title: Dandy

text: Albert Camus said in "L'Homme révolté" (1951) that: The dandy creates his own unity by aesthetic means. But it is an aesthetic of negation. "To live and die before a mirror": that according to Baudelaire, was the dandy's slogan. It is indeed a coherent slogan. The dandy is, by occupation, always in opposition. He can only exist by defiance . . . The dandy, therefore, is always compelled to astonish. Singularity is his vocation, excess his way to perfection. Perpetually incomplete, always on the fringe of things, he compels others to create him, while denying their values. He plays at life because he is unable to live it.


title: Dandy

text: The female counterpart is a quaintrelle, a woman who emphasizes a life of passion expressed through personal style, leisurely pastimes, charm, and cultivation of life's pleasures.


title: Dandy

text: In the 12th century, "cointerrels" (male) and "cointrelles" (female) emerged, based upon "coint", a word applied to things skillfully made, later indicating a person of beautiful dress and refined speech. By the 18th century, "coint" became "quaint", indicating elegant speech and beauty. Middle English dictionaries note "quaintrelle" as a beautifully dressed woman (or overly dressed), but do not include the favorable personality elements of grace and charm. The notion of a quaintrelle sharing the major philosophical components of refinement with dandies is a modern development that returns quaintrelles to their historic roots.


title: Dandy

text: Female dandies did overlap with male dandies for a brief period during the early 19th century when "dandy" had a derisive definition of "fop" or "over-the-top fellow"; the female equivalents were "dandyess" or "dandizette". Charles Dickens, in "All the Year Around" (1869) comments, "The dandies and dandizettes of 1819–20 must have been a strange race. "Dandizette" was a term applied to the feminine devotees to dress, and their absurdities were fully equal to those of the dandies." In 1819, "Charms of Dandyism", in three volumes, was published by Olivia Moreland, Chief of the Female Dandies; most likely one of many pseudonyms used by Thomas Ashe. Olivia Moreland may have existed, as Ashe did write several novels about living persons. Throughout the novel, dandyism is associated with "living in style". Later, as the word "dandy" evolved to denote refinement, it became applied solely to men. "Popular Culture and Performance in the Victorian City" (2003) notes this evolution in the latter 19th century: ". . . or "dandizette", although the term was increasingly reserved for men."


title: Dandy

text: The series featured the further adventures of the title character played by Peter Wyngarde who had first appeared in "Department S" (1969). In that series he was a dilettante, dandy, and author of a series of adventure novels, working as part of a team of investigators. In "Jason King" he had left that service to concentrate on writing the adventures of Mark Caine, who closely resembled Jason King in looks, manner, style, and personality. None of the other regular characters from "Department S" appeared in this series, although Department S itself is occasionally referred to in dialogue.


title: Jillian Bell

text: Jillian Leigh Bell (born April 25, 1984) is an American actress, comedian and screenwriter. She stars in the 2019 film "Brittany Runs a Marathon" and 2022's "I'm Totally Fine". She starred as Jillian Belk on "Workaholics", voiced the role of Violet Hart in "Bless the Harts" and had a recurring role as Dixie on the final season of "Eastbound & Down", and appeared in "22 Jump Street," "Fist Fight", and "Godmothered".


title: Jillian Bell

text: Bell was born and raised in Las Vegas, the daughter of Tanzy and Ron Bell. She is of Romanian descent through her maternal grandmother. Bell began to study improv at the age of eight. She graduated from Bishop Gorman High School in 2002. After high school, she moved to Los Angeles, and became a member of the Groundlings.


title: Jillian Bell

text: Bell is an alumnus of The Straitjacket Society in Los Angeles. She auditioned for "Saturday Night Live." Although she did not join the cast, she became a writer for the show in 2009 for its 35th season. The same year Bell appeared in an episode of "Curb Your Enthusiasm" as an assistant who wears revealing clothing at work.


title: Jillian Bell

text: In 2011, she began to play Jillian Belk on the Comedy Central series "Workaholics". Film director Paul Thomas Anderson noticed her in "Workaholics" and cast her in a small role in his 2012 film, "The Master" and yet again in another small role in his 2014 film, "Inherent Vice". She had a recurring role as Dixie in the fourth and final season of "Eastbound and Down". In 2014, she appeared in "22 Jump Street" alongside Jonah Hill and Channing Tatum. In 2015, she co-starred in "Goosebumps" and "The Night Before".


title: Jillian Bell

text: In January 2016, Comedy Central debuted a new series, "Idiotsitter", in which Bell portrays the constantly misbehaving adult daughter of wealthy parents. "Idiotsitter" was launched as a web series in early 2014, before being picked up in June 2014 by Comedy Central for network airing.


title: Jillian Bell

text: In 2010, Bell was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Series for her work in the writers' room on "Saturday Night Live".


title: Jillian Bell

text: In 2015, she was nominated for two MTV Movie Awards for Best Fight with Jonah Hill and Best Villain for her work on "22 Jump Street".


title: Jillian Bell

text: In 2019, she received the Fairbanks Award at the San Diego International Film Festival and the Next Wave Award at the Provincetown International Film Festival.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The 10mm Auto (10×25mm, official C.I.P. nomenclature: 10 mm Auto, official SAAMI nomenclature: 10mm Automatic) is a semi-automatic pistol cartridge introduced in 1983. Its design was adopted and later produced by ammunition manufacturer FFV Norma AB of Åmotfors, Sweden.


title: 10mm Auto

text: Although it was selected for service by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1989, in the aftermath of the 1986 FBI Miami shootout, the cartridge was later decommissioned (except by the Hostage Rescue Team and Special Weapons and Tactics Teams) after their Firearms Training Unit eventually concluded that its recoil was excessive in terms of training for average agents and police officers' competency of use and qualification, and that the pistols chambered for the cartridge were too large for some small-handed individuals. These issues led to the creation of and following replacement by a shorter version of the 10mm that exists today as the .40 S&W, and while the 10mm never attained the mainstream success of this compact variant, there is still an enthusiastic group of supporters and users, and as of 2007, in recent years has started to grow again in popularity.


title: 10mm Auto

text: When FFV Norma AB (now Norma Precision AB) designed the cartridge at the behest of Dornaus & Dixon Enterprises, Inc. for their Bren Ten pistol (a newly developed handgun with a design inspired by the CZ 75), the company decided to increase the power over Cooper's original concept. The resulting cartridge—which was introduced in 1983 and produced since—is very powerful, retaining the flat trajectory and high energy of a magnum revolver cartridge in a relatively short, versatile rimless cartridge for a semi-automatic pistol.


title: 10mm Auto

text: One of the first issues with its early acceptance as the result of quality problems as a result of rushed production to meet numerous (some even defaulted) pre-orders of the pistol it was originally—as well as then being only—chambered for: the Bren Ten. An example is the peculiar circumstances surrounding the pistol's distribution at its primary release, leading to a number of initial Bren Tens sent to dealers and customers without magazines (the magazines themselves had complications). The relatively high price of the Bren Ten compared to other pistols of the time (manufacturer's suggested retail price was $500 in 1986, the equivalent of $1,200 United States dollars in 2021) was another factor in its demise, and the company was eventually forced to declare bankruptcy, ceasing operations in 1986 after only three years of inconsistent, substandard production. Had it not been for Colt's Patent Fire Arms Manufacturing Company making the unexpected decision in 1987 to bring out their Delta Elite pistol (a 10mm Auto version of the M1911) and later, the FBI's adoption of the caliber in 1989, the cartridge might have sunk into obsolescence, becoming an obscure footnote in firearms history.


title: 10mm Auto

text: Due to media exposure in the television series "Miami Vice", where one of the lead protagonists had used the pistol as his primary signature weapon, demand for the Bren Ten increased after manufacturing ceased. In the succeeding five years, prices on the Standard Model rose to in excess of U.S. $1,400, and original magazines were selling for over U.S. $150.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The Federal Bureau of Investigation briefly field-tested the 10mm Auto using a M1911 pistol and a Thompson Model 1928 submachine gun before adopting the Smith & Wesson Model 1076 in 1990; a short-barreled version of the Model 1026 with its slide-mounted decock/firing pin block safety supplanted by only a frame-mounted decocker. A contract was signed with Heckler & Koch to produce a quantity of the specialized MP5 utilizing the cartridge, designated MP5/10 for use by their Hostage Rescue Team and Special Weapons and Tactics Teams. Since 1994, both units still field the weapon and caliber to this day.


title: 10mm Auto

text: During testing of the caliber in 1988, it was decided that the full-power commercial load of the 10mm Auto was the best available semi-automatic pistol cartridge for law enforcement usage, but it produced excessive recoil for most agents. Thereafter, experiments were carried out, and a specification for reduced-recoil ammunition was created. The requirement was later submitted to Federal Premium Ammunition for production and further review. This became known as the "10mm Lite", or "10mm FBI" load, remaining common from various manufacturers today. With some pistol reliability problems increasing in this lighter load, Smith & Wesson observed that a version of the 10mm case reduced to 22 millimeters in length from the original 25 mm could be made with the retained performance parameters of the "10mm Lite". This altered cartridge was named the .40 Smith & Wesson. The shorter case allowed use in pistols designed with similar dimensions to those chambered in 9mm Luger, with the advantage that smaller-handed shooters could now have smaller-frame semi-automatic handguns with near—or in some cases, exact—10mm performance. Colloquially called the "Forty Cal" and other synonyms, this innovation since became a common handgun cartridge among law enforcement agencies and civilians in the United States, while the parent 10mm Auto remains fairly popular. Armscor, Colt, Dan Wesson Firearms, Glock, Kimber Manufacturing, Nighthawk Custom, SIG Sauer, Smith & Wesson, Springfield Armory, Inc., STI International, and Tanfoglio still offer handguns in 10mm Auto. In 2015, SIG Sauer entered the 10mm marketplace with their P220 model chambered in 10mm. Ruger introduced a 10mm auto model to their popular SR1911 line in mid 2017, followed by their Blackhawk, Redhawk and 10mm GP100 Match Champion and Wiley Clapp models in 2018. The Springfield Armory XD-M series added a 10mm offering in late 2018. In November 2021, Smith & Wesson introduced 10mm Auto models in the M&P 2.0 series.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 406.40 mm (1 in 16 inches), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 9.91 mm (.390 in), Ø grooves = 10.17 mm (.4005 in), and land width = 3.05 mm (.120 in). A large or small pistol primer is used.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The Commission Internationale Permanente pour l'Epreuve des Armes à Feu Portatives (C.I.P.; Permanent International Commission for the Proof of Small Arms) rulings indicate a maximum pressure of . In C.I.P. regulated countries, every pistol/cartridge combination is required to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P. pressure to certify for sale to consumers.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI) maximum pressure limit for the 10mm Auto is set at .


