title: Anagram

text: In the Talmudic and Midrashic literature, anagrams were used to interpret the Hebrew Bible, notably by Eleazar of Modi'im. Later, Kabbalists took this up with enthusiasm, calling anagrams "temurah".


title: Anagram

text: Anagrams in Latin were considered witty over many centuries. "Est vir qui adest", explained below, was cited as the example in Samuel Johnson's "A Dictionary of the English Language". They became hugely popular in the early modern period, especially in Germany.


title: Anagram

text: Any historical material on anagrams must always be interpreted in terms of the assumptions and spellings that were current for the language in question. In particular, spelling in English only slowly became fixed. There were attempts to regulate anagram formation, an important one in English being that of George Puttenham's "Of the Anagram or Posy Transposed" in "The Art of English Poesie" (1589).


title: Anagram

text: As a literary game when Latin was the common property of the literate, Latin anagrams were prominent. Two examples are the change of "Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum" (Latin: Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you) into "Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata" (Latin: Serene virgin, pious, clean and spotless), and the anagrammatic answer to Pilate's question, "Quid est veritas?" (Latin: What is truth?), namely, "Est vir qui adest" (Latin: It is the man who is here). The origins of these are not documented.


title: Anagram

text: Latin continued to influence letter values (such as I = J, U = V and W = VV). There was an ongoing tradition of allowing anagrams to be "perfect" if the letters were all used once, but allowing for these interchanges. This can be seen in a popular Latin anagram against the Jesuits: "Societas Jesu" turned into "Vitiosa seces" (Latin: Cut off the wicked things). Puttenham, in the time of Elizabeth I, wished to start from "Elissabet Anglorum Regina" (Latin: Elizabeth Queen of the English), to obtain "Multa regnabis ense gloria" (Latin: By thy sword shalt thou reign in great renown); he explains carefully that H is "a note of aspiration only and no letter", and that Z in Greek or Hebrew is a mere SS. The rules were not completely fixed in the 17th century. William Camden in his "Remains" commented, singling out some letters—Æ, K, W, and Z—not found in the classical Roman alphabet:


title: Anagram

text: When it comes to the 17th century and anagrams in English or other languages, there is a great deal of documented evidence of learned interest. The lawyer Thomas Egerton was praised through the anagram "gestat honorem" ('he carries honor'); the physician George Ent took the anagrammatic motto "genio surget" ('he rises through spirit/genius'), which requires his first name as "Georgius". James I's courtiers discovered in "James Stuart" "a just master", and converted "Charles James Stuart" into "Claims Arthur's seat" (even at that point in time, the letters I and J were more-or-less interchangeable). Walter Quin, tutor to the future Charles I, worked hard on multilingual anagrams on the name of father James. A notorious murder scandal, the Overbury case, threw up two imperfect anagrams that were aided by typically loose spelling and were recorded by Simonds D'Ewes: "Francis Howard" (for Frances Carr, Countess of Somerset, her maiden name spelled in a variant) became "Car findes a whore", with the letters E hardly counted, and the victim Thomas Overbury, as "Thomas Overburie", was written as "O! O! a busie murther" (an old form of "murder"), with a V counted as U.


title: Anagram

text: William Drummond of Hawthornden, in an essay "On the Character of a Perfect Anagram", tried to lay down rules for permissible substitutions (such as S standing for Z) and letter omissions. William Camden provided a definition of "Anagrammatisme" as "a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense appliable (i.e., applicable) to the person named." Dryden in "MacFlecknoe" disdainfully called the pastime the "torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways".


title: Anagram

text: "Eleanor Audeley", wife of Sir John Davies, is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to "Reveale, O Daniel", and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by Sir John Lambe, the dean of the Arches, "Dame Eleanor Davies", "Never soe mad a ladie".


title: Anagram

text: An example from France was a flattering anagram for Cardinal Richelieu, comparing him to Hercules or at least one of his hands (Hercules being a kingly symbol), where "Armand de Richelieu" became "Ardue main d'Hercule" ("difficult hand of Hercules").


title: Anagram

text: Examples from the 19th century are the transposition of "Horatio Nelson" into "Honor est a Nilo" (Latin: Honor is from the Nile); and of "Florence Nightingale" into "Flit on, cheering angel". The Victorian love of anagramming as recreation is alluded to by the mathematician Augustus De Morgan using his own name as an example; "Great Gun, do us a sum!" is attributed to his son William De Morgan, but a family friend John Thomas Graves was prolific, and a manuscript with over 2,800 has been preserved.


title: Anagram

text: With the advent of surrealism as a poetic movement, anagrams regained the artistic respect they had had in the Baroque period. The German poet Unica Zürn, who made extensive use of anagram techniques, came to regard obsession with anagrams as a "dangerous fever", because it created isolation of the author. The surrealist leader André Breton coined the anagram "Avida Dollars" for Salvador Dalí, to tarnish his reputation by the implication of commercialism.


title: Anagram

text: While anagramming is certainly a recreation first, there are ways in which anagrams are put to use, and these can be more serious, or at least not quite frivolous and formless. For example, psychologists use anagram-oriented tests, often called "anagram solution tasks", to assess the implicit memory of young adults and adults alike.


title: Anagram

text: Natural philosophers (astronomers and others) of the 17th century transposed their discoveries into Latin anagrams, to establish their priority. In this way they laid claim to new discoveries before their results were ready for publication.


title: Anagram

text: Galileo used ' for ' (Latin: I have observed the most distant planet to have a triple form) for discovering the rings of Saturn in 1610. Galileo announced his discovery that Venus had phases like the Moon in the form ' (Latin: These immature ones have already been read in vain by me -oy), that is, when rearranged, ' (Latin: The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of Cynthia [= the moon]). In both cases, Johannes Kepler had solved the anagrams incorrectly, assuming they were talking about the Moons of Mars (') and a red spot on Jupiter ('), respectively. By coincidence, he turned out to be right about the actual objects existing.


title: Anagram

text: In 1656, Christiaan Huygens, using a better telescope than those available to Galileo, figured that Galileo's earlier observations of Saturn actually meant it had a ring (Galileo's tools were only sufficient to see it as bumps) and, like Galileo, had published an anagram, '. Upon confirming his observations, three years later he revealed it to mean ' (Latin: It [Saturn] is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching, inclined to the ecliptic).


title: Anagram

text: When Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law in 1660, he first published it in anagram form, ', for ' (Latin: as the extension, so the force).


title: Anagram

text: In a related use, from 1975, British naturalist Sir Peter Scott coined the scientific term ' (Greek: The monster (or wonder) of Ness with the diamond-shaped fin) for the apocryphal Loch Ness Monster. Shortly afterwards, several London newspapers pointed out that ' anagrams into "Monster hoax by Sir Peter S". However, Robert Rines, who previously made two underwater photographs allegedly showing the monster, countered that they can also be arranged into "Yes, both pix are monsters, R".


title: Anagram

text: Anagrams are connected to pseudonyms, by the fact that they may conceal or reveal, or operate somewhere in between like a mask that can establish identity. For example, Jim Morrison used an anagram of his name in the Doors song "L.A. Woman", calling himself "Mr. Mojo Risin'". The use of anagrams and fabricated personal names may be to circumvent restrictions on the use of real names, as happened in the 18th century when Edward Cave wanted to get around restrictions imposed on the reporting of the House of Commons. In a genre such as farce or parody, anagrams as names may be used for pointed and satiric effect.


title: Anagram

text: Pseudonyms adopted by authors are sometimes transposed forms of their names; thus "Calvinus" becomes "Alcuinus" (here V = U) or "François Rabelais" = "Alcofribas Nasier". The name "Voltaire" of François Marie Arouet fits this pattern, and is allowed to be an anagram of "Arouet, l[e] j[eune]" (U = V, J = I) that is, "Arouet the younger". Other examples include:


title: Anagram

text: Several of these are "imperfect anagrams", letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation.


title: Anagram

text: In Hebrew, the name "Gernot Zippe" (גרנוט ציפה), the inventor of the Zippe-type centrifuge, is an anagram of the word "centrifuge" (צנטריפוגה).


title: Anagram

text: The sentence "Name is Anu Garg", referring to anagrammer and founder of wordsmith.org Anu Garg, can be rearranged to spell "Anagram genius".


title: Anagram

text: Anagrams are in themselves a recreational activity, but they also make up part of many other games, puzzles and game shows. The Jumble is a puzzle found in many newspapers in the United States requiring the unscrambling of letters to find the solution. Cryptic crossword puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a descriptive term like "confused" or "in disarray". An example would be "Businessman burst into tears (9 letters)". The solution, "stationer", is an anagram of "into tears", the letters of which have "burst" out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of "businessman".


title: Anagram

text: Numerous other games and contests involve some element of anagram formation as a basic skill. Some examples:


title: Anagram

text: Multiple anagramming is a technique used to solve some kinds of cryptograms, such as a permutation cipher, a transposition cipher, and the Jefferson disk. Solutions may be computationally found using a Jumble algorithm.


title: Anagram

text: Sometimes, it is possible to "see" anagrams in words, unaided by tools, though the more letters involved the more difficult this becomes. The difficulty is that for a word of different letters, there are (factorial of ) different permutations and so different anagrams of the word. Anagram dictionaries can also be used. Computer programs, known as "anagram search", "anagram servers", "anagram solvers", offer a much faster route to creating anagrams, and a large number of these programs are available on the Internet. Some programs use the Anatree algorithm to compute anagrams efficiently.


title: Anagram

text: The program or server carries out an exhaustive search of a database of words, to produce a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase using a jumble algorithm. Some programs (such as "Lexpert") restrict to one-word answers. Many anagram servers (for example, The Words Oracle) can control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results. Anagram solvers are often banned from online anagram games. The disadvantage of computer anagram solvers, especially when applied to multi-word anagrams, is their poor understanding of the meaning of the words they are manipulating. They usually cannot filter out meaningful or appropriate anagrams from large numbers of nonsensical word combinations. Some servers attempt to improve on this using statistical techniques that try to combine only words that appear together often. This approach provides only limited success since it fails to recognize ironic and humorous combinations.


