title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Despite the injury to her leg, she continued to go on tour every summer, when her own theatre in Paris was closed. In June 1908, she made a 20-day tour of Britain and Ireland, performing in 16 different cities. In 1908–1909, she toured Russia and Poland. Her second American farewell tour (her eighth tour in America) began in late 1910. She took along a new leading man, the Dutch-born Lou Tellegen, a very handsome actor who had served as a model for the sculpture "Eternal Springtime" by Auguste Rodin, and who became her co-star for the next two years, as well as her escort to all events, functions, and parties. He was not a particularly good actor, and had a strong Dutch accent, but he was successful in roles such as Hippolyte in "Phedre", where he could take off his shirt and show off his physique. In New York, she created yet another scandal when she appeared in the role of Judas Iscariot in "Judas" by the American playwright John Wesley De Kay. It was performed in New York's Globe Theater for only one night in December 1910 before it was banned by local authorities. It was also banned in Boston and Philadelphia. The tour took her from Boston to Jacksonville, through Mississippi, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, to Canada and Minnesota, usually one new city and one performance every day.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In April 1912, Bernhardt presented a new production in her theatre, "Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth", a romantic costume drama by Émile Moreau about Queen Elizabeth's romances with Robert Dudley and Robert Devereux. It was lavish and expensive, but was a monetary failure, lasting only 12 performances. Fortunately for Bernhardt, she was able to pay off her debt with the money she received from the American producer Adolph Zukor for a film version of the play.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She departed on her third farewell tour of the United States in 1913–1914, when she was 69. Her leg had not yet fully healed, and she was unable to perform an entire play, only selected acts. She also separated from her co-star and lover of the time, Lou Tellegen. When the tour ended, he remained in the United States, where he briefly became a silent movie star, while she returned to France in May 1913.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In December 1913, Bernhardt performed another success with the drama "Jeanne Doré". On 16 March, she was made a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur. Despite her successes, she was still short of money. She had made her son Maurice the director of her new theatre, and permitted him to use the receipts of the theatre to pay his gambling debts, eventually forcing her to pawn some of her jewels to pay her bills.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1914, she went as usual to her holiday home on Belle-Île with her family and close friends. There, she received the news of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and the beginning of the First World War. She hurried back to Paris, which was threatened by an approaching German army. In September, Bernhardt was asked by the Minister of War to move to a safer place. She departed for a villa on the Bay of Arcachon, where her physician discovered that gangrene had developed on her injured leg. She was transported to Bordeaux, where on 22 February 1915, a surgeon amputated her leg almost to the hip. She refused the idea of an artificial leg, crutches, or a wheelchair, and instead was usually carried in a palanquin she designed, supported by two long shafts and carried by two men. She had the chair decorated in the Louis XV style, with white sides and gilded trim.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She returned to Paris on 15 October, and, despite the loss of her leg, continued to go on stage at her theatre; scenes were arranged so she could be seated, or supported by a prop with her leg hidden. She took part in a patriotic "scenic poem" by Eugène Morand, "Les Cathédrales", playing the part of Strasbourg Cathedral; first, while seated, she recited a poem; then she hoisted herself up on her one leg, leaned against the arm of the chair, and declared "Weep, weep, Germany! The German eagle has fallen into the Rhine!"


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt joined a troupe of famous French actors and traveled to the Battle of Verdun and the Battle of the Argonne, where she performed for soldiers who were just returned or about to go into battle. Propped on pillows in an armchair, she recited her patriotic speech at Strasbourg Cathedral. Another actress present at the event, Beatrix Dussanne, described her performance: "The miracle again took place; Sarah, old, mutilated, once more illuminated a crowd by the rays of her genius. This fragile creature, ill, wounded and an immobile, could still, through the magic of the spoken word, re-instill heroism in those soldiers weary from battle."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She returned to Paris in 1916 and made two short films on patriotic themes, one based on the story of Joan of Arc, the other called "Mothers of France". Then she embarked on her final American farewell tour. Despite the threat of German submarines, she crossed the Atlantic and toured the United States, performing in major cities including New York and San Francisco. Bernhardt was diagnosed with uremia, and had to have an emergency kidney operation. She recuperated in Long Beach, California, for several months, writing short stories and novellas for publication in French magazines. In 1918, she returned to New York and boarded a ship to France, landing in Bordeaux on 11 November 1918, the day that the armistice was signed ending the First World War.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1920, she resumed acting in her theatre, usually performing single acts of classics such as Racine's "Athelee", which did not require much movement. For her curtain calls, she stood, balancing on one leg and gesturing with one arm. She also starred in a new play, "Daniel", written by her grandson-in-law, playwright Louis Verneuil. She played the male lead role, but appeared in just two acts. She took the play and other famous scenes from her repertory on a European tour and then for her last tour of England, where she gave a special command performance for Queen Mary, followed by a tour of the British provinces.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1921, Bernhardt made her last tour of the French provinces, lecturing about theatre and reciting the poetry of Rostand. Later that year, she produced a new play by Rostand, "La Gloire", and another play by Verneuil, "Régine Arnaud" in 1922. She continued to entertain guests at her home. One such guest, French author Colette, described being served coffee by Bernhardt: "The delicate and withered hand offering the brimming cup, the flowery azure of the eyes, so young still in their network of fine lines, the questioning and mocking coquetry of the tilted head, and that indescribable desire to charm, to charm still, to charm right up to the gates of death itself."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1922, she began rehearsing a new play by Sacha Guitry, called "Un Sujet de Roman." On the night of the dress rehearsal, she collapsed, going into a coma for an hour, then awakened with the words, "when do I go on?" She recuperated for several months, with her condition improving; she began preparing for a new role as Cleopatra in "Rodogune" by Corneille, and agreed to make a new film by Sasha Guitry called "La Voyante", for a payment of 10,000 francs a day. She was too weak to travel, so a room in her house on Boulevard Pereire was set up as a film studio, with scenery, lights, and cameras. However, on 21 March 1923, she collapsed again, and never recovered. She died from uremia on the evening of 26 March 1923. Newspaper reports stated she died "peacefully, without suffering, in the arms of her son". At her request, her Funeral Mass was celebrated at the church of Saint-François-de-Sales, which she attended when she was in Paris. The following day, 30,000 people attended her funeral to pay their respects, and an enormous crowd followed her casket from the Church of Saint-Francoise-de-Sales to Pere Lachaise Cemetery, pausing for a moment of silence outside her theatre. The inscription on her tombstone is the name "Bernhardt".


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt was one of the first actresses to star in moving pictures. The first projected film was shown by the Lumiere brothers at the Grand Café in Paris on 28 December 1895. In 1900, the cameraman who had shot the first films for the Lumiere brothers, Clément Maurice, approached Bernhardt and asked her to make a film out of a scene from her stage production of "Hamlet". The scene was Prince Hamlet's duel with Laertes, with Bernhardt in the role of Hamlet. Maurice made a phonograph recording at the same time, so the film could be accompanied by sound. The sound of the clashing wooden prop swords was not loud and realistic enough, so Maurice had a stage hand bang pieces of metal together in sync with the sword fight. Maurice's finished two-minute film, "Le Duel d'Hamlet", was presented to the public at the 1900 Paris Universal Exposition between 14 April and 12 November 1900 in Paul Decauville's program, Phono-Cinéma-Théâtre. This program contained short films of many other famous French theatre stars of the day. The sound quality on the wax cylinders and the synchronization were very poor, so the system never became a commercial success. Nonetheless, her film is cited as one of the first examples of a sound film.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Eight years later, in 1908, Bernhardt made a second motion picture, "La Tosca". This was produced by Le Film d'Art and directed by André Calmettes from the play by Victorien Sardou. The film has been lost. Her next film, with her co-star and lover Lou Tellegen, was "La Dame aux Camelias", called "Camille". When she performed on this film, Bernhardt changed both the fashion in which she performed, significantly accelerating the speed of her gestural action. The film was a success in the United States, and in France, the young French artist and later screenwriter Jean Cocteau wrote, "What actress can play a lover better than she does in this film? No one!" Bernhardt received $30,000 for her performance.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Shortly afterwards, she made another film of a scene from her play "Adrienne Lecouvreur" with Tellegen, in the role of Maurice de Saxe. Then, in 1912, the pioneer American producer Adolph Zukor came to London and filmed her performing scenes from her stage play "Queen Elizabeth" with her lover Tellegen, with Bernhardt in the role of Lord Essex. To make the film more appealing, Zukor had the film print hand-tinted, making it one of the first color films. "The Loves of Queen Elizabeth" premiered at the Lyceum Theater in New York City on 12 July 1912, and was a financial success; Zukor invested $18,000 in the film and earned $80,000, enabling him to found the Famous Players Film Company, which later became Paramount Pictures. The use of the visual arts–specifically famous c.19 painting–to frame scenes and elaborate narrative action is significant in the work.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt was also the subject and star of two documentaries, including "Sarah Bernhardt à Belle-Isle" (1915), a film about her daily life at home. This was one of the earliest films by a celebrity inviting us into the home, and is again significant for the use it makes of contemporary art references in the mis-en-scene of the film. She also made "Jeanne Doré" in 1916. This was produced by Eclipse and directed by Louis Mercanton and René Hervil from the play by Tristan Bernard. In 1917 she made a film called "Mothers of France" ("Mères Françaises"). Produced by Eclipse it was directed by Louis Mercanton and René Hervil with a screenplay by Jean Richepin. As Victoria Duckett explains in her book "Seeing Sarah Bernhardt: Performance and Silent Film", this film was a propaganda film shot on the front line with the intent to urge America to join the War.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In the weeks before her death in 1923, she was preparing to make another motion picture from her own home, "La Voyante", directed by Sacha Guitry. She told journalists, "They're paying me ten thousand francs a day, and plan to film for seven days. Make the calculation. These are American rates, and I don't have to cross the Atlantic! At those rates, I'm ready to appear in any films they make." However, she died just before the filming began.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt began painting while she was at the Comédie-Française; since she rarely performed more than twice a week, she wanted a new activity to fill her time. Her paintings were mostly landscapes and seascapes, with many painted at Belle-Île. Her painting teachers were close and lifelong friends Georges Clairin and Louise Abbéma. She exhibited a 2-m-tall canvas, "The Young Woman and Death", at the 1878 Paris Salon.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Her passion for sculpture was more serious. Her sculpture teacher was Mathieu-Meusnier, an academic sculptor who specialised in public monuments and sentimental storytelling pieces. She quickly picked up the techniques; she exhibited and sold a high-relief plaque of the death of Ophelia and, for the architect Charles Garnier, she created the allegorical figure of "Song" for the group "Music" on the façade of the Opera House of Monte Carlo. She also exhibited a group of figures, called "Après la Tempête" ("After the Storm"), at the 1876 Paris Salon, receiving an honourable mention. Bernhardt sold the original work, the molds, and signed plaster miniatures, earning more than 10,000 francs. The original is now displayed the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington, DC. Fifty works by Bernhardt have been documented, of which 25 are known to still exist. Several of her works were also shown in the 1893 Columbia Exposition in Chicago and at the 1900 Exposition Universelle. While on tour in New York, she hosted a private viewing of her paintings and sculptures for 500 guests. In 1880, she made an Art Nouveau decorative bronze inkwell, a self-portrait with bat wings and a fish tail, possibly inspired by her 1874 performance in Le Sphinx. She set up a studio at 11 boulevard de Clichy in Montmartre, where she frequently entertained her guests dressed in her sculptor's outfit, including white satin blouse and white silk trousers. Rodin dismissed her sculptures as "old-fashioned tripe", and she was attacked in the press for pursuing an activity inappropriate for an actress. She was defended by Émile Zola, who wrote, "How droll! Not content with finding her thin, or declaring her mad, they want to regulate her daily activities, ... Let a law be passed immediately to prevent the accumulation of talent!"


