title: Paint It Black

text: "Paint It Black" debuted at number 48 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart for the week of 14 May 1966. The song took three weeks to rise to number one, where it stayed for two consecutive weeks, being replaced by Frank Sinatra's "Strangers in the Night." Its stint at number one made it the band's third in the US and the first song to feature a sitar to peak at number one in the country. By June, it had sold more than a million copies. It rose to number one in a "violent shakeup" of the list where 10 of its 20 songs appeared for the first time. "Paint It Black" remained on the chart for 11 weeks. Further re-issues of the single have not peaked on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but 2008 sales saw "Paint It Black" reach number 73 on the "Billboard" Hot Canadian Digital Song Sales. According to the pop historian Richard Havers, "Aftermath"s 1966 chart run in the US, where it reached number 2 on the "Billboard" chart and number 1 on those published by "Cash Box" and "Record World", was assisted by the success of "Paint It Black". "Paint It Black" also topped singles charts in Canada and the Netherlands, and was ranked within the Top 10 highest performing singles of the year in Austria, despite not reaching number 1 on the weekly charts.


title: Paint It Black

text: In a KEYS national survey taken in June 1966, "Paint It Black" was number one in the United States. Surveys conducted by the Associated Press and United Press International identified the song as ranking No. 1 in the US the week of 12–19 June 1966. On the 1966 year-end charts, "Paint It Black" ranked number 34 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 30 on the "Record Retailer" chart. The 1990 re-issue of "Paint It Black" topped the Netherlands Single Top 100 and peaked at number 11 in Belgium.


title: Paint It Black

text: The Rolling Stones performed "Paint It Black" during their tours of America and England in 1966, following its release, along with other songs from "Aftermath" such as "Under My Thumb" and "Lady Jane", One notable live performance of the song was as the opening song of the Stones' performance at the Royal Albert Hall, a performance remembered for ending prematurely due to a riot, which led to rock bands being banned from performing at the venue. Footage of the riot would later be used in the promotional video for the Stones' next single, "Have You Seen Your Mother Baby, Standing in the Shadow?". Despite its status as a hit single and as a staple of these shows, "Paint It Black" was not included on the Stones' live album documenting their tour of England, "Got Live If You Want It!."


title: Paint It Black

text: "Paint It Black" has become a regular fixture of the Stones' concert setlists following its release, and has been performed during the Steel Wheels/Urban Jungle Tour (1991), Licks Tour (2002–2003), A Bigger Bang Tour (2005–2007), 50 & Counting (2012–2013), 14 On Fire (2014), América Latina Olé Tour 2016, No Filter Tour (2017–2020) and Sixty tour (2022).


title: Paint It Black

text: American funk-rock band Eric Burdon and War released a cover of the song in 1970, which reached number 31 on the Dutch Top 40 singles chart. Bahamian musician Exuma included a cover of the song on his 1973 album "Life". Irish rock band U2 included a cover of "Paint It Black" as the B-side to their 1992 single "Who's Gonna Ride Your Wild Horses" and did so again with the 20th anniversary rerelease of their album "Achtung Baby" in 2011. The London Symphony Orchestra performed a cover of the song in their 1994 "Symphonic Music of the Rolling Stones" performance. American singer Tracy Lawrence covered "Paint It Black" for the compilation album "" in 1997. American singer-songwriter Vanessa Carlton included a cover of the song on her 2002 debut album "Be Not Nobody", which was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. Canadian rock band Rush played one minute and ten seconds of the song during their 2003 performance at Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto. American singer-songwriter Ciara recorded a cover version for the 2015 film, "The Last Witch Hunter".


title: Paint It Black

text: The song has seen commercial use in film, video games and other entertainment media. "Paint It Black" plays during the end credits of the films "Full Metal Jacket" (1987) and "The Devil's Advocate" (1997), and was a plot device in the supernatural horror film "Stir of Echoes" (1999). The trailers for both the video game "" (2015) and the film "The Mummy" (2017) feature "Paint It Black". Multiple episodes of the TV series "Westworld" use an orchestral arrangement of the song by Ramin Djawadi. The song features on the soundtracks to multiple video games, including "" (2001), "" (2007) and "Guitar Hero Live" (2015).


title: Paint It Black

text: In Philippe Margotin and Jean-Michel Guesdon's book "The Rolling Stones All the Songs", they add a question mark after Jones' guitar contribution and credit "tambourine, bongos, castanets" to "unidentified musicians". In the book "Rolling Stones Gear" by Babiuk and Prevost, they credit an acoustic guitar contribution to Jones, maracas and cowbell to Wyman and tambourine and castanets to Watts.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Liquid nitrogen—LN—is nitrogen in a liquid state at low temperature. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of about . It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is a colorless, low viscosity liquid that is widely used as a coolant.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: The diatomic character of the N molecule is retained after liquefaction. The weak van der Waals interaction between the N molecules results in little interatomic interaction, manifested in its very low boiling point.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: The temperature of liquid nitrogen can readily be reduced to its freezing point by placing it in a vacuum chamber pumped by a vacuum pump. Liquid nitrogen's efficiency as a coolant is limited by the fact that it boils immediately on contact with a warmer object, enveloping the object in an insulating layer of nitrogen gas bubbles. This effect, known as the Leidenfrost effect, occurs when any liquid comes in contact with a surface which is significantly hotter than its boiling point. Faster cooling may be obtained by plunging an object into a slush of liquid and solid nitrogen rather than liquid nitrogen alone.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: As a cryogenic fluid that rapidly freezes living tissue, its handling and storage require thermal insulation. It can be stored and transported in vacuum flasks, the temperature being held constant at 77 K by slow boiling of the liquid. Depending on the size and design, the holding time of vacuum flasks ranges from a few hours to a few weeks. The development of pressurised super-insulated vacuum vessels has enabled liquid nitrogen to be stored and transported over longer time periods with losses reduced to 2% per day or less.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Liquid nitrogen is a compact and readily transported source of dry nitrogen gas, as it does not require pressurization. Further, its ability to maintain temperatures far below the freezing point of water makes it extremely useful in a wide range of applications, primarily as an open-cycle refrigerant, including:


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: The culinary use of liquid nitrogen is mentioned in an 1890 recipe book titled "Fancy Ices" authored by Mrs. Agnes Marshall, but has been employed in more recent times by restaurants in the preparation of frozen desserts, such as ice cream, which can be created within moments at the table because of the speed at which it cools food. The rapidity of chilling also leads to the formation of smaller ice crystals, which provides the dessert with a smoother texture. The technique is employed by chef Heston Blumenthal who has used it at his restaurant, The Fat Duck, to create frozen dishes such as egg and bacon ice cream. Liquid nitrogen has also become popular in the preparation of cocktails because it can be used to quickly chill glasses or freeze ingredients. It is also added to drinks to create a smoky effect, which occurs as tiny droplets of the liquid nitrogen come into contact with the surrounding air, condensing the vapour that is naturally present.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Nitrogen was first liquefied at the Jagiellonian University on 15 April 1883 by Polish physicists Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Because the liquid-to-gas expansion ratio of nitrogen is 1:694 at , a tremendous amount of force can be generated if liquid nitrogen is vaporized in an enclosed space. In an incident on January 12, 2006 at Texas A&M University, the pressure-relief devices of a tank of liquid nitrogen were malfunctioning and later sealed. As a result of the subsequent pressure buildup, the tank failed catastrophically. The force of the explosion was sufficient to propel the tank through the ceiling immediately above it, shatter a reinforced concrete beam immediately below it, and blow the walls of the laboratory 0.1–0.2 m off their foundations.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Because of its extremely low temperature, careless handling of liquid nitrogen and any objects cooled by it may result in cold burns. In that case, special gloves should be used while handling. However, a small splash or even pouring down skin will not burn immediately because of the Leidenfrost effect, the evaporating gas thermally insulates to some extent, like touching a hot element very briefly with a wet finger. If the liquid nitrogen manages to pool anywhere, it will burn severely.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: As liquid nitrogen evaporates it reduces the oxygen concentration in the air and can act as an asphyxiant, especially in confined spaces. Nitrogen is odorless, colorless, and tasteless and may produce asphyxia without any sensation or prior warning.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Oxygen sensors are sometimes used as a safety precaution when working with liquid nitrogen to alert workers of gas spills into a confined space.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Vessels containing liquid nitrogen can condense oxygen from air. The liquid in such a vessel becomes increasingly enriched in oxygen (boiling point ) as the nitrogen evaporates, and can cause violent oxidation of organic material.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Ingestion of liquid nitrogen can cause severe internal damage, due to freezing of the tissues which come in contact with it and to the volume of gaseous nitrogen evolved as the liquid is warmed by body heat. In 1997, a physics student demonstrating the Leidenfrost effect by holding liquid nitrogen in his mouth accidentally swallowed the substance, resulting in near-fatal injuries. This was apparently the first case in medical literature of liquid nitrogen ingestion. In 2012, a young woman in England had her stomach removed after ingesting a cocktail made with liquid nitrogen. In January 2021, a line carrying liquid nitrogen ruptured at a poultry processing plant in the U.S. state of Georgia, killing six people and injuring 11 others.