title: Anagram

text: Some anagrammatists indicate the method they used. Anagrams constructed without the aid of a computer are noted as having been done "manually" or "by hand"; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted "by machine" or "by computer", or may indicate the name of the computer program (using "Anagram Genius").


title: Anagram

text: There are also a few "natural" instances: English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French "chaise longue" ("long chair") became the American "chaise lounge" by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). It has also been speculated that the English "curd" comes from the Latin "crudus" ("raw"). Similarly, the ancient English word for bird was "brid".


title: Anagram

text: The French king Louis XIII had a man named Thomas Billon appointed as his Royal Anagrammatist with an annual salary of 1200 pounds. Among contemporary anagrammers, Anu Garg, created an Internet Anagram Server in 1994 together with the satirical anagram-based newspaper "The Anagram Times". Mike Keith has anagrammed the complete text of "Moby Dick". He, along with Richard Brodie, has published "The Anagrammed Bible" that includes anagrammed version of many books of the Bible. Popular television personality Dick Cavett is known for his anagrams of famous celebrities such as Alec Guinness and Spiro Agnew.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite () is a pyrotechnic composition of metal powder and metal oxide. When ignited by heat or chemical reaction, thermite undergoes an exothermic reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction. Most varieties are not explosive, but can create brief bursts of heat and high temperature in a small area. Its form of action is similar to that of other fuel-oxidizer mixtures, such as black powder.


title: Thermite

text: Thermites have diverse compositions. Fuels include aluminum, magnesium, titanium, zinc, silicon, and boron. Aluminum is common because of its high boiling point and low cost. Oxidizers include bismuth(III) oxide, boron(III) oxide, silicon(IV) oxide, chromium(III) oxide, manganese(IV) oxide, iron(III) oxide, iron(II,III) oxide, copper(II) oxide, and lead(II,IV) oxide.


title: Thermite

text: The reaction, also called the Goldschmidt process, is used for thermite welding, often used to join railway tracks. Thermites have also been used in metal refining, disabling munitions, and in incendiary weapons. Some thermite-like mixtures are used as pyrotechnic initiators in fireworks.


title: Thermite

text: In the following example, elemental aluminum reduces the oxide of another metal, in this common example iron oxide, because aluminum forms stronger and more stable bonds with oxygen than iron:


title: Thermite

text: The products are aluminum oxide, elemental iron, and a large amount of heat. The reactants are commonly powdered and mixed with a binder to keep the material solid and prevent separation.


title: Thermite

text: Other metal oxides can be used, such as chromium oxide, to generate the given metal in its elemental form. For example, a copper thermite reaction using copper oxide and elemental aluminum can be used for creating electric joints in a process called cadwelding, that produces elemental copper (it may react violently):


title: Thermite

text: Thermites with nanosized particles are described by a variety of terms, such as metastable intermolecular composites, super-thermite, nano-thermite, and nanocomposite energetic materials.


title: Thermite

text: The thermite ("thermit") reaction was discovered in 1893 and patented in 1895 by German chemist Hans Goldschmidt. Consequently, the reaction is sometimes called the "Goldschmidt reaction" or "Goldschmidt process". Goldschmidt was originally interested in producing very pure metals by avoiding the use of carbon in smelting, but he soon discovered the value of thermite in welding.


title: Thermite

text: Red iron(III) oxide (FeO, commonly known as rust) is the most common iron oxide used in thermite. Magnetite also works. Other oxides are occasionally used, such as MnO in manganese thermite, CrO in chromium thermite, quartz in silicon thermite, or copper(II) oxide in copper thermite, but only for specialized purposes. All of these examples use aluminum as the reactive metal. Fluoropolymers can be used in special formulations, Teflon with magnesium or aluminum being a relatively common example. Magnesium/teflon/viton is another pyrolant of this type.


title: Thermite

text: Combinations of dry ice (frozen carbon dioxide) and reducing agents such as magnesium, aluminum and boron follow the same chemical reaction as with traditional thermite mixtures, producing metal oxides and carbon. Despite the very low temperature of a dry ice thermite mixture, such a system is capable of being ignited with a flame. When the ingredients are finely divided, confined in a pipe and armed like a traditional explosive, this cryo-thermite is detonatable and a portion of the carbon liberated in the reaction emerges in the form of diamond.


title: Thermite

text: In principle, any reactive metal could be used instead of aluminum. This is rarely done, because the properties of aluminum are nearly ideal for this reaction:


title: Thermite

text: Although the reactants are stable at room temperature, they burn with an extremely intense exothermic reaction when they are heated to ignition temperature. The products emerge as liquids due to the high temperatures reached (up to 2500 °C (4532°F) with iron(III) oxide)—although the actual temperature reached depends on how quickly heat can escape to the surrounding environment. Thermite contains its own supply of oxygen and does not require any external source of air. Consequently, it cannot be smothered, and may ignite in any environment given sufficient initial heat. It burns well while wet, and cannot be easily extinguished with water—though enough water to remove sufficient heat may stop the reaction. Small amounts of water boil before reaching the reaction. Even so, thermite is used for welding under water.


title: Thermite

text: The thermites are characterized by almost complete absence of gas production during burning, high reaction temperature, and production of molten slag. The fuel should have high heat of combustion and produce oxides with low melting point and high boiling point. The oxidizer should contain at least 25% oxygen, have high density, low heat of formation, and produce metal with low melting and high boiling points (so the energy released is not consumed in evaporation of reaction products). Organic binders can be added to the composition to improve its mechanical properties, but they tend to produce endothermic decomposition products, causing some loss of reaction heat and production of gases.


title: Thermite

text: The temperature achieved during the reaction determines the outcome. In an ideal case, the reaction produces a well-separated melt of metal and slag. For this, the temperature must be high enough to melt both reaction products, the resulting metal and the fuel oxide. Too low a temperature produces a mixture of sintered metal and slag; too high a temperature (above the boiling point of any reactant or product) leads to rapid production of gas, dispersing the burning reaction mixture, sometimes with effects similar to a low-yield explosion. In compositions intended for production of metal by aluminothermic reaction, these effects can be counteracted. Too low a reaction temperature (e.g., when producing silicon from sand) can be boosted with addition of a suitable oxidizer (e.g., sulfur in aluminum-sulfur-sand compositions); too high a temperature can be reduced by using a suitable coolant and/or slag flux. The flux often used in amateur compositions is calcium fluoride, as it reacts only minimally, has relatively low melting point, low melt viscosity at high temperatures (therefore increasing fluidity of the slag) and forms a eutectic with alumina. Too much flux, however, dilutes the reactants to the point of not being able to sustain combustion. The type of metal oxide also has dramatic influence to the amount of energy produced; the higher the oxide, the higher the amount of energy produced. A good example is the difference between manganese(IV) oxide and manganese(II) oxide, where the former produces too high temperature and the latter is barely able to sustain combustion; to achieve good results, a mixture with proper ratio of both oxides can be used.


title: Thermite

text: The reaction rate can be also tuned with particle sizes; coarser particles burn slower than finer particles. The effect is more pronounced with the particles requiring being heated to higher temperature to start reacting. This effect is pushed to the extreme with nanothermites.


title: Thermite

text: The temperature achieved in the reaction in adiabatic conditions, when no heat is lost to the environment, can be estimated using Hess's law – by calculating the energy produced by the reaction itself (subtracting the enthalpy of the reactants from the enthalpy of the products) and subtracting the energy consumed by heating the products (from their specific heat, when the materials only change their temperature, and their enthalpy of fusion and eventually enthalpy of vaporization, when the materials melt or boil). In real conditions, the reaction loses heat to the environment, the achieved temperature is therefore somewhat lower. The heat transfer rate is finite, so the faster the reaction is, the closer to adiabatic condition it runs and the higher is the achieved temperature.


title: Thermite

text: The most common composition is iron thermite. The oxidizer used is usually either iron(III) oxide or iron(II,III) oxide. The former produces more heat. The latter is easier to ignite, likely due to the crystal structure of the oxide. Addition of copper or manganese oxides can significantly improve the ease of ignition.


title: Thermite

text: The density of prepared thermite is often as low as 0.7 g/cm. This, in turn, results in relatively poor energy density (about 3 kJ/cm), rapid burn times, and spray of molten iron due to the expansion of trapped air. Thermite can be pressed to densities as high as 4.9 g/cm (almost 16 kJ/cm) with slow burning speeds (about 1 cm/s). Pressed thermite has higher melting power, i.e. it can melt a steel cup where a low-density thermite would fail. Iron thermite with or without additives can be pressed into cutting devices that have heat-resistant casing and a nozzle.


title: Thermite

text: Oxygen balanced iron thermite 2Al + FeO has theoretical maximum density of 4.175 g/cm an adiabatic burn temperature of 3135 K or 2862 °C or 5183 °F (with phase transitions included, limited by iron, which boils at 3135 K), the aluminum oxide is (briefly) molten and the produced iron is mostly liquid with part of it being in gaseous form - 78.4 g of iron vapor per kg of thermite are produced. The energy content is 945.4 cal/g (3 956 J/g). The energy density is 16 516 J/cm.


title: Thermite

text: The original mixture, as invented, used iron oxide in the form of mill scale. The composition was very difficult to ignite.


title: Thermite

text: Copper thermite can be prepared using either copper(I) oxide (CuO, red) or copper(II) oxide (CuO, black). The burn rate tends to be very fast and the melting point of copper is relatively low, so the reaction produces a significant amount of molten copper in a very short time. Copper(II) thermite reactions can be so fast that it can be considered a type of flash powder. An explosion can occur, which sends a spray of copper drops to considerable distances.