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In her final years, Bernhardt wrote a textbook on the art of acting. She wrote whenever she had time, usually between productions, and when she was on vacation at Belle-Île. After her death, the writer Marcel Berger, her close friend, found the unfinished manuscript among her belongings in her house on boulevard Pereire. He edited the book, and it was published as "L'Art du Théâtre" in 1923. An English translation was published in 1925.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She paid particular attention to the use of the voice, "the instrument the most necessary to the dramatic artist." It was the element, she wrote, which connected the artist with the audience. "The voice must have all the harmonies, ... serious, plaintive, vibrant and metallic." For a voice to be fully complete, she wrote, "It is necessary that it be very slightly nasal. An artist who has a dry voice can never touch the public." She also stressed the importance for artists to train their breathing for long passages. She suggested that an actress should be able to recite the following passage from "Phédre" in a single breath:


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She noted that "the art of our art is not to have it noticed by the public... We must create an atmosphere by our sincerity, so that public, gasping, distracted, should not regain its equilibrium and free will until the fall of the curtain. That which is called the work, in our art, should only be the search for the truth."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She also insisted that artists should express their emotions clearly without words, using "their eye, their hand, the position of the chest, the tilting of the head... The exterior form of the art is often the entire art; at least, it is that which strikes the audience the most effectively." She encouraged actors to "Work, overexcite your emotional expression, become accustomed to varying your psychological states and translating them... The diction, the way of standing, the look, the gesture are predominant in the development of the career of an artist."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She explained why she liked to perform male roles: "The roles of men are in general more intellectual than the roles of women... Only the role of Phédre gives me the charm of digging into a heart that is truly anguished... Always, in the theatre, the parts played by the men are the best parts. And yet theatre is the sole art where women can sometimes be superior to men."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt had a remarkable ability to memorise a role quickly. She recounted in "L'Art du Théâtre" that "I only have to read a role two or three times and I know it completely; but the day that I stop playing the piece the role escapes me entirely... My memory can't contain several parts at the same time, and it's impossible for me to recite off-hand a tirade from "Phèdre" or "Hamlet". And yet I can remember the smallest events from my childhood." She also suffered, particularly early in her career, bouts of memory loss and stage fright. Once, she was seriously ill before a performance of "L'Etrangère" at the Gaiety Theatre in London, and the doctor gave her a dose of painkiller, either opium or morphine. During the performance, she went on stage, but could not remember what she was supposed to say. She turned to another actress, and announced, "If I made you come here, Madame, it is because I wanted to instruct you in what I want done... I have thought about it, and I do not want to tell you today", then walked offstage. The other actors, astonished, quickly improvised an ending to the scene. After a brief rest, her memory came back, and Bernhardt went back on stage, and completed the play.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: During another performance on her world tour, a backstage door was opened during a performance of "Phèdre", and a cold wind blew across the stage as Bernhardt was reciting. Without interrupting her speech, she added "If someone doesn't close that door I will catch pneumonia." The door was closed, and no one in the audience seemed to notice the addition.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: French drama critics praised Bernhardt's performances; Francisque Sarcey, an influential Paris critic, wrote of her 1871 performance in "Marie", "She has a sovereign grace, a penetrating charm, and I don't know what. She is a natural and an incomparable artist." Reviewing her performance of "Ruy Blas" in 1872, the critic Théodore de Banville wrote that Bernhardt "declaimed like a bluebird sings, like the wind sighs, like the water murmurs." Of the same performance, Sarcey wrote: "She added the music of her voice to the music of the verse. She sang, yes, sang with her melodious voice..."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Victor Hugo was a fervent admirer of Bernhardt, praising her "golden voice". Describing her performance in his play, "Ruy Blas" in 1872, he wrote in his "Carnets", "It is the first time this play has really been played! She is better than an actress, she is a woman. She is adorable; she is better than beautiful, she has the harmonious movements and looks of irresistible seduction."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Her 1882 performance of "Fédora" was described by the French critic Maurice Baring: "A secret atmosphere emanated from her, an aroma, an attraction which was at once exotic and cerebral... She literally hypnotized the audience", and played "with such tigerish passion and feline seduction which, whether it be good or bad art, nobody has been able to match since."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: She also had her critics, particularly in her later years among the new generation of playwrights who advocated a more naturalistic style of acting. George Bernard Shaw wrote of the "childishly egotistical character of her acting, which is not the art of making you think more highly or feel more deeply but the art of making you admire her, pity her, champion her, weep with her, laugh at her jokes, follow her fortunes breathlessly and applaud her wildly when the curtain falls... It is the art of fooling you." Ivan Turgenev wrote: "All she has is a marvelous voice. The rest is cold, false, and affected; the worst kind of repulsive chic Parisienne!" Russian dramatist Anton Chekhov, then a young medical student, was paying for his studies by writing reviews for a Moscow newspaper. He stated that "We are far from admiring the talent of Sarah Bernhardt. She is a woman who is very intelligent and knows how to produce an effect, who has immense taste, who understands the human heart, but she wanted too much to astonish and overwhelm her audience." He wrote that in her roles, "enchantment is smothered in artifice."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Sarah Bernhardt's performances were seen and appraised by many of the leading literary and cultural figures of the late 19th century. Mark Twain wrote, "There are five kinds of actresses. Bad actresses, fair actresses, good actresses, great actresses, and then there is Sarah Bernhardt." Oscar Wilde called her "the Incomparable One", scattered lilies in her path, and wrote a play in French, "Salomé", especially for her; it was banned by British censors before it could be performed. Shortly before he died, Wilde wrote: "The three women I have most admired in my life are Sarah Bernhardt, Lily Langtry, and Queen Victoria. I would have married any one of them with pleasure."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: After seeing a performance by Bernhardt in 1903, the British actress Ellen Terry wrote, "How marvelous Sarah Bernhardt was! She had the transparence of an azalea with even more delicacy, the lightness of a cloud with less thickness. Smoke from a burning paper describes her more nearly."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: British author D.H. Lawrence saw Bernhardt perform "La Dame aux Camelias" in 1908. Afterward, he wrote to a friend:


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: The identity of Bernhardt's father is not known for certain. Her original birth certificate was destroyed when the Paris Commune burned the Hotel de Ville and city archives in May 1871. In her autobiography, "Ma Double Vie", she describes meeting her father several times, and writes that his family provided funding for her education, and left a sum of 100,000 francs for her when she came of age. She said he frequently travelled overseas, and that when she was still a child, he died in Pisa "in unexplained circumstances which remain mysterious." In February 1914, she presented a reconstituted birth certificate, which stated that her legitimate father was one Édouard Bernhardt. On 21 May 1856, when she was baptised, she was registered as the daughter of "Edouard Bernhardt residing in Le Havre and Judith Van Hard, residing in Paris."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: A more recent biography by Hélène Tierchant (2009) suggests her father may have been a young man named De Morel, whose family members were notable shipowners and merchants in Le Havre. According to Bernhardt's autobiography, her grandmother and uncle in Le Havre provided financial support for her education when she was young, took part in family councils about her future, and later gave her money when her apartment in Paris was destroyed by fire.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Her date of birth is also uncertain due to the destruction of her birth certificate. She usually gave her birthday as 23 October 1844, and celebrated it on that day. However, the reconstituted birth certificate she presented in 1914 gave the date as 25 October. Other sources give the date 22 October, or either 22 or 23 October.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt's mother Judith, or Julie, was born in the early 1820s. She was one of six children, five daughters and one son, of a Dutch-Jewish itinerant eyeglass merchant, Moritz Baruch Bernardt, and a German laundress, Sara Hirsch (later known as Janetta Hartog or Jeanne Hard). Judith's mother died in 1829, and five weeks later, her father remarried. His new wife did not get along with the children from his earlier marriage. Judith and two of her sisters, Henriette and Rosine, left home, moved to London briefly, and then settled in Le Havre, on the French coast. Henriette married a local in Le Havre, but Julie and Rosine became courtesans, and Julie took the new, more French name of Youle and the more aristocratic-sounding last name of Van Hard. In April 1843, she gave birth to twin girls to a "father unknown." Both girls died in the hospice in Le Havre a month later. The following year, Youle was pregnant again, this time with Sarah. She moved to Paris, to 5 rue de l'École-de-Médecine, where in October 1844, Sarah was born.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Early in Bernhardt's career, she had an affair with a Belgian nobleman, Charles-Joseph Eugène Henri Georges Lamoral de Ligne (1837–1914), son of Eugène, 8th Prince of Ligne, with whom she bore her only child, Maurice Bernhardt (1864–1928). Maurice did not become an actor, but worked for most of his life as a manager and agent for various theatres and performers, frequently managing his mother's career in her later years, but rarely with great success. Maurice and his family were usually financially dependent, in full or in part, on his mother until her death. Maurice married a Polish princess, Maria Jablonowska, of the House of Jablonowski, with whom he had two daughters: Simone, who married Edgar Gross, son of a wealthy Philadelphia soap manufacturer; and Lysiana, who married the playwright Louis Verneuil.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: From 1864 to 1866, after Bernhardt left the Comédie-Française, and after Maurice was born, she frequently had trouble finding roles. She often worked as a courtesan, taking wealthy and influential lovers. The French police of the Second Empire kept files on high-level courtesans, including Bernhardt; her file recorded the wide variety of names and titles of her patrons; they included Alexandre Aguado, the son of Spanish banker and Marquis Alejandro María Aguado; the industrialist Robert de Brimont; the banker Jacques Stern; and the wealthy Louis-Roger de Cahuzac. The list also included Khalil Bey, the Ambassador of the Ottoman Empire to the Second Empire, best known today as the man who commissioned Gustave Courbet to paint "L'Origine du monde", a detailed painting of a woman's anatomy that was banned until 1995, but now on display at the Musée d'Orsay. Bernhardt received from him a diadem of pearls and diamonds. She also had affairs with many of her leading men, and with other men more directly useful to her career, including Arsène Houssaye, director of the Théâtre-Lyrique, and the editors of several major newspapers. Many of her early lovers continued to be her friends after the affairs ended.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: During her time at the Odéon, she continued to see her old lovers, as well as new ones including French marshals François-Certain Canrobert and Achille Bazaine, the latter a commander of the French army in the Crimean War and in Mexico; and Prince Napoleon, son of Joseph Bonaparte and cousin of French Emperor Louis-Napoleon. She also had a two-year-long affair with Charles Haas, son of a banker and one of the most celebrated Paris dandies in the Empire, the model for the character of Swann in the novels by Marcel Proust. Indeed, Swann even references her by name in "Remembrance of Things Past". Sarah Bernhardt is probably one of the actresses after whom Proust modelled Berma, a character present in several volumes of "Remembrance of Things Past".


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt took as lovers many of the male leads of her plays, including Mounet-Sully and Lou Tellegen. She possibly had an affair with the Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII, who frequently attended her London and Paris performances and once, as a prank, played the part of a cadaver in one of her plays. When he was King, he travelled on the royal yacht to visit her at her summer home on Belle-Île.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Her last serious love affair was with the Dutch-born actor Lou Tellegen, 37 years her junior, who became her co-star during her second American farewell tour (and eighth American tour) in 1910. He was a very handsome actor who had served as a model for sculpture "Eternal Springtime" by Auguste Rodin. He had little acting experience, but Bernhardt signed him as a leading man just before she departed on the tour, assigned him a compartment in her private railway car, and took him as her escort to all events, functions, and parties. He was not a particularly good actor, and had a strong Dutch accent, but he was successful in roles, such as Hippolyte in "Phedre", where he could take off his shirt. At the end of the American tour they had a dispute and he remained in the United States while she returned to France. At first, he had a successful career in the United States, and married film actress Geraldine Farrar, but when they split up his career plummeted. He committed suicide in 1934.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt's broad circle of friends included the writers Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, his son Alexandre Dumas "fils", Émile Zola, and the artist Gustave Doré. Her close friends included the painters Georges Clairin and Louise Abbéma (1853–1927), a French impressionist painter, some nine years her junior. This relationship was so close, the two women were rumoured to be lovers. In 1990, a painting by Abbéma, depicting the two on a boat ride on the lake in the bois de Boulogne, was donated to the Comédie-Française. The accompanying letter stated that the painting was ""Peint par Louise Abbéma, le jour anniversaire de leur liaison amoureuse"" (loosely translated: "Painted by Louise Abbéma on the anniversary of their love affair") Clairin and Abbéma spent their holidays with Bernhardt and her family at her summer residence at Belle-Île, and remained close with Bernhardt until her death.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1882, in Paris, Bernhardt met a Greek diplomat, Aristide Damala (known in France by his stage name Jacques Damala), who was 11 years her junior, and notorious for his romantic affairs. Bernhardt's biographer described him as "handsome as Adonis, insolent, vain, and altogether despicable." His affairs with married women had already led to one suicide and two divorces, and the French government had asked him to leave Paris, transferring him to the Greek Embassy in St. Petersburg. She already had a lover at the time, Philippe Garnier, her leading man, but when she met Damala, she fell in love with him, and insisted that her tour be modified to include a stop in St. Petersburg. Garnier politely stepped aside and let her go to St. Petersburg without him. Arriving in St. Petersburg, Bernhardt invited Damala to give up his diplomatic post to become an actor in her company, as well as her lover, and before long, they decided to marry. During a break in the tour, they were married on 4 April 1882 in London. She told her friends that she married because marriage was the only thing she had never experienced. Upon returning to Paris, she found a minor role for Damala in "La Dame aux Camélias" and a leading role in another play without her, "Les Mères Ennemies" by Catulle Mendès. Critics dismissed him as handsome, but without noticeable talent. Damala began taking large quantities of morphine, and following Bernhardt's great success in "Fedora", Damala took every opportunity to criticise and humiliate her. She later discovered that he was using the money she gave him to buy presents for other women. In early December 1882, when she confronted him, he declared that he was going to North Africa to join the Foreign Legion, and disappeared.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In early 1889, Damala reappeared at Bernhardt's door haggard, ill, and penniless. Bernhardt instantly forgave him, and offered him the role of Armand Duval in a new production of "La Dame aux Camélias" at the Variétés. They performed together from 18 May until 30 June. He looked exhausted and old, confused his diction, and forgot his lines. The critic for "Le Rappel" wrote: "Where is, alas, the handsome Armand Duval who was presented to us for the first time a few years ago at the Gaîté?" The critic Francisque Sarcey wrote simply, "he makes us feel sick." When his contract ended, he was able to get another contract as an actor at a different theater, and continued to harass Bernhardt. He attended one of her performances sitting in the first row, and made faces at her. Her current lover, Philippe Garnier, saw him and beat him. Later, he entered her house and ravaged the furniture. Bernhardt was a Roman Catholic, and did not want to divorce him. He continued to act, sometimes with success, particularly in a play by Georges Ohnet, "Le Maître des Forges," in 1883. However, his morphine addiction continued to worsen. In August 1889, Bernhardt learned that he had taken an overdose of morphine in Marseille. She hurried to his bedside and nursed him until he died on 18 August 1889, at the age of 34. He was buried in Athens. Bernhardt sent a bust she had made of him to be placed on his tomb, and when she toured in the Balkans, always made a detour to visit his grave. Until the end of her life, she continued to sign official documents as "Sarah Bernhardt, widow of Damala".


