title: Moderna

text: In November 2017, Moderna employees safely tested mRNA technology in Sprague-Dawley rats and cynomolgus monkeys at the Montreal and Sherbrooke facilities of Charles River Laboratories. They found, among other things, that "mRNA is a labile biological molecule and therefore requires the use of protective delivery systems to effectively harness its potential," as the mRNA spread beyond the injection site and was found in the liver, spleen, bone marrow and heart.


title: Moderna

text: In 2018, the company rebranded as "Moderna Inc." and further increased its portfolio of vaccine development.


title: Moderna

text: In July 2018, the company opened a 200,000 square foot facility in Norwood, Massachusetts for manufacturing, preclinical and clinical work.


title: Moderna

text: In December 2018, Moderna became a public company via the largest biotech initial public offering in history, raising $621million (27 million shares at $23 per share).


title: Moderna

text: In May 2019, the company together with Merck Sharp & Dohme, entered a Phase I clinical trial for mRNA-5671 vaccine in combination with pembrolizumab for the treatment of solid tumors with driver mutations in the KRAS gene.


title: Moderna

text: In March 2020, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved clinical trials for the Moderna COVID‑19 vaccine candidate, with Moderna receiving investment of $483million from Operation Warp Speed. Moncef Slaoui, then a member of the board of directors of Moderna, was appointed head scientist for the Operation Warp Speed project.


title: Moderna

text: In July 2020, the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine candidate was shown to be immunogenic in a PhaseI trial involving 45 volunteers aged 18–55 years.


title: Moderna

text: On November 16, 2020, an interim analysis of PhaseIII clinical trials, which involved over 30,000 patients, showed that the Moderna COVID-19 vaccine candidate was 94.1% effective in preventing COVID-19 with only minor flu-like side effects. The trials were completed on November 30, 2020, which confirmed the interim results and that the vaccine candidate was 100% effective in preventing severe cases of COVID-19.


title: Moderna

text: On December 18, 2020, mRNA-1273 was issued an emergency use authorization (EUA) in the United States. On December 23, 2020, it was authorized for use in Canada. On January 6, 2021, it was authorized for use in the European Union. On January 8, 2021, mRNA-1273 was authorized for use in the United Kingdom.


title: Moderna

text: On March 15, 2021, Phase I clinical trials began for mRNA-1283, primarily intended to be used as a COVID-19 vaccine booster.


title: Moderna

text: On June 25, 2021, the Food and Drug Administration added a warning about rare cases of myocarditis, a heart inflammation, associated with both Moderna and Pfizer/BioNTech vaccines to their respective fact sheets.


title: Moderna

text: On August 17, 2021, the United Kingdom's Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency approved Moderna's Covid vaccine for use in children aged 12 to 17 years.


title: Moderna

text: In July 2021, the company's mRNA vaccine for influenza, code name mRNA-1010, entered Phase I clinical trials.


title: Moderna

text: In August 2021, the company received fast track designation from the Food and Drug Administration for its respiratory syncytial virus vaccine.


title: Moderna

text: In September 2021, the company began work on a combined COVID-19 vaccine booster and influenza vaccine. That same month, it entered an agreement with biomanufacturing company National Resilience to manufacture genetic components for its COVID-19 products at its facility in Mississauga, Ontario.


title: Moderna

text: On April 7, 2022, Moderna and the University of Toronto announced a new partnership to “develop new tools to prevent and treat infectious diseases,” including in the realms of “molecular genetics, biomedical engineering, and biochemistry. The collaboration is a joint venture across U of T's Faculties of Applied Science and Engineering and Medicine.


title: Moderna

text: In April 2022, Moderna announced plans to build a $180 million vaccine factory in Montreal, forming a 10-year partnership with the Canadian federal government, province of Quebec, and McGill University to produce 100 million "Spikevax" doses annually and expand vaccine research capabilities.


title: Moderna

text: Moderna is involved in a patent dispute with the NIH over its COVID-19 vaccine. According to the NIH, three of its scientists played a major role in developing the vaccine over four years of collaboration. After first refuting the shared patent application entirely, Moderna postponed the final payment for filing the application, thereby leaving the patent application unfiled as of December 2021.


title: Moderna

text: On August 26, 2022, Moderna sued Pfizer and BioNTech in both Massachusetts and Germany, accusing the Pfizer–BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine of violating the patent on Moderna's mRNA vaccine technology.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Porsche Taycan is a battery electric saloon and shooting brake produced by German automobile manufacturer Porsche. The concept version of the Taycan, named the "Porsche Mission E", debuted at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. The Taycan was revealed fully production-ready at the 2019 Frankfurt Motor Show. As Porsche's first series production electric car, it is sold in several variants at different performance levels, and may spawn further derivatives in future models. More than 20,000 Taycans were delivered in 2020, its debut sale year, representing 7.4% of the total Porsche volume. A modified Taycan Turbo S is the current Formula E Safety car.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The name "Taycan" (/taɪ-kɒn/) roughly translates from Turkish tay+can as "lively young horse", in reference to the steed of the Stuttgart coat of arms on the Porsche crest.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Porsche named the high performance models Turbo and Turbo S despite the absence of a turbocharger, following the tradition set by high performance Porsche derivatives with internal combustion engines.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan's interior features Porsche's first fully digital instrumentation, with up to four digital displays, including a curved, free-standing configurable driver's display. A screen to the right of the instrument cluster is the car's infotainment center. An optional screen to the right of the infotainment screen allows the front passenger to customise the infotainment system. On the centre console, a portrait-oriented, touchpad-controlled screen shows the powertrain's status and advises the driver on using the car's power efficiently. In contrast with the all-digital layout, the dashboard features the classic Porsche clock at its top.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The exterior styling, by former Porsche Exterior Designer Mitja Borkert, is strongly influenced by the Mission E concept car, retaining most of its design elements except the "suicide doors" and B pillars. Design features of the Taycan include a retractable rear spoiler, retractable door handles, and an advanced regenerative braking system. Taking full advantage of its drivetrain layout, the Taycan combines the fundamental short-nosed front proportions of traditional Porsches with the stretched proportions of modern front-engine models towards the rear, providing clear design links to existing models. The front features four-point LED daytime running headlamps. At the rear, the car has a short notchback-style boot lid, housing a full-width light band serving as taillights and turn signals and providing access to one of two luggage compartments. The other compartment is under the bonnet, with a claimed capacity of nearly 100 litres. The Taycan Turbo and Turbo S models include carbon-fibre trim and 20-inch wheels.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan Cross Turismo is a lifted shooting brake/wagon version of the Taycan with additional body cladding, rugged black plastic trim, and other crossover-like features, including an off-road Design package and 'Gravel' drive mode.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Sport Turismo shares the estate/shooting brake profile with the Cross Turismo, but deletes the crossover-like styling elements. In addition, all Cross Turismo models are all-wheel-drive, while a RWD model is available for the Sport Turismo (as the base Taycan Sport Turismo). The luggage compartment holds up to , compared to the capacity of the saloon. With the rear seats folded, up to of cargo space is available on the Sport/Cross Turismo.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan's body is mainly steel and aluminium joined by different bonding techniques. The body's B pillars, side roof frame and seat cross member are made from hot-formed steel, while the bulkhead cross member is made from boron steel to improve safety. The shock absorber mounts, axle mounts and rear side members are forged aluminum; and all body panels, except the front and rear bumpers, are also made from aluminum to reduce weight. 37% of the car is made of aluminium.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan uses a new battery-electric all-wheel-drive drivetrain with a permanent-magnet synchronous motor on each axle. At the front, power is sent to the wheels through a single-speed gearbox (8.05:1 gear ratio); and at the rear, through a two-speed transmission and a limited slip differential. The gearbox has a short planetary first gear (15.5:1) providing maximum acceleration, and a long-ratio second gear (8.05:1) delivering top speed and efficiency.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Power comes from a 93 kWh lithium-ion battery pack that doubles as a structural chassis component and keeps the center of gravity low. To increase rear-seat legroom, recesses called "foot garages" have been incorporated in the battery pack. The 723-volt pack (835 volt full, 610 volt empty) has 33 modules with 12 LG Chem pouch cells each, for 396 cells in total.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: At launch, the highest-output powertrains (Turbo and Turbo S) were available, distinguished by the larger inverter on the Turbo S. Later, the 4S powertrain was made available; output was reduced by switching to a less powerful rear motor, but the front motor was the same on all three (4S, Turbo, and Turbo S). A base model, which dropped the front motor and was fitted with a smaller 79.2 kW-hr battery, was introduced in early 2021. When the Cross Turismo body was introduced in March 2021, the base model was designated 4, which used the larger battery and two-motor all-wheel drive, but with outputs comparable to the rear-motor Taycan. As an option, the regular Taycan was fitted with the larger 93 kW-hr "Performance Battery Plus" in fall 2021 and a single-motor variant of the 4 Cross Turismo powertrain. The GTS powertrain was announced alongside the Sport Turismo body in November 2021; the GTS uses the larger battery and a more powerful set of motors to fill the gap between the 4S and the Turbo. The 4S Sport Turismo is fitted with the smaller battery as standard, but the larger battery is an option.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The EPA lists the Taycan 4S' range at with a consumption of 49 kWh/100 miles. However, the car's range depends on how it is driven and what driving mode is selected. There are five driving modes: Sport, Sport Plus, Normal, Range, and Individual. The Range mode maximizes range with the lowest power consumption; and Individual lets the driver customise various settings. Regenerative braking provides up to 265 kW, yielding an acceleration of 0.39 G/-3.83 m/s^2.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Porsche has developed an 800-volt charging system specifically for the Taycan. According to manufacturer estimates, the battery pack can be charged from 5% to 80% in 22.5 minutes in ideal situations, using an 800-volt DC fast charger with of power. The Taycan is also backward compatible with existing 400-volt stations up to using an onboard step-up converter that converts the 400-volt system to the car's 800-volt system. Charge times depend on weather conditions and infrastructure. When purchasing a Taycan, owners receive three years free access to the speed-charging infrastructure of IONITY in Europe or Electrify America in the United States, Porsche's joint venture partners.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Unlike other electric vehicles, the Taycan has charging ports on both the driver's and passenger's sides. They cannot both be used simultaneously. For the European, American and other markets which use CCS, AC sources can be connected to either side and DC sources can only be connected to the passenger's side. For the Japanese and Chinese markets which use completely different AC and DC connectors, the driver's side contains the AC charging port and the passenger's side contains the DC charging port. To reduce charge times at both hot and cold temperatures, the battery can be thermally preconditioned using a charging planner. Owners set a departure time in the planner, and the car automatically warms or cools the battery for optimal charging times. A charging dock and mobile charger, supplied with the car for home charging, utilize a 9.6-kW connector that charges the car in 11 hours. An energy manager, which can also be installed in a home's circuit panel, can manage the house's power flow; provide cost-optimising charging using solar power; and provide blackout protection by reducing the charge to the car if household appliances such as fridges or dryers turn on and exceed the panel's power threshold.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan Turbo has a drag coefficient of , which the manufacturer claims is the lowest of any current Porsche model. The Turbo S model has a slightly higher drag coefficient of . The frontal area is 2.33 m, with a resulting drag area of 0.513 m and 0.583 m for the Turbo and Turbo S, respectively.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Car and Driver did 15 consecutive quarter-mile runs in both the Taycan Turbo S and the 2020 Tesla Model S Performance to evaluate Porsche's claim that their car's performance holds up even as the battery discharges. Porsche's results during the test did not deteriorate significantly, while the Tesla's got considerably worse.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Taycan is currently offered as a 4-door saloon model and a 4-door estate model, the Taycan Cross Turismo. Other planned variants include a two-door coupe and convertible models, which will enter production based on market demand. Models introduced at launch include the high-performance AWD Turbo and Turbo S. The Taycan 4S, a mid-range AWD model with two battery sizes, was added in October 2019. The base RWD model was first announced in July 2020 for China, and then for Europe and US in January 2021. The GTS variants were announced in November 2021.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: Notes: These power, torque and acceleration values were achieved with Overboost Power with Launch Control mode. Otherwise, the maximum power is for the base model, for the base with 93 kWh Performance Battery Plus, for the 4S, for the 4S 93 kWh Performance Battery Plus, and for the Turbo and Turbo S models.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Sport Turismo differs from the Cross Turismo as follows; "with the rear spoiler painted to match the body color and no cladding on the wheel arches. The Sport Turismo has the same silhouette as the Cross Turismo wagon and storage space. But it has the lower ride height of the Taycan sedan, giving it a racier, performance-minded look — and feel.", and as such is treated as a new body type.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: In January 2021, the Taycan 4S was named Performance Car of the Year by "What Car?" magazine. "What Car?" awarded the Taycan five stars out of five in its review of the car.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: In April 2021, the Taycan Cross Turismo was awarded Best Estate in the 2021 "Top Gear" Electric Awards.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The concept car which previewed the Taycan was the Porsche Mission E, unveiled at the 2015 Frankfurt Motor Show. It is powered by two PSM permanently excited synchronous electric motors, one on each axle, with all four wheels individually controlled by the Porsche Torque Vectoring system. The motors were projected to be rated at more than ; and the car had projected performance figures of 0– in under 3.5 seconds, 0– in under 12 seconds, and a top speed of over . Porsche's range goal for the Mission E was over .


