memes. Many fans tagged Chaitanya and Shruti's performance as "overacting" and claimed that he and she failed to perfectly reprise Nivin and Pallavi's role from the original.


title: Premam

text: As the film did not receive a nomination at the Kerala State Film Awards, which is official state film award given by Government of Kerala, several comments were posted in social media expressing their disappointments. Director Aashiq Abu, slammed the jury committee for calling the filmmaking as "lazy" and expressed his displeasure on their decisions. Tamil filmmaker A. R. Murugadoss also expressed the same and called it as "unfair".


title: Premam

text: "Premam" opened to rave response from celebrities with prominent members from Tamil industry: notably Selvaraghavan, Shankar and Vijay lauding Pauly's performance and direction. The lead actresses in "Premam", Sai Pallavi, Anupama Parameswaran and Madonna Sebastian became overnight celebrities and carved a niche for themselves in the South Indian film industry. Following the 2015 Kerala local elections, the song "Malare" was used as a part of their political campaign. The song "Malare" and one of its dialogues were featured in the most popular songs and dialogues of 2015 by "The Times of India". Aluva, where the film was shot became a tourist hotspots with 5,000 visitors per month came within three months after its release. The black shirt and white mundu outfit worn by Nivin's character George and his gang during his college days became trending after the film's release and was sold by the textile stores in Kerala during Onam celebrations in colleges and schools.


title: Premam

text: In the Tamil-language film "Master" (2021), the protagonist John Durairaj (Vijay), an alcoholic professor, quotes plots from films as the reason why he was addicted to alcoholism, thereby not revealing his backstory. He quoted the film's sub-plot of George's affair with Malar, as his backstory, in one of the scenes.


title: Season Hubley

text: Season Hubley (born Susan Hubley; March 14, 1951) is an American retired actress and singer. Best known for Nikki in "Hardcore" (1979), Priscilla Presley in "Elvis" (1979), and Angelique in "All My Children" (1992–1994).


title: Season Hubley

text: Hubley was born Susan Hubley in New York City, the daughter of Julia Kaul (née Paine) and Grant Shelby Hubley, a writer and entrepreneur. Her brother is actor Whip Hubley. She also has two sisters, Sara Hubley Beeken and Julie Simpson-Levy.


title: Season Hubley

text: Hubley was steadily active, in film and on television, from her first 1972 appearance in the eponymous lead role in the television film "Bobby Jo and the Good Time Band", through to her final 1999 appearance in a guest-starring role on the episode "Wreck of the Zephyr" of the television series "Flipper".


title: Season Hubley

text: In television, she made an appearance on "The Partridge Family" in 1972 playing the part of a princess. In 1977, she appeared as a nun whose sister was murdered in an episode of "Kojak". She had a continuing role in the evening TV drama "Family", guest-starring in several episodes in 1976 and 1977 as Salina Magee, the love interest of teenage dropout Willie Lawrence. She also co-starred in an episode of "Starsky & Hutch", "Starsky’s Lady", in which she was Starsky's fiancée. From 1991 to 1994, she portrayed Angelique Marick on the daytime drama "All My Children". She appeared in "Stepfather III" and "Child in the Night", both in 1990.


title: Season Hubley

text: Hubley appeared in a mix of supporting and lead roles through the 1970s. In 1973, she played the title character in "Lolly-Madonna XXX", also known as "The Lolly Madonna War", around whom the story revolved. She co-starred in the 1979 film "Hardcore". She appeared briefly in "Escape from New York" (1981). Her other major film role is in the 1982 cult film "Vice Squad", in which she played a prostitute named Princess. A notable role for Hubley was her lead performance as Priscilla Presley in the 1979 made-for-television film "Elvis".


title: Season Hubley

text: Hubley was married to actor Kurt Russell from 1979 to 1983. They have a son, Boston Oliver Grant Russell (born February 16, 1980).