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: After her 1886–87 tour, Bernhardt recuperated on Belle-Île, a small island off the coast of Brittany, 10 miles south of the Quiberon peninsula. She purchased a ruined 17th-century fortress, located at the end of the island and approached by a drawbridge, and turned it into her holiday retreat. Between 1886 and 1922, she spent nearly every summer, the season when her theatre was closed, on Belle-Île. She built bungalows for her son Maurice and her grandchildren, and bungalows with studios for her close friends, the painters Georges Clairin and Louise Abbéma. She also brought her large collection of animals, including several dogs, two horses, a donkey, a hawk given to her by the Russian Grand Duke Alexis, an Andean wildcat, and a boa constrictor she had brought back from her tour of South America. She entertained many visitors at Belle-Île, including King Edward VII, who stopped by the island on a cruise aboard the royal yacht. Always wrapped in white scarves, she played tennis (under house rules that required that she be the winner) and cards, read plays, and created sculptures and ornaments in her studio. When the fishermen of the island suffered a bad season, she organised a benefit performance with leading actors to raise funds for them. She gradually enlarged the estate, purchasing a neighboring hotel and all the land with a view of the property, but in 1922, as her health declined, she abruptly sold it and never returned. During the Second World War, the Germans occupied the island, and in October 1944, before leaving the island, they dynamited most of the compound. All that remains is the original old fort, and a seat cut into the rock where Bernhardt awaited the boat that took her to the mainland.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt was described as a strict vegetarian (what would later be termed vegan), as she avoided dairy, eggs and meat. Her diet consisted of cereal, fruit, nuts and vegetables. In 1913, "The Literary Digest" reported that she became vegetarian to lose weight and regain her figure. However, a 1923 biography of Bernhardt noted that she consumed fish and in her older years favoured Gruyère or Pont-l'Évêque cheese.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Sarah Bernhardt's identity as a Jewish woman elicits a greater idea of the representation of Jewish women in film, cinema and theatre. The former representation of Jewish women revolved heavily around notions of femininity and the Jewish body. However, looking at Sarah Bernhardt's role as Salome, there is a relevant shift in the way Jewish women are portrayed, and viewed throughout theatrical performances and art.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: The way in which the female Jewish body types are represented in 19th century art and theatrics provides a more in depth look into the work of Sarah Barnhardt as a modernising force of Jewish representation. Specifically, the role of Salome shapes the way the female body is admired and viewed by audiences. The famous paintings of Gustave Moreau embody this admiration of Sarah Bernhardt, Salome, and the female Jewish body.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Moreau's paintings, popular in the late 1870s offered origins of a new female Jewishness and Jewish femininity that embodied notions of stereotypical Jewish identity. Based on the figure of Salome, Moreau created three famous paintings devoted to the subject, in which they attracted enormous crowds of more than 500,000 people. Moreau's paintings represented an eroticized Jewish body, one that made Salomé into a slender adolescent, the portraits transformed the image of the Jewish woman at large. The idea of Jewish femininity shifted away from the maternal and womanly features and instead led in the direction of the slender, lean, and girlish figure. As such, the effect is to foreground and frame an entirely different model of female beauty than that on offer in Orientalist representations of the Jewish woman.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Sarah Bernhardt, whose rise to prominence paralleled Moreau's Salomé portraits, and whose career intersected when she accepted the lead role in Oscar Wilde's play in as Salome in 1894. Bernhardt was linked with a quality of thinness. This quality was persistently foregrounded in the multiple representations of her proliferating in art, caricature, and photography. "Her thinness is really quite remarkable," wrote Henry James of Georges Clarin's 1876 Portrait of Sarah Bernhard, on display at the same salon where Moreau's Salomés made their debut." These arguments to her thinness, fed in with a general sense that as a Jew, Bernhardt was sickly, malnourished, diseased—perhaps syphilitic or tubercular, as Sander Gilman has argued.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In response to these paintings and portrayals, Bernhardt made efforts to present herself as a star of fashion as well as of theatre, appropriating this label and resituating it on her own terms. To the perception that she was emaciated, sick, skeletal, Bernhardt responded by modeling sculptures of death's heads, had herself photographed in a coffin, and marketed the pictures. She made her thinness fashionable—by her flamboyant persona, in her role in dress reform, and in her writing and other public pronouncements.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Gustave Moreau and Oscar Wilde created a mass of artistic decadence, and Sarah Bernhardt used this to influence a new model of Jewish female beauty. Sarah Bernhardt herself did much to shape the image of Jewish female beauty, seizing upon the means by which she, like so many Jewish women, was represented in order to make a new look her own. As such, she helped create a new style, a new fashion, which defined the Jewish woman for the next generations— one which combined clothing, jewellery, and especially what Pierre Bourdieu provocatively calls "bodily hexis" to create a new model of feminine beauty.-' As time passed, the image of Bernhardt and Salomé intertwined, and more and more Jewish women took up the role and modeled themselves on Oscar Wilde's character and Sarah Bernhardt.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: After Bernhardt's death, her theatre was managed by her son Maurice until his death in 1928. It kept its name until the occupation of Paris by the Germans in World War II, when, because of Bernhardt's Jewish ancestry, the name was changed to Théâtre de la Cité. The name was changed back to the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt in 1947, then in 1957 became the Théâtre des Nations. In 1968, it was renamed the Théâtre de la Ville, which is the name it has today.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1876, Bernhardt constructed a large townhouse at 35 rue Fortuny in the 17th arrondissement, not far from Parc Monceau, for her family, servants, and animals. In 1885, when her debts mounted, she sold the house. Once her fortune was replenished by her tours abroad, she bought an even larger house at 56 avenue Pereire in the 17th arrondissement, where she died in 1923. The house was demolished in the 1960s and replaced by a modern apartment building. A plaque on the façade commemorates Bernhardt's earlier residence.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 1960, Bernhardt was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame with a motion pictures star located at 1751 Vine Street. To date, she is the earliest born person on the Walk (born in 1844), followed by Thomas Edison and Siegmund Lubin.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: In 2018, Roundabout Theatre Company produced Theresa Rebeck's play "Bernhardt/Hamlet". In the play, Rebeck explores the controversy surrounding Bernhardt's decision to play Hamlet. The play opened on Broadway in September at the American Airlines Theater for a limited run. It starred Janet McTeer as Bernhardt and it was directed by Moritz von Stuelpnagel. McTeer received a Tony Award nomination for portraying Bernhardt.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: The new women's movement that took place in late nineteenth century and early twentieth century Brazil, was a movement built around a woman's ability to gain access to public spaces in Brazil. Among middle-class women, new opportunities and possibilities opened up for women allowing them professional positions in the workforce. Some women also found the acting profession to afford them freedom and independence. The theatre offered women an environment relatively free of social constraints. The profession of an actress held a controversial opinion within society. On one hand, high society embraced women who appeared in plays or opera representing a high culture. While on the other hand, female performers could suffer public scrutiny and gossip for leading unconventional lives.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: "The Eternal Feminine" was published 16 January 1886 by Revista Illstrada in Brazil six months prior to the first visiting of Sarah Bernhardt. "The Eternal Feminine" discussed advances of middle class and elite women in Brazil, citing expanding educational opportunities, acknowledging that women were capable of entering many new professions and industries that had previously been restricted to primarily men. "The Eternal Feminine" stated that "The bello sexo", as journalists so often called women, may move into new occupations, but their beauty, elegance, and eternal femininity needed to remain in place."


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: Bernhardt's performances in Brazil had lasting effects in the sense that they encouraged new notions of possibilities for women in a patriarchal and traditional society and in theatre. Bernhardt made use of an array of tropes assigned to women to create a public personality that afforded her freedom, independence, and immense popularity at home and abroad." Even her famous cross-dressing roles such as Hamlet intervened in the tension between the traditional woman and the New Woman. Bernhardt's ability to own her own theatre also speaks to the ways in which she embodies a new form of women.


title: Sarah Bernhardt

text: "In an era of debate about gender norms, Bernhardt's star image presented a similar fantasy scenario that fulfilled a need on the part of her public for unity, resolution, and reassurance. To her more socially conservative fans, Bernhardt appeased fears concerning the threat of the New Woman and the demise of female seduction as an everyday pleasure. She transcended the perceived conflict between the independent New Woman and the séductrice. [. . .] [S]he was a living example of Marguerite Durand's contention that a woman need not lose her femininity to compete in a man's world."


title: Toilet

text: A toilet is a piece of sanitary hardware that collects human urine and feces, and sometimes toilet paper, usually for disposal. Flush toilets use water, while dry or non-flush toilets do not. They can be designed for a sitting position popular in Europe and North America with a toilet seat, with additional considerations for those with disabilities, or for a squatting posture more popular in Asia (see squat toilet). In urban areas, flush toilets are usually connected to a sewer system that leads to septic tanks in isolated areas. The waste is known as "blackwater" and the combined effluent including other sources is sewage. Dry toilets are connected to a pit, removable container, composting chamber, or other storage and treatment device, including urine diversion with a urine-diverting toilet.


title: Toilet

text: The technology used for modern toilets varies. Toilets are commonly made of ceramic (porcelain), concrete, plastic, or wood. Newer toilet technologies include dual flushing, low flushing, toilet seat warming, self-cleaning, female urinals and waterless urinals. Japan is known for its toilet technology. Airplane toilets are specially designed to operate in the air. The need to maintain anal hygiene post-defecation is universally recognized and toilet paper (often held by a toilet roll holder), which may also be used to wipe the vulva after urination, is widely used (as well as bidets).


title: Toilet

text: In private homes, depending on the region and style, the toilet may exist in the same bathroom as the sink, bathtub, and shower. Another option is to have one room for body washing (also called "bathroom") and a separate one for the toilet and handwashing sink (toilet room). Public toilets (restrooms) consist of one or more toilets (and commonly single urinals or "trough" urinals) which are available for use by the general public. Products like urinal blocks and toilet blocks help maintain the smell and cleanliness of toilets. Toilet seat covers are sometimes used. Portable toilets (frequently chemical "porta johns") may be brought in for large and temporary gatherings.


title: Toilet

text: Historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. However, many poor households in developing countries use very basic, and often unhygienic, toilets – and nearly one billion people have no access to a toilet at all; they must openly defecate and urinate. These issues can lead to the spread of diseases transmitted via the fecal-oral route, or the transmission of waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea. Therefore, the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6 wants to "achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation".


title: Toilet

text: Toilets can be designed to be used either in a sitting or in a squatting posture. Each type has its benefits. The "sitting toilet", however, is essential for those who are movement impaired. Sitting toilets are often referred to as "western-style toilets". Sitting toilets are more convenient than squat toilets for people with disabilities and the elderly.


title: Toilet

text: People use different toilet types based on the country that they are in. In developing countries, access to toilets is also related to people's socio-economic status. Poor people in low-income countries often have no toilets at all and resort to open defecation instead. This is part of the sanitation crisis which international initiatives (such as World Toilet Day) draw attention to.


title: Toilet

text: A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl (pan) connected on the "up" side to a cistern (tank) that enables rapid filling with water, and on the "down" side to a drain pipe that removes the effluent. When a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a sewage treatment plant. However, in many developing countries, this treatment step does not take place.


title: Toilet

text: The water in the toilet bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain. The bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line.


title: Toilet

text: The amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage. However, modern low flush toilet designs allow the use of much less water per flush. Dual flush toilets allow the user to select between a flush for urine or feces, saving a significant amount of water over conventional units. The flush handle on these toilets is pushed up for one kind of flush and down for the other. Another design is to have two buttons, one for urination and the other for defecation. In some places, users are encouraged not to flush after urination. Flushing toilets can be plumbed to use greywater (previously used for washing dishes, laundry, and bathing) rather than potable water (drinking water). Some modern toilets pressurize the water in the tank, which initiates flushing action with less water usage.


title: Toilet

text: Another variant is the pour-flush toilet. This type of flush toilet has no cistern but is flushed manually with a few liters of a small bucket. The flushing can use as little as . This type of toilet is common in many Asian countries. The toilet can be connected to one or two pits, in which case it is called a "pour flush pit latrine" or a "twin pit pour flush to pit latrine". It can also be connected to a septic tank.