title: 10mm Auto

text: At mid-range potential, the 10mm Auto produces energy higher than an average mainstream .357 Magnum. The 10mm is slightly less powerful than the .357 Magnum with high-performing commercially-available ammunition, or hand-loaded .357 magnums, and well below standard .41 Magnum rounds. The cartridge is considered to be high-velocity, giving it a less arcing flight path upon firing (also termed "flat-shooting") relative to other handgun cartridges. More powerful loadings can basically equal the highest performing .357 Magnum loads, and retain more kinetic energy at 100 yards than the .45 ACP has at the muzzle.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The 10mm outperforms the .40 S&W by for similar bullet weights when using available full-power loads, as opposed to the "10mm FBI" level loads still found in some ammunition catalogs. This result is due to the 10mm Auto's higher SAAMI pressure rating of , as opposed to for the .40 S&W, and the larger case capacity, which allows the use of heavier bullets and more smokeless powder.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The 10mm Auto is marketed for hunting, defensive, and tactical use and is one of the few semi-automatic, rimless cartridges that is legal for hunting white-tailed deer in many U.S. states. The round makes the "Major" power factor ranking in the International Practical Shooting Confederation, even in lighter loadings.


title: 10mm Auto

text: The FBI Hostage Rescue Team, Special Weapons and Tactics Teams, and various other law enforcement agencies continue to issue or authorize the use of 10mm, including: the Coconut Creek Police Department, Glasgow, Montana Police Department, Weimar Police Department, and the San Francisco Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) Police Department.


title: 10mm Auto

text: In military use, the government of Denmark has issued the Glock 20 to the "Slædepatruljen Sirius" (Sirius Sledge Patrol) headquartered in Daneborg, Northeast Greenland. The pistols were issued as a defense against polar bears which the unit encounters during patrols.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine, also known as meperidine and sold under the brand name Demerol among others, is a synthetic opioid pain medication of the phenylpiperidine class. Synthesized in 1938 as a potential anticholinergic agent by the German chemist Otto Eisleb, its analgesic properties were first recognized by Otto Schaumann while working for IG Farben, Germany. Pethidine is the prototype of a large family of analgesics including the pethidine 4-phenylpiperidines (piminodine, anileridine and others), the prodines (alphaprodine, MPPP, "etc."), bemidones (ketobemidone, etc.) and others more distant, including diphenoxylate and analogues.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is indicated for the treatment of moderate to severe pain, and is delivered as a hydrochloride salt in tablets, as a syrup, or by intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intravenous injection. For much of the 20th century, pethidine was the opioid of choice for many physicians; in 1975, 60% of doctors prescribed it for acute pain and 22% for chronic severe pain.


title: Pethidine

text: It was patented in 1937 and approved for medical use in 1943. Compared with morphine, pethidine was thought to be safer, carry a lower risk of addiction, and to be superior in treating the pain associated with biliary spasm or renal colic due to its putative anticholinergic effects. These were later discovered to be inaccurate assumptions, as it carries an equal risk of addiction, possesses no advantageous effects on biliary spasm or renal colic compared to other opioids, and due to its toxic metabolite, norpethidine, it is more toxic than other opioids—especially during long-term use. The norpethidine metabolite was found to have serotonergic effects, so pethidine could, unlike most opioids, contribute to serotonin syndrome.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is the most widely used opioid in labour and delivery but has fallen out of favour in some countries such as the United States in favour of other opioids, due to its potential drug interactions (especially with serotonergics) and its neurotoxic metabolite, norpethidine. It is still commonly used in the United Kingdom and New Zealand, and was the preferred opioid in the United Kingdom for use during labour, but has been superseded somewhat by diamorphine and other strong semi-synthetic opioids (e.g. hydromorphone) to avoid serotonin interactions since the mid-2000s. Pethidine is the preferred painkiller for diverticulitis, because it decreases intestinal intraluminal pressure.


title: Pethidine

text: Before 2003 it was on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system.


title: Pethidine

text: The adverse effects of pethidine administration are primarily those of the opioids as a class: nausea, vomiting, dizziness, diaphoresis, urinary retention, and constipation. Due to moderate stimulant effects mediated by pethidine's dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition, sedation is less likely compared to other opioids. Unlike other opioids, it does not cause miosis because of its anticholinergic properties. Overdose can cause muscle flaccidity, respiratory depression, obtundation, psychosis, cold and clammy skin, hypotension, and coma. A narcotic antagonist such as naloxone is indicated to reverse respiratory depression and other effects of pethidine. Serotonin syndrome has occurred in patients receiving concurrent antidepressant therapy with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) or monoamine oxidase inhibitors, or other medication types (see Interactions below). Convulsive seizures sometimes observed in patients receiving parenteral pethidine on a chronic basis have been attributed to accumulation in plasma of the metabolite norpethidine (normeperidine). Fatalities have occurred following either oral or intravenous pethidine overdose.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine has serious interactions that can be dangerous with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (e.g., furazolidone, isocarboxazid, moclobemide, phenelzine, procarbazine, selegiline, tranylcypromine). Such patients may suffer agitation, delirium, headache, convulsions, and/or hyperthermia. Fatal interactions have been reported including the death of Libby Zion. Seizures may develop when tramadol is given intravenously following, or with, pethidine. It can interact as well with SSRIs and other antidepressants, antiparkinson agents, migraine therapy, stimulants and other agents causing serotonin syndrome. It is thought to be caused by an increase in cerebral serotonin concentrations. It is probable that pethidine can also interact with a number of other medications, including muscle relaxants, benzodiazepines, and ethanol.


title: Pethidine

text: Like morphine, pethidine exerts its analgesic effects by acting as an agonist at the μ-opioid receptor.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is often employed in the treatment of postanesthetic shivering. The pharmacologic mechanism of this antishivering effect is not fully understood, but it may involve the stimulation of κ-opioid receptors.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine has structural similarities to atropine and other tropane alkaloids and may have some of their effects and side effects. In addition to these opioidergic and anticholinergic effects, it has local anesthetic activity related to its interactions with sodium ion channels.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine's apparent "in vitro" efficacy as an antispasmodic agent is due to its local anesthetic effects. It does not have antispasmodic effects "in vivo". Pethidine also has stimulant effects mediated by its inhibition of the dopamine transporter (DAT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET). Because of its DAT inhibitory action, pethidine will substitute for cocaine in animals trained to discriminate cocaine from saline.


title: Pethidine

text: Several analogs of pethidine such as 4-fluoropethidine have been synthesized that are potent inhibitors of the reuptake of the monoamine neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine via DAT and NET. It has also been associated with cases of serotonin syndrome, suggesting some interaction with serotonergic neurons, but the relationship has not been definitively demonstrated.


title: Pethidine

text: It is more lipid-soluble than morphine, resulting in a faster onset of action. Its duration of clinical effect is 120–150 minutes, although it is typically administered at 4– to 6-hour intervals. Pethidine has been shown to be less effective than morphine, diamorphine, or hydromorphone at easing severe pain, or pain associated with movement or coughing.


title: Pethidine

text: Like other opioid drugs, pethidine has the potential to cause physical dependence or addiction. It may be more likely to be abused than other prescription opioids, perhaps because of its rapid onset of action. A study which compared 75 mg pethidine administered via intravenous injection (IV) and 100 mg administered orally (PO) to 10 mg oxycodone (IV) and 10 mg (PO), 10 mg morphine (IV) and 20 mg (PO), 2 mg hydromorphone (IV) and 4 mg (PO), and placebo (C) in the subject's self-reported subjective effects such as 'drug-liking' (how many of the subjects enjoyed or not, the experience; if yes, what was the most enjoyable part and why?, etc.) and how eagerly did subject 'want to re-experience it', and after IV doses were administered, pethidine 75 mg second-highest rates of 'drug-liking', after morphine 10 mg. Descriptive adjectives for morphine by subjects were: “more sedating”, “more relaxing” and in comparison to the others, many subjects described that the experience was “more intense”. Pethidine followed, then hydromorphone, oxycodone and last was placebo. Upon oral administration, preference went from (greatest>least): oxycodone 10 mg>morphine 20 mg>hydromorphone 4 mg>pethidine 100 mg>placebo. The especially severe side effects unique to pethidine among opioids—serotonin syndrome, seizures, delirium, dysphoria, tremor—are primarily or entirely due to the action of its metabolite, norpethidine.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is quickly hydrolysed in the liver to pethidinic acid and is also demethylated to norpethidine, which has half the analgesic activity of pethidine but a longer elimination half-life (8–12 hours); accumulating with regular administration, or in kidney failure. Norpethidine is toxic and has convulsant and hallucinogenic effects. The toxic effects mediated by the metabolites cannot be countered with opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxone or naltrexone, and are probably primarily due to norpethidine's anticholinergic activity probably due to its structural similarity to atropine, though its pharmacology has not been thoroughly explored. The neurotoxicity of pethidine's metabolites is a unique feature of pethidine compared to other opioids. Pethidine's metabolites are further conjugated with glucuronic acid and excreted into the urine.


title: Pethidine

text: In data from the U.S. Drug Abuse Warning Network, mentions of hazardous or harmful use of pethidine declined between 1997 and 2002, in contrast to increases for fentanyl, hydromorphone, morphine, and oxycodone. The number of dosage units of pethidine reported lost or stolen in the U.S. increased 16.2% between 2000 and 2003, from 32,447 to 37,687.


title: Pethidine

text: This article uses the terms "hazardous use", "harmful use", and "dependence" in accordance with "Lexicon of alcohol and drug" terms, published by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 1994. In WHO usage, the first two terms replace the term "abuse" and the third term replaces the term "addiction".