title: Liquid nitrogen

text: Liquid nitrogen is produced commercially from the cryogenic distillation of liquified air or from the liquefication of pure nitrogen derived from air using pressure swing adsorption. An air compressor is used to compress filtered air to high pressure; the high-pressure gas is cooled back to ambient temperature, and allowed to expand to a low pressure. The expanding air cools greatly (the Joule–Thomson effect), and oxygen, nitrogen, and argon are separated by further stages of expansion and distillation. Small-scale production of liquid nitrogen is easily achieved using this principle. Liquid nitrogen may be produced for direct sale, or as a byproduct of manufacture of liquid oxygen used for industrial processes such as steelmaking. Liquid-air plants producing on the order of tons per day of product started to be built in the 1930s but became very common after the Second World War; a large modern plant may produce 3000 tons/day of liquid air products.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The first season of the 2012 anime television series by David Production, also known as "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure: The Animation", adapted the first two arcs of Hirohiko Araki's manga of the same name: and . The Phantom Blood arc, which aired on Tokyo MX between October 6 and December 1, 2012, revolves around the mysterious adventures of the Joestar family, beginning with an encounter involving Jonathan Joestar, his adoptive brother Dio Brando, and a Stone Mask that transforms people into vampires. The Battle Tendency arc, which aired on Tokyo MX between December 8, 2012, and April 6, 2013, focuses on Jonathan's grandson, Joseph Joestar, and his fight against the Pillar Men, ancient humanoids which created the Stone Mask.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The series was released on a series of nine DVDs and Blu-rays between January 30 and September 27, 2013, with the Blu-ray releases having the option of English subtitles. Crunchyroll began streaming the series in April 2014. The English DVD was released by Warner Home Video on September 22, 2015 with both English and Japanese audio with closed captioning for the English dub only. Viz Media released an English Blu-ray set on July 25, 2017 that includes English and Japanese audio with new subtitles for the Japanese . A second season, "", based on the series' third arc, began airing from April 5, 2014.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The first season was split into two parts: part 1 comprised episodes 1–9 covering the "Phantom Blood" manga arc, and part 2 comprised episodes 10–26 covering the "Battle Tendency" arc.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The first part, "Phantom Blood", is set in the early-to-late 1880s in England. George Joestar takes in the orphan Dio Brando to pay off a debt to Dio's late father Dario. Dio's attempts to become the sole heir to the Joestar fortune are thwarted and he resorts to using an ancient Stone Mask which transforms him into a vampire with his sights now set on world domination. With Will A. Zeppeli, a master of a supernatural ability called Hamon, and former street thug Robert E.O. Speedwagon at his side, George's son Jonathan trains in Hamon and stops Dio who is left aboard an exploding ship after he mortally wounds Jonathan. However, Jonathan's wife Erina is pregnant with a child and escapes, continuing the Joestar name.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The second part, "Battle Tendency", takes place in 1939. Jonathan's grandson Joseph teams up with Will's grandson Caesar Zeppeli to battle ancient humanoids called the Pillar Men, but are overwhelmed by the Pillar Man Wamuu. Joseph and Caesar have a month to defeat the Pillar Men Esidisi and Wamuu to obtain the antidotes for the poisoned rings in Joseph's windpipe and aorta, while also preventing them from gaining a powerful stone called the Super Aja. The two are trained in controlling Hamon by the Hamon coach Lisa Lisa. Joseph defeats Esidisi and Wamuu, but Kars obtains the Super Aja, becoming more powerful. Aided by the German soldier Rudol von Stroheim, Joseph uses the Super Aja against Kars to defeat him. In the epilogue set in the 1980s, a "treasure chest" engraved with the name "DIO" is salvaged from the sea, while an older Joseph is set to meet his daughter in Japan.


title: JoJo's Bizarre Adventure (season 1)

text: The first season of "JoJo's Bizarre Adventure" uses three pieces of theme music, two opening themes and one ending theme. The first opening theme is the song performed by Hiroaki "Tommy" Tominaga, vocalist of Japanese "brass rock" band Bluff, as the opening theme for the Part 1 episodes. The score for Part 1 was composed by Hayato Matsuo, and was released in two parts as "Destiny", a bonus disc in the first Blu-ray box set released on January 30, 2013, and "Future", a separate CD release on February 22, 2013. "Future" debuted at number 95 on the "Billboard" Japan Top Albums charts and peaked at 115 on the Oricon Weekly Album Charts. The opening theme song for the Part 2 episodes is "Bloody Stream" by Coda. Its score is composed by Taku Iwasaki, and was released in two parts as "Musik" (German for "Music"), a standalone CD release on March 29, 2013, and as "Leicht Verwendbar" (German for "Light User"), a bonus disc for Blu-ray box set volume 4 on April 26, 2013. "Musik" debuted at number 63 on the Japan Top Albums charts and at 89 on the Weekly Album Charts. The ending theme for the whole season is British progressive rock band Yes' 1972 single "Roundabout".


title: Koryo-saram

text: Koryo-saram (; ; ) is the name which ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states use to refer to themselves. The term is composed of two Korean words: "", a historical name for Korea, and "", meaning "person" or "people".


title: Koryo-saram

text: Approximately 500,000 ethnic Koreans reside in the former Soviet Union, primarily in the now-independent states of Central Asia. There are also large Korean communities in Southern Russia (around Volgograd), Russian Far East (around Vladivostok), the Caucasus and southern Ukraine. These communities can be traced back to the Koreans who were living in the Russian Far East during the late 19th century.


title: Koryo-saram

text: There is also a separate ethnic Korean community on the island of Sakhalin, typically referred to as Sakhalin Koreans. Some may identify as Koryo-saram, but many do not. Unlike the communities on the Russian mainland primarily descended from Koreans who arrived in the late 19th century and early 20th century, the ancestors of the Sakhalin Koreans were immigrants from 조선 (Joseon) under Japanese imperial rule—mostly from the southern provinces, 경상북도 Gyeongsangbug-do (North Gyeongsang Province), 경상남도 Gyeongsangnam-do (South Gyeongsang Province), 전라북도 Jeollabug-do (North Jeolla Province), and 전라남도 Jeollanam-do (South Jeolla Province) —in the late 1930s and early 1940s; forced into service by the Japanese government to work in coal mines in what was then Karafuto Prefecture, in order to fill labor shortages caused by the Pacific War.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The word "Koryo" in "Koryo-saram" originated from the name of the Goryeo (Koryŏ) Dynasty from which "Korea" was also derived. The name "Soviet Korean" was also used, more frequently before the collapse of the Soviet Union. Russians may also lump Koryo-saram under the general label "koreytsy" (); however, this usage makes no distinctions between ethnic Koreans of the local nationality and the Korean nationals (citizens of North Korea or South Korea).


title: Koryo-saram

text: In Standard Korean, the term "Koryo-saram" is typically used to refer to historical figures from the Goryeo dynasty; to avoid ambiguity, Korean speakers use a word "Goryeoin" (, Hanja: 高麗人, meaning the same as "Koryo-saram") to refer to ethnic Koreans in the post-Soviet states. However, the Sino-Korean morpheme "-in" (인) is not productive in Koryo-mal, the dialect spoken by Koryo-saram and as a result, only a few (mainly those who have studied Standard Korean) refer to themselves by this name; instead, "Koryo-saram" has come to be the preferred term.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The early 19th century saw the decline of the Joseon Dynasty of Korea. A small population of wealthy elite owned the farmlands in the country, and poor peasants found it difficult to survive. Koreans leaving the country in this period were obliged to move toward Russia, as the border with China was sealed by the Qing Dynasty. However, the first Koreans in the Russian Empire, 761 families totalling 5,310 people, had actually migrated to Qing territory; the land they had settled on was ceded to Russia by the Convention of Peking in 1860. Many peasants considered Siberia to be a land where they could lead better lives, and so they subsequently migrated there. According to Russian sources early as 1863, 13 Korean households were recorded in Posyet, near Bay of Novgorod. These numbers rose dramatically, and by 1869 Koreans composed 20% of the population of the Primorsky Krai. Prior to the completion of the Trans-Siberian Railway, Koreans outnumbered Russians in the Russian Far East; the local governors encouraged them to naturalize. The village of Blagoslovennoe was founded in 1870 by Korean migrants. Another Korean village near Zolotoy Rog that Russians called Kareskaya slabodka (Корейская слабодка, literally means Korean village) and what Koreans called "Gaecheok-ri" (開拓里,개척리) was officially recognized by the Vladivostok authorities. The 1897 Russian Empire Census found 26,005 Korean speakers (16,225 men and 9,780 women) in the whole of Russia.


title: Koryo-saram

text: In the early 20th century, both Russia and Korea came into conflict with Japan. Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War in 1907, Russia enacted an anti-Korean law at the behest of Japan, under which the land of Korean farmers was confiscated and Korean labourers were laid off. However, Korean migration to Russia continued to grow; 1914 figures showed 64,309 Koreans (among whom 20,109 were Russian citizens). Even the 1917 Bolshevik Revolution did nothing to slow migration; after the repression of the 1919 March 1st Movement in Japanese-colonised Korea, migration actually intensified. Korean leaders in Vladivostok's Sinhanchon (literally, "New Korean Village") neighbourhood also provided support to the independence movement, making it a centre for nationalist activities, including arms supply; the Japanese attacked it on 4 April 1920, leaving hundreds dead. By 1923, the Korean population in the Soviet Union had grown to 106,817. The following year, the Soviets began taking measures to control Korean population movement to their territory; however, they were not completely successful until 1931; after that date, they halted all migration from Korea and required existing migrants to naturalise as Soviet citizens.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The Soviet policy of "korenizatsiya" (indigenisation) resulted in the creation of 105 Korean village soviets (councils) in mixed-nationality "raion", as well as an entire "raion" for the Korean nationality, the Pos'et Korean National Raion; these conducted their activities entirely in the Korean language. The Soviet Koreans had a large number of their own official institutions, including 380 Korean schools, two teachers' colleges, one pedagogical school, three hospitals, a theatre, six journals, and seven newspapers (the largest of which, "Vanguard", had a circulation of 10,000). The 1937 Census showed 168,259 Koreans in the Soviet Union. However, officials in the Russian Far East viewed the Koreans' ethnic and family ties to the Japanese Empire with suspicion, which would soon set the stage for the deportation of the whole population.