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The car's system voltage is 800 V DC. The batteries can be charged by an inductive plate or with a conventional charging system. Porsche claimed that with the Porsche Turbo Charging system, the battery could be charged at up to , to 80% in just 15 minutes.


title: Porsche Taycan

text: The Porsche Mission E Cross Turismo previewed the Taycan Cross Turismo, and was presented at the 2018 Geneva Motor Show. The design language of the Mission E Cross Turismo more closely resembles the Taycan than the Mission E. It combined the fully electric Mission E J1-platform with a 5-door estate body similar to the Panamera Sport Turismo, raised suspension, and off-road tyres and cladding to form a crossover utility vehicle. Porsche Chief designer Michael Mauer said the concept "shows possibilities of the future lineup." On October 18, 2018, the supervisory board of Porsche AG approved series production of the production-ready Porsche Taycan Cross Turismo.


title: President of Mexico

text: The president of Mexico (), officially the president of the United Mexican States (), is the head of state and head of government of Mexico. Under the Constitution of Mexico, the president heads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the Mexican Armed Forces. The current president is Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who took office on 1 December 2018.


title: President of Mexico

text: The office of the president is considered to be revolutionary, in the sense that the powers of office are derived from the Revolutionary Constitution of 1917. Another legacy of the Mexican Revolution is the Constitution's ban on re-election. Mexican presidents are limited to a single six-year term, called a "sexenio". No one who has held the post, even on a caretaker basis, is allowed to run or serve again. The constitution and the office of the president closely follow the presidential system of government.


title: President of Mexico

text: Chapter III of Title III of the Constitution deals with the executive branch of government and sets forth the powers of the president, as well as the qualifications for the office. He is vested with the "supreme executive power of the Union".


title: President of Mexico

text: To be eligible to serve as president, Article 82 of the Constitution specifies that the following requirements must be met:


title: President of Mexico

text: The ban on any sort of presidential re-election dates back to the aftermath of the Porfiriato and the Mexican Revolution, which erupted after Porfirio Díaz's fraudulent victory on his seventh re-election in a row. It is so entrenched in Mexican politics that it has remained in place even as it was relaxed for other offices. In 2014, the constitution was amended to allow city mayors, congresspeople and senators to run for a second consecutive term. Previously, Deputies and Senators were barred from successive re-election. However, the president remained barred from re-election, even if it is nonsuccessive.


title: President of Mexico

text: The Constitution does not establish formal academic qualifications to serve as president. Most presidents during the 19th Century and early 20th century, however, had careers in one of two fields: the armed forces (typically the army) or the law. President Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–46) was the last president to have been a career military officer. Most of his successors have been lawyers; in fact, all the presidents between 1958 and 1988 graduated from law school. Presidents Salinas (1988–94) and Zedillo (1994–2000) were both trained as economists. Since the democratic transition, presidents have a wider academic background. Although Presidents Calderón (2006–12) and Peña Nieto (2012–18) were both lawyers, President Fox (2000–06) studied business administration and Andrés Manuel López Obrador, the current president, studied political sciences.


title: President of Mexico

text: The presidential term was set at four years from 1821 to 1904, when President Porfirio Díaz extended it to six years for the first time in Mexico's history, and then again from 1917 to 1928 after a new constitution reversed the change made by Diaz in 1904.


title: President of Mexico

text: Finally, the presidential term was set at six years in 1928 and has remained unchanged since then. The president is elected by direct, popular, universal suffrage. Whoever wins a simple plurality of the national vote is elected; there is no runoff election.


title: President of Mexico

text: The current President, Andrés Manuel López Obrador, was elected in 2018 with a modern-era record of 53% of the popular vote in 2018. The most recent former president, Enrique Peña Nieto won 38% of the popular vote in 2012. Former President Felipe Calderón won with 36.38% of the votes in the 2006 general election, finishing only 0.56% above his nearest rival, Andrés Manuel López Obrador (who contested the official results). In 2000, former President Vicente Fox was elected with a plurality of 43% of the popular vote, Ernesto Zedillo won 48.7% of the vote in 1994, and his predecessor Carlos Salinas won with a majority of 50.4% in the 1988 election.


title: President of Mexico

text: The history of Mexico has not been a peaceful one. After the fall of dictator Porfirio Díaz in 1910 following the Mexican Revolution, there was no stable government until 1929, when all the revolutionary leaders united in one political party: the National Revolutionary Party, which later changed its name to the Party of the Mexican Revolution, and is now the Institutional Revolutionary Party (). From then until 1988, the PRI ruled Mexico as a virtual one-party state.


title: President of Mexico

text: Toward the end of his term, the incumbent president in consultation with party leaders, selected the PRI's candidate in the next election in a procedure known as "the tap of the finger" (). Until 1988, the PRI's candidate was virtually assured of election, winning by margins well over 70 percent of the vote.


title: President of Mexico

text: In 1988, however, the PRI ruptured and the dissidents formed the National Democratic Front with rival center-left parties (now the PRD). Discontent with the PRI, and the popularity of the Front's candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas led to worries that PRI candidate Carlos Salinas de Gortari would not come close to a majority, and might actually be defeated. While the votes were being counted, the tabulation system mysteriously shut down. The government declared Salinas the winner, leading to allegations of electoral fraud.


title: President of Mexico

text: The 1997 federal congressional election saw the first opposition Chamber of Deputies ever, and the 2000 elections saw Vicente Fox of a PAN/PVEM alliance become the first opposition candidate to win an election since 1911. This historical defeat was accepted on election night by the PRI in the voice of President Zedillo; while this calmed fears of violence, it also fueled questions about the role of the president in the electoral process and to whom the responsibility of conceding defeat should fall in a democratic election.