title: Toilet

text: Twin pit latrines use two pits used alternatively, when one pit gets full over a few months or years. The pits are of an adequate size to accommodate a volume of waste generated over one or two years. This allows the contents of the full pit enough time to transform into a partially sanitized, soil-like material that can be manually excavated. There is a risk of groundwater pollution when pits are located in areas with a high or variable water table, and/or fissures or cracks in the bedrock.


title: Toilet

text: A vacuum toilet is a flush toilet that is connected to a vacuum sewer system, and removes waste by suction. They may use very little water (less than a quarter of a liter per flush) or none, (as in waterless urinals). Some flush with coloured disinfectant solution rather than with water. They may be used to separate blackwater and greywater, and process them separately (for instance, the fairly dry blackwater can be used for biogas production, or in a composting toilet).


title: Toilet

text: Passenger train toilets, aircraft lavatories, bus toilets, and ships with plumbing often use vacuum toilets. The lower water usage saves weight, and avoids water slopping out of the toilet bowl in motion. Aboard vehicles, a portable collection chamber is used; if it is filled by positive pressure from an intermediate vacuum chamber, it need not be kept under vacuum.


title: Toilet

text: A floating toilet is essentially a toilet on a platform built above or floating on the water. Instead of excreta going into the ground they are collected in a tank or barrel. To reduce the amount of excreta that needs to hauled to shore, many use urine diversion. The floating toilet was developed for residents without quick access to land or connection to a sewer systems. It is also used in areas subjected to prolonged flooding. The need for this type of toilet is high in areas like Cambodia.


title: Toilet

text: A vault toilet is a non-flush toilet with a sealed container (or vault) buried in the ground to receive the excreta, all of which is contained underground until it is removed by pumping. A vault toilet is distinguished from a pit latrine because the waste accumulates in the vault instead of seeping into the underlying soil.


title: Toilet

text: The pig toilet, which consists of a toilet linked to a pigsty by a chute, is still in use to a limited extent. It was common in rural China, and was known in Japan, Korea, and India. The "fish pond toilet" depends on the same principle, of livestock (often carp) eating human excreta directly.


title: Toilet

text: There are cultural differences in socially accepted and preferred voiding positions for urination around the world: in the Middle East and Asia, the squatting position is more prevalent, while in the Western world the standing and sitting position are more common.


title: Toilet

text: In the Western world, the most common method of cleaning the anal area after defecation is by toilet paper or sometimes by using a bidet. In many Muslim countries, the facilities are designed to enable people to follow Islamic toilet etiquette "". For example, a bidet shower may be plumbed in. The left hand is used for cleansing, for which reason that hand is considered impolite or polluted in many Asian countries.


title: Toilet

text: The use of water in many Christian countries is due in part to the biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. The bidet is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing, and in some traditionally Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common.


title: Toilet

text: There are toilets on the market where the seats have integrated spray mechanisms for anal and genital water sprays (see for example Toilets in Japan). This can be useful for the elderly or people with disabilities.


title: Toilet

text: An accessible toilet is designed to accommodate people with physical disabilities, such as age related limited mobility or inability to walk due to impairments. Additional measures to add toilet accessibility are providing more space and grab bars to ease transfer to and from the toilet seat, including enough room for a caregiver if necessary.


title: Toilet

text: To this day, 1 billion people in developing countries have no toilets in their homes and are resorting to open defecation instead. Therefore, it is one of the targets of Sustainable Development Goal 6 to provide toilets (sanitation services) to everyone by 2030.


title: Toilet

text: Toilets are one important element of a sanitation system, although other elements are also needed: transport, treatment, disposal, or reuse. Diseases, including Cholera, which still affects some 3 million people each year, can be largely prevented when effective sanitation and water treatment prevents fecal matter from contaminating waterways, groundwater, and drinking water supplies.


title: Toilet

text: The fourth millennium BC would witness the invention of clay pipes, sewers, and toilets, in Mesopotamia, with the city of Uruk today exhibiting the earliest known internal pit toilet, from c.3200 BC. The Neolithic village of Skara Brae contains examples, c.3000 BC, of internal small rooms over a communal drain, rather than pit. The Indus Valley civilisation in Pakistan and northwestern India was home to the world's first known urban sanitation systems. In Mohenjo-Daro (c. 2800 BC), toilets were built into the outer walls of homes. These toilets had vertical chutes, via which waste was disposed of into cesspits or street drains. Another typical example is the Indus city of Lothal (c. 2350 BC). In Lothal all houses had their own private toilet which was connected to a covered sewer network constructed of brickwork held together with a gypsum-based mortar that emptied either into the surrounding water bodies or alternatively into cesspits, the latter of which were regularly emptied and cleaned.


title: Toilet

text: Other very early toilets that used flowing water to remove the waste are found at Skara Brae in Orkney, Scotland, which was occupied from about 3100 BC until 2500 BC. Some of the houses there have a drain running directly beneath them, and some of these had a cubicle over the drain. Around the 18th century BC, toilets started to appear in Minoan Crete, Pharaonic Egypt, and ancient Persia.


title: Toilet

text: In 2012, archaeologists found what is believed to be Southeast Asia's earliest latrine during the excavation of a neolithic village in the , southern Vietnam. The toilet, dating back 1500 BC, yielded important clues about early Southeast Asian society. More than 30 coprolites, containing fish and shattered animal bones, provided information on the diet of humans and dogs, and on the types of parasites each had to contend with.


title: Toilet

text: In Roman civilization, latrines using flowing water were sometimes part of public bath houses. Roman latrines, like the ones pictured here, are commonly thought to have been used in the sitting position. The Roman toilets were probably elevated to raise them above open sewers which were periodically "flushed" with flowing water, rather than elevated for sitting. Romans and Greeks also used chamber pots, which they brought to meals and drinking sessions. Johan J. Mattelaer said, "Plinius has described how there were large receptacles in the streets of cities such as Rome and Pompeii into which chamber pots of urine were emptied. The urine was then collected by fullers." (Fulling was a vital step in textile manufacture.)


title: Toilet

text: Garderobes were toilets used in the Post-classical history, most commonly found in upper-class dwellings. Essentially, they were flat pieces of wood or stone spanning from one wall to the other, with one or more holes to sit on. These were above chutes or pipes that discharged outside the castle or Manor house. Garderobes would be placed in areas away from bedrooms to shun the smell and also near kitchens or fireplaces to keep the enclosure warm.


title: Toilet

text: The other main way of handling toilet needs was the chamber pot, a receptacle, usually of ceramic or metal, into which one would excrete waste. This method was used for hundreds of years; shapes, sizes, and decorative variations changed throughout the centuries. Chamber pots were in common use in Europe from ancient times, even being taken to the Middle East by medieval pilgrims.


title: Toilet

text: By the Early Modern era, chamber pots were frequently made of china or copper and could include elaborate decoration. They were emptied into the gutter of the street nearest to the home.


title: Toilet

text: In pre-modern Denmark, people generally defecated on farmland or other places where the human waste could be collected as fertilizer. The Old Norse language had several terms for referring to outhouses, including "garðhús" (yard house), "náð-/náða-hús" (house of rest), and "annat hús" (the other house). In general, toilets were functionally non-existent in rural Denmark until the 18th century.


title: Toilet

text: By the 16th century, cesspits and cesspools were increasingly dug into the ground near houses in Europe as a means of collecting waste, as urban populations grew and street gutters became blocked with the larger volume of human waste. Rain was no longer sufficient to wash away waste from the gutters. A pipe connected the latrine to the cesspool, and sometimes a small amount of water washed waste through. Cesspools were cleaned out by tradesmen, known in English as gong farmers, who pumped out liquid waste, then shovelled out the solid waste and collected it during the night. This solid waste, euphemistically known as nightsoil, was sold as fertilizer for agricultural production (similarly to the closing-the-loop approach of ecological sanitation).


title: Toilet

text: In the early 19th century, public officials and public hygiene experts studied and debated sanitation for several decades. The construction of an underground network of pipes to carry away solid and liquid waste was only begun in the mid 19th-century, gradually replacing the cesspool system, although cesspools were still in use in some parts of Paris into the 20th century. Even London, at that time the world's largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War.


title: Toilet

text: The working-class home had transitioned from the rural cottage, to the urban back-to-back terraces with external rows of privies, to the through terraced houses of the 1880 with their sculleries and individual external WC. It was the Tudor Walters Report of 1918 that recommended that semi-skilled workers should be housed in suburban cottages with kitchens and internal WC. As recommended floor standards waxed and waned in the building standards and codes, the bathroom with a water closet and later the low-level suite, became more prominent in the home.


title: Toilet

text: Before the introduction of indoor toilets, it was common to use the chamber pot under one's bed at night and then to dispose of its contents in the morning. During the Victorian era, British housemaids collected all of the household's chamber pots and carried them to a room known as the housemaids' cupboard. This room contained a "slop sink", made of wood with a lead lining to prevent chipping china chamber pots, for washing the "bedroom ware" or "chamber utensils". Once running water and flush toilets were plumbed into British houses, servants were sometimes given their own lavatory downstairs, separate from the family lavatory. The practice of emptying one's own chamber pot, known as slopping out, continued in British prisons until as recently as 2014 and was still in use in 85 cells in the Republic of Ireland in July 2017.


title: Toilet

text: With rare exceptions, chamber pots are no longer used. Modern related implements are bedpans and commodes, used in hospitals and the homes of invalids.


title: Toilet

text: Long-established sanitary wear manufacturers in the United Kingdom include Adamsez, founded in Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1880, by M.J. and S.H. Adams, and Twyfords, founded in Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent in 1849, by Thomas Twyford and his son Thomas William Twyford.


title: Toilet

text: Before the widespread adoption of the flush toilet, there were inventors, scientists, and public health officials who supported the use of "dry earth closets" – nowadays known either as dry toilets or composting toilets.