title: Thermite

text: Oxygen-balanced mixture has theoretical maximum density of 5.109 g/cm, adiabatic flame temperature 2843 K (phase transitions included) with the aluminum oxide being molten and copper in both liquid and gaseous form; 343 g of copper vapor per kg of this thermite are produced. The energy content is 974 cal/g.


title: Thermite

text: Copper(I) thermite has industrial uses in e.g., welding of thick copper conductors (cadwelding). This kind of welding is being evaluated also for cable splicing on the US Navy fleet, for use in high-current systems, e.g., electric propulsion.


title: Thermite

text: Oxygen balanced mixture has theoretical maximum density of 5.280 g/cm, adiabatic flame temperature 2843 K (phase transitions included) with the aluminum oxide being molten and copper in both liquid and gaseous form; 77.6 g of copper vapor per kg of this thermite are produced. The energy content is 575.5 cal/g.


title: Thermite

text: Thermate composition is a thermite enriched with a salt-based oxidizer (usually nitrates, e.g., barium nitrate, or peroxides). In contrast with thermites, thermates burn with evolution of flame and gases. The presence of the oxidizer makes the mixture easier to ignite and improves penetration of target by the burning composition, as the evolved gas is projecting the molten slag and providing mechanical agitation. This mechanism makes thermate more suitable than thermite for incendiary purposes and for emergency destruction of sensitive equipment (e.g., cryptographic devices), as thermite's effect is more localized.


title: Thermite

text: Metals, under the right conditions, burn in a process similar to the combustion of wood or gasoline. (In fact, rust is the result of oxidation of steel or iron at very slow rates.) A thermite reaction results when the correct mixtures of metallic fuels combine and ignite. Ignition itself requires extremely high temperatures.


title: Thermite

text: Ignition of a thermite reaction normally requires a sparkler or easily obtainable magnesium ribbon, but may require persistent efforts, as ignition can be unreliable and unpredictable. These temperatures cannot be reached with conventional black powder fuses, nitrocellulose rods, detonators, pyrotechnic initiators, or other common igniting substances. Even when the thermite is hot enough to glow bright red, it does not ignite, as it must be at or near white-hot to initiate the reaction. Starting the reaction is possible using a propane torch if done correctly.


title: Thermite

text: Often, strips of magnesium metal are used as fuses. Because metals burn without releasing cooling gases, they can potentially burn at extremely high temperatures. Reactive metals such as magnesium can easily reach temperatures sufficiently high for thermite ignition. Magnesium ignition remains popular among amateur thermite users, mainly because it can be easily obtained, but a piece of the burning strip can fall off into the mixture, resulting in premature ignition.


title: Thermite

text: The reaction between potassium permanganate and glycerol or ethylene glycol is used as an alternative to the magnesium method. When these two substances mix, a spontaneous reaction begins, slowly increasing the temperature of the mixture until it produces flames. The heat released by the oxidation of glycerine is sufficient to initiate a thermite reaction.


title: Thermite

text: Apart from magnesium ignition, some amateurs also choose to use sparklers to ignite the thermite mixture. These reach the necessary temperatures and provide enough time before the burning point reaches the sample. This can be a dangerous method, as the iron sparks, like the magnesium strips, burn at thousands of degrees and can ignite the thermite, though the sparkler itself is not in contact with it. This is especially dangerous with finely powdered thermite.


title: Thermite

text: Match heads burn hot enough to ignite thermite. Use of match heads enveloped with aluminum foil and a sufficiently long viscofuse/electric match leading to the match heads is possible.


title: Thermite

text: Similarly, finely powdered thermite can be ignited by a flint spark lighter, as the sparks are burning metal (in this case, the highly reactive rare-earth metals lanthanum and cerium). Therefore, it is unsafe to strike a lighter close to thermite.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite reactions have many uses. It is not an explosive; instead, it operates by exposing a very small area to extremely high temperatures. Intense heat focused on a small spot can be used to cut through metal or weld metal components together both by melting metal from the components, and by injecting molten metal from the thermite reaction itself.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite may be used for repair by the welding in-place of thick steel sections such as locomotive axle-frames where the repair can take place without removing the part from its installed location.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite can be used for quickly cutting or welding steel such as rail tracks, without requiring complex or heavy equipment. However, defects such as slag inclusions and voids (holes) are often present in such welded junctions, so great care is needed to operate the process successfully. The numerical analysis of thermite welding of rails has been approached similar to casting cooling analysis. Both this finite element analysis and experimental analysis of thermite rail welds has shown that weld gap is the most influential parameter affecting defect formation. Increasing weld gap has been shown to reduce shrinkage cavity formation and cold lap welding defects, and increasing preheat and thermite temperature further reduces these defects. However, reducing these defects promotes a second form of defect: microporosity. Care must also be taken to ensure that the rails remain straight, without resulting in dipped joints, which can cause wear on high speed and heavy axle load lines.


title: Thermite

text: A thermite reaction, when used to purify the ores of some metals, is called the , or aluminothermic reaction. An adaptation of the reaction, used to obtain pure uranium, was developed as part of the Manhattan Project at Ames Laboratory under the direction of Frank Spedding. It is sometimes called the Ames process.


title: Thermite

text: Copper thermite is used for welding together thick copper wires for the purpose of electrical connections. It is used extensively by the electrical utilities and telecommunications industries (exothermic welded connections).


title: Thermite

text: Thermite hand grenades and charges are typically used by armed forces in both an antimateriel role and in the partial destruction of equipment, the latter being common when time is not available for safer or more thorough methods. For example, thermite can be used for the emergency destruction of cryptographic equipment when there is a danger that it might be captured by enemy troops. Because standard iron-thermite is difficult to ignite, burns with practically no flame and has a small radius of action, standard thermite is rarely used on its own as an incendiary composition. In general, an increase in the volume of gaseous reaction products of a thermite blend increases the heat transfer rate (and therefore damage) of that particular thermite blend. It is usually used with other ingredients that increase its incendiary effects. Thermate-TH3 is a mixture of thermite and pyrotechnic additives that have been found superior to standard thermite for incendiary purposes. Its composition by weight is generally about 68.7% thermite, 29.0% barium nitrate, 2.0% sulfur, and 0.3% of a binder (such as PBAN). The addition of barium nitrate to thermite increases its thermal effect, produces a larger flame, and significantly reduces the ignition temperature. Although the primary purpose of Thermate-TH3 by the armed forces is as an incendiary anti-materiel weapon, it also has uses in welding together metal components.


title: Thermite

text: A classic military use for thermite is disabling artillery pieces, and it has been used for this purpose since World War II, such as at Pointe du Hoc, Normandy. Thermite can permanently disable artillery pieces without the use of explosive charges, so thermite can be used when silence is necessary to an operation. This can be done by inserting one or more armed thermite grenades into the breech, and then quickly closing it; this welds the breech shut and makes loading the weapon impossible.


title: Thermite

text: During World War II, both German and Allied incendiary bombs used thermite mixtures. Incendiary bombs usually consisted of dozens of thin, thermite-filled canisters (bomblets) ignited by a magnesium fuse. Incendiary bombs created massive damage in many cities due to fires started by the thermite. Cities that primarily consisted of wooden buildings were especially susceptible. These incendiary bombs were used primarily during nighttime air raids. Bombsights could not be used at night, creating the need to use munitions that could destroy targets without the need for precision placement.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite usage is hazardous due to the extremely high temperatures produced and the extreme difficulty in smothering a reaction once initiated. Small streams of molten iron released in the reaction can travel considerable distances and may melt through metal containers, igniting their contents. Additionally, flammable metals with relatively low boiling points such as zinc (with a boiling point of 907 °C, which is about 1,370 °C below the temperature at which thermite burns) could potentially spray superheated boiling metal violently into the air if near a thermite reaction.


title: Thermite

text: If, for some reason, thermite is contaminated with organics, hydrated oxides and other compounds able to produce gases upon heating or reaction with thermite components, the reaction products may be sprayed. Moreover, if the thermite mixture contains enough empty spaces with air and burns fast enough, the super-heated air also may cause the mixture to spray. For this reason it is preferable to use relatively crude powders, so the reaction rate is moderate and hot gases could escape the reaction zone.


title: Thermite

text: Preheating of thermite before ignition can easily be done accidentally, for example by pouring a new pile of thermite over a hot, recently ignited pile of thermite slag. When ignited, preheated thermite can burn almost instantaneously, releasing light and heat energy at a much higher rate than normal and causing burns and eye damage at what would normally be a reasonably safe distance.


title: Thermite

text: The thermite reaction can take place accidentally in industrial locations where workers use abrasive grinding and cutting wheels with ferrous metals. Using aluminum in this situation produces a mixture of oxides that can explode violently.


title: Thermite

text: Mixing water with thermite or pouring water onto burning thermite can cause a steam explosion, spraying hot fragments in all directions.


title: Thermite

text: Thermite's main ingredients were also utilized for their individual qualities, specifically reflectivity and heat insulation, in a paint coating or dope for the German zeppelin "Hindenburg", possibly contributing to its fiery destruction. This was a theory put forward by the former NASA scientist Addison Bain, and later tested in small scale by the scientific reality-TV show "MythBusters" with semi-inconclusive results (it was proven not to be the fault of the thermite reaction alone, but instead conjectured to be a combination of that and the burning of hydrogen gas that filled the body of the "Hindenburg"). The "MythBusters" program also tested the veracity of a video found on the Internet, whereby a quantity of thermite in a metal bucket was ignited while sitting on top of several blocks of ice, causing a sudden explosion. They were able to confirm the results, finding huge chunks of ice as far as 50 m from the point of explosion. Co-host Jamie Hyneman conjectured that this was due to the thermite mixture aerosolizing, perhaps in a cloud of steam, causing it to burn even faster. Hyneman also voiced skepticism about another theory explaining the phenomenon: that the reaction somehow separated the hydrogen and oxygen in the ice and then ignited them. This explanation claims that the explosion is due to the reaction of high temperature molten aluminum with water. Aluminum reacts violently with water or steam at high temperatures, releasing hydrogen and oxidizing in the process. The speed of that reaction and the ignition of the resulting hydrogen can easily account for the explosion verified.<ref name="Aluminum Times Vol 11 n 3 Jul/Aug 2009"></ref> This process is akin to the explosive reaction caused by dropping metallic potassium into water.