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian Railways is currently improving their existing conventional lines to handle speeds of up to , and with certain improved corridors seeing speeds of more than . Also, a total of twelve corridors are planned and one of the corridors which links Mumbai and Ahmedabad is under construction. As of 2022, the fastest train of India is Vande Bharat Express with a top speed of , while the fastest operating train is the Gatimaan Express with a top operating speed of .


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The first high-speed railway corridor of length 508 km is currently under construction between Mumbai and Ahmedabad at a top operational speed of along the western coast. The corridor will use Standard gauge line and will be built with Shinkansen technology. It is expected to carry passengers between the two cities in just three hours and the ticket prices are expected to be cheaper than aeroplanes i.e. ₹2,500 – ₹3,000. This project which was initially targeted for completion by December 2023, will now be completed by 2028, owing to land acquisition concerns for the section which falls in Maharashtra, and the COVID-19 Pandemic. However, a portion of this line is planned to be opened by 2026.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: At the 2014 general elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) had voiced its desire to build the Diamond Quadrilateral high speed rail project, which would connect the cities of Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai via high-speed rail. This project was approved as a priority for the new government in the incoming president's speech. Construction of one kilometre of high speed railway track will cost - which is 10-14 times higher than the cost of construction of standard railway.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: India will have two types of gauges for high speed rail. The new high-speed rail lines with Japanese technology will be in Standard gauge, whereas older tracks upgraded to high-speed rail standard will be in broad gauge. For this reason, there will be no interoperability between newly laid tracks and the older-upgraded tracks for passenger and cargo traffic.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: According to the Ministry of Railways, a route which has trains that run between 160 and 200 km/h (99 and 124 mph), is considered as Higher Speed or Semi High Speed Rail line, while the routes which have trains running at speeds of less than are considered as conventional rail lines. According to UIC definition, the commercial speed of over is the principal criterion for the definition of High-speed railways.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: During the steam era of Indian railways, the trains barely managed to reach the speeds of 90 km/h mark. It was only until the introduction of WP class locomotive in the 1940s which managed to approach the speeds of 100 km/h. The first leap from steam technology happened when the electrification was completed in Bombay Division. WCP-1 class electric locomotives were used to haul the coaches with a speed beyond 100 km/h and they had a theoretical maximum speed of 120 km/h. But due to the intervening of world wars, Indian railways were unable to introduce electrification beyond the Bombay Division and hence steam locomotives dominated the lines in the rest of India. The era of Diesel locomotives took its shape in the 1960s when Indian Railways imported WDM-1 and WDM-2 class locomotives from the American company, ALCO. Although the WDM-1 struggled to cross the 100 km/h speed mark, the subsequent introduction of WDM-2 and WDM-4 locomotives did the job for the most of the decade.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: India made its tryst with high-speed rail by inaugurating the Howrah Rajdhani Express back in March 1969, five years after Japan inaugurated Shinkansen, the world's first high-speed rail which was running at twice the speed of Rajdhani Express. With the initiation of various electrification projects in the 1970s on the trunk routes, the electric locomotives soon began to replace their Diesel counterparts. The WAP-1 electric locomotive broke the record to be the fastest locomotive in India during the 1980s, touching a maximum speed of 160 km/h during the trial runs and was certified for commercial operations at 140 km/h. The first service to reach a maximum speed of 140 km/h was WAP-1 hauled Shatabdi Express from New Delhi to Jhansi in 1989.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: After Indian railways realised that the DC powered locomotives would soon be overtaken by AC ones, they introduced the AC powered WAP-5 class locomotives, a first of its kind in India. These locomotives were imported to serve the purpose of services on fast, short trains like the Shatabdi Express. They also featured fully suspended traction motors reducing the impact on tracks and allowing faster speeds. The first batch of these locomotives arrived in India in 1995 and was set to operate at speeds of 130 km/h. During the trial runs, this locomotive reached a record speed of 184 km/h which made it the fastest locomotive in India.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian railways achieved the next breakthrough in the late 2010s when the WAP-5 hauled Gatimaan Express became the fastest commercially operated semi-high-speed train in India, in April 2016, with a maximum operational speed of 160 km/h. Two years later, Indian railways saw another breakthrough as they successfully developed the first indigenously built, semi-high-speed, EMU train, the Vande Bharat Express. This train attained a speed of 180 km/h during the trial run and was designed to run at a maximum speed of 200 km/h, but due to the speed limitations on old tracks, the train's operational speed is restricted to 130 km/h.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: One of the first proposals to introduce high-speed trains in India was mooted in the mid-1980s by then Railway Minister Madhavrao Scindia. A high-speed rail line between Delhi and Kanpur via Agra was proposed. An internal study found the proposal to not be viable at that time due to the high cost of construction and the inability of passengers to bear much higher fares than those for normal trains.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: In a feasibility study published in 1987, RDSO and JICA estimated the construction costs to be ₹4.9 crore per km, for a line dedicated to 250–300 km/h trains. In 2010, the 1987-estimated cost, inflated at 10% a year, would be ₹43.9 crore per km (US$9.5 million/km).