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine can be produced in a two-step synthesis. The first step is reaction of benzyl cyanide and chlormethine in the presence of sodium amide to form a piperidine ring. The nitrile is then converted to an ester.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is in Schedule II of the Controlled Substances Act 1970 of the United States as a Narcotic with ACSCN 9230 with a 6250 kilo aggregate manufacturing quota as of 2014. The free base conversion ratio for salts includes 0.87 for the hydrochloride and 0.84 for the hydrobromide. The A, B, and C intermediates in production of pethidine are also controlled, with ACSCN being 9232 for A (with a 6 gram quota) and 9233 being B (quota of 11 grams) and 9234 being C (6 gram quota). It is listed under the Single Convention for the Control of Narcotic Substances 1961 and is controlled in most countries in the same fashion as is morphine.


title: Pethidine

text: In Raymond Chandler's novel "The Long Goodbye" (1953), in response to "How is Mrs. Wade?", police Lieutenant Bernie Ohls answers, "Too relaxed. She must have grabbed some pills. There's a dozen kinds up there -- even demerol. That's bad stuff."


title: Pethidine

text: Danish writer Tove Ditlevsen suffered a lifelong addiction to pethidine since her husband, a dodgy doctor, had injected her a dose as a painkiller.


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is referenced by its brand name Demerol in the song "Morphine" by singer Michael Jackson on his 1997 album "". Pethidine was one of several prescription drugs which Michael Jackson was addicted to at the time and the singer describes this in the lyrics of the song with phrases such as "Relax/This won't hurt you" and "Yesterday you had his trust/Today he's taking twice as much".


title: Pethidine

text: Pethidine is referenced in the television show "Broadchurch", season 2, episode 3, as it was given to the character Beth after she has her baby.


title: Pethidine

text: In the 1987 Malayalam movie, "Amrutham Gamaya", Mohanlal's character, Dr. P.K. Haridas injects pethidine in himself and gets addicted to it.


title: Pethidine

text: In William Gibson's book "Neuromancer", one of the characters say '"A mixture of cocaine and meperidine, yes." The Armenian went back to the conversation he was having with the Sanyo. "Demerol, they used to call that," said the Finn.'


title: Pethidine

text: South Carolina-based modern rock group Crossfade mentions Demerol in the lyrics of their 2004 song, "Dead Skin".


title: Pethidine

text: In the episode "The Fight" of the TV show "Parks and Recreation", some characters become intoxicated on a mixed drink called Snake Juice. The character Ann (Rashida Jones), who is a nurse, asks, "What the hell is in Snake Juice? Demerol?"


title: Pethidine

text: In David Foster Wallace's book "Infinite Jest", one of the main characters, Don Gately, is a Demerol addict in recovery.


title: Tokusatsu

text: has origins in early Japanese theater, specifically in kabuki (with its action and fight scenes) and in , which utilized some of the earliest forms of special effects, specifically puppetry. Modern , however, did not begin to take shape until the late 1940s, with the conceptual and creative birth of Godzilla, one of the most famous monsters () of all time.


title: Tokusatsu

text: The special-effects artist Eiji Tsuburaya and the director Ishirō Honda became the driving forces behind 1954's "Godzilla". Tsuburaya, inspired by the American film "King Kong", formulated many of the techniques that would become staples of the genre, such as so-called suitmation—the use of a human actor in a costume to play a giant monster—combined with the use of miniatures and scaled-down city sets. "Godzilla" forever changed the landscape of Japanese science fiction, fantasy, and cinema by creating a uniquely Japanese vision in a genre typically dominated by American cinema.


title: Tokusatsu

text: "Godzilla" kickstarted the genre in Japan, creating the "Monster Boom", which remained extremely popular for several decades, with characters such as the aforementioned Godzilla, Gamera and King Ghidorah leading the market. However, in 1957 Shintoho produced the first film serial featuring the superhero character Super Giant, signaling a shift in popularity that favored masked heroes over giant monsters called the "Henshin Boom" started by Kamen Rider in 1971, though giant monsters, aliens and humanoid creatures dubbed remained an integral part of the genre. Along with the anime "Astro Boy", the "Super Giant" serials had a profound effect on the world of . The following year, "Moonlight Mask" premiered, the first of numerous televised superhero dramas that would make up one of the most popular subgenres. Created by Kōhan Kawauchi, he followed up its success with the superhero shows "Seven Color Mask" (1959) and "Messenger of Allah" (1960), both starring a young Sonny Chiba.


title: Tokusatsu

text: These original productions preceded the first color-television series, "Ambassador Magma" and "Ultraman", which heralded the Kyodai Hero subgenre, wherein a regular-sized protagonist grows to larger proportions to fight equally large monsters. Popular superhero shows in the 1970s included "Kamen Rider" (1971), "Warrior of Love Rainbowman" (1972), "Super Sentai" (1975, trademarked in 1979) and "Spider-Man" (1978).


title: Tokusatsu

text: is the term used to describe the process in movies and television programs used to portray a monster using suit acting. The exact origin of the term remains unknown. At the least, it was used to promote the Godzilla suit from "The Return of Godzilla".


title: Tokusatsu

text: productions primarily feature monsters, or . Such series include "Ultraman", the "Godzilla" film series, the "Gamera" series, the "Daimajin" series, and films such as "Mothra", "The War of the Gargantuas", and .


title: Tokusatsu

text: Since about 1960, several long-running television-series have combined various other themes. Tsuburaya Productions has had the "Ultraman Series" starting with "Ultra Q" and "Ultraman" in 1966. P Productions began their foray into in 1966 with the series "Ambassador Magma". They also had involvement in the "Lion-Maru" series which concluded in November 2006.


title: Tokusatsu

text: Toei Company has several series that fall under their "Toei Superheroes" category of programming, starting in 1958 with the film series, "Moonlight Mask". Then, they produced several other long running series, starting with Shotaro Ishinomori's "Kamen Rider Series" in 1971, the "Super Sentai" series in 1975, the "Metal Hero Series" in 1982, and the "Toei Fushigi Comedy Series" in 1981. Toei also produced several other television series based on Ishinomori's works, including "Android Kikaider" and "Kikaider 01", "Robot Detective", "Inazuman" and "Inazuman Flash", and "Kaiketsu Zubat". Toei was also involved in the "Spider-Man" television series, which influenced their subsequent Super Sentai series. In 2003, TV Asahi began broadcasting the "Super Sentai" and "Kamen Rider" series in a one-hour block airing each week known as "Super Hero Time". Toho, the creators of Godzilla, also had their hands in creating the "Chouseishin Series" of programs from 2003 to 2006 and the "Zone Fighter" franchise.


title: Tokusatsu

text: In 2006, Keita Amemiya's "Garo", a mature late-night tokusatsu drama was released, starting a franchise composed of several television series and films. Other mature late-night series followed, including a revival of "Lion-Maru" in "Lion-Maru G", the "Daimajin Kanon" television series (based on the "Daimajin" film series), and "Shougeki Gouraigan!!" (also created by Amemiya).


title: Tokusatsu

text: Various movies classified as can include disaster movies and science fiction films. These include (1956), , , , , , , , , and .


title: Tokusatsu

text: Non-traditional films and television programs may not use conventional special effects or may not star human actors. Though suitmation typifies , some productions may use stop-motion to animate their monsters instead, for example "Majin Hunter Mitsurugi" in 1973. TV shows may use traditional techniques, but are cast with puppets or marionettes: "Uchuusen Silica" (1960); "Ginga Shonen Tai" (1963); "Kuchuu Toshi 008" (1969); and Go Nagai's "X Bomber" (1980). Some may employ animation in addition to its live-action components: Tsuburaya Productions' "Dinosaur Expedition Team Bornfree" (1976), "Dinosaur War Aizenborg" (1977) and "Pro-Wrestling Star Aztekaiser" (1976).


title: Tokusatsu

text: As the popularity of increased in Japan, a number of fan film projects have been produced over the years. Hideaki Anno, Yoshiyuki Sadamoto, Takami Akai, and Shinji Higuchi set up a fan-based group called Daicon Film, which they renamed Gainax in 1985 and turned into an animation studio. Besides anime sequences, they also produced a series of shorts parodying monster movies and superhero shows. These productions include "Swift Hero Noutenki" (1982), "Patriotic Squadron Dai-Nippon" (1983), "Return of Ultraman" (1983) and "The Eight-Headed Giant Serpent Strikes Back" (1985).


title: Tokusatsu

text: "Godzilla, King of the Monsters!" first appeared in English in 1956. Rather than a simple dub of the Japanese-language original, this work represented an entirely re-edited version which restructured the plot to incorporate a new character played by a native English-speaking actor, Raymond Burr. "Ultraman" gained popularity when United Artists dubbed it for American audiences in the 1960s.


title: Tokusatsu

text: In the 1990s, Haim Saban acquired the distribution rights for the "Super Sentai" series from Toei Company and combined the original Japanese action footage with new footage featuring American actors, resulting in the "Power Rangers" franchise which has continued since then into sequel TV series (with "Power Rangers Beast Morphers" premiering in 2019 and "Power Rangers Cosmic Fury" set to premier in 2023), comic books, video games, and three feature films, with a further cinematic universe planned. Following from the success of "Power Rangers", Saban acquired the rights to more of Toei's library, creating "VR Troopers" and "Big Bad Beetleborgs" from several Metal Hero Series shows and "Masked Rider" from Kamen Rider Series footage. DIC Entertainment joined this boom by acquiring the rights to "Gridman the Hyper Agent" and turning it into "Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad".


title: Tokusatsu

text: In 2002, 4Kids Entertainment bought the rights to "Ultraman Tiga", but simply produced a dub of the Japanese footage, broadcast on the Fox Box. And in 2009, Adness Entertainment took 2002's "Kamen Rider Ryuki" and turned it into "", which began broadcast on The CW4Kids in 2009. It won the first Daytime Emmy for "Outstanding Stunt Coordination" for its original scenes.