title: President of Mexico

text: After a presidential election, political parties may issue challenges to the election. These challenges are heard by the Electoral Tribunal of the Federal Judicial Power; after it has heard and ruled on them, the Tribunal must either declare the election invalid or certify the results of the elections in accordance to their rulings. Once the Tribunal declares the election valid, it issues a "Constancia de Mayoría" () to the candidate who obtained a plurality. That candidate then becomes President-elect. The final decision is made in September, two months after the election.


title: President of Mexico

text: The 1917 Constitution borrowed heavily from the Constitution of the United States, providing for a clear separation of powers while giving the president wider powers than his American counterpart.


title: President of Mexico

text: For the first 71 years after the enactment of the 1917 Constitution, the president exercised nearly absolute control over the country. Much of this power came from the "de facto" monopoly status of the PRI. As mentioned above, he effectively chose his successor as president by personally nominating the PRI's candidate in the next election. In addition, the unwritten rules of the PRI allowed him to designate party officials and candidates all the way down to the local level. He thus had an important (but not exclusive) influence over the political life of the country (part of his power had to be shared with unions and other groups, but as an individual, he had no peers). This and his constitutional powers made some political commentators describe the president as a six-year dictator, and to call this system an "imperial presidency". The situation remained largely unchanged until the early 1980s when a grave economic crisis created discomfort both in the population and inside the party, and the president's power was no longer absolute but still impressive.


title: President of Mexico

text: An important characteristic of this system is that the new president was effectively chosen by the old one (since the PRI candidate was assured of election) but once he assumed power, the old one lost all power and influence ("no reelection" is a cornerstone of Mexican politics). In fact, tradition called for the incumbent president to fade into the background during the campaign to elect his successor. This renewed command helped maintain party discipline and avoided the stagnation associated with a single man holding power for decades, prompting Peruvian novelist Mario Vargas Llosa to call Mexico's political system "the perfect dictatorship" since the president's powers were cloaked by democratic practice.


title: President of Mexico

text: With the democratic reforms of recent years and fairer elections, the president's powers have been limited in fact as well as in name. Vargas Llosa, during the Fox administration, called this new system "The Imperfect Democracy". The current rights and powers of the president of Mexico are established, limited and enumerated by Article 89 of the Constitution which include the following:


title: President of Mexico

text: A decree is a legislative instrument that has an expiration date and that is issued by one of the three branches of government. Congress may issue decrees, and the President may issue decrees as well. However, they have all the power of laws, but cannot be changed except by the power that issued them. Decrees are very limited in their extent. One such decree is the federal budget, which is issued by Congress. The president's office may suggest a budget, but at the end of the day, it is Congress that decrees how to collect taxes and how to spend them. A Supreme Court ruling on Vicente Fox's veto of the 2004 budget suggests that the President may have the right to veto decrees from Congress.


title: President of Mexico

text: Since 1997, the Congress has been plural, usually with opposition parties having a majority. Major reforms (tax, energy) have to pass by Congress, and the ruling President usually found his efforts blocked: the PRI's Zedillo by opposing PAN/PRD congressmen, and later the PAN's Fox by the PRI and PRD. The PAN would push the reforms it denied to the PRI and vice versa. This situation, novel in a country where Congress was +90% dominated by the president's party for most of the century, has led to a legal analysis of the president's power. Formerly almost a dictator (because of PRI's party discipline), the current times show the president's power as somewhat limited. In 2004, President Fox threatened to veto the budget approved by Congress, claiming the budget overstepped his authority to lead the country, only to learn no branch of government had the power to veto a decree issued by another branch of government (although a different, non jurisprudence-setting ruling stated he could return the budget with observations).


title: President of Mexico

text: Upon taking office, the President raises his/her right arm to shoulder-level and takes the following oath:


title: President of Mexico

text: The Mexican Presidential sash has the colors of the Mexican flag in three bands of equal width, with green on top, white in the center, and red on the bottom, worn from right shoulder to left waist; it also includes the National Seal, in gold thread, to be worn chest-high. In November 2018, a reform was made on Article 34 reordering the colors of the sash. A new sash was made putting the colors of the sash back to the previous order that was used from 1924 through 2009. In swearing-in ceremonies, the outgoing President turns in the sash to the current President of the Chamber of Deputies, who in turn gives it to the new president after the latter has sworn the oath of office. The sash is the symbol of the Executive Federal Power, and may only be worn by the current President.


title: President of Mexico

text: According to Article 35 of the Law on the National Arms, Flag, and Anthem, the President must wear the sash at the swearing-in ceremony, when he makes his annual State of the Union report to Congress, during the commemoration of the Grito de Dolores on 15 September of each year, and when he receives the diplomatic credentials of accredited foreign ambassadors and ministers. He is also expected to wear it "in those official ceremonies of greatest solemnity". The sash is worn from right shoulder to left hip, and should be worn underneath the coat. The only exception is during the swearing-in ceremony, when it is worn over the coat so that the out-going president may easily take the sash off and drape it over the incoming president (Article 36).


title: President of Mexico

text: In addition to the Presidential Sash, each president receives a Presidential Flag; the flag has imprinted the words Estados Unidos Mexicanos in golden letters and the national coat of arms also in gold.


title: President of Mexico

text: The official residence and workplace of the President is the National Palace, a building facing the "Plaza de la Constitución" ("Zócalo") in Mexico City. The site has been a seat of power since the Aztec Empire, with the materials of the current building taken from the palace of the Aztec emperor Moctezuma II. The President also has the use of Chapultepec Castle, formerly the imperial palace of the Second Mexican Empire, and afterwards the official residence of Mexican presidents until 1934, when Lázaro Cárdenas established the presidential residence at Los Pinos. Andrés Manuel López Obrador moved the presidential residence back to the National Palace upon the start of his term in 2018.


title: President of Mexico

text: Articles 84 and 85 of the Mexican Constitution states that "in case of absolute absence of a President" the following should happen:


title: President of Mexico

text: As per Article 83, no person who has already served as president, whether elected, provisional, interim, or substitute, can be designated as provisional, interim, or substitute president.


title: President of Mexico

text: The designation of the Secretary of the Interior as the immediate successor dates to August 2012, when the changes to the Constitution were published in the Official Journal of the Federation.


title: President of Mexico

text: The succession provisions have come into play only twice since the current constitution was enacted. In 1928, after the assassination of president-elect Álvaro Obregón, Congress appointed Emilio Portes Gil as Interim President; Portes Gil served in the position for 14 months while new elections were called. Pascual Ortiz Rubio was elected president in the special elections that followed in 1930, but he resigned in 1932. Abelardo L. Rodríguez was then appointed Interim President to fill out the remainder of Ortiz Rubio's term (under current law Rodríguez would be Substitute President, but at the time there was no distinction between Interim, Substitute, and Provisional presidents).


title: President of Mexico

text: Former presidents of Mexico continue to carry the title "president" until death but are rarely referred by it; they are commonly called ex-presidents. They were also given protection by the former "Estado Mayor Presidencial". Prior to 2018, former presidents also received a lifetime pension, though they could refuse it, as Ernesto Zedillo did. However, the pensions were abolished and terminated in 2018.


title: President of Mexico

text: Contrary to what happens in many other countries, former presidents of Mexico do not continue to be important national figures once out of office, and usually lead a discreet life. This is partly because they do not want to interfere with the government of the new president and partly because they may not have a good public image. This tradition can be traced back to the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas. Former president Plutarco Elías Calles had personally selected Cárdenas as his successor, and had hoped to control things from behind the scenes as he had for the previous five years. However, when Cárdenas showed he was going to rule in fact as well as in name, Calles publicly criticized him, prompting Cárdenas to have Calles escorted out of the country by military police. Cárdenas himself remained silent on the policies of his successor Manuel Ávila Camacho, establishing a tradition that former presidents do not interfere with their successors.


title: President of Mexico

text: For example, Ernesto Zedillo holds important offices in the United Nations and in the private sector, but outside of Mexico. It is speculated he lives in a self-imposed exile to avoid the hatred of some of his fellow members of the PRI for having acknowledged the PRI's defeat in the 2000 presidential election. Carlos Salinas de Gortari also lived in a self-imposed exile in Ireland, but returned to Mexico. He campaigned intensely to have his brother, Raúl Salinas, freed after he was jailed in the early days of Zedillo's term, accused of drug trafficking and planning the assassination of José Francisco Ruiz Massieu. Carlos Salinas also wrote a book on neo-liberal Mexico, secured a position with the Dow Jones Company in the United States, and worked as a professor at several prestigious universities in that country. Ernesto Zedillo and Felipe Calderón two surviving former presidents living in the United States and teaching at the universities where they studied: Zedillo at Yale University and Calderón at Harvard University.


title: President of Mexico

text: Along with Carlos Salinas de Gortari, two other surviving former presidents (Vicente Fox and Enrique Peña Nieto) still live in Mexico. On 30 June 2006, Echeverría was placed under house arrest under charges of genocide for his role as Secretary of the Interior during the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. The house arrest was lifted in 2009.


title: President of Mexico

text: , there were five living former presidents of Mexico. The most recent death of a former president was that of Luis Echeverría (1970–1976), on 8 July 2022. The living former presidents, in order of service, are:


title: A-Level

text: The A-Level (Advanced Level) is a subject-based qualification conferred as part of the General Certificate of Education, as well as a school leaving qualification offered by the educational bodies in the United Kingdom and the educational authorities of British Crown dependencies to students completing secondary or pre-university education. They were introduced in England and Wales in 1951 to replace the Higher School Certificate.