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The Indian Ministry of Railways' white-paper "Vision 2020", submitted to The Parliament of India on 18 December 2009, envisaged the implementation of regional high-speed rail projects to provide services at 250–350 km/h, and planning for corridors connecting commercial, tourist, and pilgrimage hubs. Six corridors were identified for technical studies on setting up of high-speed rail corridors: Delhi–Chandigarh–Amritsar, Pune-Mumbai-Ahmedabad, Hyderabad-Warangal-Vijayawada-Chennai, Howrah–Haldia, Chennai-Bengaluru-Coimbatore-Kochi-Thiruvananthapuram, Delhi-Agra-Kanpur-Lucknow-Varanasi-Patna-Guwahati. These high-speed rail corridors were planned to be built as elevated corridors.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL) had set up a corporation called High Speed Rail Corporation of India Ltd (HSRC) on 25 July 2013, which would deal with the proposed high-speed rail corridor projects. The corporation was a wholly-owned subsidiary of RVNL. It was supposed to handle the tendering, pre-feasibility studies, awarding of contracts, and execution of the projects. The corporation will comprise four members, all of whom will be railway officials. All high-speed rail lines will be implemented as public–private partnerships on a Design, Build, Finance, Operate, and Transfer (DBFOT) basis. The corporation was officially formed on 29 October 2013. Later on 12 February 2016, the Ministry of Railways replaced it with the 'National High-Speed Rail Corporation Limited'. It acted as a government company to administer the construction and operation of high-speed rail corridors.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Construction of the Mumbai–Ahmedabad high-speed rail corridor, India's first high-speed rail corridor, was initiated in 2017 and is expected to be completed by 2028. The foundation stone ceremony was held on 14 September 2018 when Japanese Prime Minister Shinzō Abe and the Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, flagged off the construction work in Ahmedabad. The JR East/Hitachi E5 Series Shinkansen trains will be used in this line. It has a maximum operational speed of 320 km/h and an average speed of 260 km/h.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: In India, trains in the future with top speeds of 300–350 km/h, are envisaged to run on elevated corridors to isolate high-speed train tracks and thereby prevent trespassing by animals or people. The current conventional lines between Amritsar-New Delhi, and Ahmedabad-Mumbai runs through suburban and rural areas, which are flat and have no tunnels. The Ahmedabad-Mumbai line runs near the coast and therefore, has more bridges, and parts of it are in backwaters or forests. The 1987 RDSO/JICA feasibility study found the Mumbai-Ahmedabad line to be the most promising.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: In September 2013, an agreement was signed in New Delhi to complete a feasibility study of high-speed rail between Ahmedabad and Mumbai, within 18 months. The study will cost ¥500 million and the cost will be shared 50:50 by Japan and India.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Location of the stations, its accessibility, integration with public transport, parking and railway stations design will play an important role in the success of the high speed railway system. Mumbai may have an underground corridor to have high-speed rail start from the CST terminal. European experiences have shown that railway stations outside the city receive less patronage and ultimately make the high-speed railway line unfeasible.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The feasibility study for the Chennai-Bengaluru high-speed rail corridor was completed by Germany in November 2018. The study found that the route was feasible. The proposed corridor would be 435 km long and would have an end-to-end travel time of 2 hours and 25 minutes with trains operating at a speed of 320 km/h. The study proposed constructing 84% of the track on viaducts, 11% underground and the remaining 4% at-grade. The current fastest train on the Chennai-Bengaluru route, the Shatabdi Express, completes the journey in 7 hours.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The Diamond Quadrilateral high-speed rail network project is set to connect the four major metro cities of India namely: Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai. President of India mentioned in his address to the joint session of Parliament on 9 June 2014 that the new Government was committing to build the dream project. Although the route is not yet planned, the alignment could follow the existing Golden Quadrilateral railway line which links other major cities.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Japan will cover 80% of the Mumbai-Ahmedabad project's cost through a soft loan. It is estimated that of the total crore that will be spent on the 508-km-long high-speed rail corridor project, crore will be given to India as loans. These loans will be available at 0.1 percent interest and India can repay them in fifty years with a moratorium on repayments of up to fifteen years.