title: Koryo-saram

text: In 1937, facing reports from the People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) that there were possibilities that Japanese would have infiltrate the Russian Far East by means of ethnic Korean spies, Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov signed Resolution 1428-326 ss, "On the Exile of the Korean Population from border "Raions" of the Far East Kray", on 21 August. According to the report of Nikolai Yezhov, 36,442 Korean families totalling 171,781 persons were deported by 25 October. The deported Koreans faced difficult conditions in Central Asia: monetary assistance promised by the government never materialised, and furthermore, most of the deported were rice farmers and fishermen, who had difficulty adapting to the arid climate of their new home. Estimates based on population statistics suggest that 40,000 deported Koreans died in 1937 and 1938 for these reasons. Nonetheless, the deportees cooperated to build irrigation works and start rice farms; within three years, they had recovered their original standard of living. The events of this period led to the formation of a cohesive identity among the Korean deportees. However, in schools for Soviet Korean children, the government switched Korean language from being the medium of instruction to being taught merely as a second language in 1939, and from 1945 stopped it from being taught entirely; furthermore, the only publication in the Korean language was the "Lenin Kichi ("Korean: 레닌 기치"," English: "The Lenin Flag)". As a result, subsequent generations lost the use of the Korean language, which J. Otto Pohl described as "emasculat[ing] the expression of Korean culture in the Soviet Union. Up until the era of glasnost, it was not permitted to speak openly of the deportations.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Scholars estimated that roughly 470,000 Koryo-saram were living in the Commonwealth of Independent States.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The 2002 census gave a population of 148,556 Koreans in Russia, of which 75,835 were male and 72,721 female. More than half were living in Asian Russia. Meanwhile, the 2010 census gave a population of 153,156 Koreans in Russia, this time more than half were living in European Russia instead, but Russian Far East remained the federal district with highest number of Koreans. The Korean population there trace their roots back to a variety of sources. Aside from roughly 33,000 CIS nationals, mostly migrants retracing in reverse the 1937 deportation of their ancestors, between 4,000 and 12,000 North Korean migrant labourers can be found in the region. Smaller numbers of South Koreans and ethnic Koreans from China have also come to the region to settle, invest, and/or engage in cross-border trade.


title: Koryo-saram

text: In the 2001 census in Ukraine 12,711 people defined themselves as ethnic Koreans, up from 8,669 in 1989. Of these only 17.5% gave Korean as their first language. The majority (76%) stated their mother tongue was Russian, while 5.5% stated Ukrainian. The largest concentrations can be found in Kharkiv, Kyiv, Odesa, Mykolaiv, Cherkasy, Lviv, Luhansk, Donetsk, Dnipro, Zaporizhia and Crimea. The largest ethnic representative body, the Association of Koreans in Ukraine, is located in Kharkiv, where roughly 150 Korean families reside; the first Korean language school was opened in 1996 under their direction. Some of the most famous Korean-Ukrainians are Vitaliy Kim, current governor of Mykolaiv Oblast, and Oleksandr Sin, former mayor of Zaporizhzhia. After 2001, many Koreans migrated into Ukraine from Central Asia.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The majority of Koryo-saram in Central Asia reside in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. Korean culture in Kazakhstan is centered in Almaty, the former capital. For much of the 20th century, this was the only place in Central Asia where a Korean language newspaper (the "Koryo Shinmun") and Korean language theater were in operation. The censuses of Kazakhstan recorded 96,500 Koryo-saram in 1939, 74,000 in 1959, 81,600 in 1970, 92,000 in 1979, 100,700 in 1989, and 99,700 in 1999.


title: Koryo-saram

text: In Kyrgyzstan, the population has remained roughly stable over the past three censuses: 18,355 (1989), 19,784 (1999), and 17,299 (2009). This contrasts sharply with other non-indigenous groups such as Germans, many of whom migrated to Germany after the breakup of the Soviet Union. South Korea never had any programme to promote return migration of their diaspora in Central Asia, unlike Germany. However, they have established organisations to promote Korean language and culture, such as the Korean Centre of Education which opened in Bishkek in 2001. South Korean Christian missionaries are also active in the country.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The population in Uzbekistan is largely scattered in rural areas. This population has suffered in recent years from linguistic handicaps, as the Koryo-saram there spoke Russian but not Uzbek. After the independence of Uzbekistan, many lost their jobs due to being unable to speak the national language. Some emigrated to the Russian Far East, but found life difficult there as well.


title: Koryo-saram

text: There is also a small Korean community in Tajikistan. Mass settlement of Koreans in the country began during the late 1950s and early 1960s, after the loosening of restrictions on their freedom of movement which had previously kept them confined to Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Pull factors for migration included rich natural resources and a relatively mild climate. Their population grew to 2,400 in 1959, 11,000 in 1979 and 13,000 in 1989; most lived in the capital Dushanbe, with smaller concentrations in Qurghonteppa and Khujand. Like Koreans in other parts of Central Asia, they generally possessed higher incomes compared to members of other ethnic groups. However, with the May 1992 onset of civil war in Tajikistan, many fled the country; by 1996, their population had fallen by over half to 6,300 people. Most are engaged in agriculture and retail business. Violence continued even after the end of the civil war; in 2000, suspected Hizb ut-Tahrir members exploded a bomb in a Korean Christian church in Dushanbe, killing 9 and wounding 30.


title: Koryo-saram

text: There was some minor return migration of Soviet Koreans to Korea in the first half of the 20th century. They formed 4 main groups: those sent for intelligence work during the Japanese colonial period, the Red Army personnel who arrived in 1945–1946, civilian advisors and teachers who arrived in the northern half of the peninsula in 1946–1948 and individuals who repatriated from the Soviet Union to North Korea for personal reasons. Though it was common in most of the newly socialist countries of the Eastern Bloc to receive Soviet-educated personnel who were from the country or had ancestral ethnic connections there, in North Korea such returned members of national diaspora played a more important role than in other countries.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Later, labour migration to South Korea would grow to a large size. , as many as 10,000 Uzbekistani nationals worked in South Korea, with most of them being ethnic Koreans. It is estimated that remittances from South Korea to Uzbekistan exceed $100 million annually.


title: Koryo-saram

text: After their arrival in Central Asia, the Koryo-saram quickly established a way of life different from that of neighbouring peoples. They set up irrigation works and became known throughout the region as rice farmers. They interacted little with the nomadic peoples around them and focused on education. Although they soon ceased to wear traditional Korean clothing, they adopted Western-style dress rather than the clothing worn by the Central Asian peoples.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The ritual life of the Koryo-saram community has changed in various respects. Marriages have taken on the Russian style. At Korean traditional funerals, the coffin is taken out of the house either through the window or a single door threshold; however, if there is more than one door threshold on the way out (e.g. in modern multi-stories buildings), three notches are made on each threshold. The name of the dead is traditionally written in "hanja"; however, as hardly anyone is left among the Koryo-saram who can write in "hanja", the name is generally written in hangul only. On the other hand, the rituals for the first birthday and sixtieth anniversary have been preserved in their traditional form.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Koryo-saram have preserved the Korean cuisine particularly well. The cuisine of the Koryo-saram is closest to that of the Hamgyong provinces in North Korea and is dominated by meat soups and salty side dishes. It uses similar cooking techniques but is adapted to local ingredients, which resulted in invention of new dishes. One well-known example is spicy carrot salad, known throughout the Soviet Union as Korean carrot salad. It is a Koryo-saram invention and was unknown in South Korea until recently. However, it has gained an international following, being served in most cafeterias throughout the CIS, sold in all supermarkets and featured regularly as a side dish on dinner tables and in holiday feasts set by all ethnicities of the former Soviet Union.


title: Koryo-saram

text: On the other hand, some South Korean dishes such as bulgogi, bibimbap and samgyeopsal were relatively unknown to Koryo-saram until recently. Dishes traditionally popular among Koryo-saram include pigodi, kuksu (Korean: 국수), timpeni, khe, chartagi, kadi che (Korean: 가지채), kosari che (Korean: 고사리채), chirgym che, panchan, schirak tyamuri and kadyuri.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Many Korean surnames, when Cyrillized, are spelled and pronounced slightly differently from the romanisations used in the U.S. and the resulting common pronunciations, as can be seen in the table at right. Some surnames of Koryo-saram have a particle "gai" added to them, such as Kogai or Nogai. The origin of this is unclear. The introduction of international passports by newly independent CIS countries, resulted in further differences in pronunciation as Korean surnames had to be transliterated from Cyrillic into Latin. In addition to a surname, Koreans also use clan names (known as Bon-gwan in Korea and pronounced as пой among Koryo-saram) denoting the place of origin.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Korean naming practices and Russian naming practices are different - Koryo-saram use Russian name practices, but Korean surnames and sometimes Korean names. But most often Christian names are used from the saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, typical for Russians.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Koreans began with the use of patronymics that were formed from the Korean names of their fathers. Over time, as the proportion of Christians increased, Koreans were given, in accordance with the tradition of the Russian Orthodox Church, names from the general list of revered saints. Currently, 80% of Koryo-saram have a record of their Korean names. This differs from the pattern typical in the US, where Korean American parents often register their children with a Korean given name as their legal middle name (e.g. Daniel Dae Kim, Harold Hongju Koh).