title: A-Level

text: A number of Commonwealth countries have developed qualifications with the same name as and a similar format to the British A Levels. Obtaining an A Level, or equivalent qualifications, is generally required across the board for university entrance, with universities granting offers based on grades achieved. Particularly in Singapore, its A level examinations have been regarded as being much more challenging than the United Kingdom, with most universities offering lower entry qualifications with regard to grades achieved on a Singaporean A level certificate.


title: A-Level

text: A Levels are typically worked towards over two years. Normally, students take three or four A Level courses in their first year of sixth form, and most taking four cut back to three in their second year. This is because university offers are normally based on three A Level grades, and taking a fourth can have an impact on grades. Unlike other level-3 qualifications, such as the International Baccalaureate, A Levels have no specific subject requirements, so students have the opportunity to combine any subjects they wish to take. However, students normally pick their courses based on the degree they wish to pursue at university: most degrees require specific A Levels for entry.


title: A-Level

text: In legacy modular courses (last assessment Summer 2019), A Levels are split into two parts, with students within their first year of study pursuing an Advanced Subsidiary qualification, commonly referred to as an AS or AS Level, which can either serve as an independent qualification or contribute 40% of the marks towards a full A Level award. The second part is known as an A2 or A2 Level, which is generally more in-depth and academically rigorous than the AS. The AS and A2 marks are combined for a full A Level award. The A2 Level is not a qualification on its own, and must be accompanied with an AS Level in the same subject for certification.


title: A-Level

text: Several countries use A Levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A Levels taken by students in other countries may differ from the A Levels taken in the United Kingdom.


title: A-Level

text: In Bangladesh, the GCE AS and A Level are offered by Cambridge Assessment International Education (CIE) and Pearson Edexcel after completion of GCE O-Level or IGCSE (CIE), and is conducted by the British Council. GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by some of the private, public, and international schools as an alternative to HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) offered by the Governments Board of Education. It has become a popular choice among students, but due to financial implications, its reach is limited to the middle and upper classes in major cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong.


title: A-Level

text: In Brunei, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Brunei.


title: A-Level

text: The Advanced level of Cameroon is based on the Cambridge International Examinations and similarly, conducted by the government of Cameroon in collaboration with Cambridge University. All the courses taken are related to what the candidate is willing to pursue a career in university and these courses are on a recognizable international standard for university entrance; as they are major relevant courses. You can select between 3 and 5 courses during your advanced level studies, prior taken your advanced level examination on which.


title: A-Level

text: The British A Level qualifications such as GCE A Level and International A Level are widely accepted in Hong Kong as an alternative to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education for both admission and employment purposes. It is one of the most popular qualifications used for university admission via the non-JUPAS channel. For example, average non-JUPAS offers from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology require one to three A*s (the mid-50% range). Since the introduction of the high distinction grade (A*) in 2010, the British A Level examination has regained its power to differentiate the very top levels of ability. According to the British Department for Education, in the academic year 2014/15, approximately 7.3%, 2.7%, 1.0%, and 0.3% of all the candidates from the GCSE cohort (548,480) achieved one to four A*s or a better result in the GCE A Level examination. This percentile rank is one important input for equating the levels in both examinations. On the sole basis of percentile ranks and the grade statistics from HKEAA in 2017, a score of 29/35 from the best five subjects in Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education is comparable to 1A*2A in the best three British A Levels, 32/35 to 2A*1A, 33/35 to 3A* and 34/35 to 4A*. In deriving inferences from these statistics, it is important to note that slightly more than a third of the GCSE candidates can go on to study in the sixth form before applying to universities via the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) while almost all Hong Kong students can study Form 6 before sitting the HKDSE examination.


title: A-Level

text: Relevant authorities such as the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) and UCAS also sought to connect the results from both exam systems to open doors for the holders of these qualifications who wish to study locally or overseas. Officially, the top distinction levels, A* in A Level and 5** in HKDSE, are currently recognized as broadly equivalent. In particular, in the light of statistical evidence, the 1% cut-off line is often set by admission offices at 2A*1A as compared to a score of 43/45 in the International Baccalaureate Diploma but the Uniform Mark Scale (UMS) instead of the letter grades would be used in many cases to offer a much more subtle view of the candidate's academic potential. Typical offers from Cambridge Medical School require 2A*1A and Oxford University Medical School require 1A*2A whereas those from the medical schools of the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong require 4A* in A Level due to competition.


title: A-Level

text: In India, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) and Learning Resource Network (LRN) GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered at private and international schools as an alternative to the conventional Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC).


title: A-Level

text: In Malaysia, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Malaysia. For instance, there are two types of A Level in Malaysia, Cambridge A Level (administered by Cambridge International Examinations) and Edexcel International Advanced Level (administered by Pearson International).


title: A-Level

text: In Mauritius, A/AS Level qualifications are taken as part of the Higher School Certificate, awarded upon successful completion of secondary school after passing of examinations jointly administered by the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Some exam papers offered, such as French, are customized to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A Level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate.


title: A-Level

text: In Nepal, A Level offered from Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) is the most popular. And are offered by some of the private, public, and international schools as an alternative to the National Examination Board (Nepal) (HSEB) +2. A level has become a popular choice for many students in Nepal. Besides A Level, International Baccalaureate and Advanced Placement, are some other international qualifications offered for this level. In Nepali, students generally appear for 4 subjects at A level, and 5 at AS level. There are several colleges of A level in Nepal but these are the 30 best A level colleges in Nepal.


title: A-Level

text: A Levels are offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate and other international examinations like the Advanced Placement. Examinations are handled by international British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Cram Schools are established all around the country which prepares the students to take the examinations as private candidates.


title: A-Level

text: In Seychelles, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Seychelles.


title: A-Level

text: In Singapore, H1/H2/H3 level qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations jointly administered by Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board (SEAB) and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). Singaporean A levels are notably much more difficult than the British A levels, as part of the country's wider robust educational policy.


title: A-Level

text: In Sri Lanka, A Level qualifications are offered by governmental and non-governmental schools (Private Schools). The qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations called Local A Levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A Levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by the Department of Examinations. Private Schools (International Schools) in Sri Lanka provide A/L qualifications which are offered by:


title: A-Level

text: Passing A Levels is the major requirement for applying to local universities and for private universities in Sri Lanka.


title: A-Level

text: A level is an education structure after the completion of 11 years of Universal Primary Education (UPE). The Universal Primary Education consists of two levels, the primary school level of seven years and ordinarily secondary level, of four years.


title: A-Level

text: Students are then required to sit for the National Examination which is done on specific month in a certain year. The exams are done throughout the country the same date provided by the examination board. Examinations will depend on the cluster and core subjects in which a student shall take. There are three major clusters, namely Science, Business and Liberal arts plus core subjects of which are seven in total or more. Students who will then pass according to the National Examination Standards, shall be selected to join Advanced Secondary Education and are selected according to the subjects they passed the most and by their wills to pursue certain subjects.


title: A-Level

text: There are only three core subjects to study in Advanced Level and one or more optional subjects to sit for the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination(ACSEE). Then students are awarded Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education only if they have passed. The pass marks are arranged according to grades and the grades will determine whether a student will qualify to join tertiary education.


title: A-Level

text: A level education is a two years education which is offered by the government and non-government schools. It is regulated by ministry of education which assures both qualitative and quantitative of subject matters and there is a special independent council which is responsible in composing the Advanced Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (ACSEE) namely The National Examination Council of Tanzania (NECTA).


title: A-Level

text: A Levels are a college or sixth form leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs. In Scotland, A Levels are also offered by some schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The main examination boards which administer British A Levels in the UK are:


title: A-Level

text: Oxford AQA, Edexcel, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE), and Learning Resource Network (LRN) also offer international versions of the British A Levels in the United Kingdom and worldwide.


title: A-Level

text: The British variant of A/AS levels is also taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries, as well as in examination centers worldwide. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A Levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations. At select examination centers, the British A Level exams may also be available to private candidates.


title: A-Level

text: A wide variety of subjects are offered at A Level by the five exam boards. Although exam boards often alter their curricula, this table shows the majority of subjects that are consistently available for study.


title: A-Level

text: Between 2015 and 2018 (first assessment Summer 2017), A Levels in England were reformed, transitioning from a modular to linear structure (initially across 13 subjects). This means all A Level exams are taken in one sitting as a set of terminal exams (3 exams for the majority of subjects), and there is no coursework set for many subjects. For A Levels that retain a coursework element, the percentage of the final grade determined by coursework has been reduced. An example of this can be seen in Edexcel's new English Literature A Level, reformed in 2015, which reduces the amount of coursework to 20% (from 40% in the old modular specification). A Levels are no longer separated into units, and students must resit all of their exams if they wish to resit the qualification. While these reforms were expected to be complete for first teaching in 2017, this was extended to 2018 to include the reforms of less common languages such as Modern Hebrew and Bengali.


title: A-Level

text: The AS Level is now a separate qualification and is not required for an A Level award, although it still encompasses the first year of the full A Level content. However, unlike AS Levels in the old modular courses, they are now worth only 40% as many UCAS points as a full A Level (from 50% in the modular courses), as content from the second year of A Level is considered more academically challenging than that of the first year.


title: A-Level

text: As these reforms took place in stages, many students took a combination of modular and linear courses before all reforms were complete, with AS Levels still being part of an A Level in older modular courses.


title: A-Level

text: These reforms look to combat grade inflation, where the proportion of students achieving the highest grades increases year upon year, causing the value of those grades to be eroded. The modular system has also been criticised for nurturing a 'resit culture', while new linear courses give no opportunity to resit individual units.