The College Football Playoff National Championship is a post-season college football bowl game, used to determine a national champion of the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), which began play in the 2014 college football season. The game serves as the final of the College Football Playoff, a bracket tournament between the top four teams in the country as determined by a selection committee, which was established as a successor to the Bowl Championship Series and its similar BCS National Championship Game.


The participating teams in the College Football Playoff National Championship are determined by two semifinal games (sometimes called the "Plus-One system"), hosted by an annual rotation of bowls commonly known as the New Year's Six. Thus, the teams to compete in the final are not directly selected by a selection committee, as had been the format used for the BCS National Championship Game.


title: College Football Playoff National Championship

text: The game is played at a neutral site, determined through bids by prospective host cities (similar to the Super Bowl and NCAA Final Four). When announcing it was soliciting bids for the 2016 and 2017 title games, playoff organizers noted that the bids must propose host stadiums with a capacity of at least 65,000 spectators, and cities cannot host both a semi-final game and the title game in the same year.


text: The winner of the game is awarded the College Football Playoff National Championship Trophy, which is sponsored by Dr Pepper. It was created as a new championship trophy, rather than the "crystal football" that has been given by the American Football Coaches Association (AFCA) since 1986, as officials wanted a new trophy that was unconnected with the previous BCS championship system.


text: The inaugural game was held at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, in January 2015, and was won by Ohio State. A top-ranked team did not win the College Football Playoff National Championship until LSU won the sixth edition of the game, in January 2020. Alabama has the most appearances in a College Football Playoff National Championship, with six, and also the most wins, with three.


text: Note that the College Football Playoff National Championship is not awarded by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The highest level of college football that the NCAA awards a championship in is the Division I Football Championship Subdivision (FCS).


text: The number of cities capable of bidding for the event is restricted by the 65,000-seat stadium minimum. In addition to Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, which was the other finalist for the 2015 matchup, the stadium restriction would limit the bidding to cities such as New Orleans, Glendale, and Pasadena. Other possible future hosts include Orlando, San Antonio, and almost any city with a National Football League franchise, since all but three of the stadiums in that league (only one, the Chicago Bears' Soldier Field, will fall short beginning with the 2020 season) meet the capacity requirements and, unlike the Super Bowl, there is no "de jure" restriction on climate. Officials in New York City said they would like to host the game at Yankee Stadium, which hosts the annual Pinstripe Bowl, but it falls short of the attendance limit as it only holds approximately 54,000 fans in its football configuration—a game could still be hosted in the New York metropolitan area, but it would have to be at MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, New Jersey.


text: On December 16, 2013, host selections for the 2016 and 2017 title games were announced. Glendale, Arizona (University of Phoenix Stadium) was selected to host the 2016 game and Tampa, Florida (Raymond James Stadium) was selected to host the 2017 game. Four cities had submitted bids for the 2016 game: Glendale, Jacksonville (TIAA Bank Field), New Orleans (Mercedes-Benz Superdome), and Tampa. Six metropolitan areas had been vying for the 2017 game: Tampa, the San Francisco Bay Area (Levi's Stadium), Minneapolis (U.S. Bank Stadium), San Antonio (Alamodome), South Florida (Hard Rock Stadium), and Jacksonville (TIAA Bank Field).


text: The 2025 game was originally supposed to be played at Allegiant Stadium in Las Vegas, Nevada, but the game was moved to Atlanta due to a conflict with the Consumer Electronics Show happening around the same time. Since cities hosting College Football Playoff semifinal games cannot host the final in the same year, Pasadena and New Orleans were not eligible for the 2018 game; South Florida and North Texas could not host in 2019; and Glendale and Atlanta were excluded from 2020 consideration. The same exclusions rotate every three years through 2026.


text: The following coaches led their teams to the National Championship final. Including the January 2022 game, Nick Saban has reached the final the most times, six, with a 3–3 record.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Footloose is a 2011 American co-written and directed by Craig Brewer. It is a remake of the 1984 film of the same name and stars Kenny Wormald, Julianne Hough, Miles Teller, Andie MacDowell and Dennis Quaid. The film follows a young man who moves from Boston to a small Southern town and protests the town's ban against dancing. Filming took place from September to November 2010 in Georgia. It was released in Australia and New Zealand on October 6, 2011, and in North America on October 14, 2011. It grossed $15.5 million in its opening weekend and $63 million worldwide from a $24 million budget.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: After a long night of partying, an intoxicated Bobby Moore and his friends are killed when their car collides head-on with a truck on a bridge on their way home to the town of Bomont, Georgia. This prompts his father Shaw Moore, the town reverend, to persuade the city council to pass several draconian laws and ordinances, one of which bans all unsupervised dancing within city limits.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Three years later, Boston-raised teenager Ren McCormack moves to Bomont to live with his uncle Wes Warnicker, aunt Lulu, and cousins Sarah and Amy after his mother's death from leukemia and his father's desertion. Upon arrival, Ren befriends fellow Bomont High senior Willard Hewitt, who explains the ban on dancing.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: He soon begins to be attracted to Shaw's rebellious daughter Ariel, who is dating dirt-track driver Chuck Cranston. After Chuck insults him, Ren ends up in a race involving buses and wins despite his inability to drive one and almost getting killed. Shaw mistrusts Ren and forbids Ariel from ever seeing him again. Ren and his classmates want to do away with the law and have a senior prom. He also teaches Willard how to dance.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: After a while, Ariel begins to fall for Ren and dumps Chuck, resulting in a fight between them. Later in church, Shaw finds out about it and demands Ren's arrest, but Ariel tells him that he can't blame everything on Ren like he did with Bobby. She then reveals that she lost her virginity, prompting Shaw to beg for her to not talk like that in church. Ariel then sarcastically asks him if he will pass another law, as it didn't stop her and Chuck from having sex. Shaw slaps her abruptly, shocking his wife Vi, and prompting Ariel to tearfully and angrily criticize his domineering ways and storm out.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: When Shaw tries to apologize Vi stops him, telling him he has gone too far. Supporting the dancing movement, she tells him that he is not being good to Ariel, he cannot be everyone's father and dancing and music are not the problems.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Ren goes before the city council and reads several Bible verses given to him by Ariel. They describe that even in ancient times people would dance to rejoice, exercise, celebrate or worship.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Despite the city council voting against him, Ren's boss offers his cotton mill, which is technically in the neighboring town of Bayson, to let the seniors have their prom. Knowing that Shaw still has enough influence to pressure the parents not to let their teenagers come, Ren visits him one evening. In the conversation they realize their common ground is the loss of a loved one. After Shaw tells the story of Bobby, Ren describes his mother's death and states that even though they denied the motion to dismiss the law, they cannot stop the dance. He then respectfully requests to take Ariel, and Shaw agrees.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: A few days before the prom, Shaw unexpectedly asks his congregation to pray for the high school students putting on the prom. The students (and many parents) prepare and decorate the mill for the prom.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Not long after Ren and Ariel arrive at the prom, Chuck and several of his friends arrive to instigate chaos. However, Ren, Willard, Ariel and her best friend Rusty Rodriguez subdue them. Ren goes inside, exclaiming "Hey, I thought this was a party!" Then he flings confetti into a shredding machine and yells, "Let's dance!" as everyone joins in dancing to the opening song "Footloose".