title: Koryo-saram

text: In Korea, until the 20th century, women were generally called by their family name. Nobles received as a pseudo-name the name of the estate in which they lived and this did not change when getting married.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The preservation of his wife's name has been preserved as a tradition among modern Koreans, after women began to give names.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The Koreans began to migrate to the Russian Empire in 1864 long before women were allowed to give names in modern Korean tradition in Korea.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Legislation of the Russian Empire required the mandatory presence of the surname of the name and patronymic name for everyone. Including poor serf wives. When they were married they were given the surname of the husband, a patronymic formed on behalf of the father and given a name from the Sviatcy (List of names of saints of the Orthodox Church).


title: Koryo-saram

text: In Korea, it is common for siblings and cousins of the same generation to have one hanja syllable in common among all of their names; this is known as "dollimja". Russians have no equivalent practice, although they do have patronyms which the Koryo-saram have for the most part adopted. Therefore, Koryo-saram do not use generation names. They use, depending on religion, either a name from Sviatcy or a name arbitrarily chosen from the hanja character used in Korea to form names.


title: Koryo-saram

text: Due to deportation and the continuing urbanization of the population after 1952, the command of Korean among the Koryo-saram has continued to fall. This contrasts with other more rural minority groups such as the Dungan, who have maintained a higher level of proficiency in their ethnic language. In 1989, the most recent year for which data are available, the number of Russian mother tongue speakers among the Koryo-saram population overtook that of Korean mother tongue speakers.


title: Koryo-saram

text: The 2005 South Korean film "Wedding Campaign", directed by Hwang Byung-kook, portrays two aging bachelor farmers from rural villages who hope to find wives. Having no romantic prospects in South Korea, they opt to go through an international mail-order bride agency, which sends them to Uzbekistan and tries to match them with Korean women there.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The South Africa national rugby union team, commonly known as the Springboks (colloquially the Boks, Bokke or Amabokoboko), is the country's national team governed by the South African Rugby Union. The Springboks play in green and gold jerseys, with white shorts and their emblem is a native antelope, the Springbok, which is the national animal of South Africa. The team has been representing South Africa in international Rugby Union since 30 July 1891, when they played their first test match against a British Isles touring team. They are currently the reigning World Champions and have won the World Cup on 3 occasions, (1995, 2007, and 2019). The Springboks are equalled with the All Blacks with 3 World Cup wins.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The team made its World Cup debut in 1995, when the newly democratic South Africa hosted the tournament. Although South Africa was instrumental in the creation of the Rugby World Cup competition, the Springboks did not compete in the first two World Cups in 1987 and 1991 because of international anti-apartheid sporting boycotts. The Springboks defeated the All Blacks 15–12 in the 1995 final, which is now remembered as one of the greatest moments in South Africa's sporting history, and a watershed moment in the post-Apartheid nation-building process.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa regained the title as champions 12 years later, when they defeated England 15–6 in the 2007 final. As a result of the 2007 World Cup tournament the Springboks were promoted to first place in the IRB World Rankings, a position they held until July the following year when New Zealand regained the top spot. They were named 2008 World Team of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards. South Africa then won a third World Cup title, defeating England 32–12 in the 2019 final. As a result of this, the South African National Rugby Union Team were named 2020 World Team of the Year at the Laureus World Sports Awards for a second time.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks also compete in the annual Rugby Championship "(formerly the Tri-Nations)", along with their Southern Hemisphere counterparts Argentina, Australia and New Zealand. They have won the Championship on four occasions in Twenty-Four competitions and are the only team to have won a version of the competition and the Rugby World Cup in the same year.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: For almost a hundred years, South Africans have been proud of the performance of their rugby union team, the Springboks are known throughout the world, even by non-rugby specialists. Rugby union is very popular in South Africa, the one which is practiced preferably by the most talented sportsmen of the country. Many teams have had their biggest defeats to the Springboks; including Australia, Italy, Scotland, Uruguay and Wales.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The first British Isles tour took place in 1891, at Diocesan College. These were the first representative games played by South African sides. The tourists won all twenty matches they played, conceding only one point.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The British Isles' success continued on their tour of 1896, winning three out of four tests against South Africa. South Africa's play greatly improved from 1891, and their first test win in the final game was a pointer to the future.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1903 the British Isles lost a series for the first time in South Africa, drawing the opening two tests before losing the last 8–0. Rugby was given a huge boost by the early Lions tours, which created great interest in the South African press. South Africa would not lose another series—home or away—until 1956.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The first South African team to tour the British Isles and France occurred during 1906–07. The team played tests against all four Home Nations. England managed a draw, but Scotland was the only one of the Home unions to gain a victory. The trip instilled a sense of national pride among South Africans.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The South Africans played an unofficial match against a 'France' team while the official French team were in England; the Springboks won 55–6.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1910 British Isles tour of South Africa was the first to include representatives from all four Home unions. The tourists won just one of their three tests. The Boks' second European tour took place in 1912–13. They beat the four Home nations to earn their first Grand Slam, and also defeated France.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: By the first World War, New Zealand and South Africa had established themselves as rugby's two greatest powers. A Springbok tour to New Zealand and Australia in 1921 was billed as "The World Championship of Rugby". The All Blacks won the first Test 13–5, The Springboks recovered to win the second Test 9–5, and the final Test was drawn 0–0, resulting in a series draw.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1924 British Lions team lost three of the four Tests to the Springboks, drawing the other. This was the first side to pick up the name Lions, apparently picked up from the Lions embroidered on their ties.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The All Blacks first toured South Africa in 1928, and again the Test series finished level. The Springboks won the first Test 17–0 to inflict the All Blacks' heaviest defeat since 1893. The All Blacks rebounded to win the second Test 7–6. After a Springbok win in the third Test, the All Blacks won 13–5 to draw the series.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Despite winning South Africa's second Grand Slam, the Springbok tourists of 1931–32 were an unloved team, due to their tactics of kicking for territory. It was successful however, winning against England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales, as well as defeating all their Welsh opponents for the first time.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1937 South Africa toured New Zealand and Australia and their 2–1 series win prompted them to be called "the best team to ever leave New Zealand".


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The British Isles toured South Africa again in 1938, winning the majority of their tour matches. The Springboks secured easy victories in the first two tests. However, the Lions bounced back to record a win in the third test, for the first Lions win on South Africa soil since 1910.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Danie Craven was appointed coach in 1949, and started his coaching career winning ten matches in a row, including a 4–0 whitewash of New Zealand on their 1949 tour to South Africa.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1951–52 team that toured Europe was considered amongst the finest Springbok sides to tour. The team won the Grand Slam as well as defeating France. Hennie Muller captained the side. The South African highlight of the tour was a 44–0 defeat of Scotland. The team finished with only one loss, to London Counties, from 31 matches.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1953, Australia toured South Africa for the second time and although they lost the series, they defeated South Africa 18–14 in the second test. The 1955 British Lions tour to South Africa four-test series ended in a draw.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1956, Springboks toured Australasia the All Blacks won its first series over the Springboks, in "the most bitterly fought series in history."