title: A-Level

text: Controversially, some A Level course subjects have been abolished from 2017 as part of these reforms. These include archaeology, anthropology, creative writing, critical thinking, general studies and home economics. Many universities criticized the scrapping of exams taken at the end of AS level, which used to be worth 50% of the overall A level grade. This is because the universities used the grades achieved at AS level (available to universities after a student applies during the second year of A levels) as an indication of a student's ability and thus whether to give said student an offer.


title: A-Level

text: Opposition to these reforms in Wales and Northern Ireland has resulted in maintaining the modular structure of their qualification.


title: A-Level

text: The GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC). Before, this qualification was jointly offered by Cambridge International Examinations and the Council in Zimbabwe.


title: A-Level

text: In 2002, there has been a move away from the GCE Advanced Level to the CXC CAPE examinations, making them a de facto university entrance examination. Some universities also require applicants to take separate entrance examination. The International Baccalaureate and European Baccalaureate are also accepted.


title: Moksha

text: Moksha (; , ""), also called vimoksha, vimukti and mukti, is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriological and eschatological senses, it refers to freedom from "saṃsāra", the cycle of death and rebirth. In its epistemological and psychological senses, "moksha" is freedom from ignorance: self-realization, self-actualization and self-knowledge.


title: Moksha

text: In Hindu traditions, "moksha" is a central concept and the utmost aim of human life; the other three aims being "dharma" (virtuous, proper, moral life), "artha" (material prosperity, income security, means of life), and "kama" (pleasure, sensuality, emotional fulfillment). Together, these four concepts are called Puruṣārtha in Hinduism.


title: Moksha

text: In some schools of Indian religions, "moksha" is considered equivalent to and used interchangeably with other terms such as "vimoksha", "vimukti", "kaivalya", "apavarga", "mukti", "nihsreyasa" and "nirvana". However, terms such as "moksha" and "nirvana" differ and mean different states between various schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The term nirvana is more common in Buddhism, while "moksha" is more prevalent in Hinduism.


title: Moksha

text: The definition and meaning of "moksha" varies between various schools of Indian religions. "Moksha" means freedom, liberation; from what and how is where the schools differ. "Moksha" is also a concept that means liberation from rebirth or "saṃsāra". This liberation can be attained while one is on earth ("jivanmukti"), or eschatologically ("karmamukti", "videhamukti"). Some Indian traditions have emphasized liberation on concrete, ethical action within the world. This liberation is an epistemological transformation that permits one to see the truth and reality behind the fog of ignorance.


title: Moksha

text: "Moksha" has been defined not merely as absence of suffering and release from bondage to "saṃsāra." Various schools of Hinduism also explain the concept as presence of the state of "paripurna-brahmanubhava" (the experience of oneness with Brahman, the One Supreme Self), a state of knowledge, peace and bliss. For example, Vivekachudamani - an ancient book on "moksha", explains one of many meditative steps on the path to "moksha", as:


title: Moksha

text: "Moksha" is a concept associated with "saṃsāra" (birth-rebirth cycle). "Samsara" originated with religious movements in the first millennium BCE. These movements such as Buddhism, Jainism and new schools within Hinduism, saw human life as bondage to a repeated process of rebirth. This bondage to repeated rebirth and life, each life subject to injury, disease and aging, was seen as a cycle of suffering. By release from this cycle, the suffering involved in this cycle also ended. This release was called "moksha", "nirvana", "kaivalya", "mukti" and other terms in various Indian religious traditions. A desire for the release from pain and suffering seems to lie at the root of striving for moksha, and it is commonly believed that moksha is an otherwordly reality, only achievable at the end of life, not during. However there is also a notion that moksha can be achieved during life in the form of a state of enlightenment, known as jivan-mukti, although this is still reliant on personal and spiritual endeavours attributed to attaining moksha.


title: Moksha

text: Eschatological ideas evolved in Hinduism. In earliest Vedic literature, heaven and hell sufficed soteriological curiosities. Over time, the ancient scholars observed that people vary in the quality of virtuous or sinful life they lead, and began questioning how differences in each person's "puṇya" (merit, good deeds) or "pāp" (demerit, sin) as human beings affected their afterlife. This question led to the conception of an afterlife where the person stayed in heaven or hell, in proportion to their merit or demerit, then returned to earth and were reborn, the cycle continuing indefinitely. The rebirth idea ultimately flowered into the ideas of "saṃsāra", or transmigration - where one's balance sheet of "karma" determined one's rebirth. Along with this idea of "saṃsāra", the ancient scholars developed the concept of "moksha", as a state that released a person from the "saṃsāra" cycle. "Moksha" release in eschatological sense in these ancient literature of Hinduism, suggests van Buitenen, comes from self-knowledge and consciousness of oneness of supreme soul.


title: Moksha

text: Scholars provide various explanations of the meaning of "moksha" in epistemological and psychological senses. For example, Deutsche sees "moksha" as transcendental consciousness, the perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of "realizing the whole universe as the Self".


title: Moksha

text: "Moksha" in Hinduism, suggests Klaus Klostermaier, implies a setting-free of hitherto fettered faculties, a removing of obstacles to an unrestricted life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the full sense; the concept presumes an unused human potential of creativity, compassion and understanding which had been blocked and shut out. "Moksha" is more than liberation from a life-rebirth cycle of suffering ("samsara"); the Vedantic school separates this into two: "jivanmukti" (liberation in this life) and "videhamukti" (liberation after death). "Moksha" in this life includes psychological liberation from "adhyasa" (fears besetting one's life) and "avidya" (ignorance or anything that is not true knowledge).


title: Moksha

text: Many schools of Hinduism according to Daniel Ingalls, see "moksha" as a state of perfection. The concept was seen as a natural goal beyond "dharma". "Moksha", in the epics and ancient literature of Hinduism, is seen as achievable by the same techniques necessary to practice "dharma". Self-discipline is the path to "dharma", "moksha" is self-discipline that is so perfect that it becomes unconscious, second nature. "Dharma" is thus a means to "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: The Samkhya school of Hinduism, for example, suggests that one of the paths to "moksha" is to magnify one's "sattvam". To magnify one's "sattvam", one must develop oneself where one's "sattvam" becomes one's instinctive nature. Many schools of Hinduism thus understood "dharma" and "moksha" as two points of a single journey of life, a journey for which the "viaticum" was discipline and self-training. Over time, these ideas about "moksha" were challenged.


title: Moksha

text: "Dharma" and "moksha", suggested Nagarjuna in the 2nd century, cannot be goals on the same journey. He pointed to the differences between the world we live in, and the freedom implied in the concept of "moksha". They are so different that "dharma" and "moksha" could not be intellectually related. "Dharma" requires worldly thought, "moksha" is unworldly understanding, a state of bliss. "How can the worldly thought-process lead to unworldly understanding?", asked Nagarjuna. Karl Potter explains the answer to this challenge as one of context and framework, the emergence of broader general principles of understanding from thought processes that are limited in one framework.


title: Moksha

text: Adi Shankara in the 8th century AD, like Nagarjuna earlier, examined the difference between the world one lives in and "moksha", a state of freedom and release one hopes for. Unlike Nagarjuna, Shankara considers the characteristics between the two. The world one lives in requires action as well as thought; our world, he suggests, is impossible without "vyavahara" (action and plurality). The world is interconnected, one object works on another, input is transformed into output, change is continuous and everywhere. "Moksha", suggests Shankara, is a final perfect, blissful state where there can be no change, where there can be no plurality of states. It has to be a state of thought and consciousness that excludes action. He questioned: "How can action-oriented techniques by which we attain the first three goals of man ("kama", "artha" and "dharma") be useful to attain the last goal, namely "moksha"?"


title: Moksha

text: Scholars suggest Shankara's challenge to the concept of "moksha" parallels those of Plotinus against the Gnostics, with one important difference: Plotinus accused the Gnostics of exchanging an anthropocentric set of virtues with a theocentric set in pursuit of salvation; Shankara challenged that the concept of "moksha" implied an exchange of anthropocentric set of virtues ("dharma") with a blissful state that has no need for values. Shankara goes on to suggest that anthropocentric virtues suffice.


title: Moksha

text: Vaishnavism, one of the "bhakti" schools of Hinduism, is devoted to the worship of God, sings his name, anoints his image or idol, and has many sub-schools. Vaishnavas (followers of Vaishnavism) suggest that "dharma" and "moksha" cannot be two different or sequential goals or states of life.


title: Moksha

text: Instead, they suggest God should be kept in mind constantly to simultaneously achieve "dharma" and "moksha", so constantly that one comes to feel one cannot live without God's loving presence. This school emphasized love and adoration of God as the path to "moksha" (salvation and release), rather than works and knowledge. Their focus became divine virtues, rather than anthropocentric virtues. Daniel Ingalls regards Vaishnavas' position on "moksha" as similar to the Christian position on salvation, and Vaishnavism as the school whose views on "dharma", "karma" and "moksha" dominated the initial impressions and colonial-era literature on Hinduism, through the works of Thibaut, Max Müller and others.


title: Moksha

text: The concept of "moksha" appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept of "dharma". The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early Upanishads is "mucyate", which means freed or released. It is the middle and later Upanishads, such as the Svetasvatara and Maitri, where the word "moksha" appears and begins becoming an important concept.