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: In October 2008, Kenny Ortega was announced as director but left the project a year later after differences with Paramount and the production budget. Peter Sollett was also hired to write the script. Dylan Sellers, Neil Meron and Craig Zadan served as producer; Zadan having produced the original "Footloose". In 2010, Craig Brewer came on to re-write the script after Crawford and Ortega left the project and also served as director. The writer of the original film, Dean Pitchford, also co-wrote the screenplay. Amy Vincent served as cinematographer.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: In July 2007, Zac Efron was cast as Ren McCormack, but he left the project in March 2009. Two months later, it was reported that Chace Crawford would replace Efron, but he later had to back out due to scheduling conflicts. Thomas Dekker was a "top candidate" for the role but on June 22, 2010, "Entertainment Weekly" reported that Kenny Wormald had secured the lead role as McCormack.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Former "Dancing with the Stars" ballroom-dance professional Julianne Hough was cast as Ariel. Amanda Bynes, Miley Cyrus, and Hayden Panettiere were considered for the part before Hough was cast. Dennis Quaid was cast as Reverend Shaw Moore, and Miles Teller was cast as Willard Hewitt. On August 24, 2010, Andie MacDowell joined the cast as Quaid's wife. During an interview on "The Howard Stern Show", Kevin Bacon said he declined a cameo appearance in the film as he did not like the role he was offered: Ren McCormack's deadbeat dad. Though Bacon passed on the role, he gave Brewer his blessing.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: While the original film has the fictional town of "Bomont" located in Utah, the remake instead places the town in Georgia. On a budget of $24 million, principal photography began in September 2010 in and around metro Atlanta, and wrapped two months later in November. A courtroom scene was shot at the Newton County Historic Courthouse in Covington, Georgia on September 17, 20 and 21. A family scene was filmed at the New Senoia Raceway in Senoia on October 1.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: A scene taken from the original film, in which McCormack plays a game of "chicken" with his love interest's boyfriend, was filmed on the Chattahoochee River bridge on Franklin Parkway in downtown Franklin also in October. The home and church scene in the film were filmed in downtown Acworth. Production used the sanctuary of the Acworth Presbyterian Church and the house of the Mayor, Tommy Allegood.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: The original soundtrack was released by Atlantic Records and Warner Music Nashville on September 27, 2011. It includes eight new songs and four remakes of songs from the original film's soundtrack. Brewer said, "I can promise "Footloose" fans that I will be true to the spirit of the original film. But I still gotta put my own Southern grit into it and kick it into 2011." Kenny Loggins' "Footloose" was covered by Blake Shelton for the remake, which is an upbeat country version. The film opens with several teens dancing to Loggins' original version of the song. Like the original film, the 2011 version also features "Bang Your Head (Metal Health)" by the heavy metal band Quiet Riot and "Let's Hear It for the Boy" by Deniece Williams.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: The film was originally scheduled for release in North America on April 1, 2011, but was moved to October 14, 2011. "Footloose" was released in Australia and New Zealand on October 6, 2011.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Paramount and HSN partnered for a 24-hour promotion on October 12, 2011. They sold clothing inspired by the film, such as women's red boots, denim, footwear and nail polish brands created by Vince Camuto and Steve Madden. To promote the film, Paramount sent the cast and director on a promotional tour in over a dozen cities.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: "Footloose" was promoted on the October 11, 2011, episode of "Dancing with the Stars". The episode featured film stars Kenny Wormald and Julianne Hough—a former champion on the show—dancing to the songs "Holding Out for a Hero" and "Footloose" from the film's soundtrack with Blake Shelton performing the song live. At the CMA Awards, Shelton was joined by original "Footloose" performer Kenny Loggins to sing the song. Many of Viacom owned channels, like MTV, Nickelodeon and CMT advertised and promoted the film.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Pre-release audience pollings predicted the film to take in $20 million its opening weekend. However, Paramount expected it to be closer to $15 million. "Footloose" opened in 3,549 theaters taking in $15.5 million and placing number two, behind "Real Steel" ($16.2 million) in its opening weekend. Exit polls indicated that the film appealed to 75 percent of females and 28 percent of the teen market. About 60 percent of the audience were over age 25 and 46 percent over age 35. The 20th highest grossing locations on Friday were in Salt Lake City, Oklahoma City, Knoxville, Kansas City, and San Antonio. The opening was lower than other recent dance films like, "Save the Last Dance" (2001, $23.4 million), "Step Up" (2006, $20.7 million), but it performed around the same as "Step Up 3D" (2010, $15.8 million) and "You Got Served" (2004, $16.1 million). The 1984 "Footloose" opened to $20 million when adjusted for ticket price inflation. In its second weekend the film held well, with a drop of 34 percent. It placed third and grossed an estimated $10.4 million.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: In Australia, the film opened to $1.05 million and to $88,078 in New Zealand. "Footloose" has grossed $51.1 million in the United States and Canada, and $10.9 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $62 million. The 1984 "Footloose" grossed over $80 million worldwide.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 68% of 174 surveyed critics have given the film a positive review; the average rating is 6.0/10. The website's consensus is: "While it hews closely to the 1984 original, Craig Brewer infuses his "Footloose" remake with toe-tapping energy and manages to keep the story fresh for a new generation." Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gives the film a score of 58 based on 35 reviews. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was an "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Lisa Schwarzbaum of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the film an A−. Praising the performance of Wormald, she said he "handily owns the role for a new audience" and closed her review saying, "Guardians of the '80s flame will approve of the production's sincere respect for the original; church still matters, and so do Ariel's red cowboy boots." Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated the film one and half stars out of four, calling it "a film without wit, humor or purpose". Ebert further criticized the film for being too close to the 1984 original and Wormald's lack of charisma compared to Bacon.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: "Variety"s Rob Nelson wrote that the film failed to distinguished itself from the original and criticized Wormald and Hough's acting performances, saying, "When the music stops, young Hough is saddled, like her co-star, with the impossible task of making 27-year-old verbiage sound fresh." Nelson wrote that Brewer's musical staging is "subtly less theatrical than Ross', but it hardly constitutes a reinvention" and that Brewer's film comes across as "slightly milder" than Ross', such as with Ariel's abuse by former boyfriend being toned down for 2011. Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" disliked how the dance numbers and action sequences were staged, shot and cut, saying, "The visual clumsiness does not disguise that Wormald (a professional dancer since extreme youth), especially, but the others too, are very good dancers. But the compositions vary randomly between close-ups, awkward medium shots and general coverage that cuts together with no cumulative dynamic power." "Orlando Sentinel"'s Roger Moore gave the film two and half out of four stars.


title: Footloose (2011 film)

text: Kenneth Turan of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that the film "doesn't have the emotional impact of the original, but it ups the energy level." He said that the film was "not so much a remake as a renovation" and said the remake is similar to the original "in all the ways that count". "The New York Times"s A. O. Scott called the dance numbers "woefully inadequate" when compared with "Glee", "High School Musical" and "Step Up". For Wormald's performance he said, "He has energy but no real magnetism, and while he may be in possession of what are technically known as 'moves', his dancing lacks sensuality and a sense of release." Scott gave Miles Teller a good review saying that he "has a natural charisma that is both comic and kind of sexy". He described the music in the remake as "better and more eclectic than the original, with some blues, country and vintage metal mixed in with the peppy dance tunes".


title: Mark Proksch

text: Mark Proksch ( ""; born ) is an American comedian and character actor. He is best known for acting in the television series "The Office", "Better Call Saul", "Dream Corp LLC", "What We Do in the Shadows" and as a fictionalized version of himself in the "On Cinema" universe.


title: Mark Proksch

text: He rose to prominence when he portrayed the character "K-Strass," a parody of a yo-yo master, who appeared on local news shows.


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch grew up in Onalaska, Wisconsin, and is a graduate of Onalaska High School and the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire.


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch had the alias of Kenny "K-Strass" Strasser early in his career, during which he appeared on small-market local newscasts as a hapless "yo-yo master." In these appearances, he fabricated stories about visiting schools to speak to children about environmentalism. When asked to perform tricks live on the air, he would display a complete inability to do any of them. The character of K-Strass was described by online magazine "Paste" as "the funniest thing that's ever happened" and speaking "in a nasal Midwestern accent, with a halting cadence that was both awkward and deliberate." K-Strass was created when Proksch's temp job at an ad agency fell through.


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch also appeared as K-Strass while opening for Gregg Turkington's Neil Hamburger on tour. Turkington and Proksch would work together again on "On Cinema".


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch had a recurring role on the television series "The Office" as Nate, Dwight Schrute's lackey and the office handyman. He appeared in 19 episodes over the show's final three seasons. In March 2013, Proksch starred in the NBC television pilot "Holding Patterns". He also voiced the character Johnnie in the "Adventure Time" episode "Bad Timing." In March 2014, Proksch appeared in an episode of "Portlandia" as Carrie Brownstein's love interest. From 2015 to 2017 he appeared as Daniel "Pryce" Wormald, a recurring character on the AMC drama series "Better Call Saul", a prequel to "Breaking Bad". From 2014 through 2020, Proksch appeared as the character "Randy Blink" in the "Adult Swim" series "Dream Corp LLC". In 2015, Proksch appeared in Season 3, Episode 1 of "Drunk History" in which he told the story of the Bone Wars.


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch plays a fictionalized version of himself in the "On Cinema" universe, in which he attempts various impersonations, including W.C. Fields and The Marx Brothers. The fictional Proksch was briefly declared dead during the 5th Annual "On Cinema" Oscar special, having suffocated inside a heavy diving suit during a "Jaws" impersonation skit. His character briefly appears in season 10's VR episodes, when the camera is turned showing his comatose body. This takes place during a recurring section in which Gregg Turkington plays his old audition tapes for films he failed to be cast in. His comatose body again appears in the 6th Annual Oscar special as "The Living Oscar". Painted gold and strapped to a gurney, pre-recorded phrases in his voice are played in answer to questions surrounding Oscar trivia. During one segment his comatose body is slowly rotated around a compilation of past Oscar nominated films. He awakens after being knocked over by host Tim Heidecker and spends the rest of the special in a state of confusion and shock while bleeding from a broken nose. The fictional Proksch still appeared confused in the next season of "On Cinema." After being beaten in a Los Angeles Police Department holding cell when he was wrongly arrested for selling VHS copies of public domain movies with Gregg, he goes missing. During the 8th Annual Oscar special, a brief video recording that appears to depict the fictional Proksch surfaces and suggests that he no longer wishes to be involved with the hosts of "On Cinema."


title: Mark Proksch

text: Proksch starred as Colin Robinson, an energy vampire, in the first three seasons of the FX series "What We Do in the Shadows", before portraying the reincarnation of Colin Robinson as a child and teenager nicknamed ("The Boy") following the original Colin's death in the third season finale.


title: Diana Silvers

text: Diana Margaret Silvers (born November 3, 1997) is an American actress, best known for playing Erin Naird in the series "Space Force".


title: Diana Silvers

text: Silvers was born in Los Angeles, the fifth of six children born to a Swiss mother and a Jewish American father. Silvers began attending theatre camps at age 12 after watching the film "What's Eating Gilbert Grape", and decided to pursue a career in acting. Silvers attended the Palisades Charter High School where she pursued tennis. She attended New York University to study acting, but changed her major to history with a minor in film. She dropped out of college during her junior year.


title: Diana Silvers

text: Silvers made her acting debut in an episode of the Hulu thriller series "Into the Dark" (2018–present) and proceeded to appear in M. Night Shyamalan's film "Glass" (2019). She auditioned for the horror film "Ma" (2019) while in college, and got the role despite believing she had botched her audition. In "Ma", she portrays Maggie, whose friends befriend the main character who soon begins terrorizing them. Silvers got the script for "Booksmart" (2019) while filming "Ma" and was initially asked to audition for the main character's crush, but auditioned for the character of Hope instead. In October 2018, it was reported that Silvers had been cast in the action movie "Eve", later re-titled "Ava". In September 2019, it was announced that Silvers was cast as Erin Naird in the Netflix comedy series "Space Force" (2020–2022). She also stars in Sarah Adina Smith's 2021 film "Birds of Paradise" for Amazon.