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: When France toured South Africa in 1958 they were not expected to compete. France exceeded expectations and drew 3–3. The French then secured a Test series victory with a 9–5 victory.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1960, international criticism of apartheid grew in the wake of "The Wind of Change" speech and the Sharpeville massacre. The Springboks increasingly became the target of international protest. The All Blacks toured South Africa in 1960, despite a 150,000 signature petition opposing it. The Springboks avenged their 1956 series defeat by winning the four-match test series 2–1 with one draw. that same year the Springboks toured Europe, and they defeated all four Home unions for their fourth Grand Slam.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1962 British Lions tour to South Africa lost three of the four tests, drawing the other. In 1963 the touring Wallabies beat the Springboks in consecutive tests, the first team to do so since the 1896 British team. In 1964, in Wales' first overseas tour they played one test match against South Africa, losing 3–24, their biggest defeat in 40 years.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa had a poor year in 1965, losing matches in a tour of Ireland and Scotland, and in a tour of Australia and New Zealand.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The planned 1967 tour by the All Blacks was cancelled by the New Zealand Rugby Football Union after the South African government refused to allow Maori players. In 1968 the Lions toured and lost three Tests and drew one.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Next year in the 1969–70 Springbok tour to the UK and Ireland the Springboks lost test matches against England and Scotland, and drew against Ireland and Wales. Throughout the tour however, large anti-apartheid demonstrations meant that several matches had to be played behind barbed wire fences.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1970 the All Blacks toured South Africa once again—after the South African government agreed to treat Maoris in the team and Maori spectators as 'honorary whites'. The Springboks won the test series 3–1.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In the Springbok tour of Australia in 1971, the Springboks won all three tests. As in Britain three years before, however, massive anti-apartheid demonstrations greeted the team, and they had to be transported by the Royal Australian Air Force after the trade unions refused to service planes or trains transporting them. A planned tour of New Zealand for 1973 was blocked by New Zealand Prime Minister Norman Kirk on the grounds of public safety.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Lions team that toured South Africa in 1974 triumphed 3–0 (with one drawn) in the test series. A key feature was the Lions' infamous '99 call'. Lions management had decided that the Springboks dominated their opponents with physical aggression, so decided "to get their retaliation in first". At the call of '99' each Lions player would attack their nearest rival player. The "battle of Boet Erasmus Stadium" was one of the most violent matches in rugby history.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1976 All Blacks tour of South Africa went ahead, and the Springboks won by three Tests to one, but coming shortly after the Soweto riots the tour attracted international condemnation. Twenty-eight countries boycotted the 1976 Summer Olympics in protest, and in 1977 the Gleneagles Agreement discouraged any Commonwealth sporting contact with South Africa. In response to the growing pressure, the segregated South African rugby unions merged in 1977. A planned 1979 Springbok tour of France was blocked by the French government.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 1981 Springbok tour of New Zealand went ahead in defiance of the Gleneagles Agreement. South Africa lost the series 1–2. The tour and the massive civil disruption in New Zealand had ramifications far beyond rugby. In 1981, Errol Tobias became the first non-white South African to represent his country when he took the field against Ireland. South Africa sought to counteract its sporting isolation by inviting the South American Jaguars to tour. The team contained mainly Argentinian players. Eight matches were played between the two teams in the early 1980s—all awarded Test status. In 1984, England toured losing both test matches; of the players selected, only Ralph Knibbs of Bristol refused to tour for political reasons.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Due to the isolation from apartheid, from 1985 to 1991, South Africa did not play a single test match against an established country, although South Africa did play some matches against makeshift teams.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1985, a planned All Black tour of South Africa was stopped by the New Zealand High Court. A rebel tour took place the next year by a team known as the Cavaliers, which consisted of all but two of the original squad. The Springboks won the series 3–1. In 1989, a World XV sanctioned by the International Rugby Board went on a mini-tour of South Africa; all traditional rugby nations bar New Zealand supplied players to the team.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa was not permitted by the International Rugby Board to compete in the inaugural 1987 Rugby World Cup, nor in the following 1991 Rugby World Cup.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Apartheid was abolished during 1990–91, and the Springboks were readmitted to international rugby in 1992. They struggled to return to their pre-isolation standards in their first games after readmission. During the 1992 All Blacks tour, the first to South Africa since 1976, the Springboks were defeated 24–27 by New Zealand, and suffered a 3–26 loss to Australia the following month.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup, with a surge of support for the Springboks among the white and black communities behind the slogan "one team, one country." This was the first major international sports event to be held in the Rainbow Nation. By the time they hosted the 1995 World Cup, the Springboks, coached by Kitch Christie, were seeded ninth. They won their pool by defeating Australia, Romania, and Canada. Wins in the quarter-final against Western Samoa (42–14) and in the semi-final against France (19–15) sent the Springboks to the final.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: President Nelson Mandela, wearing a Springbok shirt, presented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, a white Afrikaner. The gesture was widely seen as a major step towards the reconciliation of white and black South Africans.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: A series of crises followed in 1995 through 1997. Christie resigned in 1996 due to leukaemia. South Africa struggled in the new Tri-Nations competition, the All Blacks won a test series in South Africa for the first time in 1996, and the Lions won their 1997 South African tour test series two games to one. Coach Andre Markgraaff was fired in 1997 due to a racist comment he made. The team suffered successive defeats in the Lions 1997 tour and the 1997 Tri Nations Series.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1997, coach Nick Mallett coached South Africa's unbeaten 1997 tour of Europe, and in 1998 the Boks tied the then-existing record for longest test winning streak, winning 17 consecutive tests, including the 1998 Tri-Nations.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: At the 1999 Rugby World Cup the Springboks reached the semi-finals of the competition, where they lost to eventual champions .


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: During the 2002 and 2003 seasons, the Springboks lost by record margins to England (3–53), France, Scotland and New Zealand. At the 2003 Rugby World Cup, they were eliminated in the quarter-final round – their worst showing to date.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Following wins during the June 2004 tours, the Boks won the 2004 Tri Nations Series. The Springboks won the 2004 IRB International Team of the Year award. The Springboks finished second in the 2005 Tri-Nations.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 2006 Springboks lost to France, ending their long undefeated home record. A poor 2006 Tri Nations Series included two losses to the Wallabies. Coach Jake White told the press in July 2006 that he had been unable to pick some white players for his squad "because of transformation"—a reference to the ANC government's policies to redress racial imbalances in sport.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: At the 2007 Rugby World Cup in France, the Springboks won their pool. The Springboks then defeated Fiji 37–20 in the quarter-finals, and Argentina 37–13 in the semi-finals. In the final they prevailed 15–6 over England to lift the Webb Ellis Cup for a second time.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In January 2008, Peter de Villiers was appointed as the first non-white coach of the Springboks. De Villiers's first squad included ten of colour. The team finishes last in the Tri Nations, but notched several wins during their 2008 end of year tour.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 2009 season was more successful. The Boks earned a 2–1 series win over the Lions, and then won the 2009 Tri Nations Series. However, during the November tests they lost their top spot in the IRB rankings with losses to France and Ireland. Nonetheless, the Boks were named IRB International Team of the Year.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Boks' June 2010 test campaign included a win over France (their first victory over the French since 2005).


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: However, the Boks performed poorly in the 2010 Tri Nations campaign, sliding to third in the world rankings.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In the 2011 Tri Nations the Boks rested a number of players in preparation for the upcoming World Cup. At the 2011 Rugby World Cup, the Springboks topped their group before falling to Australia 9–11 in the quarter-finals.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Following the sacking of Allister Coetzee in February 2018, Rassie Erasmus was named head coach of the national team, alongside his duties as Director of Rugby at SA Rugby, on 1 March 2018 and immediately decided to appoint Siya Kolisi as the new Springbok captain, a landmark decision.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In his first match in charge, Erasmus awarded thirteen new players their first test cap, in a one-off match in Washington, D.C. in a 22–20 loss to Wales. A week later, he secured his first win, a 42–39 victory over England, during their three-test series. The series title was clinched in the second test, with the Springboks winning 23–12, to secure a series victory. However, South Africa were unable to gain the clean-sweep, after losing the third test, 25–10. During the 2018 Rugby Championship, Erasmus led the Springboks to second, their best placing since 2014. The 2018 Championship saw South Africa win three games, including a thrilling 36–34 victory over New Zealand in Wellington, South Africa's first win in New Zealand since 2009. Erasmus later revealed that had the Springboks lost that match, he would have resigned: "We [had recently] lost to Australia and Argentina, and if we didn't win in Wellington I would have resigned... I have never lost three games in a row as a coach and if I did that I don't deserve to be a Springbok coach. We played New Zealand in Wellington and that was important, as if we lost it I wouldn't be here." South Africa came within moments of reclaiming the Freedom Cup in the final round, but an All Black try in the dying moments of the game helped New Zealand snatch victory in 32–30 win in Pretoria and retain the cup.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks won the 2019 Rugby World Cup in Japan after defeating England 32–12 in the final. It was the first time that a Black South African rugby captain got to lift the Webb Ellis Cup, as well as the first time that a team won a final with a defeat in pool stages, the captain being Siya Kolisi who presented South African president Cyril Ramaphosa the number 6 jersey to commemorate Nelson Mandela, who wore the same numbered jersey during the 1995 Rugby World Cup.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The final match between South Africa and England served as a rematch between the two in reference to the 2007 Rugby World Cup final. This marks the third time South Africa has won the World Cup which ties the team with the All Blacks for most Rugby World Cup wins.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Paul Roos's team had first introduced the Springbok in 1906–07 tour of Britain in an attempt to prevent the British press from inventing their own name. At this point in time, it promoted a measure of unity among white English and Afrikaans-speaking players after the two Anglo-Boer Wars of the late 19th century. Although the Springbok was adopted briefly by the first coloured national rugby team in 1939 and by their first black counterparts in 1950, it became exclusively associated with segregated sporting codes afterwards.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South African rugby officials in particular, and the national rugby team itself, have an historical association with racism from 1906 on. The Springbok was regarded as representing both the exclusion of players who were not designated white under apartheid legislation, and by extension of apartheid itself. The first Springboks initially refused to play against a Devon side that included Jimmy Peters, the first black player to represent England. Legendary official, national coach, and Springbok scrumhalf Danie Craven had acquiesced with government officials who had demanded that Māori players be excluded from visiting All Black teams. Craven had also indicated that the Springbok was exclusively tied to the white identity of the national rugby team.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Since the demise of apartheid, the ruling African National Congress has wanted to replace the Springbok across all national teams, as emblem of the racially segregated sporting codes, with a neutral symbol that would represent a decisive break with a repressive past. The King Protea as South Africa's national flower was chosen for this purpose, so that the national cricket team became known as the Proteas, for example. A similar change was envisioned for the national rugby squads springbok emblem. As a result of political pressure the national rugby team jersey from 1992 on featured a king protea alongside the springbok.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: As portrayed in the film "Invictus", pressure to replace the Springbok as emblem for the rugby team came to a head in 1994, just before the Rugby World Cup that would take place in South Africa. As a result of Nelson Mandela's direct intervention (Mandela himself was a devoted fan of the Springbok rugby team), the ANC's executive decided not to do away with the emblem at the time, but to reappropriate it. After the national team won the 1995 Rugby World Cup, black rugby pioneer Dan Qeqe said that "The Springboks play for all of us".