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: After the foundation stone was laid in September 2017, Prime Minister of India had set the deadline of August 2022 to complete the Mumbai-Ahmedabad line. A senior board member of Railways had also said that they were in no mood to delay the project. As of October 2018, a year since the foundation stone was laid, only 0.9 of 1,400 hectares land required was acquired due to the protests from farmers against the project. The farmers cited that a lower compensation was provided for the land acquired. This initiated the risk of delay by pushing the deadline beyond 2023. Two years later, the land acquisition was further delayed due to the change in the state government of Maharashtra. The new government reviewed the projects of previous government, including the bullet train project in order to arrange the priorities.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Land acquisition issues, low participation from Japanese companies, steep rates quoted by the bidders were some of the factors which pushed the deadline by five years and the NHSRCL set a new deadline of October 2028, as opposed to the original plan of December 2023, which was decided after conducting a feasibility study. However, India was keen on operating a portion of the line by August 2022. Later in December 2021, the new railway minister Ashwini Vaishnaw said in an interview that people can start boarding the bullet train by the year 2026, even if the project is delayed in the future, it won't be for more than a year and could see the light of the day by 2027.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Gatimaan Express : In 2016, the Gatimaan Express was built between Delhi and Agra with a speed of . This became India's first Semi-high-speed train. Due to low occupancy, Indian Railways first extended this train from Agra to Gwalior on 19 February 2018 and then to Jhansi on 1 April 2018. With the great success of Gatimaan Express, the Indian Railways plans to start additional semi-high speed services along with the Delhi - Bhopal / Chandigarh / Kanpur routes shortly.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Tejas Express : On 22 May 2017, the Tejas Express was built, featuring modern onboard facilities with doors which are operated automatically. On 24 May 2017, The first line was opened from Mumbai to Goa. On 1 March 2019, second Tejas Express of the country was flagged off between Chennai and Madurai by the Prime minister. A third route from Lucknow to Delhi was inaugurated on 4 October 2019. This became the India's first train which was operated by private operators, IRCTC, a subsidiary of Indian Railways. A fourth line from Mumbai and Ahmedabad is also operated by IRCTC was inaugurated on the 17 January 2020.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Vande Bharat Express : In 2019, the Vande Bharat Express (Train-18) was inaugurated between Delhi and Varanasi with a top operating speed of . However, due to the speed limit of railway track of routes, the speed has been restricted to . It was made by Integral Coach Factory (ICF) at Perambur, Chennai under the Indian government's Make in India campaign. In October 2019, the second Vande Bharat Express was opened from Delhi to Katra. On 30 September 2022, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated a 3rd Vande Bharat Express rake connecting Mumbai and Ahmedabad passing through Surat. This rake was an upgraded second generation version. an other second generation rake was inaugurated from Delhi to Una passing through Chandigarh.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Tejas Rajdhani Express: Indian Railways started to upgrade Rajdhani Coaches to Tejas coaches. These trains are called the Tejas-Rajdhani Express. This replaced its traditional LHB Rajdhani coaches On 15 February 2021,The Agartala Rajdhani Express was upgraded with Tejas livery Sleeper coaches. On 19 July 2021, the Mumbai Rajdhani Express was upgraded to Tejas class smart Coaches. On 1 September 2021 the Rajendra Nagar Patna Rajdhani Express was upgraded to Tejas rakes. This increased the speed of the train to 130 km/h. The train can travel at a top speed of 160 km/h if infrastructure permits.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian railways plans to increase the speed of several routes to . These routes were raised from to earlier.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian Railways aims to increase the speed of passenger trains to on dedicated conventional tracks. Indian railways also intend to improve the existing conventional lines to handle speeds of up to , with a goal of speed more than on new tracks with improved technology. Trains have already been built by native companies that can reach speeds of 200 km/h, but these trains are limited to lower speeds on legacy tracks due to safety restrictions.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Dedicated Freight Corridor Corporation of India is overseeing the development of dedicated freight corridors across India to move cargo traffic from most of the current passenger railway tracks and to support Indian Railways effort to increase the speed of the passenger trains to 200 km/h.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: France : In February 2014, Henri Poupart-Lafarge of Alstom, manufacturer of trains used on TGV in France, stated that India is at least 5–10 years away from high-speed trains. He suggested that the country should first upgrade the infrastructure to handle trains travelling at speeds of .