title: Diana Silvers

text: Silvers was scouted by IMG Models via their "We Love Your Genes" account on Instagram in her senior year of high school after being accepted into NYU, and continued modeling through school to pay for her studies. In 2019, she closed Stella McCartney's Autumn show.


title: Zeitgeist

text: In 18th- and 19th-century German philosophy, a Zeitgeist () ("spirit of the age") is an invisible agent or force dominating the characteristics of a given epoch in world history.


title: Zeitgeist

text: Now, the term is usually associated with Georg W. F. Hegel, contrasting with Hegel's use of "Volksgeist" "national spirit" and "Weltgeist" "world-spirit".


title: Zeitgeist

text: Its coinage and popularization precedes Hegel, and is mostly due to Herder and Goethe. Other philosophers who were associated with such concepts include Spencer and Voltaire.


title: Zeitgeist

text: Contemporary use of the term sometimes, more colloquially, refers to a schema of fashions or fads that prescribes what is considered to be acceptable or tasteful for an era: e.g., in the field of architecture.


title: Zeitgeist

text: Hegel in "Phenomenology of the Spirit" (1807) uses both "Weltgeist" and "Volksgeist", but prefers the phrase "Geist der Zeiten" "spirit of the times" over the compound "Zeitgeist".


title: Zeitgeist

text: The Hegelian concept contrasts with the Great Man theory as by Thomas Carlyle, which sees history as the result of the actions of heroes and geniuses, as Hegel perceived such "great men", specifically Napoleon, as the "embodiment of the world-spirit" ("Die Weltseele zu Pferde" "the world-soul on horseback"). Carlyle stresses that leaders do not become leaders by fate or accident. Instead, these individuals possess characteristics of great leaders and these characteristics allow them to obtain positions of power.


title: Zeitgeist

text: According to Hegel biographer D. R. Forsyth, Leo Tolstoy disagreed with Carlyle's perspective, instead believing that leadership, like other things, was a product of the "zeitgeist", the social circumstances at the time.


title: Zeitgeist

text: Great Man theory and zeitgeist theory may be included in two main areas of thought in psychology. For instance, Great Man theory is very similar to the trait approach. Trait researchers are interested in identifying the various personality traits that underline human behaviors such as conformity, leadership, or other social behaviors. Thus, they agree that leadership is primarily a quality of an individual and that some people are pre-dispositioned to be a leader whereas others are born to follow these leaders. In contrast, situationist researchers believe that social behavior is a product of society. That is, social influence is what determines human behaviors. Therefore, situationism is of the same opinion as zeitgeist theory—leaders are created from the social environment and are molded from the situation. The concept of zeitgeist also relates to the sociological tradition that stems from Émile Durkheim and recently developed into social capital theory as exemplified by the work of Patrick Hunout.


title: Zeitgeist

text: These two perspectives have been combined to create what is known as the "interactional" approach to leadership. This approach asserts that leadership is developed through the mixing of personality traits and the situation. Further, this approach was expressed by social psychologist, Kurt Lewin, by the equation B = f(P, E) where behavior (B) is a function (f) of the person (P) and the environment (E).


title: Zeitgeist

text: Executives, venture capitalists, journalists, and authors have argued that the idea of a zeitgeist is useful in understanding the emergence of industries, simultaneous invention, and evaluating the relative value of innovations. Malcolm Gladwell argued in his book, "Outliers", that entrepreneurs who succeeded often share similar characteristics—early personal or significant exposure to knowledge and skills in the early stages of a nascent industry. He proposed that the timing of involvement in an industry, and often in sports as well, affected the probability of success. In Silicon Valley, a number of people (Peter Thiel, Alistair Davidson, Mac Levchin, Nicholas G. Carr, Vinod Khosla) have argued that much innovation has been shaped by easy access to the Internet, open source software, component technologies for both hardware and software (e.g., software libraries, software as a service), and the ability to reach narrow markets across a global market. Peter Thiel has commented: "There is so much incrementalism now."


title: Zeitgeist

text: In a zeitgeist market, the number of new entrants is high, differentiation in high value products (the strongest predictor of new product success) is more difficult to achieve, and business models emphasizing service and solution over product and process, will enhance success. Examples include innovation in product experience, legal rights and bundling, privacy rights, and agency (where businesses act on behalf of customers).


title: Zeitgeist

text: Hegel believed that art reflected, by its very nature, the culture of the time in which it is created. Culture and art are inextricable because an individual artist is a product of his or her time and therefore brings that culture to any given work of art. Furthermore, he believed that in the modern world it was impossible to produce classical art, which he believed represented a "free and ethical culture", which depended more on the philosophy of art and theory of art, rather than a reflection of the social construct, or "Zeitgeist" in which a given artist lives.


title: Zeitgeist

text: This use of "zeitgeist" is taken in the sense of intellectual or aesthetic fashion or fad. Research from empirical aesthetics investigated the relation between zeitgeist as temporal context and the evaluation of creative works. In a study of the musical originality of 15,618 classical music themes, the importance of objective characteristics and zeitgeist for popularity was examined. Both the musical originality of a theme relative to its contemporary works (the zeitgeist), as well as its "absolute" originality influenced in similar magnitude the popularity of a theme. Similarly, objective features and temporal context both influenced the evaluation of linguistic originality.


title: Carbon steel

text: Carbon steel is a steel with carbon content from about 0.05 up to 2.1 percent by weight. The definition of carbon steel from the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) states:


title: Carbon steel

text: The term "carbon steel" may also be used in reference to steel which is not stainless steel; in this use carbon steel may include alloy steels. High carbon steel has many different uses such as milling machines, cutting tools (such as chisels) and high strength wires. These applications require a much finer microstructure, which improves the toughness.


title: Carbon steel

text: Carbon steel is a popular metal choice for knife-making due to its high amount of carbon, giving the blade more edge retention. To make the most out of this type of steel it is very important to heat treat it properly. If not, the knife may end up being brittle, or too soft to hold an edge.


title: Carbon steel

text: As the carbon percentage content rises, steel has the ability to become harder and stronger through heat treating; however, it becomes less ductile. Regardless of the heat treatment, a higher carbon content reduces weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.


title: Carbon steel

text: Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel, is now the most common form of steel because its price is relatively low while it provides material properties that are acceptable for many applications. Mild steel contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form. Surface hardness can be increased with carburization.


title: Carbon steel

text: In applications where large cross-sections are used to minimize deflection, failure by yield is not a risk so low-carbon steels are the best choice, for example as structural steel. The density of mild steel is approximately 7.85 g/cm (7850 kg/m or 0.284 lb/in) and the Young's modulus is .


title: Carbon steel

text: Low-carbon steels display "yield-point runout" where the material has two yield points. The first yield point (or upper yield point) is higher than the second and the yield drops dramatically after the upper yield point. If a low-carbon steel is only stressed to some point between the upper and lower yield point then the surface develops Lüder bands. Low-carbon steels contain less carbon than other steels and are easier to cold-form, making them easier to handle. Typical applications of low carbon steel are car parts, pipes, construction, and food cans.


title: Carbon steel

text: High-tensile steels are low-carbon, or steels at the lower end of the medium-carbon range, which have additional alloying ingredients in order to increase their strength, wear properties or specifically tensile strength. These alloying ingredients include chromium, molybdenum, silicon, manganese, nickel, and vanadium. Impurities such as phosphorus and sulfur have their maximum allowable content restricted.


title: Carbon steel

text: Carbon steels which can successfully undergo heat-treatment have a carbon content in the range of 0.30–1.70% by weight. Trace impurities of various other elements can significantly affect the quality of the resulting steel. Trace amounts of sulfur in particular make the steel red-short, that is, brittle and crumbly at working temperatures. Low-alloy carbon steel, such as A36 grade, contains about 0.05% sulfur and melt around . Manganese is often added to improve the hardenability of low-carbon steels. These additions turn the material into a low-alloy steel by some definitions, but AISI's definition of carbon steel allows up to 1.65% manganese by weight.


title: Carbon steel

text: There are two types of higher carbon steels which are high carbon steel and the ultra high carbon steel. The reason for the limited use of high carbon steel is that it has extremely poor ductility and weldability and has a higher cost of production. the applications best suited for the high carbon steels is its use in the spring industry, farm industry, and in the production of wide range of high-strength wires.


title: Carbon steel

text: Approximately 0.3–0.5% carbon content. Balances ductility and strength and has good wear resistance; used for large parts, forging and automotive components.


title: Carbon steel

text: Approximately 0.6 to 1.0% carbon content. Very strong, used for springs, edged tools, and high-strength wires.


title: Carbon steel

text: Approximately 1.25–2.0% carbon content. Steels that can be tempered to great hardness. Used for special purposes like (non-industrial-purpose) knives, axles, and punches. Most steels with more than 2.5% carbon content are made using powder metallurgy.