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In March 2004 the South African Sports Commission ratified a decision that the protea be the official rugby emblem on blazers and caps, with the concession that the springbok could remain on the team jersey and the traditional Springbok colours. And in November 2007 the ANC's special conference at Polokwane again endorsed the need for a single symbol for all sporting codes. While critics like Qondisa Ngwenya foresaw a loss of revenue from dumping the springbok emblem, others like Cheeky Watson urged the need for an alternative, unifying symbol.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa play in green jerseys with a gold collar and trim, white shorts and green socks. The jersey is embroidered with the SA Rugby logo on the wearer's left chest and the springbok logo on the right chest.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The first shirt worn by South Africa was a navy blue one in their Tests against the British Isles during the Lions tour of 1891.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The green jersey was first adopted when the British Isles toured South Africa in 1903. After playing the first two Tests in white shirts, South Africa wore a green jersey (supplied by the Diocesan College rugby team) for the first time in their final Test at Newlands. On their first tour to Great Britain and Ireland in 1906–07 South Africa wore a green jersey with white collar, blue shorts, and blue socks taken from the Diocesan College.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: When Australia first toured South Africa in 1933, the visitors wore sky blue jerseys to avoid confusion, as at the time, both wore dark green jerseys. In 1953, when Australia toured again, the Springboks wore white jerseys for the test matches. In 1961 Australia changed their jersey to gold to avoid further colour clashes.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 2006 against Ireland in Dublin, to mark the centenary of the Springbok rugby team., a replica of the first jersey was worn.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In December 2008, the SARU decided to place the protea on the left side of the Boks' jersey, in line with other South African national teams, and move the springbok to the right side of the jersey. The was worn for the first time during the British & Irish Lions' 2009 tour of South Africa.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 2015 for the 2015 Rugby World Cup, the springbok was moved from the front of the jersey to the right sleeve while the Protea remained on the front. This was due to World Cup regulations stating that only the IRB logo and the main team logo could go on the front of the shirt. Several South African rugby fans voiced their disappointment and anger at the reveal of the 2015 shirt as a result of the springbok not being on the front of the shirt.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: 2017 saw the Springboks wear a red change jersey at Argentina as part of an Asics promotion where the Springboks and Blitzboks wore jerseys in all the colours of the South African flag during the course of the season—the main side wore green, white, and red shirts, while the sevens team turned out in gold, blue and black uniforms.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Japanese company ASICS is the kit provider for all the South Africa rugby teams, through an agreement signed with the SARU. South Africa's shirt sponsor is local mobile phone provider MTN Group. Additional uniform sponsors are FNB on the back above the numbers, and Betway, FlySafair, Dell, and Switch Energy Drink rotating on the rear hems of the shorts.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> In a 2001 autumn international against France in Saint-Denis, the logo on their kit was replaced by Charles because of the Evin law, which prohibits alcohol companies from advertising during sports events in France.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks do not use a single stadium as their home, but they play out of a number of venues throughout South Africa.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The first South African international took place in 1891 at Port Elizabeth's Crusader Grounds. The playing field, which is shared with the Port Elizabeth Cricket Club, is also known as St George's Park Cricket Ground.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The 60,000 seat Ellis Park Stadium in Johannesburg was the main venue for the 1995 World Cup, where the Springboks defeated the All Blacks in the final. Ellis Park was built in 1928, and in 1955 hosted a record 100,000 people in a Test between South Africa and the British & Irish Lions.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks are said to have a notable advantage over touring sides when playing at high altitude on the Highveld. Games at Ellis Park, Loftus Versfeld, or Vodacom Park are said to present physical problems, and to influence a match in a number of other ways, such as the ball travelling further when kicked. Experts disagree on whether touring team's traditionally poor performances at altitude are more due to a state of mind rather than an actual physical challenge.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks played their first test match at Soccer City on 21 August 2010, a Tri Nations match against New Zealand.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa is one of the most successful rugby union teams in history. When the ranking system was first introduced in October 2003, South Africa were ranked sixth. Their ranking fluctuated until their victory in the 2007 Rugby World Cup briefly sent them to the summit of the rankings.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Overall, the South African Springboks and the New Zealand All Blacks have held the number 1 ranking in the world rankings since its introduction in October 2003 for just over 93% of the time (with the New Zealand All Blacks holding the top spot for just over 80% of the time and the South African Springboks holding the top spot for just over 13% of that time). The remaining time at the top of the world rankings are shared between the leading Northern Hemisphere teams, England (the only Northern Hemisphere team to win a World Cup title in 2003), Wales, France and Ireland.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The South African Springboks also share a record 3 World Cup titles (1995, 2007 and 2019) with the New Zealand All Blacks (1987, 2011 and 2015) and currently have an overall winning % against all nations (including the British and Irish Lions) except for the New Zealand All Blacks.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks only yearly tournament is The Rugby Championship (formerly Tri-Nations), involving Australia and New Zealand since 1996, with Argentina joining the competition in 2012. The Springboks has won the tournament four times (1998, 2004, 2009, 2019). South Africa also participates in the Mandela Challenge Plate with Australia, and the Freedom Cup with New Zealand as part of the Rugby Championship.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The Springboks did not participate in the 1987 and 1991 World Cups because of the sporting boycott that apartheid brought against them. South Africa's introduction to the event was as hosts. They defeated the defending Champions Australia 27–18 in the opening match, and went on to defeat the All Blacks 15–12 after extra time in the 1995 Rugby World Cup Final, with a drop goal from 40 metres by Joel Stransky.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In 1999 South Africa experienced their first World Cup loss when they were defeated 21–27 by Australia in their Semi-Final, they went on to defeat the All Blacks 22–18 in the Third-Fourth play-off match. The worst ever South African performance at a World Cup was in 2003 when they lost a pool game to England, and then were knocked out of the tournament by the All Blacks in their Quarter-Final. In 2007 the Springboks defeated Fiji in the Quarter-Final's and Argentina in the Semi-Final's. They then defeated England in the Grand Final 15–6 to win the tournament for a second time. In 2011 the Springboks were defeated by Australia 9–11 in the Quarter-Final's after winning all four of their pool games.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In the 2015 World Cup, South Africa suffered a 32–34 loss to Japan in their first pool match on 19 September, and it has been regarded as one of the biggest upset's in Rugby Union history. They made it to the Semi-Final's but were eventually defeated by the All Blacks 20-18.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In the 2019 RWC, the Springboks lost their first pool match against the All Blacks 23-13, and they than won the rest of their pool matches to advance to the Quarter-Finals, where they beat Japan 26-3, than they beat Wales 19-16 in the Semi-Final's and then they beat England 32-12 in the Grand Final to be crowned the World Champions. South Africa becomes the 2nd country ever to win the Rugby World Cup 3 times.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Traditionally, most of the Test Matches against other countries happened during Tours/Series. The first team to visit South Africa were the British Lions in 1891 and the first Springbok overseas tour was arranged in 1906–07 to Europe.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Below is the Test Matches played by South Africa up until 26 November 2022. Only fixtures recognised as Test Matches by the South African Rugby Union are listed.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: ± The Cavaliers was the name given to an unofficial (rebel) New Zealand team that toured South Africa in 1986. The New Zealand Rugby Union did not sanction the team and do not recognise the side as a New Zealand representative team.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: On 28 October, Head Coach Jacques Nienaber named a 35-Man squad for their 2022 End-of-Year Tour, playing against Ireland, France, Italy and England.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Strategic Transformation Development Plan 2030 (STDP 2030): The Transformation Charter adopted at a sports Indaba in 2011 was a ‘one-size fits all’ mechanism to guide sport towards the achievement of the longer term transformation goal of an accessible, equitable, sustainable, competitive and demographically representative sport system.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: In the case of demographic representation for example, STDP 2030 target of 60% generic Black (black African, Coloured and Indian representation) was set and is the current milestone towards the ultimate goal of a sport demographic profile in line with the national population demographic of 80% black African, 9% Coloured, 9% White and 2% Indian. However the targets are not legally enforceable quotas.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: South Africa's most capped player is Victor Matfield with 127 caps. The most-capped back is Bryan Habana. Percy Montgomery holds the South African record for Test points with 893, which at the time of his international retirement placed him sixth on the all-time list of Test point scorers (he now stands ninth).


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: John Smit was the world's most-capped captain, having captained South Africa in 82 of his 111 Tests, but has since been overtaken. Smit also played a record 46 consecutive matches for South Africa.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Twelve former South African international players have been inducted into either the International Rugby Hall of Fame or the World Rugby Hall of Fame.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: The role and definition of the South Africa coach has varied significantly over the team's history. Hence a comprehensive list of coaches, or head selectors, is impossible. The following table is a list of coaches since the 1949 All Blacks tour to South Africa.


title: South Africa national rugby union team

text: Both World Cup-winning coaches, Christie and White, were inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame in 2011 alongside all other World Cup-winning head coaches through the 2007 edition.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The Generalplan Ost (; ), abbreviated GPO, was the Nazi German government's plan for the genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale, and colonization of Central and Eastern Europe by Germans. It was to be undertaken in territories occupied by Germany during World War II. The plan was attempted during the war, resulting indirectly and directly in the deaths of millions by shootings, starvation, disease, extermination through labor, and genocide. However, its full implementation was not considered practicable during major military operations, and never materialized due to Germany's defeat.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The program operational guidelines were based on the policy of "Lebensraum" designed by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party in fulfilment of the "Drang nach Osten" (drive to the East) ideology of German expansionism. As such, it was intended to be a part of the New Order in Europe.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The plan was a work in progress. There are four known versions of it, developed as time went on. After the invasion of Poland, the original blueprint for "Generalplan Ost" (GPO) was discussed by the RKFDV in mid-1940 during the Nazi–Soviet population transfers. The second known version of GPO was procured by the RSHA from in April 1942. The third version was officially dated June 1942. The final settlement master plan for the East came in from the RKFDV on October 29, 1942. However, after the German defeat at Stalingrad, planning of the colonization in the East was suspended, and the program was gradually abandoned. The planning had nonetheless included implementation cost estimates, which ranged from 40 to 67 billion Reichsmarks, the latter figure being close to Germany's entire GDP for 1941. A cost estimate of 45.7 billion Reichsmarks was included in the spring 1942 version of the plan, in which more than half the expenditure was to be allocated to land remediation, agricultural development, and transport infrastructure. This aspect of the funding was to be provided directly from state sources and the remainder, for urban and industrial development projects, was to be raised on commercial terms.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The body responsible for the "Generalplan Ost" was the SS's Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) under Heinrich Himmler, which commissioned the work. The document was revised several times between June 1941 and spring 1942 as the war in the east progressed successfully. It was a strictly confidential proposal whose content was known only to those at the top level of the Nazi hierarchy; it was circulated by RSHA to the Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories ("Ostministerium") in early 1942.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: According to testimony of SS-Standartenführer Dr. Hans Ehlich (one of the witnesses before the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials), the original version of the plan was drafted in 1940. As a high official in the RSHA, Ehlich was the man responsible for the drafting of "Generalplan Ost" along with Dr. Konrad Meyer, Chief of the Planning Office of Himmler's Reich Commission for the Strengthening of Germandom. It had been preceded by the "Ostforschung".