title: High-speed rail in India

text: In 2017, SNCF proposed to upgrade the Shatabdi train track between Delhi and Chandigarh to run the trains at a maximum speed of 220 km/h. This was expected provide hands-on expertise for Indian Railways to implement Semi-High speed trains across India, specifically running Rajdhani and Shatabdi trains at maximum speed 220+ km/h with average speed of 150 km/h.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: China : Feasibility study of running semi-high-speed trains on the 500 km Chennai–Mysore section was submitted by the China Railway Group Limited (CREEC) to the Indian Railway Board. It envisions reducing travel time from the existing 7 hours to 4 hours and 45 minutes.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Germany : The German finance ministry had agreed to finance a government feasibility study into a high-speed rail link between Chennai and Mysore. It had also discussed a project to modernise the Chennai–Hyderabad route.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Germany is also conducting a feasibility study for running trains at a speed of about 300 km/h on the 450 km long Chennai–Mysuru route. A pre-feasibility study was already completed in 2016 by the consortium of consultants comprising DB E&C, Intraplan Consult and Ingenieurburo Vossing.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: In 2016, there were plans to run Spain's Talgo trains in Delhi–Mumbai route. During trial run, Talgo train reached a peak speed of , observing laid-down speed cautions and halting at the usual stoppages as the Mumbai Rajdhani, Talgo clocked an average speed of . The Mumbai Rajdhani took 15 hours and 50 minutes at an average speed of . This was later rejected by the Indian government since the trains were not suited for Indian tracks and since they could not reach their maximum speed. Instead, the government indigenously manufactured the Vande Bharat Express or Train 18 as a part of its Make in India campaign. It achieved a top speed of during trial runs.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Critics point out that Delhi-Agra time savings are not based on the speed of the train, but based on other factors. According to critics, the reduction in travel time due to speed is sheer three minutes, and that the other manoeuvrings are largely accountable for the drastic drop. The reduction of time is greatly due to shifting the train's departure point from New Delhi railway station to Hazrat Nizamuddin and doing away with the scheduled stop at Mathura reportedly saving 14 minutes. Limiting the locomotive to 10 coaches (Bhopal Shatabdi has 14) leads to a reduction of another two minutes. Thus track improvements and superior infrastructure lead to a reduction of only five minutes, three minutes owing to route relay and interlocking at Agra, and one minute each due to the approval to run a passenger train on the third line at Palwal and Bhuteshwar, installation of thick web switches at four points and putting up a track station at Chhata.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: There were also serious questions raised about the safety of the passengers as the infrastructure on which semi-high speed trains are running may not be able to run at such high speeds. For example, it is preferred to run these higher-speed trains on 60-kilogram tracks, but as of now they are running on 52-kilogram tracks.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian Railways is exploring the possibility of super-speed, also called ultra-high-speed, rail network in India. The Railway Ministry's vision was to make rolling stock the driver for India's shift from being a technology importer to a manufacturer and developer, by becoming a designer for future rolling stock technology. Maglev technology has consistently been shown to be more than double the cost of "standard steel-to-steel bullet trains" and thus has been a major economic hindrance to the beginning of any construction of the Chuo Shinkansen in Japan.