title: Carbon steel

text: The purpose of heat treating carbon steel is to change the mechanical properties of steel, usually ductility, hardness, yield strength, or impact resistance. Note that the electrical and thermal conductivity are only slightly altered. As with most strengthening techniques for steel, Young's modulus (elasticity) is unaffected. All treatments of steel trade ductility for increased strength and vice versa. Iron has a higher solubility for carbon in the austenite phase; therefore all heat treatments, except spheroidizing and process annealing, start by heating the steel to a temperature at which the austenitic phase can exist. The steel is then quenched (heat drawn out) at a moderate to low rate allowing carbon to diffuse out of the austenite forming iron-carbide (cementite) and leaving ferrite, or at a high rate, trapping the carbon within the iron thus forming martensite. The rate at which the steel is cooled through the eutectoid temperature (about ) affects the rate at which carbon diffuses out of austenite and forms cementite. Generally speaking, cooling swiftly will leave iron carbide finely dispersed and produce a fine grained pearlite and cooling slowly will give a coarser pearlite. Cooling a hypoeutectoid steel (less than 0.77 wt% C) results in a lamellar-pearlitic structure of iron carbide layers with α-ferrite (nearly pure iron) between. If it is hypereutectoid steel (more than 0.77 wt% C) then the structure is full pearlite with small grains (larger than the pearlite lamella) of cementite formed on the grain boundaries. A eutectoid steel (0.77% carbon) will have a pearlite structure throughout the grains with no cementite at the boundaries. The relative amounts of constituents are found using the lever rule. The following is a list of the types of heat treatments possible:


title: Carbon steel

text: Case hardening processes harden only the exterior of the steel part, creating a hard, wear-resistant skin (the "case") but preserving a tough and ductile interior. Carbon steels are not very hardenable meaning they can not be hardened throughout thick sections. Alloy steels have a better hardenability, so they can be through-hardened and do not require case hardening. This property of carbon steel can be beneficial, because it gives the surface good wear characteristics but leaves the core flexible and shock-absorbing.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Dzhokhar Musayevich Dudayev (, ; ; ; 15 February 1944 – 21 April 1996) was a Soviet Air Force general and Chechen separatist leader who was the first president of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, a breakaway region in the North Caucasus, from 1991 until his assassination in 1996.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Dudayev was born in Yalkhoroy from the Tsechoy teip in the Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), just a few days before the forced deportation of his family together with the entire Chechen population on the orders of Joseph Stalin. He was the thirteenth youngest child of veterinarian Musa and Rabiat Dudayev. He spent the first 13 years of his life in internal exile in the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic. His family was only able to return to Chechnya in 1957. Following the 1957 repatriation of the Chechens, he studied at evening school in Checheno-Ingushetia and qualified as an electrician. In 1962, after two years studying electronics in Vladikavkaz, he entered the Tambov Higher Military Aviation School for Pilots from which he graduated in 1966. Dudayev joined the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1968 and from 1971 to 1974 studied at the prestigious Gagarin Air Force Academy. He married Alla, a Russian poet and the daughter of a Soviet officer, with whom he had three children (a daughter and two sons).


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: In 1962, Dudayev began serving in the Soviet Air Force where he rose to the rank of Major-General, becoming its first Chechen general. Dudayev served in a strategic bombing unit of the Soviet Air Force in Siberia and Ukraine. He participated in the Soviet–Afghan War against the Mujahideen, for which he was awarded the Order of the Red Star and the Order of the Red Banner. Reportedly from 1986 to 1987, Dudayev had participated in bombing raids in western Afghanistan. Many of his military and political opponents who questioned his Muslim faith often made reference to his actions against the Mujahideen forces. For example, Sergei Stepashin asserted Dudayev participated in carpet bombing (a statement probably motivated by spite). These allegations were denied by Dudayev himself. Dudayev rose steadily in the Air Force, assuming command of the 326th Heavy Bomber Aviation Division of the Soviet Long Range Aviation at Tartu, Estonia, in 1987 gaining the rank of Major-General. From 1987 through March 1990, he commanded nuclear-armed long-range strategic bombers during his post there.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: He was also commander of the garrison of Tartu. He learned Estonian and showed great tolerance for Estonian nationalism when in autumn 1990 he ignored the orders (as commander of the garrison of Tartu) to shut down the Estonian television and parliament. In 1990, his air division was withdrawn from Estonia and Dudayev resigned from the Soviet military.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: In May 1990, Dudayev returned to Grozny, the Chechen capital, to devote himself to local politics. He was elected head of the Executive Committee of the unofficial opposition All-National Congress of the Chechen People (NCChP), which advocated sovereignty for Chechnya as a separate republic of the Soviet Union (the Chechen-Ingush ASSR had the status of an autonomous republic of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic).


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: In August 1991, Doku Zavgayev, the Communist leader of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR, did not publicly condemn the August 1991 attempted coup d'état against Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev. Following the failure of the putsch, the Soviet Union began to disintegrate rapidly as the constituent republics took moves to leave the beleaguered Soviet Union. Taking advantage of the Soviet Union's implosion, Dudayev and his supporters acted against the Zavgayev administration. On 6 September 1991, the militants of the NCChP violently (the Grozny Communist party leader was killed and several other members were wounded) invaded a session of the local Supreme Soviet, effectively dissolving the government of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. Grozny television station and other key government buildings were also taken over.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: After a referendum in October 1991 confirmed Dudayev in his new position as president of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, he unilaterally declared the republic's sovereignty and its independence from the Soviet Union. In November 1991, the then Russian President Boris Yeltsin dispatched troops to Grozny, but they were withdrawn when Dudayev's forces prevented them from leaving the airport. Russia refused to recognize the republic's independence, but hesitated to use further force against the separatists. From this point, the Checheno-Ingush Republic had become a "de facto" independent state.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Initially, Dudayev's government held diplomatic relations with Georgia where he received much moral support from the first Georgian President Zviad Gamsakhurdia. When Gamsakhurdia was overthrown in late 1991, he was given asylum in Chechnya and attended Dudayev's inauguration as President. While he resided in Grozny he also helped to organise the first "All-Caucasian Conference" which was attended by independentist groups from across the region. Ichkeria never received diplomatic recognition from any internationally recognised state other than Georgia in 1991.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: The Chechen-Ingush Republic split in two in June 1992, amidst the increasing Ossetian-Ingush conflict. After Chechnya had announced its initial declaration of sovereignty in 1991, its former entity Ingushetia opted to join the Russian Federation as a federal subject (Republic of Ingushetia). The remaining rump state of Ichkeria (Chechnya) declared full independence in 1993. That same year the Russian language stopped being taught in Chechen schools and it was also announced that the Chechen language would start to be written using the Latin alphabet (with some additional special Chechen characters) rather than Cyrillic in use since the 1930s. The state also began to print its own money and stamps. One of Dudayev's first decrees gave every man the right to bear arms.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Dudayev's inexperienced and poorly-guided economic policies soon began to undermine Chechnya's economy and, Russian observers claimed, transformed the region into a criminal paradise. The non-Chechen population of Ichkeria left the republic due to criminal elements and faced with indifferent government. In 1993, the Chechen parliament attempted to organize a referendum on public confidence in Dudayev on the grounds that he had failed to consolidate Chechnya's independence. He retaliated by dissolving parliament and other organs of power. Beginning in early summer of 1994, armed Chechen opposition groups with Russian military and financial backing tried repeatedly but without success to depose Dudayev by force.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: On 1 December 1994, the Russians began bombing Grozny airport and destroyed some former Soviet training aircraft taken away by the republic in 1991. In response Ichkeria declared war on Russia and mobilised its armed forces. On 11 December 1994, five days after Dudayev and Minister of Defense Pavel Grachev of Russia had agreed to avoid the further use of force, Russian troops invaded Chechnya. It was mistakenly reported that one of Dudayev's two sons was killed in action early in the war; both of them were alive as of 2009.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Before the fall of Grozny, Dudayev abandoned the presidential palace, moved south with his forces and continued leading the war throughout 1995, reportedly from a missile silo close to the historic Chechen capital of Vedeno. He continued to insist that his forces would prevail after the conventional warfare had finished, and the Chechen guerrilla fighters continued to operate across the entire republic.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: On 21 April 1996, while using a satellite phone, Dudayev was assassinated by two laser-guided missiles, after his location was detected by a Russian reconnaissance aircraft, which intercepted his phone call. At the time, Dudayev was reportedly talking to a liberal deputy of the Duma in Moscow, supposedly Konstantin Borovoy. Additional aircraft were dispatched (a Su-24MR and a Su-25) to locate Dudayev and fire a guided missile. Exact details of this operation were never released by the Russian government. Russian reconnaissance planes in the area had been monitoring satellite communications for quite some time trying to match Dudayev's voice signature to the existing samples of his speech. It was claimed Dudayev was killed by a combination of an airstrike and a booby trap. He was 52 years old.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: The death of Dudayev was announced on the interrupted television broadcast by Shamil Basayev, the Chechen guerrilla commander. Dudayev was succeeded by his Vice-President Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev (as acting President) and then, after the 1997 popular elections, by his wartime Chief of Staff, Aslan Maskhadov.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: Dzhokhar Dudayev was survived by his wife, Alla, and their sons, Degi and Avlur. Vladislav Surkov, who was formerly Putin's top aide and an ideologist, is believed to have a distant relation with Dzhokhar.