title: Toilet

text: Although a precursor to the flush toilet system which is widely used nowadays was designed in 1596 by John Harington, such systems did not come into widespread use until the late nineteenth century. With the onset of the industrial revolution and related advances in technology, the flush toilet began to emerge into its modern form. A crucial advance in plumbing, was the S-trap, invented by the Scottish mechanic Alexander Cummings in 1775, and still in use today. This device uses the standing water to seal the outlet of the bowl, preventing the escape of foul air from the sewer. It was only in the mid-19th century, with growing levels of urbanisation and industrial prosperity, that the flush toilet became a widely used and marketed invention. This period coincided with the dramatic growth in the sewage system, especially in London, which made the flush toilet particularly attractive for health and sanitation reasons.


title: Toilet

text: Flush toilets were also known as "water closets", as opposed to the earth closets described above. WCs first appeared in Britain in the 1880s, and soon spread to Continental Europe. In America, the chain-pull indoor toilet was introduced in the homes of the wealthy and in hotels in the 1890s. William Elvis Sloan invented the Flushometer in 1906, which used pressurized water directly from the supply line for faster recycle time between flushes.


title: Toilet

text: "High-tech" toilets, which can be found in countries like Japan, include features such as automatic-flushing mechanisms; water jets or "bottom washers"; blow dryers, or artificial flush sounds to mask noises. Others include medical monitoring features such as urine and stool analysis and the checking of blood pressure, temperature, and blood sugar. Some toilets have automatic lid operation, heated seats, deodorizing fans, or automated replacement of paper toilet-seat-covers. Interactive urinals have been developed in several countries, allowing users to play video games. The "Toylet", produced by Sega, uses pressure sensors to detect the flow of urine and translates that into on-screen action.


title: Toilet

text: Astronauts on the International Space Station use a space toilet with urine diversion which can recover potable water.


title: Toilet

text: Toilet was originally a French loanword (first attested in 1540) that referred to the " ("little cloth") draped over one's shoulders during hairdressing. During the late 17th century, the term came to be used by metonymy in both languages for the whole complex of grooming and body care that centered at a dressing table (also covered by a cloth) and for the equipment composing a toilet service, including a mirror, hairbrushes, and containers for powder and makeup. The time spent at such a table also came to be known as one's "toilet"; it came to be a period during which close friends or tradesmen were received as "toilet-calls".


title: Toilet

text: The use of "toilet" to describe a special room for grooming came much later (first attested in 1819), following the French ". Similar to "powder room", "toilet" then came to be used as a euphemism for rooms dedicated to urination and defecation, particularly in the context of signs for public toilets, as on trains. Finally, it came to be used for the plumbing fixtures in such rooms (apparently first in the United States) as these replaced chamber pots, outhouses, and latrines. These two uses, the fixture and the room, completely supplanted the other senses of the word during the 20th century except in the form "toiletries".


title: Toilet

text: The word "toilet" was by etymology a euphemism, but is no longer understood as such. As old euphemisms have become the standard term, they have been progressively replaced by newer ones, an example of the euphemism treadmill at work. The choice of word relies not only on regional variation, but also on social situation and level of formality (register) or social class. American manufacturers show an uneasiness with the word and its class attributes: American Standard, the largest firm, sells them as "toilets", yet the higher priced products of the Kohler Company, often installed in more expensive housing, are sold as "commodes" or "closets", words which also carry other meanings. Confusingly, products imported from Japan such as TOTO are referred to as "toilets", even though they carry the cachet of higher cost and quality. Toto (an abbreviation of Tōyō Tōki, 東洋陶器, Oriental Ceramics) is used in Japanese comics to visually indicate toilets or other things that look like toilets (see Toilets in Japan).


title: Toilet

text: Different dialects use "bathroom" and "restroom" (American English), "bathroom" and "washroom" (Canadian English), and "WC" (an initialism for "water closet"), "lavatory" and its abbreviation "lav" (British English). Euphemisms for the toilet that bear no direct reference to the activities of urination and defecation are ubiquitous in modern Western languages, reflecting a general attitude of unspeakability about such bodily function. These euphemistic practices appear to have become pronounced following the emergence of European colonial practices, which frequently denigrated colonial subjects in Africa, Asia and South America as 'unclean'.


title: Toilet

text: "Crapper" was already in use as a coarse name for a toilet, but it gained currency from the work of Thomas Crapper, who popularized flush toilets in England.


title: Toilet

text: "The Jacks" is Irish slang for toilet. It perhaps derives from "jacques" and "jakes", an old English term.


title: Toilet

text: "Loo" – The etymology of loo is obscure. The "Oxford English Dictionary" notes the 1922 appearance of "How much cost? Waterloo. Watercloset." in James Joyce's novel "Ulysses" and defers to Alan S. C. Ross's arguments that it derived in some fashion from the site of Napoleon's 1815 defeat. In the 1950s the use of the word "loo" was considered one of the markers of British upper-class speech, featuring in a famous essay, "U and non-U English". "Loo" may have derived from a corruption of French ' ("water"), ' – whence Scots "gardy loo" – ("mind the water", used in reference to emptying chamber pots into the street from an upper-story window), ' ("place"), ' ("place of ease", used euphemistically for a toilet), or "" ("English place", used from around 1770 to refer to English-style toilets installed for travelers). Other proposed etymologies include a supposed tendency to place toilets in room 100 (hence "loo") in English hotels, a dialectical corruption of the nautical term "lee" in reference to the need to urinate and defecate with the wind prior to the advent of head pumps, or the 17th-century preacher Louis Bourdaloue, whose long sermons at Paris's Saint-Paul-Saint-Louis prompted his parishioners to bring along chamber pots.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Hunter Killer is a 2018 American action thriller film directed by Donovan Marsh, written by Arne Schmidt and Jamie Moss, and based on the 2012 novel "Firing Point" by Don Keith and George Wallace. The film stars Gerard Butler and Gary Oldman with Michael Nyqvist (in one of his final film roles), Common, Linda Cardellini and Toby Stephens in supporting roles, and follows a submarine crew and a group of United States Navy SEALs who rescue the captured Russian President from a coup.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: "Hunter Killer" was released in the United States on October 26, 2018, by Summit Premiere. A disappointment at the box-office, the film received mixed reviews from critics, who saw it as "an undemanding, by-the-numbers actioner".


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: The U.S. USS "Tampa Bay" vanishes while shadowing the Russian "Konek" in the Arctic. Rear Admiral John Fisk (Common) sends the , under the command of newly promoted and unorthodox Commander Joe Glass (Gerard Butler) to investigate.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: At the same time, a Navy SEAL team under the command of Lieutenant Bill Beaman (Toby Stephens) is sent in to discreetly observe the Russian naval base in Polyarny, Murmansk Oblast, but their mission is jeopardized when Martinelli (Zane Holtz), the team's new designated marksman recruit, is injured during the HALO drop. When they arrive at the naval base, they witness defense minister, Admiral of the Fleet Dmitriy Durov (Mikhail Gorevoy), conducting a coup d'état and taking Russian president Nikolai Zakarin (Alexander Dyachenko) prisoner, and swiftly realize that Durov intends to trigger a war. Their location is almost discovered by the Russians during a radio intercept check, but the SEALs manage to hide away undetected. Martinelli is shot in the leg by a Russian officer firing blindly into their hiding location, forcing the team to leave him behind.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Meanwhile, "Arkansas" discovers the destroyed "Tampa Bay", and also finds the sunken Russian submarine "Konek" damaged in a manner that suggests internal sabotage rather than external attack. They are attacked by another Russian Akula submarine, "Volkov", that has been hiding under an iceberg, but Glass is able to destroy the ambusher and rescue Russian survivors from "Konek", including its commanding officer, Captain 2nd rank Sergei Andropov (Michael Nyqvist).