title: Tokusatsu

text: In 1961 England-based filmmakers produced the Godzilla-style film, "Gorgo", which used the same suitmation technique as the Godzilla films. That same year, Saga Studios in Denmark made another Godzilla-style giant monster film, "Reptilicus", bringing its monster to life using a marionette on a miniature set. In 1967, South Korea produced its monster movie titled "Yonggary". In 1975, Shaw Brothers produced a superhero film called "The Super Inframan", based on the huge success of Ultraman and Kamen Rider there. The film starred Danny Lee in the title role. Although there were several similar superhero productions in Hong Kong, "The Super Inframan" came first. With help from Japanese special effects artists under Sadamasa Arikawa, they also produced a Japanese-styled monster movie, "The Mighty Peking Man", in 1977.


title: Tokusatsu

text: Concurrent with their work on "Superhuman Samurai Syber-Squad", DIC attempted an original concept based on the popularity of "Power Rangers" in 1994's "Tattooed Teenage Alien Fighters from Beverly Hills". In 1998, a video from an attempted "Power Rangers"-styled adaptation of "Sailor Moon" surfaced, combining original footage of American actresses with original animated sequences.


title: Tokusatsu

text: Saban also attempted to make their own unique series entitled "Mystic Knights of Tir Na Nog", set in medieval Ireland and featured four, later five knights who transform using the power of the elements (for the most part) at they protected their kingdom from evil. Saban had also produced the live-action "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles" series "", which was known in the turtles' fandom for introducing a female turtle exclusive to that series called "Venus de Milo" and eliminating the fact that the other turtles were brothers. The show mostly featured actors in costumes, but featured similar choreographed fights like other shows.


title: Tokusatsu

text: In the 2000s, production companies in other East Asian countries began producing their own original -inspired television series: Thailand's "Sport Ranger" and South Korea's "Erexion" in 2006; the Philippines' "" (itself a sanctioned spinoff of Toei's "Space Sheriff Shaider") in 2007; China's "Armor Hero" () in 2008, "" () in 2012, "Metal Kaiser" (); and Indonesia's "Bima Satria Garuda" which began in 2013.


title: Tokusatsu

text: On July the 1st, 2019, Vietnam's Transform Studio co-operating with Dive Into Eden announced their own original series, "Mighty Guardian" (Vietnamese: ). The first season in the series is "" (Vietnamese: ), using Vietnamese Mythologies as the main concept.


title: Tokusatsu

text: Kaiju and films, notably "Warning from Space" (1956), sparked Stanley Kubrick's interest in science fiction films and influenced "" (1968). According to his biographer John Baxter, despite their "clumsy model sequences, the films were often well-photographed in colour ... and their dismal dialogue was delivered in well-designed and well-lit sets."


title: Tokusatsu

text: Steven Spielberg cited "Godzilla" as an inspiration for "Jurassic Park" (1993), specifically "Godzilla, King of the Monsters!" (1956), which he grew up watching. During its production, Spielberg described "Godzilla" as "the most masterful of all the dinosaur movies because it made you believe it was really happening." "Godzilla" also influenced the Spielberg film "Jaws" (1975).


title: Tokusatsu

text: Japanese movies also influenced one of the first video games, "Spacewar!" (1961), inspiring its science fiction theme. According to the game's programmer Martin Graetz, "we would be off to one of Boston's seedier cinemas to view the latest trash from Toho" as Japanese studios "churned out a steady diet of cinematic junk food of which Rodan and Godzilla are only the best-known examples."


title: Tokusatsu

text: In 2001, Buki X-1 Productions, a French fan-based production company, produced its own series, "Jushi Sentai France Five" (now called "Shin Kenjushi France Five"), a tribute to Toei's long running "Super Sentai" series. The low-budget television series "Kaiju Big Battel" directly parodies monster and Kyodai Hero films and series by immersing their own costumed characters in professional wrestling matches among cardboard buildings. In 2006, "Mighty Moshin' Emo Rangers" premiered on the internet as a "Power Rangers" spoof, but was quickly picked up by MTV UK for broadcast. In 2006, "Insector Sun", a low-budget tribute to "Kamen Rider" was produced by Brazilian fans.


title: Tokusatsu

text: Peyton Reed, the director of the "Ant-Man" films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, said that Ant-Man's costume design was influenced by two superheroes, Ultraman and Inframan.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonialism is the critical academic study of the cultural, political and economic legacy of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the impact of human control and exploitation of colonized people and their lands. More specifically, it is a critical theory analysis of the history, culture, literature, and discourse of (usually European) imperial power.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonialism encompasses a wide variety of approaches, and theoreticians may not always agree on a common set of definitions. On a simple level, through anthropological study, it may seek to build a better understanding of colonial life—based on the assumption that the colonial rulers are unreliable narrators—from the point of view of the colonized people. On a deeper level, postcolonialism examines the social and political power relationships that sustain colonialism and neocolonialism, including the social, political and cultural narratives surrounding the colonizer and the colonized. This approach may overlap with studies of contemporary history, and may also draw examples from anthropology, historiography, political science, philosophy, sociology, and human geography. Sub-disciplines of postcolonial studies examine the effects of colonial rule on the practice of feminism, anarchism, literature, and Christian thought.


title: Postcolonialism

text: At times, the term postcolonial studies may be preferred to "postcolonialism", as the ambiguous term "colonialism" could refer either to a system of government, or to an ideology or world view underlying that system. However, "postcolonialism" (i.e., postcolonial studies) generally represents an ideological response to colonialist thought, rather than simply describing a system that comes after colonialism, as the prefix "post-" may suggest. As such, postcolonialism may be thought of as a reaction to or departure from colonialism in the same way postmodernism is a reaction to modernism; the term "postcolonialism" itself is modeled on postmodernism, with which it shares certain concepts and methods.


title: Postcolonialism

text: As an epistemology (i.e., a study of knowledge, its nature, and verifiability), ethics (moral philosophy), and as a political science (i.e., in its concern with affairs of the citizenry), the field of postcolonialism addresses the matters that constitute the postcolonial identity of a decolonized people, which derives from:


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonialism is aimed at disempowering such theories (intellectual and linguistic, social and economic) by means of which colonialists "perceive," "understand," and "know" the world. Postcolonial theory thus establishes intellectual spaces for subaltern peoples to speak for themselves, in their own voices, and thus produce cultural discourses of philosophy, language, society, and economy, balancing the imbalanced us-and-them binary power-relationship between the colonist and the colonial subjects.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Colonialism was presented as "the extension of civilization," which ideologically justified the self-ascribed racial and cultural superiority of the Western world over the non-Western world. This concept was espoused by Ernest Renan in "La Réforme intellectuelle et morale" (1871), whereby imperial stewardship was thought to affect the intellectual and moral reformation of the coloured peoples of the lesser cultures of the world. That such a divinely established, natural harmony among the human races of the world would be possible, because everyone has an assigned cultural identity, a social place, and an economic role within an imperial colony. Thus:


title: Postcolonialism

text: From the mid- to the late-nineteenth century, such racialist group-identity language was the cultural common-currency justifying geopolitical competition amongst the European and American empires and meant to protect their over-extended economies. Especially in the colonization of the Far East and in the late-nineteenth century Scramble for Africa, the representation of a homogeneous European identity justified colonization. Hence, Belgium and Britain, and France and Germany proffered theories of national superiority that justified colonialism as delivering the light of civilization to unenlightened peoples. Notably, "la mission civilisatrice", the self-ascribed 'civilizing mission' of the French Empire, proposed that some races and cultures have a higher purpose in life, whereby the more powerful, more developed, and more civilized races have the right to colonize other peoples, in service to the noble idea of "civilization" and its economic benefits.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonial theory holds that decolonized people develop a postcolonial identity that is based on cultural interactions between different identities (cultural, national, and ethnic as well as gender and class based) which are assigned varying degrees of social power by the colonial society. In postcolonial literature, the anti-conquest narrative analyzes the identity politics that are the social and cultural perspectives of the subaltern colonial subjects—their creative resistance to the culture of the colonizer; how such cultural resistance complicated the establishment of a colonial society; how the colonizers developed their postcolonial identity; and how neocolonialism actively employs the 'us-and-them' binary social relation to view the non-Western world as inhabited by 'the other'.


title: Postcolonialism

text: As an example, consider how neocolonial discourse of geopolitical homogeneity often includes the relegating of decolonized peoples, their cultures, and their countries, to an imaginary place, such as "the Third World." Oftentimes the term "the third World" is over-inclusive: it refers vaguely to large geographic areas comprising several continents and seas, i.e. Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. Rather than providing a clear or complete description of the area it supposedly refers to, it instead erases distinctions and identities of the groups it claims to represent. A postcolonial critique of this term would analyze the self-justifying usage of such a term, the discourse it occurs within, as well as the philosophical and political functions the language may have. Postcolonial critiques of homogeneous concepts such as the "Arabs," the "First World," "Christendom," and the "Ummah", often aim to show how such language actually does not represent the groups supposedly identified. Such terminology often fails to adequately describe the heterogeneous peoples, cultures, and geography that make them up. Accurate descriptions of the world's peoples, places, and things require nuanced and accurate terms. By including everyone under the Third World concept, it ignores the why those regions or countries are considered Third World and who is responsible.