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The Andhra Pradesh state government has decided to build its metro train system in major cities using the Maglev technology. The Changsha Maglev system was studied by a team to gain better understanding of running the metro using Maglev. Vijayawada, Visakhapatnam and Amaravati metro railway systems will be built using low speed Maglev train systems. It is expected to make the industrial sector in Andhra Pradesh the most cost efficient and exports competitive in world market by reducing the logistics cost for the transport of people and freight. Maglev based metro systems improve the quality of life in cities and provide efficient, high-speed rail systems to generate far higher levels of economic output. This is expected to create an industrial base, hands-on expertise and lower costs for Maglev in India.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Kochi Metro explored using the South Korean Maglev technology used in the Incheon Airport Maglev, but it was not fully operational in 2011. So, Kochi Metro opted for wheeled-train set technology for initial routes. But, future routes may use Maglev technology.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: India may build its future metro train systems using Maglev as it has faster acceleration and deceleration than traditional metro systems. China is building new lines for Beijing Metro and Changsha Metro using Maglev technology to retain Chinese cost competitiveness in the world market by reducing the transportation time and cost.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Earlier in 2016, Indian Railways announced a seminar with ultra-high-speed train manufacturers to explore the possibility of introducing an ultra-high-speed train system on a public–private partnership basis. The corporation has issued an Expression of Interest (EOI) to global investors to implement an over- rail system. Transport infrastructure (including stations, platforms, tracks, signal systems, fare structures and timetables) would be developed by private firms; Indian Railways would handle land-related issues, and the revenue would be shared. The new railway system, parallel to the current one, should support passenger and freight traffic. In February 2019, a train model based upon MagLev systems was unveiled by scientists from Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology for a speed of per hour. In September 2020, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited signed a pact with SwissRapide AG to bring MagLev metro systems in India.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: There is no currently operational hyperloop system in the world today, Although there has been human testing. Speed projections depend on significant engineering advances, and have not yet been observed.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: It is a proposed 1,000 km/h hyperloop system that will take 14 minutes compared to the current 3 hours to commute between these two cities while carrying 10,000 commuters per hour (5,000 in each direction). Hyperloop One, the firm proposing the route, believes that it is feasible and can be made operational by 2026 as per its Detailed Project Report submitted to Pune Metropolitan Region Development Authority (PMRDA) in January 2018. Hyperloop One propose three possible terminal end-points options in Mumbai, namely Dadar, Santacruz and the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport. Currently, 3,00,000 people commute daily between these two cities daily in 1,10,000 vehicles (including 80,000 cars and 6,000 buses).