title: Moksha

text: The Katha Upanishad, a middle Upanishadic era script dated to be about 2500 years old, is among the earliest expositions about "saṃsāra" and "moksha". In Book I, Section III, the legend of boy Naciketa queries Yama, the lord of death to explain what causes "saṃsāra" and what leads to liberation. Naciketa inquires: what causes sorrow? Yama explains that suffering and "saṃsāra" results from a life that is lived absent-mindedly, with impurity, with neither the use of intelligence nor self-examination, where neither mind nor senses are guided by one's "atma" (soul, self). Liberation comes from a life lived with inner purity, alert mind, led by "buddhi" (reason, intelligence), realization of the Supreme Self ("purusha") who dwells in all beings. Kathaka Upanishad asserts knowledge liberates, knowledge is freedom. Kathaka Upanishad also explains the role of yoga in personal liberation, "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: The Svetasvatara Upanishad, another middle era Upanishad written after Kathaka Upanishad, begins with questions such as why is man born, what is the primal cause behind the universe, what causes joy and sorrow in life? It then examines the various theories, that were then existing, about saṃsāra and release from bondage. Svetasvatara claims bondage results from ignorance, illusion or delusion; deliverance comes from knowledge. The Supreme Being dwells in every being, he is the primal cause, he is the eternal law, he is the essence of everything, he is nature, he is not a separate entity. Liberation comes to those who know Supreme Being is present as the Universal Spirit and Principle, just as they know butter is present in milk. Such realization, claims Svetasvatara, come from self-knowledge and self-discipline; and this knowledge and realization is liberation from transmigration, the final goal of the Upanishad.


title: Moksha

text: Starting with the middle Upanishad era, "moksha" - or equivalent terms such as "mukti" and "kaivalya" - is a major theme in many Upanishads. For example, Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad, one of several Upanishads of the bhakti school of Hinduism, starts out with prayers to Goddess Sarasvati. She is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts; her name is a compound word of ‘‘sara’’ and ‘‘sva’’, meaning "essence of self". After the prayer verses, the Upanishad inquires about the secret to freedom and liberation (mukti). Sarasvati's reply in the Upanishad is:


title: Moksha

text: The concept of "moksha", according to Daniel Ingalls, represented one of the many expansions in Hindu Vedic ideas of life and the afterlife. In the Vedas, there were three stages of life: studentship, householdship and retirement. During the Upanishadic era, Hinduism expanded this to include a fourth stage of life: complete abandonment. In Vedic literature, there are three modes of experience: waking, dream and deep sleep. The Upanishadic era expanded it to include "turiyam" - the stage beyond deep sleep. The Vedas suggest three goals of man: kama, artha and dharma. To these, the Upanishadic era added "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: The acceptance of the concept of "moksha" in some schools of Hindu philosophy was slow. These refused to recognize "moksha" for centuries, considering it irrelevant. The Mimamsa school, for example, denied the goal and relevance of "moksha" well into the 8th century AD, until the arrival of a Mimamsa scholar named Kumarila. Instead of "moksha", Mimamsa school of Hinduism considered the concept of heaven as sufficient to answer the question: what lay beyond this world after death. Other schools of Hinduism, over time, accepted the "moksha" concept and refined it over time.


title: Moksha

text: It is unclear when the core ideas of samsara and "moksha" were developed in ancient India. Patrick Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first millennium BCE. "Mukti" and "moksha" ideas, suggests J. A. B. van Buitenen, seem traceable to yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine men and "sadhus" by the ancient Indian society. "Moksha" to these early concept developers, was the abandonment of the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release from this world.


title: Moksha

text: In its historical development, the concept of "moksha" appears in three forms: Vedic, yogic and bhakti. In the Vedic period, "moksha" was ritualistic. Mokṣa was claimed to result from properly completed rituals such as those before "Agni" - the fire deity. The significance of these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic creation event described in the Vedas; the description of knowledge on different levels - "adhilokam", "adhibhutam", "adhiyajnam", "adhyatmam" - helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application. By the middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities were considered irrelevant to the attainment of "moksha". Yogic "moksha" replaced Vedic rituals with personal development and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in self as the path to "moksha". Yogic "moksha" principles were accepted in many other schools of Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, Adi Shankara in his book on "moksha" suggests:


title: Moksha

text: Bhakti "moksha" created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God, which over time results in a perfect union with God. Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas where God became the means and the end, transcending "moksha"; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti itself. In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to "moksha" beyond these three, appeared over time.


title: Moksha

text: The words "moksha", nirvana ("nibbana") and kaivalya are sometimes used synonymously, because they all refer to the state that liberates a person from all causes of sorrow and suffering. However, in modern era literature, these concepts have different premises in different religions. Nirvana, a concept common in Buddhism, is accompanied by the realization that all experienced phenomena are not self; while "moksha", a concept common in many schools of Hinduism, is acceptance of Self (soul), realization of liberating knowledge, the consciousness of Oneness with Brahman, all existence and understanding the whole universe as the Self. Nirvana starts with the premise that there is no Self, "moksha" on the other hand, starts with the premise that everything is the Self; there is no consciousness in the state of nirvana, but everything is One unified consciousness in the state of "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: Kaivalya, a concept akin to "moksha", rather than nirvana, is found in some schools of Hinduism such as the Yoga school. Kaivalya is the realization of aloofness with liberating knowledge of one's self and disentanglement from the muddled mind and cognitive apparatus. For example, Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra suggests:


title: Moksha

text: Nirvana and "moksha", in all traditions, represent resting in one's true essence, named "Purusha" or Atman, or pointed at as Nirvana, but described in a very different way. Some scholars, states Jayatilleke, assert that the Nirvana of Buddhism is same as the Brahman in Hinduism, a view other scholars and he disagree with. Buddhism rejects the idea of Brahman, and the metaphysical ideas about soul (atman) are also rejected by Buddhism, while those ideas are essential to "moksha" in Hinduism. In Buddhism, nirvana is 'blowing out' or 'extinction'. In Hinduism, "moksha" is 'identity or oneness with Brahman'. Realization of "anatta" (anatman) is essential to Buddhist nirvana. Realization of "atman" (atta) is essential to Hindu "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: Ancient literature of different schools of Hinduism sometimes use different phrases for "moksha". For example, "Keval jnana" or "kaivalya" ("state of Absolute"), "Apavarga", "Nihsreyasa", "Paramapada", "Brahmabhava", "Brahmajnana" and "Brahmi sthiti". Modern literature additionally uses the Buddhist term nirvana interchangeably with "moksha" of Hinduism. There is difference between these ideas, as explained elsewhere in this article, but they are all soteriological concepts of various Indian religious traditions.


title: Moksha

text: The six major orthodox schools of Hinduism have had a historic debate, and disagree over whether "moksha" can be achieved in this life, or only after this life. Many of the 108 Upanishads discuss amongst other things "moksha". These discussions show the differences between the schools of Hinduism, a lack of consensus, with a few attempting to conflate the contrasting perspectives between various schools. For example, freedom and deliverance from birth-rebirth, argues Maitrayana Upanishad, comes neither from the Vedanta school's doctrine (the knowledge of one's own Self as the Supreme Soul) nor from the Samkhya school's doctrine (distinction of the Purusha from what one is not), but from Vedic studies, observance of the "Svadharma" (personal duties), sticking to "Asramas" (stages of life).


title: Moksha

text: The six major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy offer the following views on "moksha", each for their own reasons: the Nyaya, Vaisesika and Mimamsa schools of Hinduism consider "moksha" as possible only after death. Samkhya and Yoga schools consider "moksha" as possible in this life. In the Vedanta school, the Advaita sub-school concludes "moksha" is possible in this life, while Dvaita, Visistadvaita, Shuddhadvait sub-schools of Vedanta tradition believes that "moksha" is a continuous event, one assisted by loving devotion to God, that extends from this life to post-mortem. Beyond these six orthodox schools, some heterodox schools of Hindu tradition, such as Carvaka, deny there is a soul or after life "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: Both Sāmkhya and Yoga systems of religious thought are "mokshaśāstras", suggests , they are systems of salvific liberation and release. Sāmkhya is a system of interpretation, primarily a theory about the world. Yoga is both a theory and a practice. Yoga gained wide acceptance in ancient India, its ideas and practices became part of many religious schools in Hinduism, including those that were very different from Sāmkhya. The eight limbs of yoga can be interpreted as a way to liberation ("moksha").


title: Moksha

text: In Sāmkhya literature, liberation is commonly referred to as "kaivalya". In this school, kaivalya means the realization of "purusa", the principle of consciousness, as independent from mind and body, as different from "prakrti". Like many schools of Hinduism, in Sāmkhya and Yoga schools, the emphasis is on the attainment of knowledge, "vidyā" or "jñāna", as necessary for salvific liberation, "moksha". Yoga's purpose is then seen as a means to remove the "avidyā" - that is, ignorance or misleading/incorrect knowledge about one self and the universe. It seeks to end ordinary reflexive awareness ("cittavrtti nirodhah") with deeper, purer and holistic awareness ("asamprājñāta samādhi"). Yoga, during the pursuit of "moksha", encourages practice ("abhyāsa") with detachment ("vairāgya"), which over time leads to deep concentration ("samādhi"). Detachment means withdrawal from outer world and calming of mind, while practice means the application of effort over time. Such steps are claimed by Yoga school as leading to samādhi, a state of deep awareness, release and bliss called "kaivalya".


title: Moksha

text: Yoga, or "mārga" (meaning "way" or "path"), in Hinduism is widely classified into four spiritual approaches. The first mārga is Jñāna Yoga, the way of knowledge. The second mārga is Bhakti Yoga, the way of loving devotion to God. The third mārga is Karma Yoga, the way of works. The fourth mārga is Rāja Yoga, the way of contemplation and meditation. These mārgas are part of different schools in Hinduism, and their definition and methods to "moksha". For example, the Advaita Vedanta school relies on Jñāna Yoga in its teachings of "moksha". The "marga"s need not lead to all forms of moksha, according to some schools of Hinduism. For example, the Ekasarana dharma denies the "sayujya" form of mukti, where the complete absorption in God deprives "jiva" of the sweetness and bliss associated with "bhakti". Madhavadeva begins the Namghoxa by declaring his admiration for devotees who do not prefer "mukti".