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Back at base, the U.S. government learns about the coup. Admiral Charles Donnegan (Gary Oldman) recommends preparing for war, while Fisk suggests that "Arkansas" be sent to rendezvous with Beaman's team after they have rescued Zakarin. Glass manages to convince the reluctant Andropov to help, and with Andropov's knowledge of the challenging underwater topography and the minefield protecting the base, Glass navigates "Arkansas" near the base undetected. Meanwhile, Beaman's team rescue Russian Presidential Security Service Agent Oleg (Yuri Kolokolnikov), who was previously shot by Durov's men when he tried to stop Durov from holding Zakarin hostage. Together they infiltrate the base and succeed in retrieving President Zakarin, but lose Oleg, and two teammates, Devin Hall (Michael Trucco) and Matt Johnstone (Ryan McPartlin), in the process. With Martinelli providing sniper cover fire, Beaman delivers the injured president to "Arkansas"s deep-submergence rescue vehicle, then goes back alone for Martinelli, saving him just as he is about to be executed.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: As the U.S. and Russian fleets prepare for battle, "Arkansas" sustains further damage when they are attacked by Andropov's old ship, RFS "Yevchenko"—a heavily armed destroyer now commanded by Captain Vlade Sutrev (Ilia Volok), a member of Durov's conspiracy—but Andropov is able to communicate a message affirming that President Zakarin is aboard the submarine. When Durov orders his forces at the base to fire missiles at the surfaced "Arkansas", Glass refuses to take action, recognizing that firing back at the Russians could start the war he is trying to stop. In the last seconds, Andropov's old crewmates defy orders and destroy the incoming missiles with the close-in weapon system before they can strike "Arkansas", and subsequently destroy the naval base headquarters with their missiles, killing Durov. With the war averted, Glass docks "Arkansas" to the Russian naval base to return Zakarin and Andropov's surviving crew to their country. "Arkansas" picks up Beaman and Martinelli, and travels back to the U.S. with a Russian Navy escort.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Relativity Media first purchased the spec script, written by Arne Schmidt and adapted from the novel "Firing Point", in 2008. Pierre Morel was in talks to direct. In February 2011, "Variety" reported that Phillip Noyce was hired to direct the film. John Kolvenbach and Jamie Moss provided rewrites to the script; the latter's rewrites was what interested Noyce to direct. Production was set to begin at the end of the year before Noyce left the project, citing similarities between other films that he previously helmed, and moved on to films like "Above Suspicion". Antoine Fuqua was later hired to replace him, and a release date was set for December 21, 2012. Gerard Butler was cast as Joe Glass and Sam Worthington was considered for Bill Beaman. Fuqua and Butler later left production to work on "Olympus Has Fallen", and the film remained in development hell as directors like McG and Steven Quale passed on the film. Gerard Butler eventually returned to the film as Martin Campbell was chosen to direct. Common and Billy Bob Thornton were added to the cast, and Peter Craig provided uncredited rewrites.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: On November 12, 2015, it was announced that a deal between producers of the film had been made, that Relativity, Neal H. Moritz, and Toby Jaffe's Original Film would now produce the film along with Millennium Films, which would also co-finance and distribute. On March 3, 2016, it was announced that Donovan Marsh would direct the film and Gerard Butler and Gary Oldman would star, with Original Film's Neal H. Moritz and Toby Jaffe producing the film along with Butler, Tooley Productions' Tucker Tooley, Alan Siegel, and Millennium's Mark Gill, John Thompson, Matt O'Toole and Les Weldon. On June 23, 2016, Taylor John Smith was cast in the film to play a sonar man on the sub. On July 6, 2016, Gabriel Chavarria joined the film to play a Navy SEAL aboard the U.S. submarine, next day, Zane Holtz also joined the film to play "Martinelli," a brave and skilled member of the elite unit. On July 13, 2016, Michael Trucco and Ryan McPartlin also came aboard to play a weapons specialist Devin Hall, and an ex-SEAL and CIA medic Matt Johnstone, respectively. On July 19, 2016, Michael Nyqvist was added to the cast to play Captain Sergei Andropov. On July 21, 2016, David Gyasi joined the film to play the Chief of the Boat of the submarine USS "Omaha", with Toby Stephens cast to play Lt. Beaman, head of the black ops squad. On August 4, 2016, Linda Cardellini joined the cast.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Principal photography on the film began on July 25, 2016, in London, and in Bulgaria. Interior sets of a "Virginia"-class Hunter Killer submarine were built at Ealing Studios, using blueprints approved by the U.S. Navy, with the spaces expanded slightly to allow freer camera movement. The sets were mounted on a gimbal to simulate the movement of the sea. Ealing also hosted a Pentagon set from where U.S. military personnel track the submarine action.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Although the heroes of the movie are portrayed as U.S Navy SEALs the costuming department for the movie used commercially available uniforms in A-TACS FG camouflage which is not a pattern in use by the U.S Navy.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: An exterior set of the main Hunter Killer submarine was built in Pinewood Studios’ 806,000-gallon exterior water tank, while underwater scenes were shot using a separate water tank at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden, also just outside London. Interiors of the Russian base were built as sets at Nu Boyana Film Studios in Bulgarian capital, Sofia.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: The film was released in the United States on October 26, 2018, by Lionsgate through the Summit Premiere label. It was released in several territories, including the United Kingdom, the week before on October 19, 2018.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: In Ukraine, the film was scheduled to premiere on October 25, but the Ukraine Ministry of Culture denied it an exhibition license based on a 2012 law on cinematography that banned "the distribution and screening of films, the goal of which is to popularise the bodies of an aggressor state and/or Soviet state security organs". According to a representative of the Ukrainian State Film Agency (Derzhkino), screening the film would be illegal because it contains a "positive image of the Russian president and admiral of the Russian army". Ukrainian-Russian relations have deteriorated since the 2014 Russian annexation of Crimea.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: In Russia, the film was scheduled to premiere on November 1, but the film failed to obtain an exhibition license from the culture ministry. The ministry stated that the copy of the movie submitted by the distributor for review was of poor quality and the replacement was submitted too late for the ministry to review it in time.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: "Hunter Killer" was released on digital on January 15, 2019, and on Ultra HD Blu-ray, Blu-ray and DVD on January 29, 2019, by Lionsgate Home Entertainment.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: "Hunter Killer" grossed $15.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $15.9 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $31.7 million.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: In the United States and Canada, "Hunter Killer" was released alongside "Indivisible" and "Johnny English Strikes Again", and was projected to gross $5–9 million from 2,720 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $2.6 million on its first day, including $420,000 from Thursday night previews. It went on to debut to $6.7 million, finishing fifth at the box office and marking the worst debut for Butler since "Playing for Keeps" ($5.8 million) in 2012. The film made $3.5 million in its second weekend, falling to ninth.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average score of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Much like the submarine in its story, "Hunter Killer" cruises the murky action depths, following a perfunctory course into territory that's been charted many times before." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 43 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it 4 out of 5 stars.


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Bilge Ebiri of Vulture.com wrote: "Hunter Killer" won’t win any awards for originality, but it may win a couple for the brazenness with which it stacks clichés upon clichés. Basically, it’s "Crimson Tide" meets "Lone Survivor" meets "Under Siege" meets a Russian variation on "Olympus Has Fallen", with a bit of "Geostorm" thrown in. At least three of those movies are pretty good, so the overall math works in the film’s favor."


title: Hunter Killer (film)

text: Norman Wilner of Toronto's "Now" accused Marsh for ripping off John McTiernan's "The Hunt For Red October" and stated that "The constant agitation and bone-deep respect for all things military is straight out of Clancy’s playbook, but there’s no Jack Ryan figure to humanize it all."


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Lionel Sebastián Scaloni (; born 16 May 1978) is an Argentine professional football manager and former player who is the coach of the Argentina national team. A player of wide range, he operated as a right-back or right midfielder.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: He spent most of his professional career with Deportivo de La Coruña in Spain, amassing totals of 258 games and 15 goals over 12 seasons in La Liga with three teams. He also played several years in Italy, with Lazio and Atalanta.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Scaloni won seven caps for Argentina between 2003 and 2006, and was part of their 2006 World Cup squad. He later became a manager, notably leading the national team to the 2021 Copa América, CONMEBOL–UEFA Cup of Champions, and the 2022 FIFA World Cup title.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Born in the small town of Pujato in Santa Fe Province, with Italian origins from Ascoli Piceno, Scaloni began his career in the Argentine Primera División with local club Newell's Old Boys and then Estudiantes de La Plata, before joining Spain's Deportivo de La Coruña in December 1997 for 405 million pesetas.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Regularly used with the Galicians over an eight-and-a-half-year stint, he competed with Manuel Pablo and Víctor for both starting spots on the right flank. Due to a knee injury, he appeared in only 14 La Liga matches as "Depor" won the title for the first time.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: After falling out with manager Joaquín Caparrós, Scaloni joined Premier League side West Ham United on loan on 31 January 2006, the final day of the transfer window, in an attempt to increase his chance of selection for the upcoming World Cup. He took the number 2 shirt from the departed Tomáš Řepka, and made his league debut for the East Londoners against Sunderland, on 4 February; he also helped the team to reach the FA Cup final, a penalty shootout loss to Liverpool.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Scaloni left West Ham after a permanent move could not be agreed. Deportivo released him on 1 September 2006 alongside Diego Tristán, one day after the close of the summer transfer window.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: However, due to the fact there were no limitations for free agents, two weeks later Scaloni signed a one-year contract at Racing de Santander, The Cantabrians subsequently finished in mid table. He appeared – and started – in both games against his former club, both ending in 0–0 draws.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: On 30 June 2007, Scaloni moved to S.S. Lazio in Italy's Serie A on a five-year deal. In January of the following year he returned to Spain, on loan to RCD Mallorca for 18 months; subsequently, he returned to Rome, where he was rarely used for the following three seasons.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: At age 35, Scaloni joined Atalanta B.C. in January 2013. He was released at the end of the campaign, but re-signed after failing to find a new club.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: After making his debut for Argentina on 30 April 2003 in a friendly game with Libya, Scaloni was a surprise selection for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, taking the place of veteran Javier Zanetti who also played as a right wing-back. His only appearance of the tournament was the 2–1 extra time round of 16 win against Mexico on 24 June 2006 at the Zentralstadion, which he started and finished.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: On 11 October 2016, Scaloni joined compatriot Jorge Sampaoli's coaching staff at Sevilla FC. In June 2017, when the latter was appointed as the new national team boss, he was again named his assistant.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: One year later, after the country's failure at the World Cup in Russia, Scaloni and Pablo Aimar were named caretaker managers until the end of the year. In November 2018, the former was confirmed in the post until the following June when the 2019 Copa América was due to take place, despite widespread opposition against him at the time. He led the side to third place in Brazil.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Scaloni led Argentina to the 2021 Copa América title after defeating Brazil who were once again the hosts (1–0), helping them to win their first trophy in 28 years. In November that year, he was nominated for The Best FIFA Football Coach Award, but did not make the final three shortlist.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: On 1 June, 2022 Scaloni's Argentina won the 2022 Finalissima after defeating Italy 3–0 at Wembley Stadium. On 22 November, his side lost 2–1 to Saudi Arabia in their opening group stage match of the World Cup in Qatar; the result was considered statistically the greatest upset in the history of the tournament. Nevertheless, they made it into the knockout stages after recording wins over Mexico (2–0) and Poland (also 2–0). Argentina then overcame Australia (2–1) in the round of 16, and advanced over the Netherlands in the quarter-finals with a penalty shoot-out victory, following which Scaloni defended his team after controversy surrounding the fights and tension between Argentine and Dutch players during the ill-tempered shoot-out. After beating Croatia 3–0 in the semi-finals, the nation reached the final for the second time in eight years. He then led Argentina to their third FIFA World Cup title in the final against France.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: Scaloni's older brother, Mauro, also belonged to Deportivo, but never made it beyond its reserve team. He and his wife Elisa Montero have two sons, Ian and Noah.