title: Postcolonialism

text: As a term in contemporary history, "postcolonialism" occasionally is applied, temporally, to denote the immediate time after the period during which imperial powers retreated from their colonial territories. Such is believed to be a problematic application of the term, as the immediate, historical, political time is not included in the categories of critical identity-discourse, which deals with over-inclusive terms of cultural representation, which are abrogated and replaced by postcolonial criticism. As such, the terms "postcolonial" and "postcolonialism" denote aspects of the subject matter that indicate that the decolonized world is an intellectual space "of contradictions, of half-finished processes, of confusions, of hybridity, and of liminalities." As in most critical theory-based research, the lack of clarity in the definition of the subject matter coupled with an open claim to normativity makes criticism of postcolonial discourse problematic, reasserting its dogmatic or ideological status.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "Post-Colonial Drama: Theory, Practice, Politics" (1996), Helen Gilbert and Joanne Tompkins clarify the denotational functions, among which:


title: Postcolonialism

text: The term "post-colonialism" is also applied to denote the Mother Country's neocolonial control of the decolonized country, affected by the legalistic continuation of the economic, cultural, and linguistic power relationships that controlled the colonial politics of knowledge (i.e., the generation, production, and distribution of knowledge) about the colonized peoples of the non-Western world. The cultural and religious assumptions of colonialist logic remain active practices in contemporary society and are the basis of the Mother Country's neocolonial attitude towards her former colonial subjects—an economical source of labour and raw materials. It acts as a non interchangeable term that links the independent country to its colonizer, depriving countries of their Independence, decades after building their own identities.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "The Wretched of the Earth" (1961), psychiatrist and philosopher Frantz Fanon analyzes and medically describes the nature of colonialism as essentially destructive. Its societal effects—the imposition of a subjugating colonial identity—is harmful to the mental health of the native peoples who were subjugated into colonies. Fanon writes that the ideological essence of colonialism is the systematic denial of "all attributes of humanity" of the colonized people. Such dehumanization is achieved with physical and mental violence, by which the colonist means to inculcate a servile mentality upon the natives.


title: Postcolonialism

text: For Fanon, the natives must violently resist colonial subjugation. Hence, Fanon describes violent resistance to colonialism as a mentally cathartic practise, which purges colonial servility from the native psyche, and restores self-respect to the subjugated. Thus, Fanon actively supported and participated in the Algerian Revolution (1954–62) for independence from France as a member and representative of the "Front de Libération Nationale".


title: Postcolonialism

text: As postcolonial praxis, Fanon's mental-health analyses of colonialism and imperialism, and the supporting economic theories, were partly derived from the essay "Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism" (1916), wherein Vladimir Lenin described colonial imperialism as an advanced form of capitalism, desperate for growth at all costs, and so requires more and more human exploitation to ensure continually consistent profit-for-investment.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Another key book that predates postcolonial theories is Fanon's "Black Skins, White Masks". In this book, Fanon discusses the logic of colonial rule from the perspective of the existential experience of racialized subjectivity. Fanon treats colonialism as a "total project" which rules every aspect of colonized peoples and their reality. Fanon reflects on colonialism, language, and racism and asserts that to speak a language is to adopt a civilization and to participate in the world of that language. His ideas show the influence of French and German philosophy, since existentialism, phenomenology, and hermeneutics claim that language, subjectivity, and reality are interrelated. However, the colonial situation presents a paradox: when colonial beings are forced to adopt and speak an imposed language which is not their own, they adopt and participate in the world and civilization of the colonized. This language results from centuries of colonial domination which is aimed at eliminating other expressive forms in order to reflect the world of the colonizer. As a consequence, when colonial beings speak as the colonized, they participate in their own oppression and the very structures of alienation are reflected in all aspects of their adopted language.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Cultural critic Edward Said is considered by E. San Juan, Jr. as "the originator and inspiring patron-saint of postcolonial theory and discourse" due to his interpretation of the theory of orientalism explained in his 1978 book, " Orientalism". To describe the us-and-them "binary social relation" with which Western Europe intellectually divided the world—into the "Occident" and the "Orient"—Said developed the denotations and connotations of the term "orientalism" (an art-history term for Western depictions and the study of the Orient). Said's concept (which he also termed "orientalism") is that the cultural representations generated with the us-and-them binary relation are social constructs, which are mutually constitutive and cannot exist independent of each other, because each exists on account of and for the other.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Notably, "the West" created the cultural concept of "the East," which according to Said allowed the Europeans to suppress the peoples of the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, and of Asia in general, from expressing and representing themselves as discrete peoples and cultures. Orientalism thus conflated and reduced the non-Western world into the homogeneous cultural entity known as "the East." Therefore, in service to the colonial type of imperialism, the us-and-them orientalist paradigm allowed European scholars to represent the Oriental World as inferior and backward, irrational and wild, as opposed to a Western Europe that was superior and progressive, rational and civil—the opposite of the Oriental Other.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Reviewing Said's "Orientalism" (1978), A. Madhavan (1993) says that "Said's passionate thesis in that book, now an 'almost canonical study', represented Orientalism as a 'style of thought' based on the antinomy of East and West in their world-views, and also as a 'corporate institution' for dealing with the Orient."


title: Postcolonialism

text: In concordance with philosopher Michel Foucault, Said established that power and knowledge are the inseparable components of the intellectual binary relationship with which Occidentals claim "knowledge of the Orient." That the applied power of such cultural knowledge allowed Europeans to rename, re-define, and thereby control Oriental peoples, places, and things, into imperial colonies. The power-knowledge binary relation is conceptually essential to identify and understand colonialism in general, and European colonialism in particular. Hence,


title: Postcolonialism

text: Nonetheless, critics of the homogeneous "Occident–Orient" binary social relation, say that Orientalism is of limited descriptive capability and practical application, and propose instead that there are variants of Orientalism that apply to Africa and to Latin America. Said response was that the European West applied Orientalism as a "homogeneous" form of The Other, in order to facilitate the formation of the cohesive, collective European cultural identity denoted by the term "The West."


title: Postcolonialism

text: With this described binary logic, the West generally constructs the Orient subconsciously as its alter ego. Therefore, descriptions of the Orient by the Occident lack material attributes, grounded within the land. This inventive or imaginative interpretation subscribes female characteristics to the Orient and plays into fantasies that are inherent within the West's alter ego. It should be understood that this process draws creativity, amounting an entire domain and discourse.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "Orientalism" (p. 6), Said mentions the production of "philology [the study of the history of languages], lexicography [dictionary making], history, biology, political and economic theory, novel-writing and lyric poetry." Therefore, there is an entire industry that exploits the Orient for its own subjective purposes that lack a native and intimate understanding. Such industries become institutionalized and eventually become a resource for manifest Orientalism or a compilation of misinformation about the Orient.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In establishing the Postcolonial definition of the term "subaltern", the philosopher and theoretician Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak cautioned against assigning an over-broad connotation. She argues:


title: Postcolonialism

text: Spivak also introduced the terms "essentialism" and "strategic essentialism" to describe the social functions of postcolonialism.


title: Postcolonialism

text: "Essentialism" denotes the perceptual dangers inherent to reviving subaltern voices in ways that might (over) simplify the cultural identity of heterogeneous social groups and, thereby, create stereotyped representations of the different identities of the people who compose a given social group. "Strategic essentialism", on the other hand, denotes a temporary, essential group-identity used in the praxis of discourse among peoples. Furthermore, essentialism can occasionally be applied—by the so-described people—to facilitate the subaltern's communication in being heeded, heard, and understood, because strategic essentialism (a fixed and established subaltern identity) is more readily grasped, and accepted, by the popular majority, in the course of inter-group discourse. The important distinction, between the terms, is that strategic essentialism does not ignore the diversity of identities (cultural and ethnic) in a social group, but that, in its practical function, strategic essentialism temporarily minimizes inter-group diversity to pragmatically support the essential group-identity.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Spivak developed and applied Foucault's term "epistemic violence" to describe the destruction of non-Western ways of perceiving the world and the resultant dominance of the Western ways of perceiving the world. Conceptually, epistemic violence specifically relates to women, whereby the "Subaltern [woman] must always be caught in translation, never [allowed to be] truly expressing herself," because the colonial power's destruction of her culture pushed to the social margins her non–Western ways of perceiving, understanding, and knowing the world.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In June of the year 1600, the Afro–Iberian woman Francisca de Figueroa requested from the King of Spain his permission for her to emigrate from Europe to New Granada, and reunite with her daughter, Juana de Figueroa. As a subaltern woman, Francisca repressed her native African language, and spoke her request in Peninsular Spanish, the official language of Colonial Latin America. As a subaltern woman, she applied to her voice the Spanish cultural filters of sexism, Christian monotheism, and servile language, in addressing her colonial master:


title: Postcolonialism

text: Moreover, Spivak further cautioned against ignoring subaltern peoples as "cultural Others", and said that the West could progress—beyond the colonial perspective—by means of introspective self-criticism of the basic ideas and investigative methods that establish a culturally superior West studying the culturally inferior non–Western peoples. Hence, the integration of the subaltern voice to the intellectual spaces of social studies is problematic, because of the unrealistic opposition to the idea of studying "Others"; Spivak rejected such an anti-intellectual stance by social scientists, and about them said that "to refuse to represent a cultural Other is salving your conscience…allowing you not to do any homework." Moreover, postcolonial studies also reject the colonial cultural depiction of subaltern peoples as hollow mimics of the European colonists and their Western ways; and rejects the depiction of subaltern peoples as the passive recipient-vessels of the imperial and colonial power of the Mother Country. Consequent to Foucault's philosophic model of the binary relationship of power and knowledge, scholars from the Subaltern Studies Collective, proposed that anti-colonial resistance always counters every exercise of colonial power.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "The Location of Culture" (1994), theoretician Homi K. Bhabha argues that viewing the human world as composed of separate and unequal cultures, rather than as an integral human world, perpetuates the belief in the existence of imaginary peoples and places—"Christendom" and the "Islamic World", "First World," "Second World," and the "Third World." To counter such linguistic and sociological reductionism, postcolonial praxis establishes the philosophic value of hybrid intellectual spaces, wherein ambiguity abrogates truth and authenticity; thereby, "hybridity" is the philosophic condition that most substantively challenges the ideological validity of colonialism.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In 1997, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of India's Independence, "" was an important exhibition curated by R. Siva Kumar at the National Gallery of Modern Art. In his catalogue essay, Kumar introduced the term Contextual Modernism, which later emerged as a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of Indian art, specifically the works of Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ramkinkar Baij, and Benode Behari Mukherjee.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In the post-colonial history of art, this marked the departure from Eurocentric unilateral idea of modernism to alternative context sensitive "modernisms".


title: Postcolonialism

text: Several terms including Paul Gilroy's "counterculture of modernity" and Tani E. Barlow's "Colonial modernity" have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in non-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that 'Contextual Modernism' is a more suited term because "the colonial in "colonial modernity" does not accommodate the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan's artist teachers' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to correct the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterized imperial Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, equally problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms."