title: Moksha

text: The three main sub-schools in Vedanta school of Hinduism - Advaita Vedanta, Vishistadvaita and Dvaita - each have their own views about "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: The Vedantic school of Hinduism suggests the first step towards mokṣa begins with "mumuksutva", that is desire of liberation. This takes the form of questions about self, what is true, why do things or events make us happy or cause suffering, and so on. This longing for liberating knowledge is assisted by, claims Adi Shankara of Advaita Vedanta, guru (teacher), study of historical knowledge and viveka (critical thinking). Shankara cautions that the guru and historic knowledge may be distorted, so traditions and historical assumptions must be questioned by the individual seeking "moksha". Those who are on their path to "moksha" (samnyasin), suggests Klaus Klostermaier, are quintessentially free individuals, without craving for anything in the worldly life, thus are neither dominated by, nor dominating anyone else.


title: Moksha

text: Vivekachudamani, which literally means "Crown Jewel of Discriminatory Reasoning", is a book devoted to moksa in Vedanta philosophy. It explains what behaviors and pursuits lead to "moksha", as well what actions and assumptions hinder "moksha". The four essential conditions, according to Vivekachudamani, before one can commence on the path of "moksha" include (1) "vivekah" (discrimination, critical reasoning) between everlasting principles and fleeting world; (2) "viragah" (indifference, lack of craving) for material rewards; (3) "samah" (calmness of mind), and (4) "damah" (self restraint, temperance). The "Brahmasutrabhasya" adds to the above four requirements, the following: "uparati" (lack of bias, dispassion), "titiksa" (endurance, patience), "sraddha" (faith) and "samadhana" (intentness, commitment).


title: Moksha

text: The Advaita tradition considers "moksha" achievable by removing avidya (ignorance). "Moksha" is seen as a final release from illusion, and through knowledge ("anubhava") of one's own fundamental nature, which is Satcitananda. Advaita holds there is no being/non-being distinction between "Atman", "Brahman", and "Paramatman". The knowledge of Brahman leads to "moksha", where Brahman is described as that which is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone. Advaita Vedanta emphasizes Jnana Yoga as the means of achieving "moksha". Bliss, claims this school, is the fruit of knowledge (vidya) and work (karma).


title: Moksha

text: The Dvaita (dualism) traditions define "moksha" as the loving, eternal union with God and considered the highest perfection of existence. Dvaita schools suggest every soul encounters liberation differently. Dualist schools (e.g. Vaishnava) see God as the object of love, for example, a personified monotheistic conception of Shiva, Vishnu or Adishakti. By immersing oneself in the love of God, one's karmas slough off, one's illusions decay, and truth is lived. Both the worshiped and worshiper gradually lose their illusory sense of separation and only One beyond all names remains. This is salvation to dualist schools of Hinduism. Dvaita Vedanta emphasizes Bhakti Yoga as the means of achieving "moksha".


title: Moksha

text: The Vishistadvaita tradition, led by Ramanuja, defines avidya and "moksha" differently from the Advaita tradition. To Ramanuja, avidya is a focus on the self, and vidya is a focus on a loving god. The Vishistadvaita school argues that other schools of Hinduism create a false sense of agency in individuals, which makes the individual think oneself as potential or self-realized god. Such ideas, claims Ramanuja, decay to materialism, hedonism and self worship. Individuals forget "Ishvara" (God). Mukti, to Vishistadvaita school, is release from such avidya, towards the intuition and eternal union with God.


title: Moksha

text: Among the Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta schools of Hinduism, liberation and freedom reached within one's life is referred to as "jivanmukti", and the individual who has experienced this state is called "jivanmukta" (self-realized person). Dozens of Upanishads, including those from middle Upanishadic period, mention or describe the state of liberation, "jivanmukti". Some contrast "jivanmukti" with "videhamukti" ("moksha" from samsara after death). Jivanmukti is a state that transforms the nature, attributes and behaviors of an individual, claim these ancient texts of Hindu philosophy. For example, according to Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad, the liberated individual shows attributes such as:


title: Moksha

text: When a Jivanmukta dies he achieves Paramukti and becomes a Paramukta. Jivanmukta experience enlightenment and liberation while alive and also after death i.e., after becoming paramukta, while Videhmukta experiences enlightenment and liberation only after death.


title: Moksha

text: Balinese Hinduism incorporates "moksha" as one of five tattwas. The other four are: "brahman" (the one supreme god head, not to be confused with Brahmin), "atma" (soul or spirit), karma (actions and reciprocity, causality), "samsara" (principle of rebirth, reincarnation). "Moksha", in Balinese Hindu belief, is the possibility of unity with the divine; it is sometimes referred to as nirwana.


title: Moksha

text: In Buddhism the term "moksha" is uncommon, but an equivalent term is "vimutti", "release". In the suttas two forms of release are mentioned, namely "ceto-vimutti", "deliverance of mind," and "panna-vimutti", "deliverance through wisdom" (insight). "Ceto-vimutti" is related to the practice of dhyana, while "panna-vimutti" is related to the development of insight. According to Gombrich, the distinction may be a later development, which resulted in a change of doctrine, regarding the practice of dhyana to be insufficient for final liberation.


title: Moksha

text: With release comes Nirvana (Pali: Nibbana), “blowing out”, "quenching", or “becoming extinguished” of the fires of the passions and of self-view. It is a "timeless state" in which there is no more becoming.


title: Moksha

text: Nirvana ends the cycle of "Dukkha" and rebirth in the six realms of Saṃsāra (Buddhism). It is part of the Four Noble Truths doctrine of Buddhism, which plays an essential role in Theravada Buddhism. Nirvana has been described in Buddhist texts in a manner similar to other Indian religions, as the state of complete liberation, enlightenment, highest happiness, bliss, fearless, freedom, dukkha-less, permanence, non-dependent origination, unfathomable, indescribable. It has also been described as a state of release marked by "emptiness" and realization of "non-Self". Such descriptions, states Peter Harvey, are contested by scholars because nirvana in Buddhism is ultimately described as a state of "stopped consciousness (blown out), but one that is not non-existent", and "it seems impossible to imagine what awareness devoid of any object would be like".


title: Moksha

text: In Jainism, "moksha" and "nirvana" are one and the same. Jaina texts sometimes use the term "Kevalya", and call the liberated soul as "Kevalin". As with all Indian religions, "moksha" is the ultimate spiritual goal in Jainism. It defines "moksha" as the spiritual release from all karma.


title: Moksha

text: Jainism is a Sramanic non-theistic philosophy that believes in a metaphysical permanent self or soul often termed "jiva". Jaina believe that this soul is what transmigrates from one being to another at the time of death. The "moksa" state is attained when a soul ("atman") is liberated from the cycles of deaths and rebirths ("saṃsāra"), is at the apex, is omniscient, remains there eternally, and is known as a "siddha". In Jainism, it is believed to be a stage beyond enlightenment and ethical perfection, states Paul Dundas, because they can perform physical and mental activities such as teach, without accruing karma that leads to rebirth.


title: Moksha

text: Jaina traditions believe that there exist "Abhavya" (incapable), or a class of souls that can never attain "moksha" (liberation). The "Abhavya" state of soul is entered after an intentional and shockingly evil act, but Jaina texts also polemically applied "Abhavya" condition to those who belonged to a competing ancient Indian tradition called "Ājīvika". A male human being is considered closest to the apex of "moksha", with the potential to achieve liberation, particularly through asceticism. The ability of women to attain "moksha" has been historically debated, and the subtraditions with Jainism have disagreed. In the Digambara tradition of Jainism, women must live an ethical life and gain karmic merit to be reborn as a man, because only males can achieve spiritual liberation. In contrast, the Śvētāmbara tradition has believed that women too can attain "moksha" just like men.


title: Moksha

text: According to Jainism, purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the path of three jewels: "Samyak darśana" (Correct View), meaning faith, acceptance of the truth of soul ("jīva"); "Samyak jnana" (Correct Knowledge), meaning undoubting knowledge of the "tattvas"; and "Samyak charitra" (Correct Conduct), meaning behavior consistent with the Five vows. Jain texts often add "samyak tap" (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (moksha). The four jewels are called "moksha marg". According to Jain texts, the liberated pure soul ("Siddha") goes up to the summit of universe ("Siddhashila") and dwells there in eternal bliss.


title: Moksha

text: The Sikh concept of mukti (Gurmukhi: ਮੁਕਤੀ) is similar to other Indian religions, and refers to spiritual liberation. It is described in Sikhism as the state that breaks the cycle of rebirths. Mukti is obtained according to Sikhism, states Singha, through "God's grace". According to the Guru Granth Sahib, the devotion to God is viewed as more important than the desire for "Mukti".


title: Moksha

text: Sikhism recommends Naam Simran as the way to mukti, which is meditating and repeating the "Naam" (names of God).