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Virgin Hyperloop signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the state of Punjab on 3 December 2019. The Hyperloop transportation project will connect Punjab's largest cities of Amritsar Ludhiana and Chandigarh, covering a total of 226kms in 19 minutes. The trip taken by the Hyperloop system is estimated to be at least 10 times faster than a trip taken by existing transport infrastructure of road, rail or flight.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Los Angeles-based Hyperloop One, has signed a MoU with Karnataka government to conduct a feasibility study for the route between Bangalore and Chennai. According to its sponsors, such a Hyperloop will reduce the travel time to 20 minutes between the two cities.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The Indian railways will construct bullet train assembly facilities on a Public-private participation (PPP) model. According to National High Speed Rail Corporation Limited (NHSRCL), Japanese companies are likely to set up manufacturing facilities in India to build the parts for bullet train sets. The initial sets will be imported from Japan in phases one and two, with the 18 sets in the first phase costing ₹7,000 Crores for Mumbai-Ahmedabad line, but starting from phase three, India plans to manufacture the sets locally under Make in India initiative. The Indian railways in September 2018 gave a presentation to the working representatives of Japan and India about the Modern Coach Factory (MCF) in Raebareli as a potential manufacturing site for bullet trains. The official said that MCF has robotic production lines and can be ideal for manufacturing bullet train coaches.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian Railways currently do not have the technology to develop high-speed rail sets but they have been developing EMU train sets which can operate at a semi-high speed of (200 km/h). In 2019, The Vande Bharat Express or Train 18 replaced Shatabdi Express on two routes and has been planned to replace all the available Shatabdi services after subsequent production. 'Train 20' is another proposed Semi-high-speed train service, which is expected to run on longer distances and hence it will be an overnight train replacing the existing Rajdhani Express service. Vande Bharat Express had begun commercial operation on 15 February 2019, while the Train 20 was supposed to roll out in 2020, but owing to some of the internal issues, the train has not seen any light of the day yet. However, both of these trains will be manufactured by Integral Coach Factory (ICF).


title: High-speed rail in India

text: These trains have driver cabins on both ends, which eliminates the time needed for turnaround at the terminal station. Since these are EMU train sets, the time and distance taken to accelerate and decelerate is reduced, enabling the train to travel at a top speed for longer distance. The coaches have automatic sliding doors, onboard Wi-Fi service, GPS based information system, wide windows, bio-toilets and are fully air-conditioned. The rake of Vande Bharat Express has sixteen coaches, consisting of two Executive Chair Cars and fourteen AC Chair Cars, it is being operated at 130 km/h due to track limitations. Train 20 is set to have twenty coaches consisting of AC First Class sleeper, AC II Tier sleeper, AC III Tier sleeper classes and an AC Chair Car, it is set to operate at 160 km/h. Train 20's proposed top speed was announced to be at 176 km/h.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The Mega Carrier and Launcher Machines or Transporter, Gantry and Full Spam Launcher Machines are the machines that are used to construct viaducts (elevated structures) for bullet train corridors in China. These vehicles carry a full girder by traveling on an already launched girder to place the next girder. The speed was seven times faster compared to the previous girder launching mechanism in India. While the Chinese machine laid two girders a day, the previous Indian girder launching mechanism placed one and half girder in a week. The NHSRCL had posed a challenge to build such machines for L&T which is currently constructing the 325 km stretch of Mumbai-Ahmedabad line. Each of these machines would cost around ₹70-80 crores, and 30 such machines would be required to construct 237 km stretch within next four years as told by managing director of NHSRCL, Achal Khare.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: On 9 September 2021, India joined Norway, Italy, China and South Korea to possess Full Span Launching Methodology (FSLM) technology after L&T was successfully able to develop it indigenously. NHSRCL will acquire 20 of such machines for their Mumbai-Ahmedabad high-speed rail project in order to ramp up the construction progress. These machines can be further used to build viaducts for elevated roads and rapid transit systems across India.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Indian Railways are not yet capable of manufacturing indigenously built high-speed trains, in a step towards it, the Indian railways had planned to set up Railway Universities for students who would help in building modern railway infrastructure. These universities will fill the void left by existing technological universities where Rail Technology was not taught because there were not many students who would take this course, since it did not offer higher-paying jobs. The Rail-wheel interaction is the most important concept which needs more practicality than the textbook concept, this came out as another issue for universities, since it takes a lot of infrastructure to set up test tacks. These issues would be eliminated thanks to dedicated Rail-technological universities.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: One such Railway University was opened in Vadodara in 2018, inside of the existing National Academy of Indian Railways in the Pratap Vilas Palace of the erstwhile Gaekwad state. Both the institutions would run from this campus until a greenfield campus is constructed. The Ministry of Railways had identified a 100-acre plot in Vadodara for this purpose. In August 2019, the Gujarat government allotted 76.6 acres of land in Waghodia at the 50 percent of market rate to construct the first Railway University. The campus is set to include various academic buildings, training centres and a hostel.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: As of today, Indian Railways is yet to breach the 200 km/h speed mark. Speed and punctuality were never the primary concerns for the railways since safety was always considered a priority. However, with the recent introduction of services such as Gatimaan, Tejas and Vande Bharat Expresses, Indian railways hope to bridge the gap between world standards and