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "Provincializing Europe" (2000), Dipesh Chakrabarty charts the subaltern history of the Indian struggle for independence, and counters Eurocentric, Western scholarship about non-Western peoples and cultures, by proposing that Western Europe simply be considered as culturally equal to the other cultures of the world; that is, as "one region among many" in human geography.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Derek Gregory argues the long trajectory through history of British and American colonization is an ongoing process still happening today. In "The Colonial Present", Gregory traces connections between the geopolitics of events happening in modern-day Afghanistan, Palestine, and Iraq and links it back to the us-and-them binary relation between the Western and Eastern world. Building upon the ideas of the other and Said's work on orientalism, Gregory critiques the economic policy, military apparatus, and transnational corporations as vehicles driving present-day colonialism. Emphasizing ideas of discussing ideas around colonialism in the present tense, Gregory utilizes modern events such as the September 11 attacks to tell spatial stories around the colonial behavior happening due to the War on Terror.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Acheraiou argues that colonialism was a capitalist venture moved by appropriation and plundering of foreign lands and was supported by military force and a discourse that legitimized violence in the name of progress and a universal civilizing mission. This discourse is complex and multi-faceted. It was elaborated in the 19th century by colonial ideologues such as Ernest Renan and Arthur de Gobineau, but its roots reach far back in history.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In "Rethinking Postcolonialism: Colonialist Discourse in Modern Literature and the Legacy of Classical Writers," Acheraiou discusses the history of colonialist discourse and traces its spirit to ancient Greece, including Europe's claim to racial supremacy and right to rule over non-Europeans harboured by Renan and other 19th-century colonial ideologues. He argues that modern colonial representations of the colonized as "inferior," "stagnant," and "degenerate" were borrowed from Greek and Latin authors like Lysias (440–380 BC), Isocrates (436–338 BC), Plato (427–327 BC), Aristotle (384–322 BC), Cicero (106–43 BC), and Sallust (86–34 BC), who all considered their racial others—the Persians, Scythians, Egyptians as "backward," "inferior," and "effeminate."


title: Postcolonialism

text: Among these ancient writers Aristotle is the one who articulated more thoroughly these ancient racial assumptions, which served as a source of inspiration for modern colonists. In "The Politics," he established a racial classification and ranked the Greeks superior to the rest. He considered them as an ideal race to rule over Asian and other 'barbarian' peoples, for they knew how to blend the spirit of the European "war-like races" with Asiatic "intelligence" and "competence."


title: Postcolonialism

text: Ancient Rome was a source of admiration in Europe since the enlightenment. In France, Voltaire (1694-1778) was one of the most fervent admirers of Rome. He regarded highly the Roman republican values of rationality, democracy, order and justice. In early-18th century Britain, it was poets and politicians like Joseph Addison (1672–1719) and Richard Glover (1712 –1785) who were vocal advocates of these ancient republican values.


title: Postcolonialism

text: It was in the mid-18th century that ancient Greece became a source of admiration among the French and British. This enthusiasm gained prominence in the late-eighteenth century. It was spurred by German Hellenist scholars and English romantic poets, who regarded ancient Greece as the matrix of Western civilization and a model of beauty and democracy. These included: Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768), Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835), and Goethe (1749–1832), Lord Byron (1788–1824), Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772–1834), Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792–1822), and John Keats (1795–1821).


title: Postcolonialism

text: In the 19th century, when Europe began to expand across the globe and establish colonies, ancient Greece and Rome were used as a source of empowerment and justification to Western civilizing mission. At this period, many French and British imperial ideologues identified strongly with the ancient empires and invoked ancient Greece and Rome to justify the colonial civilizing project. They urged European colonizers to emulate these "ideal" classical conquerors, whom they regarded as "universal instructors."


title: Postcolonialism

text: For Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859), an ardent and influential advocate of la "Grande France," the classical empires were model conquerors to imitate. He advised the French colonists in Algeria to follow the ancient imperial example. In 1841, he stated:[W]hat matters most when we want to set up and develop a colony is to make sure that those who arrive in it are as less estranged as possible, that these newcomers meet a perfect image of their homeland...the thousand colonies that the Greeks founded on the Mediterranean coasts were all exact copies of the Greek cities on which they had been modelled. The Romans established in almost all parts of the globe known to them municipalities which were no more than miniature Romes. Among modern colonizers, the English did the same. Who can prevent us from emulating these European peoples?.The Greeks and Romans were deemed exemplary conquerors and "heuristic teachers," whose lessons were invaluable for modern colonists ideologues. John-Robert Seeley (1834-1895), a history professor at Cambridge and proponent of imperialism stated in a rhetoric which echoed that of Renan that the role of the British Empire was 'similar to that of Rome, in which we hold the position of not merely of ruling but of an educating and civilizing race."


title: Postcolonialism

text: The incorporation of ancient concepts and racial and cultural assumptions into modern imperial ideology bolstered colonial claims to supremacy and right to colonize non-Europeans. Because of these numerous ramifications between ancient representations and modern colonial rhetoric, 19th century's colonialist discourse acquires a "multi-layered" or "palimpsestic" structure. It forms a "historical, ideological and narcissistic continuum," in which modern theories of domination feed upon and blend with "ancient myths of supremacy and grandeur."


title: Postcolonialism

text: As a literary theory, postcolonialism deals with the literatures produced by the peoples who once were colonized by the European imperial powers (e.g. Britain, France, and Spain) and the literatures of the decolonized countries engaged in contemporary, postcolonial arrangements (e.g. Organisation internationale de la Francophonie and the Commonwealth of Nations) with their former mother countries.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonial literary criticism comprehends the literatures written by the colonizer and the colonized, wherein the subject matter includes portraits of the colonized peoples and their lives as imperial subjects. In Dutch literature, the Indies Literature includes the colonial and postcolonial genres, which examine and analyze the formation of a postcolonial identity, and the postcolonial culture produced by the diaspora of the Indo-European peoples, the Eurasian folk who originated from Indonesia; the peoples who were the colony of the Dutch East Indies; in the literature, the notable author is Tjalie Robinson.


title: Postcolonialism

text: "Waiting for the Barbarians" (1980) by J. M. Coetzee depicts the unfair and inhuman situation of people dominated by settlers.


title: Postcolonialism

text: To perpetuate and facilitate control of the colonial enterprise, some colonized people, especially from among the subaltern peoples of the British Empire, were sent to attend university in the Imperial Motherland; they were to become the native-born, but Europeanised, ruling class of colonial satraps. Yet, after decolonization, their bicultural educations originated postcolonial criticism of empire and colonialism, and of the representations of the colonist and the colonized. In the late 20th century, after the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, the constituent Soviet Socialist Republics became the literary subjects of postcolonial criticism, wherein the writers dealt with the legacies (cultural, social, economic) of the Russification of their peoples, countries, and cultures in service to Greater Russia.


title: Postcolonialism

text: The first category of literature presents and analyzes the internal challenges inherent to determining an ethnic identity in a decolonized nation.


title: Postcolonialism

text: The second category of literature presents and analyzes the degeneration of civic and nationalist unities consequent to ethnic parochialism, usually manifested as the demagoguery of "protecting the nation," a variant of the us-and-them binary social relation. Civic and national unity degenerate when a patriarchal régime unilaterally defines what is and what is not "the national culture" of the decolonized country: the nation-state collapses, either into communal movements, espousing grand political goals for the postcolonial nation; or into ethnically mixed communal movements, espousing political separatism, as occurred in decolonized Rwanda, the Sudan, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; thus the postcolonial extremes against which Frantz Fanon warned in 1961.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In the essays "Overstating the Arab State" (2001) by Nazih Ayubi, and "Is Jordan Palestine?" (2003) by Raphael Israeli, the authors deal with the psychologically-fragmented postcolonial identity, as determined by the effects (political and social, cultural and economic) of Western colonialism in the Middle East. As such, the fragmented national identity remains a characteristic of such societies, consequence of the imperially convenient, but arbitrary, colonial boundaries (geographic and cultural) demarcated by the Europeans, with which they ignored the tribal and clan relations that determined the geographic borders of the Middle East countries, before the arrival of European imperialists. Hence, the postcolonial literature about the Middle East examines and analyzes the Western discourses about identity formation, the existence and inconsistent nature of a postcolonial national-identity among the peoples of the contemporary Middle East.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Independence and the end of colonialism did not end social fragmentation and war (civil and international) in the Middle East. In "The Search for Arab Democracy: Discourses and Counter-Discourses" (2004), Larbi Sadiki says that the problems of national identity in the Middle East are a consequence of the orientalist indifference of the European empires when they demarcated the political borders of their colonies, which ignored the local history and the geographic and tribal boundaries observed by the natives, in the course of establishing the Western version of the Middle East. In the event:[I]n places like Iraq and Jordan, leaders of the new sovereign states were brought in from the outside, [and] tailored to suit colonial interests and commitments. Likewise, most states in the Persian Gulf were handed over to those [Europeanised colonial subjects] who could protect and safeguard imperial interests in the post-withdrawal phase.Moreover, "with notable exceptions like Egypt, Iran, Iraq, and Syria, most [countries]...[have] had to [re]invent, their historical roots" after decolonization, and, "like its colonial predecessor, postcolonial identity owes its existence to force."


title: Postcolonialism

text: In the late 19th century, the Scramble for Africa (1874–1914) proved to be the tail end of mercantilist colonialism of the European imperial powers, yet, for the Africans, the consequences were greater than elsewhere in the colonized non–Western world. To facilitate the colonization the European empires laid railroads where the rivers and the land proved impassable. The Imperial British railroad effort proved overambitious in the effort of traversing continental Africa, yet succeeded only in connecting colonial North Africa (Cairo) with the colonial south of Africa (Cape Town).


title: Postcolonialism

text: Upon arriving to Africa, Europeans encountered various African civilizations namely the Ashanti Empire, the Benin Empire, the Kingdom of Dahomey, the Buganda Kingdom (Uganda), and the Kingdom of Kongo, all of which were annexed by imperial powers under the belief that they required European stewardship, as proposed and justified in the essay "The African Character" (1830), by G. W. F. Hegel, in keeping with his philosophic opinion that cultures were stages in the course of the historical unfolding of The Absolute. Nigeria was the homeland of the Hausa people, the Yoruba people and the Igbo people; which last were among the first people to develop their history in constructing a postcolonial identity. (See: "Things Fall Apart", 1958).