title: Dzhokhar Dudayev

text: There is a memorial plaque made of granite attached to the house on 8 Ülikooli street, Tartu, Estonia, in which Dudayev used to work. The house now hosts Hotel Barclay, and the former office of Dudayev has been converted into Dudayev's Room.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: Lycoris radiata, known as the red spider lily, red magic lily, corpse flower, or equinox flower, is a plant in the amaryllis family, Amaryllidaceae, subfamily Amaryllidoideae. Originally from China, Korea, and Nepal, it was introduced into Japan and from there to the United States and elsewhere. It is considered naturalized in Seychelles and in the Ryukyu Islands. It flowers in the late summer or autumn, often in response to heavy rainfall. The common name hurricane lily refers to this characteristic, as do other common names, such as resurrection lily; these may be used for the genus as a whole.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: "Lycoris radiata" is a bulbous perennial with showy, bright-red flowers. When in full bloom, spindly stamens, likened to the image of spider legs, extend slightly upward and outward from the flower's center. The flowers of the plant generally appear around late August to early September, before the leaves fully develop, on scapes rising from the ground. Four to six 2-inch long flowers, arranged in umbels, perch atop each plant stalk. Individual flowers are irregular, with narrow segments which curve backwards. The leaves, which tend to emerge in October, are a greyish-green color, parallel-sided, wide and feature a paler central stripe. The plant retains its leaves throughout the winter season, but will begin to shed them away as temperatures start to warm in late spring.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: The presumed original form of "Lycoris radiata", known as "L. radiata" var. "pumila", occurs only in China. It is a diploid, with 11 pairs of chromosomes (2N = 22), and is able to reproduce by seed. Triploid forms, with 33 chromosomes, are known as "L. radiata" var. "radiata". These are widespread in China and also in Japan, from where the species was introduced into cultivation in America and elsewhere. The triploid forms are sterile, and reproduce only vegetatively, via bulbs. The Japanese triploids are genetically uniform. It has been suggested that they were introduced into Japan from China along with rice cultivation.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: In phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast genes, Hori et al. found that all the other species of "Lycoris" they examined were nested within "Lycoris radiata". They suggest that the "species" of "Lycoris" presently recognized may not be distinct.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: All plant species belonging to the genus "Lycoris", including "L. radiata", are native to East Asia. The plant was first introduced into the United States in 1854 following the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa, a peace treaty brokered between the United States of America and Japan which effectively opened up Japanese ports for trade with the U.S. It is alleged that Captain William Roberts, a botany enthusiast and an alley of Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry of the U.S Navy, returned to the U.S with only three bulbs of the red spider lily from this travels abroad. The bulbs were then planted by his niece who found that they did not bloom until after the first good rain in the fall season. "L. radiata" has since become naturalized in North Carolina, Texas, Oklahoma, and many other southern states of the US. Since the Japanese variety of "L. radiata" is a sterile triploid, the introduced plants were also sterile and could only reproduce via bulb division. Today, red spider lilies are appreciated as ornamental and medicinal plants in various countries all across Asia, Europe and in the United States.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: Before being placed into the ground, "L. radiata" bulbs should be stored in a dry environment between . The bulbs are ideally planted during the spring in rich, well-drained soil (e.g. sandy with some clay), deep and apart from one another. When possible "L. radiata" ought to be placed in plots that either receive ample sunlight or are partially shaded. Once planted, the bulbs are best left undisturbed. "Lycoris radiata" is not frost-hardy in countries like England, and so can only be grown under glass or in a very sheltered environment. In warm-summer climates such as the U.S. east of the Rocky Mountains, where there is sufficient summer heat to harden off the bulbs, the plants are hardy to around . Like other plants in the genus "Lycoris", "L. radiata" remains dormant during the summer season, flowering on leafless scapes once the summer begins to transition into the fall. Red spider lilies are sometimes referred to as magic lilies because It is said that the radiant red flowers appear to bloom "magically" from their unremarkably bare stalks. Furthermore, in the environments in which they are commonly grown, "L. radiata" tend to bloom in step with the coming of the rainy season, and or the coming of the hurricane season, as well as the fall equinox. As such, spider lilies are also known as hurricane lilies or equinox lilies.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: Such is the matter regarding all plants belonging to the genus "Lycoris", the bulbs of "Lycoris radiata" contain notable levels of toxicity. The toxicity of the bulbs may be attributed to the presence of the alkaloid, lycorine. If ingested, "Lycoris radiata" bulbs can cause a host of medical complications such as diarrhea, vomiting, convulsions and even death when cases are severe. "L. radiata" plants also contain the alkaloid galantamine, an alkaloid compound known for its effectiveness against conditions of cognitive decline. Among other reasons, L.radiata plant populations in China have been intentionally cared for as so that galantamine may be harvested from the bulbs and processed into medicines developed to combat the ill-effects of Alzheimer's disease. Of the many alkaloids produced by plants in the amaryllidaceae family, galantamine is noteworthy because it has been approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (USDA) for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Plants of the amaryllis family are all known to contain varying quantities of naturally occurring galantamine. The compound can be extracted in trace amounts from all throughout the leaves and roots of "L. radiata", but is most abundantly found within the bulbs.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: The Japanese common name for "Lycoris radiata," , literally means "flower of (Buddhist holiday around the autumnal equinox)." Another popular Japanese name is (or ), taken from the name of a mythical flower described in Chinese translation of the Lotus Sutra. It is called by over 50 other local names in Japan. Lycoris radiata first came to Japan from China around 700 A.D. The flower has since become a cultural symbol, representing the arrival of fall. Red spider lilies are frequently seen in Japan growing along roadways and around the perimeters of rice fields and houses. The lilies are purposefully planted near rice fields in order to deter mice and other animals from invading the rice paddies; the poisonous bulbs are thought to keep the unwanted critters away.


title: Lycoris radiata

text: In accordance with established traditions, many practitioners of Buddhism will celebrate the arrival of fall with a ceremony at the tombs of their ancestors. In order to pay tribute to the dead, red spider lilies are commonly planted on and around grave sites as a part of this ceremonial practice. Since these scarlet flowers usually bloom near cemeteries around the time of the autumnal equinox, they are described in Chinese and Japanese translations of the Lotus Sutra as ominous flowers that grow in Hell, (Chinese: 黃泉), and guide the dead into the next reincarnation. Mock Joya relates their association with Japanese Christian martyrs in medieval times; their places of martyrdom were said to be marked by these flowers. Because red spider lilies are associated with death, it is believed that one should never give a bouquet of these flowers. Some legends have it that if you see someone whom you may never meet again, these flowers will bloom along the paths you take. Perhaps because of these sorrowful legends, Japanese people often use these flowers in funerals. "Higanbana" can be literally taken as the higan (the other or that shore of Sanzu River) flower, decorative and enjoyable, flower of the afterlife in "gokuraku jyōdo" (極楽浄土, "gokuraku jyōdo").


title: FM broadcasting

text: FM broadcasting is a method of radio broadcasting using frequency modulation (FM). Invented in 1933 by American engineer Edwin Armstrong, wide-band FM is used worldwide to provide high fidelity sound over broadcast radio. FM broadcasting is capable of higher fidelity—that is, more accurate reproduction of the original program sound—than other broadcasting technologies, such as AM broadcasting. It is also less susceptible to common forms of interference, reducing static and popping sounds often heard on AM. Therefore, FM is used for most broadcasts of music or general audio (in the audio spectrum). FM radio stations use the very high frequency range of radio frequencies.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Throughout the world, the FM broadcast band falls within the VHF part of the radio spectrum. Usually 87.5 to 108.0 MHz is used, or some portion thereof, with few exceptions:


title: FM broadcasting

text: The frequency of an FM broadcast station (more strictly its assigned nominal center frequency) is usually a multiple of 100 kHz. In most of South Korea, the Americas, the Philippines and the Caribbean, only odd multiples are used. Some other countries follow this plan because of the import of vehicles, principally from the United States, with radios that can only tune to these frequencies. In some parts of Europe, Greenland and Africa, only even multiples are used. In the UK odd or even are used. In Italy, multiples of 50 kHz are used. In most countries the maximum permitted frequency error of the unmodulated carrier is specified, which typically should be within 2 kHz of the assigned frequency.


title: FM broadcasting

text: There are other unusual and obsolete FM broadcasting standards in some countries, with non-standard spacings of 1, 10, 30, 74, 500, and 300 kHz. To minimise inter-channel interference, stations operating from the same or geographically close transmitter sites tend to keep to at least a 500 kHz frequency separation even when closer frequency spacing is technically permitted. The ITU publishes Protection Ratio graphs which give the minimum spacing between frequencies based on their relative strengths. Only broadcast stations with large enough geographic separations between their coverage areas can operate on close or the same frequencies.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Frequency modulation or FM is a form of modulation which conveys information by varying the frequency of a carrier wave; the older amplitude modulation or AM varies the amplitude of the carrier, with its frequency remaining constant. With FM, frequency deviation from the assigned carrier frequency at any instant is directly proportional to the amplitude of the (audio) input signal, determining the instantaneous frequency of the transmitted signal. Because transmitted FM signals use significantly more bandwidth than AM signals, this form of modulation is commonly used with the higher (VHF or UHF) frequencies used by TV, the FM broadcast band, and land mobile radio systems.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The maximum frequency deviation of the carrier is usually specified and regulated by the licensing authorities in each country. For a stereo broadcast, the maximum permitted carrier deviation is invariably ±75 kHz, although a little higher is permitted in the United States when SCA systems are used. For a monophonic broadcast, again the most common permitted maximum deviation is ±75 kHz. However, some countries specify a lower value for monophonic broadcasts, such as ±50 kHz.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The bandwidth of a FM transmission is given by the Carson bandwidth rule which is the sum of twice the maximum deviation and twice the maximum modulating frequency. For a transmission that includes RDS this would be 2x75kHz + 2x60kHz = 270 kHz. This is also known as the Necessary Bandwidth.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Random noise has a "triangular" spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the higher audio frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high audio frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, respectively.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 µs time constant is used. In the Americas and South Korea, 75 µs is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions. For stereo, pre-emphasis is applied to the left and right channels before multiplexing.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The use of pre-emphasis becomes a problem because many forms of contemporary music contain more high-frequency energy than the musical styles which prevailed at the birth of FM broadcasting. Pre-emphasizing these high-frequency sounds would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier. Modulation control (limiter) devices are used to prevent this. Systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasis; e.g., dbx in the BTSC TV sound system, or none at all.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Pre-emphasis and de-emphasis was used in the earliest days of FM broadcasting. According to a BBC report from 1946, 100 µs was originally considered in the US, but 75 µs subsequently adopted.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Long before FM stereo transmission was considered, FM multiplexing of other types of audio level information was experimented with. Edwin Armstrong, who invented FM, was the first to experiment with multiplexing, at his experimental 41 MHz station W2XDG located on the 85th floor of the Empire State Building in New York City.


title: FM broadcasting

text: These FM multiplex transmissions started in November 1934 and consisted of the main channel audio program and three subcarriers: a fax program, a synchronizing signal for the fax program and a telegraph "order" channel. These original FM multiplex subcarriers were amplitude modulated.