title: High-speed rail in India

text: After the project was announced, it drew huge attention and was considered to push India into the elite list of high-speed rail capability, but at the same time, it drew criticism from rail-fans and other experts. It is said that when the Shinkansen technology was built in Japan in the sixties, it challenged air travel which was not as advanced as today and hence was very successful. But the bullet train might not be viable in the modern-day world where the aviation industry has advanced in leaps and bounds in reducing fuel intake, safety, better engines and efficiency. The ticket prices are also said to be more or less the same as air travel between the two cities of Mumbai and Ahmedabad. Critics also point out the fact that the 'White Elephant' project is paid on the loan which not only makes it difficult to attain profits but also pushes the responsibility of returning it to India's next generations.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: It is also said that the cities such as Bilimora, Bharuch and Surat are not languishing today for the sole reason that they do not have high-speed rail connectivity. The critics add that although India is capable of constructing bullet trains, it cannot afford the bullet train in its current configuration. Instead, India can put a great deal of effort into its ageing railway system, expanding existing metro systems in tier-one cities and constructing new ones in tier-two cities.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: The critics conclude with a point that India with their help of young and large youth population can rather invest in future technology such as Maglev in a similar way how Shinkansen in Japan was developed in the sixties. They add that India has already proven its scientific capability with the Mangalyaan mission which cost less than a Hollywood movie and hence can involve its huge pool of scientists and engineers in developing a modern technology that can replicate what Shinkansen did in Japan.


title: High-speed rail in India

text: Other critiques also say that the Standard gauge for high-speed rail goes against the Project Unigauge which was initiated by the railways in 1992. It was also cited that broad gauge provides better stability and therefore the broad gauge railway would be equal or better suited for high-speed rail in India, this would also reduce the cost of constructing a greenfield line.


title: Parsnip

text: The parsnip ("Pastinaca sativa") is a root vegetable closely related to carrot and parsley, all belonging to the flowering plant family Apiaceae. It is a biennial plant usually grown as an annual. Its long taproot has cream-colored skin and flesh, and, left in the ground to mature, it becomes sweeter in flavor after winter frosts. In its first growing season, the plant has a rosette of pinnate, mid-green leaves. If unharvested, in its second growing season it produces a flowering stem topped by an umbel of small yellow flowers, later producing pale brown, flat, winged seeds. By this time, the stem has become woody and the tap root inedible.


title: Parsnip

text: The parsnip is native to Eurasia; it has been used as a vegetable since antiquity and was cultivated by the Romans, although some confusion exists between parsnips and carrots in the literature of the time. It was used as a sweetener before the arrival of cane sugar in Europe.


title: Parsnip

text: Parsnips are usually cooked, but can also be eaten raw. The flesh has a sweet flavor, even more so than carrots, but the taste is different. It is high in vitamins, antioxidants, and minerals (especially potassium); and also contains both soluble and insoluble dietary fiber. Parsnips are best cultivated in deep, stone-free soil. The plant is attacked by the carrot fly and other insect pests, as well as viruses and fungal diseases, of which canker is the most serious. Handling the stems and foliage can cause a skin rash if the skin is exposed to sunlight after handling.