title: Postcolonialism

text: About East Africa, Kenyan writer Ngũgĩ wa Thiong'o wrote "Weep Not, Child" (1964), the first postcolonial novel about the East African experience of colonial imperialism; as well as "Decolonizing the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature" (1986). In "The River Between" (1965), with the Mau Mau Uprising (1952–60) as political background, he addresses the postcolonial matters of African religious cultures, and the consequences of the imposition of Christianity, a religion culturally foreign to Kenya and to most of Africa.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In postcolonial countries of Africa, Africans and non–Africans live in a world of genders, ethnicities, classes and languages, of ages, families, professions, religions and nations. There is a suggestion that individualism and postcolonialism are essentially discontinuous and divergent cultural phenomena.


title: Postcolonialism

text: French Indochina was divided into five subdivisions: Tonkin, Annam, Cochinchina, Cambodia, and Laos. Cochinchina (southern Vietnam) was the first territory under French control; Saigon was conquered in 1859; and in 1887, the Indochinese Union (Union indochinoise) was established.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In 1924, Nguyen Ai Quoc (aka Ho Chi Minh) wrote the first critical text against the French colonization: "Le Procès de la Colonisation française" ('French Colonization on Trial')


title: Postcolonialism

text: Trinh T. Minh-ha has been developing her innovative theories about postcolonialism in various means of expression, literature, films, and teaching. She is best known for her documentary film "Reassemblage" (1982), in which she attempts to deconstruct anthropology as a "western male hegemonic ideology." In 1989, she wrote "", in which she focuses on the acknowledgement of oral tradition.


title: Postcolonialism

text: The partitions of Poland (1772–1918) and occupation of Eastern European countries by the Soviet Union after the Second World War were forms of "white" colonialism, for long overlooked by postcolonial theorists. The domination of European empires (Prussian, Austrian, Russian, and later Soviet) over neighboring territories (Belarus, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Moldova, Poland, Romania, and Ukraine), consisting in military invasion, exploitation of human and natural resources, devastation of culture, and efforts to re-educate local people in the empires' language, in many ways resembled the violent conquest of overseas territories by Western European powers, despite such factors as geographical proximity and the missing racial difference.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Postcolonial studies in East-Central and Eastern Europe were inaugurated by Ewa M. Thompson's seminal book "Imperial Knowledge: Russian Literature and Colonialism" (2000), followed by works of Aleksander Fiut, Hanna Gosk, Violeta Kelertas, Dorota Kołodziejczyk, Janusz Korek, Dariusz Skórczewski, Bogdan Ştefănescu, and Tomasz Zarycki.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Ireland experienced centuries of English/British colonialism between the 12th and 18th centuries - notably the Statute of Drogheda, 1494, which subordinated the Irish Parliament to the English (later, British) government - before the Kingdom of Ireland merged with the Kingdom of Great Britain on 1 January 1801 as the United Kingdom. Most of Ireland became independent of the U.K. in 1922 as the Irish Free State, a self-governing dominion of the British Empire. Pursuant to the Statute of Westminster, 1931 and enactment of a new Irish Constitution, Éire became fully independent of the United Kingdom in 1937; and then became a republic in 1949. Northern Ireland, in northeastern Ireland ("northwestern" Ireland is part of the Republic of Ireland), remains a province of the United Kingdom. Many scholars have drawn parallels between:


title: Postcolonialism

text: In 2003, Clare Carroll wrote in "Ireland and Postcolonial Theory" that "the "colonizing activities" of Raleigh, Gilbert, and Drake in Ireland can be read as a "rehearsal" for their later exploits in the Americas, and argues that the English Elizabethans represent the Irish as being more alien than the contemporary European representations of Native Americans."


title: Postcolonialism

text: Rachel Seoighe wrote in 2017, "Ashis Nandy describes how colonisation impacts on the native’s interior life: the meaning of the Irish language was bound up with loss of self in socio-cultural and political life. The purportedly wild and uncivilised Irish language itself was held responsible for the ‘backwardness’ of the people. Holding tight to your own language was thought to bring death, exile and poverty. These ideas and sentiments are recognised by Seamus Deane in his analysis of recorded memories and testimony of the Great Famine in the 1840s. The recorded narratives of people who starved, emigrated and died during this period reflect an understanding of the Irish language as complicit in the devastation of the economy and society. It was perceived as a weakness of a people expelled from modernity: their native language prevented them from casting off ‘tradition’ and ‘backwardness’ and entering the ‘civilised’ world, where English was the language of modernity, progress and survival."


title: Postcolonialism

text: The Troubles (1969–1998), a period of conflict in Northern Ireland between mostly Cathlolic and Gaelic Irish nationalists (who wish to join the Irish Republic) and mostly Protestant Scots-Irish and Anglo-Irish unionists (who are a majority of the population and wish to remain part of the United Kingdom) has been described as a post-colonial conflict. In "Jacobin", Daniel Finn criticised journalism which portrayed the conflict as one of "ancient hatred", ignoring the imperial context.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) implemented by the World Bank and IMF are viewed by some postcolonialists as the modern procedure of colonization. Structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) calls for trade liberalization, privatization of banks, health care, and educational institutions. These implementations minimized government's role, paved pathways for companies to enter Africa for its resources. Limited to production and exportation of cash crops, many African nations acquired more debt, and were left stranded in a position where acquiring more loan and continuing to pay high interest became an endless cycle.


title: Postcolonialism

text: "The Dictionary of Human Geography" uses the definition of colonialism as "enduring relationship of domination and mode of dispossession, usually (or at least initially) between an indigenous (or enslaved) majority and a minority of interlopers (colonizers), who are convinced of their own superiority, pursue their own interests, and exercise power through a mixture of coercion, persuasion, conflict and collaboration." This definition suggests that the SAPs implemented by the Washington Consensus is indeed an act of colonization.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Indian-American Marxist scholar Vivek Chibber has critiqued some foundational logics of postcolonial theory in his book "Postcolonial Theory and the Specter of Capital". Drawing on Aijaz Ahmad's earlier critique of Said's "Orientalism" and Sumit Sarkar's critique of the Subaltern Studies scholars, Chibber focuses on and refutes the principal historical claims made by the Subaltern Studies scholars; claims that are representative of the whole of postcolonial theory. Postcolonial theory, he argues, essentializes cultures, painting them as fixed and static categories. Moreover, it presents the difference between East and West as unbridgeable, hence denying people's "universal aspirations" and "universal interests." He also criticized the postcolonial tendency to characterize all of Enlightenment values as Eurocentric. According to him, the theory will be remembered "for its revival of cultural essentialism and its acting as an endorsement of orientalism, rather than being an antidote to it."


title: Postcolonialism

text: The concentration of postcolonial studies upon the subject of "national identity" has determined it is essential to the creation and establishment of a stable nation and country in the aftermath of decolonization; yet indicates that either an indeterminate or an ambiguous national identity has tended to limit the social, cultural, and economic progress of a decolonized people. In "Overstating the Arab State" (2001) by Nazih Ayubi, Moroccan scholar Bin 'Abd al-'Ali proposed that the existence of "a pathological obsession with...identity" is a cultural theme common to the contemporary academic field Middle Eastern Studies.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Nevertheless, Kumaraswamy and Sadiki say that such a common sociological problem—that of an indeterminate national identity—among the countries of the Middle East is an important aspect that must be accounted in order to have an understanding of the politics of the contemporary Middle East. In the event, Ayubi asks if what 'Bin Abd al–'Ali sociologically described as an obsession with national identity might be explained by "the absence of a championing social class?"


title: Postcolonialism

text: In his essay "The Death of Postcolonialism: The Founder's Foreword", Mohamed Salah Eddine Madiou]] argues that postcolonialism as an academic study and critique of colonialism is a "dismal failure." While explaining that Edward Said never affiliated himself with the postcolonial discipline and is, therefore, not "the father" of it as most would have us believe, Madiou, borrowing from Barthes' and Spivak's death-titles ("The Death of the Author" and "Death of a Discipline", respectively), argues that postcolonialism is today not fit to study colonialism and is, therefore, dead "but continue[s] to be used which is "the" problem." Madiou gives one clear reason for considering postcolonialism a dead discipline: the avoidance of serious colonial cases, such as Palestine.


title: Postcolonialism

text: Some works written prior to the formal establishment of postcolonial studies as a discipline have been considered retroactively as works of postcolonialist theory.


title: Postcolonialism

text: In an effort to understand postcolonialism through scholarship and technology, in addition to important literature, many stakeholders have published projects about the subject. Here is an incomplete list of projects.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia ( , ) is the capital of Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province, Argentina. With a population of nearly 75,000 and a location below the 54th parallel south latitude, Ushuaia claims the title of world's southernmost city. A much smaller municipality of less than 3,000 people, Puerto Williams in Chile, is nearer to the 55th parallel south, at a latitude of 54°56' S compared to Ushuaia at 54°48' S.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia is located in a wide bay on the southern coast of Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, bounded on the north by the Martial mountain range and on the south by the Beagle Channel. It is the only municipality in the Department of Ushuaia, which has an area of . It was founded on October 12, 1884, by Augusto Lasserre and is located on the shores of the Beagle Channel surrounded by the mountain range of the Martial Glacier, in the Bay of Ushuaia. Besides being an administrative center, it is a light industrial port and tourist hub. Ushuaia is located roughly from the Antarctic Peninsula and is one of five internationally recognized Antarctic gateway cities.


title: Ushuaia

text: The word "Ushuaia" comes from the Yaghan language: "ush" and "waia" ("bay" or "cove") and means "deep bay" or "bay to background". The act creating the subprefecture in 1884 cites the name "Oshovia", one of the many orthographic variations of the word. Its demonym is "Ushuaiense".