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, also known as co-amoxiclav or amox-clav, sold under the brand name Augmentin, among others, is an antibiotic medication used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. It is a combination consisting of amoxicillin, a β-lactam antibiotic, and potassium clavulanate, a β-lactamase inhibitor. It is specifically used for otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, cellulitis, urinary tract infections, and animal bites. It is taken by mouth or by injection into a vein.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Common side effects include diarrhea, vomiting, and allergic reactions. It also increases the risk of yeast infections, headaches, and blood clotting problems. It is not recommended in people with a history of a penicillin allergy. It is relatively safe for use during pregnancy.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid was approved for medical use in the United States in 1984. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies amoxicillin/clavulanic-acid as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 107th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 6million prescriptions.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is widely used to treat or prevent many infections caused by susceptible bacteria, such as:


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: It is also used for tuberculosis that is resistant to other treatments. The World Health Organisation recommends giving amoxicillin-clavulanate along with meropenem as one of the therapeutic options in drug resistant tuberculosis, where clavulanate and not amoxicillin is being relied upon for anti TB activity. However, across the spectrum of dosage of amoxicillin-clavulanate combination, the dose of clavulanate is constant at 125 mg, whereas the dose of amoxicillin varies at 250 mg, 500 mg and 875 mg. Thus the use of low dose amoxicillin-clavulanate in combination with meropenem may be used in part of treatment regime for drug resistant TB and this has been demonstrated in a clinical setting also.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: This combination results in an antibiotic with an increased spectrum of action and restored efficacy against amoxicillin-resistant bacteria that produce β-lactamase.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Possible side effects include diarrhea, vomiting, nausea, thrush, and skin rash. These do not usually require medical attention. As with all antimicrobial agents, antibiotic-associated diarrhea due to "Clostridium difficile" infection—sometimes leading to pseudomembranous colitis—may occur during or after treatment with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Rarely, cholestatic jaundice (also referred to as cholestatic hepatitis, a form of liver toxicity) has been associated with amoxicillin/clavulanic acid. The reaction may occur up to several weeks after treatment has stopped, and usually takes weeks to resolve. It is more frequent in men, older people, and those who have taken long courses of treatment; the estimated overall incidence is one in 100,000 exposures. In the United Kingdom, co-amoxiclav carries a warning from the Committee on Safety of Medicines to this effect.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: As all aminopenicillins, amoxicillin has been associated with Stevens–Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis, although these reactions are very rare.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: British scientists working at Beecham (now part of GlaxoSmithKline), filed for patent protection for the drug combination in 1977, which was granted in 1982.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is the International Nonproprietary Name (INN) and co-amoxiclav is the British Approved Name (BAN).


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Many branded products indicate their strengths as the quantity of amoxicillin. Augmentin 250, for example, contains 250 mg of amoxicillin and 125 mg of clavulanic acid.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: An intravenous preparation has been available in the UK since 1985, but no parenteral preparation is available in the US; the nearest equivalent is ampicillin/sulbactam.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Suspensions of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid are available for use in children. They must be refrigerated to maintain effectiveness.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: In combination with prednisolone, it is used for intramammary infusion for the treatment of mastitis in lactating cows. Trade names include Clavaseptin, Clavamox, and Synulox.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is banned from use in domestic-food animals (cattle, swine, etc.) in both the US and Europe; in the UK, Synulox can be used in domestic-food animals as long as a specified withdrawal period is observed.


title: Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

text: Bacterial antibiotic resistance is a growing problem in veterinary medicine. Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is reported to be effective against clinical "Klebsiella" infections, but is not efficacious against "Pseudomonas" infections.


title: Hand

text: A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates such as humans, chimpanzees, monkeys, and lemurs. A few other vertebrates such as the koala (which has two opposable thumbs on each "hand" and fingerprints extremely similar to human fingerprints) are often described as having "hands" instead of paws on their front limbs. The raccoon is usually described as having "hands" though opposable thumbs are lacking.


title: Hand

text: Some evolutionary anatomists use the term "hand" to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb more generally—for example, in the context of whether the three digits of the bird hand involved the same homologous loss of two digits as in the dinosaur hand.


title: Hand

text: The human hand usually has five digits: four fingers plus one thumb; these are often referred to collectively as five fingers, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the fingers. It has 27 bones, not including the sesamoid bone, the number of which varies among people, 14 of which are the phalanges (proximal, intermediate and distal) of the fingers and thumb. The metacarpal bones connect the fingers and the carpal bones of the wrist. Each human hand has five metacarpals and eight carpal bones.


title: Hand

text: Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings in the body, and are the richest source of tactile feedback. They also have the greatest positioning capability of the body; thus, the sense of touch is intimately associated with hands. Like other paired organs (eyes, feet, legs) each hand is dominantly controlled by the opposing brain hemisphere, so that handedness—the preferred hand choice for single-handed activities such as writing with a pencil, reflects individual brain functioning.


title: Hand

text: Among humans, the hands play an important function in body language and sign language. Likewise, the ten digits of two hands and the twelve phalanges of four fingers (touchable by the thumb) have given rise to number systems and calculation techniques.


title: Hand

text: Many mammals and other animals have grasping appendages similar in form to a hand such as paws, claws, and talons, but these are not scientifically considered to be grasping hands. The scientific use of the term "hand" in this sense to distinguish the terminations of the front paws from the hind ones is an example of anthropomorphism. The only true grasping hands appear in the mammalian order of primates. Hands must also have opposable thumbs, as described later in the text.


title: Hand

text: The hand is located at the distal end of each arm. Apes and monkeys are sometimes described as having four hands, because the toes are long and the hallux is opposable and looks more like a thumb, thus enabling the feet to be used as hands.


title: Hand

text: The word "hand" is sometimes used by evolutionary anatomists to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb such as when researching the homology between the three digits of the bird hand and the dinosaur hand.


title: Hand

text: There are five digits attached to the hand, notably with a nail fixed to the end in place of the normal claw. The four fingers can be folded over the palm which allows the grasping of objects. Each finger, starting with the one closest to the thumb, has a colloquial name to distinguish it from the others:


title: Hand

text: The thumb (connected to the first metacarpal bone and trapezium) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm. A reliable way of identifying human hands is from the presence of opposable thumbs. Opposable thumbs are identified by the ability to be brought opposite to the fingers, a muscle action known as opposition.


title: Hand

text: The skeleton of the human hand consists of 27 bones: the eight short carpal bones of the wrist are organized into a proximal row (scaphoid, lunate, triquetral and pisiform) which articulates with the bones of the forearm, and a distal row (trapezium, trapezoid, capitate and hamate), which articulates with the bases of the five metacarpal bones of the hand. The heads of the metacarpals will each in turn articulate with the bases of the proximal phalanx of the fingers and thumb. These articulations with the fingers are the metacarpophalangeal joints known as the knuckles. At the palmar aspect of the first metacarpophalangeal joints are small, almost spherical bones called the sesamoid bones. The fourteen phalanges make up the fingers and thumb, and are numbered I-V (thumb to little finger) when the hand is viewed from an anatomical position (palm up). The four fingers each consist of three phalanx bones: proximal, middle, and distal. The thumb only consists of a proximal and distal phalanx. Together with the phalanges of the fingers and thumb these metacarpal bones form five rays or poly-articulated chains.


title: Hand

text: Because supination and pronation (rotation about the axis of the forearm) are added to the two axes of movements of the wrist, the ulna and radius are sometimes considered part of the skeleton of the hand.


title: Hand

text: There are numerous sesamoid bones in the hand, small ossified nodes embedded in tendons; the exact number varies between people: whereas a pair of sesamoid bones are found at virtually all thumb metacarpophalangeal joints, sesamoid bones are also common at the interphalangeal joint of the thumb (72.9%) and at the metacarpophalangeal joints of the little finger (82.5%) and the index finger (48%). In rare cases, sesamoid bones have been found in all the metacarpophalangeal joints and all distal interphalangeal joints except that of the long finger.


title: Hand

text: The fixed and mobile parts of the hand adapt to various everyday tasks by forming bony arches: longitudinal arches (the rays formed by the finger bones and their associated metacarpal bones), transverse arches (formed by the carpal bones and distal ends of the metacarpal bones), and oblique arches (between the thumb and four fingers):


title: Hand

text: Of the longitudinal arches or rays of the hand, that of the thumb is the most mobile (and the least longitudinal). While the ray formed by the little finger and its associated metacarpal bone still offers some mobility, the remaining rays are firmly rigid. The phalangeal joints of the index finger, however, offer some independence to its finger, due to the arrangement of its flexor and extension tendons.


title: Hand

text: The carpal bones form two transversal rows, each forming an arch concave on the palmar side. Because the proximal arch simultaneously has to adapt to the articular surface of the radius and to the distal carpal row, it is by necessity flexible. In contrast, the capitate, the "keystone" of the distal arch, moves together with the metacarpal bones and the distal arch is therefore rigid. The stability of these arches is more dependent of the ligaments and capsules of the wrist than of the interlocking shapes of the carpal bones, and the wrist is therefore more stable in flexion than in extension. The distal carpal arch affects the function of the CMC joints and the hands, but not the function of the wrist or the proximal carpal arch. The ligaments that maintain the distal carpal arches are the transverse carpal ligament and the intercarpal ligaments (also oriented transversally). These ligaments also form the carpal tunnel and contribute to the deep and superficial palmar arches. Several muscle tendons attaching to the TCL and the distal carpals also contribute to maintaining the carpal arch.


title: Hand

text: Compared to the carpal arches, the arch formed by the distal ends of the metacarpal bones is flexible due to the mobility of the peripheral metacarpals (thumb and little finger). As these two metacarpals approach each other, the palmar gutter deepens. The central-most metacarpal (middle finger) is the most rigid. It and its two neighbors are tied to the carpus by the interlocking shapes of the metacarpal bones. The thumb metacarpal only articulates with the trapezium and is therefore completely independent, while the fifth metacarpal (little finger) is semi-independent with the fourth metacarpal (ring finger) which forms a transitional element to the fifth metacarpal.