title: Lionel Scaloni

text: In April 2019, Scaloni was run over while cycling in Calvià. Some media initially reported him to be in serious condition, but he was discharged a few hours later.


title: Pulsar

text: A pulsar (from "pulsating radio source") is a highly magnetized rotating neutron star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation out of its magnetic poles. This radiation can be observed only when a beam of emission is pointing toward Earth (similar to the way a lighthouse can be seen only when the light is pointed in the direction of an observer), and is responsible for the pulsed appearance of emission. Neutron stars are very dense and have short, regular rotational periods. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that ranges from milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. Pulsars are one of the candidates for the source of ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. (See also centrifugal mechanism of acceleration.)


title: Pulsar

text: The periods of pulsars make them very useful tools for astronomers. Observations of a pulsar in a binary neutron star system were used to indirectly confirm the existence of gravitational radiation. The first extrasolar planets were discovered around a pulsar, PSR B1257+12 in 1992. In 1983, certain types of pulsars were detected that, at that time, exceeded the accuracy of atomic clocks in keeping time.


title: Pulsar

text: Signals from the first discovered pulsar were initially observed by Jocelyn Bell while analyzing data recorded on August 6, 1967 from a newly commissioned radio telescope that she helped build. Initially dismissed as radio interference by her supervisor, Antony Hewish, developer of the telescope, the fact that the signals always appeared at the same declination and right ascension soon ruled out a terrestrial source. On November 28, 1967, Bell and Hewish using a fast recorder resolved the signals as a series of pulses, evenly spaced every 1.33 seconds. No astronomical object of this nature had ever been observed before. On December 21, Bell discovered a second pulsar, quashing speculation that these might be signals beamed at earth from an extraterrestrial intelligence.


title: Pulsar

text: When observations with another telescope confirmed the emission, it eliminated any sort of instrumental effects. At this point, Bell said of herself and Hewish that "we did not really believe that we had picked up signals from another civilization, but obviously the idea had crossed our minds and we had no proof that it was an entirely natural radio emission. It is an interesting problem—if one thinks one may have detected life elsewhere in the universe, how does one announce the results responsibly?" Even so, they nicknamed the signal "LGM-1", for "little green men" (a playful name for intelligent beings of extraterrestrial origin).


title: Pulsar

text: It was not until a second pulsating source was discovered in a different part of the sky that the "LGM hypothesis" was entirely abandoned. Their pulsar was later dubbed CP 1919, and is now known by a number of designators including PSR B1919+21 and PSR J1921+2153. Although CP 1919 emits in radio wavelengths, pulsars have subsequently been found to emit in visible light, X-ray, and gamma ray wavelengths.


title: Pulsar

text: The existence of neutron stars was first proposed by Walter Baade and Fritz Zwicky in 1934, when they argued that a small, dense star consisting primarily of neutrons would result from a supernova. Based on the idea of magnetic flux conservation from magnetic main sequence stars, Lodewijk Woltjer proposed in 1964 that such neutron stars might contain magnetic fields as large as 10 to 10 gausses (=10 to 10 teslas). In 1967, shortly before the discovery of pulsars, Franco Pacini suggested that a rotating neutron star with a magnetic field would emit radiation, and even noted that such energy could be pumped into a supernova remnant around a neutron star, such as the Crab Nebula. After the discovery of the first pulsar, Thomas Gold independently suggested a rotating neutron star model similar to that of Pacini, and explicitly argued that this model could explain the pulsed radiation observed by Bell Burnell and Hewish.


title: Pulsar

text: In 1968, Richard V. E. Lovelace with collaborators discovered period formula_1 ms of the Crab Nebula pulsar using Arecibo Observatory.


title: Pulsar

text: The discovery of the Crab pulsar provided confirmation of the rotating neutron star model of pulsars. The Crab pulsar 33-millisecond pulse period was too short to be consistent with other proposed models for pulsar emission. Moreover, the Crab pulsar is so named because it is located at the center of the Crab Nebula, consistent with the 1933 prediction of Baade and Zwicky.


title: Pulsar

text: In 1974, Antony Hewish and Martin Ryle, who had developed revolutionary radio telescopes, became the first astronomers to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, with the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences noting that Hewish played a "decisive role in the discovery of pulsars". Considerable controversy is associated with the fact that Hewish was awarded the prize while Bell, who made the initial discovery while she was his PhD student, was not. Bell claims no bitterness upon this point, supporting the decision of the Nobel prize committee.


title: Pulsar

text: In 1974, Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr. and Russell Hulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in a binary system, PSR B1913+16. This pulsar orbits another neutron star with an orbital period of just eight hours. Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that this system should emit strong gravitational radiation, causing the orbit to continually contract as it loses orbital energy. Observations of the pulsar soon confirmed this prediction, providing the first ever evidence of the existence of gravitational waves. As of 2010, observations of this pulsar continue to agree with general relativity. In 1993, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Taylor and Hulse for the discovery of this pulsar.


title: Pulsar

text: In 1982, Don Backer led a group which discovered PSR B1937+21, a pulsar with a rotation period of just 1.6 milliseconds (38,500 rpm). Observations soon revealed that its magnetic field was much weaker than ordinary pulsars, while further discoveries cemented the idea that a new class of object, the "millisecond pulsars" (MSPs) had been found. MSPs are believed to be the end product of X-ray binaries. Owing to their extraordinarily rapid and stable rotation, MSPs can be used by astronomers as clocks rivaling the stability of the best atomic clocks on Earth. Factors affecting the arrival time of pulses at Earth by more than a few hundred nanoseconds can be easily detected and used to make precise measurements. Physical parameters accessible through pulsar timing include the 3D position of the pulsar, its proper motion, the electron content of the interstellar medium along the propagation path, the orbital parameters of any binary companion, the pulsar rotation period and its evolution with time. (These are computed from the raw timing data by Tempo, a computer program specialized for this task.) After these factors have been taken into account, deviations between the observed arrival times and predictions made using these parameters can be found and attributed to one of three possibilities: intrinsic variations in the spin period of the pulsar, errors in the realization of Terrestrial Time against which arrival times were measured, or the presence of background gravitational waves. Scientists are currently attempting to resolve these possibilities by comparing the deviations seen between several different pulsars, forming what is known as a pulsar timing array. The goal of these efforts is to develop a pulsar-based time standard precise enough to make the first ever direct detection of gravitational waves.


title: Pulsar

text: In June 2006, the astronomer John Middleditch and his team at LANL announced the first prediction of pulsar glitches with observational data from the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. They used observations of the pulsar PSR J0537−6910.


title: Pulsar

text: In 1992, Aleksander Wolszczan discovered the first extrasolar planets around PSR B1257+12. This discovery presented important evidence concerning the widespread existence of planets outside the Solar System, although it is very unlikely that any life form could survive in the environment of intense radiation near a pulsar.


title: Pulsar

text: In 2016, AR Scorpii was identified as the first pulsar in which the compact object is a white dwarf instead of a neutron star. Because its moment of inertia is much higher than that of a neutron star, the white dwarf in this system rotates once every 1.97 minutes, far slower than neutron-star pulsars. The system displays strong pulsations from ultraviolet to radio wavelengths, powered by the spin-down of the strongly magnetized white dwarf.


title: Pulsar

text: Initially pulsars were named with letters of the discovering observatory followed by their right ascension (e.g. CP 1919). As more pulsars were discovered, the letter code became unwieldy, and so the convention then arose of using the letters PSR (Pulsating Source of Radio) followed by the pulsar's right ascension and degrees of declination (e.g. PSR 0531+21) and sometimes declination to a tenth of a degree (e.g. PSR 1913+16.7). Pulsars appearing very close together sometimes have letters appended (e.g. PSR 0021−72C and PSR 0021−72D).


title: Pulsar

text: The modern convention prefixes the older numbers with a B (e.g. PSR B1919+21), with the B meaning the coordinates are for the 1950.0 epoch. All new pulsars have a J indicating 2000.0 coordinates and also have declination including minutes (e.g. PSR J1921+2153). Pulsars that were discovered before 1993 tend to retain their B names rather than use their J names (e.g. PSR J1921+2153 is more commonly known as PSR B1919+21). Recently discovered pulsars only have a J name (e.g. PSR J0437−4715). All pulsars have a J name that provides more precise coordinates of its location in the sky.


title: Pulsar

text: The events leading to the formation of a pulsar begin when the core of a massive star is compressed during a supernova, which collapses into a neutron star. The neutron star retains most of its angular momentum, and since it has only a tiny fraction of its progenitor's radius (and therefore its moment of inertia is sharply reduced), it is formed with very high rotation speed. A beam of radiation is emitted along the magnetic axis of the pulsar, which spins along with the rotation of the neutron star. The magnetic axis of the pulsar determines the direction of the electromagnetic beam, with the magnetic axis not necessarily being the same as its rotational axis. This misalignment causes the beam to be seen once for every rotation of the neutron star, which leads to the "pulsed" nature of its appearance.


title: Pulsar

text: In rotation-powered pulsars, the beam is the result of the rotational energy of the neutron star, which generates an electrical field from the movement of the very strong magnetic field, resulting in the acceleration of protons and electrons on the star surface and the creation of an electromagnetic beam emanating from the poles of the magnetic field. Observations by NICER of J0030−0451 indicate that both beams originate from hotspots located on the south pole and that there may be more than two such hotspots on that star. This rotation slows down over time as electromagnetic power is emitted. When a pulsar's spin period slows down sufficiently, the radio pulsar mechanism is believed to turn off (the so-called "death line"). This turn-off seems to take place after about 10–100 million years, which means of all the neutron stars born in the 13.6-billion-year age of the universe, around 99% no longer pulsate.