title: Ushuaia

text: The name is often pronounced "u-sua-ia" (), an exception to the orthographic rules of Spanish, since the 's' forms a syllable with the following 'u' despite the intervening 'h'. The pronunciation "Usuaía" (accented on the 'i') is erroneous: the prosodic accent is on the first 'a', which is why the word is written without an accent mark.


title: Ushuaia

text: The Selk’nam Indians, also called the Ona, first arrived in Tierra del Fuego about 10,000 years ago. The southern group of people indigenous to the area, the Yaghan (also known as Yámana), who occupied what is now Ushuaia, lived in continual conflict with the northern inhabitants of the island.


title: Ushuaia

text: For much of the latter half of the 19th century, the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego was populated by a substantial majority of nationals who were not Argentine citizens, including a number of British subjects. Ushuaia was founded informally by British missionaries, following previous British surveys, long before Argentine nationals or government representatives arrived there on a permanent basis. The British ship HMS "Beagle", under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy, first reached the channel on January 29, 1833, during its maiden voyage surveying Tierra del Fuego. The city was originally named by early British missionaries using the native Yámana name for the area. Much of the early history of the city and its hinterland is described in Lucas Bridges’s book "Uttermost Part of the Earth" (1948). The name "Ushuaia" first appears in letters and reports of the South American Mission Society in England. The British missionary Waite Hockin Stirling became the first European to live in Ushuaia when he stayed with the Yámana people between 18 January and mid-September 1869. In 1870 more British missionaries arrived to establish a small settlement. The following year the first marriage was performed. During 1872, 36 baptisms and seven marriages and the first European birth (Thomas Despard Bridges) in Tierra del Fuego were registered. The first house constructed in Ushuaia was a pre-assembled three room home prepared in the Falkland Islands in 1870 for Reverend Thomas Bridges. One room was for the Bridges family, a second was for a Yámana married couple, while the third served as the chapel.


title: Ushuaia

text: Thomas Bridges learned the Yaghan language and was a fluent speaker. To a lesser extent he was able to communicate in the Ona (forest dwellers) language. His missionary work was mainly directed at the Yaghans. The word Yamana simply means "people" in the Yaghan language. He wrote a dictionary of the Yaghan language, the original manuscript of which is in the British Museum. As the Yaghans had no ability nor means to write, Thomas Bridges had to construct an alphabet which was suited to the phonetics of the language. The original manuscript was lost three times but recovered and almost published under an incorrect name. More than one alphabet has been used over the years in the rendering of this dictionary. The odyssey of the manuscript covered nearly half a century before it was finally published. Natalie Goodall was instrumental in reprinting the dictionary in 1987 and providing valuable insights into the history of Thomas Bridges' work. Copies of the dictionary provide material on the letters and pronunciations used which in many respects differ from the alphabet used in the English language. (Ref: A de la Rue).


title: Ushuaia

text: During 1873, Juan and Clara Lawrence, the first Argentine citizens to visit Ushuaia, arrived to teach school. That same year Julio Argentino Roca, who later served as Argentine President twice, promoted the establishment of a penal colony for re-offenders, modeled after one in Tasmania, Australia, in an effort to secure permanent residents from Argentina and to help establish Argentine sovereignty over all of Tierra del Fuego. But only after the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina did formal efforts get under way to establish the township and its prison.


title: Ushuaia

text: During the 1880s, many gold prospectors came to Ushuaia following rumors of large gold fields, which proved to be false. On 12 October 1884, as part of the South Atlantic Expedition, Commodore Augusto Lasserre established the sub-division of Ushuaia, with the missionaries and naval officers signing the Act of Ceremony. Don Feliz M Paz was named Governor of Tierra del Fuego and in 1885 named Ushuaia as its capital. In 1885 the territory police was organized under Antonio A. Romero with headquarters also in Ushuaia. But it was not until 1904 that the Federal Government of Argentina recognized Ushuaia as the capital of Tierra del Fuego.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia suffered several epidemics, including typhus, pertussis, and measles, that much reduced the native population. But because the Yámana were not included in census data, the exact death toll is not known. The first census was held in 1893, which recorded 113 men and 36 women living in Ushuaia. The prison was formally announced in an executive order by the then-Acting President Roca in 1896. By 1911 the Yámana had all practically disappeared, so the mission was closed. The population grew to 1,558 by the 1914 census.


title: Ushuaia

text: In 1896 the prison received its first inmates, mainly re-offenders and dangerous prisoners transferred from Buenos Aires, but also some political prisoners. A separate military prison opened in 1903 at the nearby Puerto Golondrina. The two prisons merged in 1910, and that combined complex still stands today. Thus, during the first half of the 20th century, the city centered around the prison built by the Argentine government to increase the Argentine population and to ensure Argentine sovereignty over Tierra del Fuego. The prison was intended for repeat offenders and serious criminals, following the example of the British in Tasmania and the French in Devil's Island. Escape from Tierra del Fuego was similarly difficult, although two prisoners managed to escape into the surrounding area for a few weeks. The prison population thus became forced colonists and spent much of their time building the town with timber from the forest around the prison. They also built a railway to the settlement, now a tourist attraction known as the End of the World Train ("Tren del Fin del Mundo"), the southernmost railway in the world.


title: Ushuaia

text: The prison operated until 1947, when President Juan Perón closed it by executive order in response to the many reports of abuse and unsafe practices. Most of the guards stayed in Ushuaia, while the prisoners were relocated to other jails farther north. After the prison closed, it became a part of the , functioning as a storage and office facility until the early 1990s. Later it was converted into the current Museo Maritimo de Ushuaia.


title: Ushuaia

text: The naval base at Ushuaia was active during the Falklands War of 1982. The Argentine cruiser ARA "General Belgrano", subsequently sunk by the British Fleet, sailed from the Port of Ushuaia, where a memorial was erected in February 1996.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia is located on Ushuaia Bay at 6 meters above sea level, surrounded to the west, north, and east by the Andes Fueguinos. It is the only city accessed from the rest of the country by crossing part of the Andes mountain range that runs along the southern edge of Tierra del Fuego. National Route 3 crosses the Sierra Alvear through the Garibaldi Pass to enter the Carabajal Valley, where it follows the Olivia River through the Sierra Sorondo to the Beagle Channel and Ushuaia Bay. For this reason, in Argentina it is considered the only trans-Andean city ("ciudad trasandina").


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia has long been described as the southernmost city in the world. While there are settlements farther south, the only one of any notable size is Puerto Williams, a Chilean settlement of some 2,000 residents. As a center of population, commerce, and culture, and as a town of significant size and importance, Ushuaia however clearly qualifies as a city. A 1998 article in the newspaper "Clarín" reported that the designation "Southernmost city in the world" had been transferred to Puerto Williams by a joint committee from Argentina and Chile, but this was denied by Argentine authorities, and the Secretariat of Tourism of Argentina continues to use the slogan in official documentation and web sites.


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia features a significantly ocean-moderated (Köppen: "ET"); bordering on a subpolar oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfc"), with cool, but not cold, conditions throughout the year (average temperature remains above 0 °C and below 10 °C year round). Vegetation around the city thus does not resemble typical tundra but is instead heavily forested. Temperatures at the Ushuaia – Malvinas Argentinas International Airport average in the coolest month (July), and in the warmest month (January). The record low is in July, and the record high is in January. On average, the city experiences 146 days of precipitation a year, with many cloudy and foggy days, averaging 206 cloudy days a year. This results in Ushuaia receiving an average of 3.93 hours of sunshine per day (an annual total of 1,434 hours) or about 30.2% of possible sunshine. Despite receiving only average annual precipitation, Ushuaia is very humid with an average humidity of 77%.


title: Ushuaia

text: Summers tend to be cloudy and windy, with maximum temperatures averaging around during the day and about at night. Temperatures of or more occur only on a handful of days, and night frost is always possible, as well as days below . Temperatures gradually diminish during the autumn, to reach maximum temperatures of about and minimum temperatures of in winter, with frequent snow, sleet and rain showers. Some winters may bring extended periods of frost and snow with a perpetual snowcover, whereas other winters might just bring snowstorms followed by thaws. Temperatures then very slowly recover during the spring, but snow showers and frost are a common occurrence until the beginning of the summer in December, and they might occur even in midsummer.


title: Ushuaia

text: The southwestern winds make the outer islands wetter, reaching at Isla de los Estados (Staten Island). Because temperatures are cool throughout the year, there is little evaporation. Snow is common in winter and regularly occurs throughout the year. Ushuaia occasionally experiences snow in summer (from November to March). Due to its high southern latitude, the city's climate is influenced by Antarctica, and the duration of daylight varies significantly, from more than 17 hours in summer to just over 7 hours in winter.


title: Ushuaia

text: The main economic activities are fishing, natural gas and oil extraction , sheep farming and ecotourism.


title: Ushuaia

text: Tourist attractions include the Tierra del Fuego National Park and Lapataia Bay. The park can be reached by highway, or via the End of the World Train ("Tren del Fin del Mundo") from Ushuaia. The city has a museum of Yámana, English, and Argentine settlement, including its years as a prison colony. Wildlife attractions include local birds, penguins, seals and orcas, many of these species colonizing islands in the Beagle Channel. There are daily bus and boat tours to Harberton, the Bridges family compound, Estancia Harberton. Tours also visit the Les Eclaireurs Lighthouse. Les Eclaireurs is sometimes confused with the "Lighthouse at the End of the World" ("Faro del fin del mundo") made famous by Jules Verne in the novel of the same name; but the latter lies some 200 mi (320 km) east of Ushuaia on Isla de los Estados (Island of the States).


title: Ushuaia

text: Ushuaia's industrial sector, led by the Grundig "Renacer" electronics factory, is among the largest in Patagonia.


title: Ushuaia

text: Since 2007 Ushuaia has hosted the Bienal de Arte Contemporáneo del Fin del Mundo (Biennial of Contemporary Art at the End of the World), created and organized by the Patagonia Arte & Desafío Foundation under the rubric "South Pole of the Arts, Sciences, and Ecology". The Bienal has gathered over one hundred artists from five continents addressing the motto "think at the End of the World that another world is possible". As a pedagogical project it encourages students at all levels to "think about a better world".