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The preliminary versions were discussed by Heinrich Himmler and his most trusted colleagues even before the outbreak of war. This was mentioned by SS-"Obergruppenführer" Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski during his evidence as a prosecution witness in the trial of officials of the Race and Settlement Main Office (RuSHA). According to Bach-Zelewski, Himmler stated openly: "It is a question of existence, thus it will be a racial struggle of pitiless severity, in the course of which 20 to 30 million Slavs and Jews will perish through military actions and crises of food supply." A fundamental change in the plan was introduced on June 24, 1941 – two days after the start of Operation Barbarossa – when the 'solution' to the Jewish question ceased to be part of that particular framework gaining a lethal, autonomous priority.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: Nearly all the wartime documentation on "Generalplan Ost" was deliberately destroyed shortly before Germany's defeat in May 1945, and the full proposal has never been found, though several documents refer to it or supplement it. Nonetheless, most of the plan's essential elements have been reconstructed from related memos, abstracts and other documents.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: A major document which enabled historians to accurately reconstruct the "Generalplan Ost" was a memorandum released on April 27, 1942, by , director of the NSDAP Office of Racial Policy, entitled "Opinion and thoughts on the master plan for the East of the Reichsführer SS". Wetzel's memorandum was a broad elaboration of the "Generalplan Ost" proposal. It came to light only in 1957.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The extermination document for the Slavic people of Eastern Europe did survive the war and was quoted by Yale historian Timothy Snyder in 2010. It shows that ethnic Poles were the primary target of Generalplan OST.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: "Generalplan Ost" was a secret Nazi German plan for the colonization of Central and Eastern Europe. Implementing it would have necessitated genocide and ethnic cleansing on a vast scale to be undertaken in the European territories occupied by Germany during World War II. It would have included the extermination of most Slavic people in Europe. The plan, prepared in the years 1939–1942, was part of Adolf Hitler's and the Nazi movement's "Lebensraum" policy and a fulfilment of the "Drang nach Osten" () ideology of German expansion to the east, both of them part of the larger plan to establish the New Order.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The final version of the "Generalplan Ost" proposal was divided into two parts; the "Small Plan" (Kleine Planung), which covered actions carried out in the course of the war; and the "Big Plan" (Grosse Planung), which described steps to be taken gradually over a period of 25 to 30 years after the war was won. Both plans entailed the policy of ethnic cleansing. As of June 1941, the policy envisaged the deportation of 31 million Slavs to Siberia.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The "Generalplan Ost" proposal offered various percentages of the conquered or colonized people who were targeted for removal and physical destruction; the net effect of which would be to ensure that the conquered territories would become German. In ten years' time, the plan effectively called for the extermination, expulsion, Germanization or enslavement of most or all East and West Slavs living behind the front lines of East-Central Europe. The "Small Plan" was to be put into practice as the Germans conquered the areas to the east of their pre-war borders. After the war, under the "Big Plan", more people in Eastern Europe were to be affected. In their place up to 10 million Germans would be settled in an extended "living space" ("Lebensraum"). Because the number of Germans appeared to be insufficient to populate the vast territories of Central and Eastern Europe, the peoples judged to lie racially between the Germans and the Russians ("Mittelschicht"), namely, Latvians and even Czechs, were also supposed to be resettled there.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: Despite the proposal, Nazi Germany opted to install a puppet government lead by Yugoslav general Milan Nedic after conquering Yugoslavia in 1941. Despite the vast population of Slavs in Yugoslavia, Nazi Germany mainly focused on targeting the nation's Jewish and Roma population.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: According to Nazi intentions, attempts at Germanization were to be undertaken only in the case of those foreign nationals in Central and Eastern Europe who could be considered a desirable element for the future Reich from the point of view of its racial theories. The Plan stipulated that there were to be different methods of treating particular nations and even particular groups within them. Attempts were even made to establish the basic criteria to be used in determining whether a given group lent itself to Germanization. These criteria were to be applied more liberally in the case of nations whose racial material ("rassische Substanz") and level of cultural development made them more suitable than others for Germanization. The Plan considered that there were a large number of such elements among the Baltic states. Erhard Wetzel felt that thought should be given to a possible Germanization of the whole of the Estonian nation and a sizable proportion of the Latvians. On the other hand, the Lithuanians seemed less desirable since "they contained too great an admixture of Slav blood." Himmler's view was that "almost the whole of the Lithuanian nation would have to be deported to the East". Himmler is described to even have had a positive attitude towards germanizing the populations of Alsace-Lorraine, border areas of Slovenia (Upper Carniola and Southern Styria) and Bohemia-Moravia, but not Lithuania, claiming its population to be of "inferior race".


title: Generalplan Ost

text: Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia were to be deprived of their statehood, while their territories were to be included in the area of German settlement. This meant that Latvia and especially Lithuania would be covered by the deportation plans, though in a somewhat milder form than the expulsion of Slavs to western Siberia. While the Estonians would be spared from repressions and physical liquidation (that the Jews and the Poles were experiencing), in the long term the Nazi planners did not foresee their existence as independent entities and they would be deported as well, with eventual denationalisation; initial designs were for Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia to be Germanized within 25 years; Heinrich Himmler revised them to 20 years.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: In 1941 it was decided to destroy the Polish nation completely and the German leadership decided that in 15–20 years the Polish state under German occupation was to be fully cleared of any ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists. A majority of them, now deprived of their leaders and most of their intelligentsia (through mass murder, destruction of culture, the ban on education above the absolutely basic level, and kidnapping of children for Germanization), would have to be deported to regions in the East and scattered over as wide an area of Western Siberia as possible. According to the plan this would result in their assimilation by the local populations, which would cause the Poles to vanish as a nation.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: According to plan, by 1952 only about 3–4 million 'non-Germanized' Poles (all of them peasants) were to be left residing in the former Poland. Those of them who would still not Germanize were to be forbidden to marry, the existing ban on any medical help to Poles in Germany would be extended, and eventually Poles would cease to exist. Experiments in mass sterilization in concentration camps may also have been intended for use on the populations. The "Wehrbauer", or soldier-peasants, would be settled in a fortified line to prevent civilization reanimating beyond the Ural Mountains and threatening Germany. "Tough peasant races" would serve as a bulwark against attackhowever, it was not very far east of the "frontier" that the westernmost reaches within continental Asia of the Nazi Germany's major Axis partner, Imperial Japan's own Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere would have existed, had a complete defeat of the Soviet Union occurred.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: The seizure of food supplies in Ukraine brought about starvation, as it was intended to do to depopulate that region for German settlement. Soldiers were told to steel their hearts against starving women and children, because every bit of food given to them was stolen from the German people, endangering their nourishment.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: Widely varying policies were envisioned by the creators of "Generalplan Ost", and some of them were actually implemented by Germany in regards to the different Slavic territories and ethnic groups. For example, by August–September 1939 (Operation Tannenberg followed by the A-B Aktion in 1940), "Einsatzgruppen" death squads and concentration camps had been employed to deal with the Polish elite, while the small number of Czech intelligentsia were allowed to emigrate overseas. Parts of Poland were annexed by Germany early in the war (leaving aside the rump German-controlled General Government and the areas previously annexed by the Soviet Union), while the other territories were officially occupied by or allied to Germany (for example, the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia became a theoretically independent puppet state, while the ethnic-Czech parts of the Czech lands (so excluding the Sudetenland) became a "protectorate"). The plan was partially attempted during the war, resulting indirectly and directly in millions of deaths of ethnic Slavs by starvation, disease, or extermination through labor. The majority of Germany's 12 million forced laborers were abducted from Eastern Europe, mostly in the Soviet territories and Poland.


title: Generalplan Ost

text: One of the indictment charges at the trial of Adolf Eichmann, the S.S. officer responsible for the transportation aspects of the Final Solution, was that he was responsible for the deportation of 500,000 Poles. Eichmann was convicted on all 15 counts. Poland's Supreme National Tribunal stated that "the wholesale extermination was first directed at Jews and also at Poles and had all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term."


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The Vigenère cipher () is a method of encrypting alphabetic text by using a series of interwoven Caesar ciphers, based on the letters of a keyword. It employs a form of polyalphabetic substitution.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: First described by Giovan Battista Bellaso in 1553, the cipher is easy to understand and implement, but it resisted all attempts to break it until 1863, three centuries later. This earned it the description le chiffrage indéchiffrable (French for 'the indecipherable cipher'). Many people have tried to implement encryption schemes that are essentially Vigenère ciphers. In 1863, Friedrich Kasiski was the first to publish a general method of deciphering Vigenère ciphers.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In the 19th century, the scheme was misattributed to Blaise de Vigenère (1523–1596) and so acquired its present name.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The very first well-documented description of a polyalphabetic cipher was by Leon Battista Alberti around 1467 and used a metal cipher disk to switch between cipher alphabets. Alberti's system only switched alphabets after several words, and switches were indicated by writing the letter of the corresponding alphabet in the ciphertext. Later, Johannes Trithemius, in his work "Polygraphiae" (which was completed in manuscript form in 1508 but first published in 1518), invented the tabula recta, a critical component of the Vigenère cipher. The Trithemius cipher, however, provided a progressive, rather rigid and predictable system for switching between cipher alphabets.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In 1586 Blaise de Vigenère published a type of polyalphabetic cipher called an autokey cipher – because its key is based on the original plaintext – before the court of Henry III of France. The cipher now known as the Vigenère cipher, however, is that originally described by Giovan Battista Bellaso in his 1553 book "La cifra del Sig. Giovan Battista Bellaso". He built upon the tabula recta of Trithemius but added a repeating "countersign" (a key) to switch cipher alphabets every letter. Whereas Alberti and Trithemius used a fixed pattern of substitutions, Bellaso's scheme meant the pattern of substitutions could be easily changed, simply by selecting a new key. Keys were typically single words or short phrases, known to both parties in advance, or transmitted "out of band" along with the message. Bellaso's method thus required strong security for only the key. As it is relatively easy to secure a short key phrase, such as by a previous private conversation, Bellaso's system was considerably more secure.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In the 19th century, the invention of Bellaso's cipher was misattributed to Vigenère. David Kahn, in his book, "The Codebreakers" lamented this misattribution, saying that history had "ignored this important contribution and instead named a regressive and elementary cipher for him [Vigenère] though he had nothing to do with it".


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The Vigenère cipher gained a reputation for being exceptionally strong. Noted author and mathematician Charles Lutwidge Dodgson (Lewis Carroll) called the Vigenère cipher unbreakable in his 1868 piece "The Alphabet Cipher" in a children's magazine. In 1917, "Scientific American" described the Vigenère cipher as "impossible of translation". That reputation was not deserved. Charles Babbage is known to have broken a variant of the cipher as early as 1854 but did not publish his work. Kasiski entirely broke the cipher and published the technique in the 19th century, but even in the 16th century, some skilled cryptanalysts could occasionally break the cipher.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The Vigenère cipher is simple enough to be a field cipher if it is used in conjunction with cipher disks. The Confederate States of America, for example, used a brass cipher disk to implement the Vigenère cipher during the American Civil War. The Confederacy's messages were far from secret, and the Union regularly cracked its messages. Throughout the war, the Confederate leadership primarily relied upon three key phrases: "Manchester Bluff", "Complete Victory" and, as the war came to a close, "Come Retribution".


title: Vigenère cipher

text: A Vigenère cipher with a completely random (and non-reusable) key which is as long as the message becomes a one-time pad, a theoretically unbreakable cipher. Gilbert Vernam tried to repair the broken cipher (creating the Vernam–Vigenère cipher in 1918), but the technology he used was so cumbersome as to be impracticable.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In a Caesar cipher, each letter of the alphabet is shifted along some number of places. For example, in a Caesar cipher of shift 3, codice_1 would become codice_2, codice_3 would become codice_4, codice_5 would become codice_6 and so on. The Vigenère cipher has several Caesar ciphers in sequence with different shift values.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: To encrypt, a table of alphabets can be used, termed a "tabula recta", "Vigenère square" or "Vigenère table". It has the alphabet written out 26 times in different rows, each alphabet shifted cyclically to the left compared to the previous alphabet, corresponding to the 26 possible Caesar ciphers. At different points in the encryption process, the cipher uses a different alphabet from one of the rows. The alphabet used at each point depends on a repeating keyword.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The person sending the message chooses a keyword and repeats it until it matches the length of the plaintext, for example, the keyword "LEMON":


title: Vigenère cipher

text: Each row starts with a key letter. The rest of the row holds the letters A to Z (in shifted order). Although there are 26 key rows shown, a code will use only as many keys (different alphabets) as there are unique letters in the key string, here just 5 keys: {L, E, M, O, N}. For successive letters of the message, successive letters of the key string will be taken and each message letter enciphered by using its corresponding key row. The next letter of the key is chosen, and that row is gone along to find the column heading that matches the message character. The letter at the intersection of [key-row, msg-col] is the enciphered letter.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: For example, the first letter of the plaintext, codice_1, is paired with codice_10, the first letter of the key. Therefore, row codice_11 and column codice_10 of the Vigenère square are used, namely codice_10. Similarly, for the second letter of the plaintext, the second letter of the key is used. The letter at row codice_14 and column codice_4 is codice_16. The rest of the plaintext is enciphered in a similar fashion:


title: Vigenère cipher

text: Decryption is performed by going to the row in the table corresponding to the key, finding the position of the ciphertext letter in that row and then using the column's label as the plaintext. For example, in row codice_10 (from codice_18), the ciphertext codice_10 appears in column codice_11, so codice_1 is the first plaintext letter. Next, in row codice_4 (from codice_23), the ciphertext codice_16 is located in column codice_14. Thus codice_26 is the second plaintext letter.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: Vigenère can also be described algebraically. If the letters codice_11–codice_28 are taken to be the numbers 0–25 (formula_1, formula_2, etc.), and addition is performed modulo 26, Vigenère encryption formula_3 using the key formula_4 can be written as


title: Vigenère cipher

text: in which formula_9 is the message, formula_10 is the ciphertext and formula_11 is the key obtained by repeating the keyword formula_12 times in which formula_13 is the keyword length.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: Thus, by using the previous example, to encrypt formula_1 with key letter formula_15 the calculation would result in formula_16.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: Therefore, to decrypt formula_18 with key letter formula_19, the calculation would result in formula_20.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In general, if formula_22 is the alphabet of length formula_23, and formula_13 is the length of key, Vigenère encryption and decryption can be written:


title: Vigenère cipher

text: formula_27 denotes the offset of the "i"-th character of the plaintext formula_28 in the alphabet formula_22. For example, by taking the 26 English characters as the alphabet formula_30, the offset of A is 0, the offset of B is 1 etc. formula_31 and formula_32 are similar.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The idea behind the Vigenère cipher, like all other polyalphabetic ciphers, is to disguise the plaintext letter frequency to interfere with a straightforward application of frequency analysis. For instance, if codice_29 is the most frequent letter in a ciphertext whose plaintext is in English, one might suspect that codice_29 corresponds to codice_31 since codice_31 is the most frequently used letter in English. However, by using the Vigenère cipher, codice_31 can be enciphered as different ciphertext letters at different points in the message, which defeats simple frequency analysis.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The primary weakness of the Vigenère cipher is the repeating nature of its key. If a cryptanalyst correctly guesses the key's length "n", the cipher text can be treated as "n" interleaved Caesar ciphers, which can easily be broken individually. The key length may be discovered by brute force testing each possible value of "n", or Kasiski examination and the Friedman test can help to determine the key length (see below: and ).


title: Vigenère cipher

text: In 1863, Friedrich Kasiski was the first to publish a successful general attack on the Vigenère cipher. Earlier attacks relied on knowledge of the plaintext or the use of a recognizable word as a key. Kasiski's method had no such dependencies. Although Kasiski was the first to publish an account of the attack, it is clear that others had been aware of it. In 1854, Charles Babbage was goaded into breaking the Vigenère cipher when John Hall Brock Thwaites submitted a "new" cipher to the Journal of the Society of the Arts. When Babbage showed that Thwaites' cipher was essentially just another recreation of the Vigenère cipher, Thwaites presented a challenge to Babbage: given an original text (from Shakespeare's "The Tempest": Act 1, Scene 2) and its enciphered version, he was to find the key words that Thwaites had used to encipher the original text. Babbage soon found the key words: "two" and "combined". Babbage then enciphered the same passage from Shakespeare using different key words and challenged Thwaites to find Babbage's key words. Babbage never explained the method that he used. Studies of Babbage's notes reveal that he had used the method later published by Kasiski and suggest that he had been using the method as early as 1846.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The Kasiski examination, also called the Kasiski test, takes advantage of the fact that repeated words are, by chance, sometimes encrypted using the same key letters, leading to repeated groups in the ciphertext. For example, consider the following encryption using the keyword codice_34:


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The distance between the repetitions of codice_35 is 16. If it is assumed that the repeated segments represent the same plaintext segments, that implies that the key is 16, 8, 4, 2, or 1 characters long. (All factors of the distance are possible key lengths; a key of length one is just a simple Caesar cipher, and its cryptanalysis is much easier.) Since key lengths 2 and 1 are unrealistically short, one needs to try only lengths 16, 8, and 4. Longer messages make the test more accurate because they usually contain more repeated ciphertext segments. The following ciphertext has two segments that are repeated:


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The distance between the repetitions of codice_36 is 18. If it is assumed that the repeated segments represent the same plaintext segments, that implies that the key is 18, 9, 6, 3, 2, or 1 characters long. The distance between the repetitions of codice_37 is 30 characters. That means that the key length could be 30, 15, 10, 6, 5, 3, 2, or 1 characters long. By taking the intersection of those sets, one could safely conclude that the most likely key length is 6 since 3, 2, and 1 are unrealistically short.


title: Vigenère cipher

text: The Friedman test (sometimes known as the kappa test) was invented during the 1920s by William F. Friedman, who used the index of coincidence, which measures the unevenness of the cipher letter frequencies to break the cipher. By knowing the probability formula_33 that any two randomly chosen source language letters are the same (around 0.067 for case-insensitive English) and the probability of a coincidence for a uniform random selection from the alphabet formula_34 ( = 0.0385 for English), the key length can be estimated as the following:


title: Vigenère cipher

text: in which "c" is the size of the alphabet (26 for English), "N" is the length of the text and "n" to "n" are the observed ciphertext letter frequencies, as integers.