title: Shell (projectile)

text: Japan followed with an "improved" formula known as "shimose powder". In 1889, a similar material, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured under the name "ecrasite" in Austria-Hungary. By 1894, Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as "Dunnite" or explosive D) was used by the United States beginning in 1906. Germany began filling artillery shells with TNT in 1902. Toluene was less readily available than phenol, and TNT is less powerful than picric acid, but the improved safety of munitions manufacturing and storage caused the replacement of picric acid by TNT for most military purposes between the World Wars. However, pure TNT was expensive to produce and most nations made some use of mixtures using cruder TNT and ammonium nitrate, some with other compounds included. These fills included Ammonal, Schneiderite and Amatol. The latter was still in wide use in World War II.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The percentage of shell weight taken up by its explosive fill increased steadily throughout the 20th Century. Less than 10% was usual in the first few decades; by World War II, leading designs were around 15%. However, British researchers in that war identified 25% as being the optimal design for anti-personnel purposes, based on the recognition that far smaller fragments than hitherto would give a better effect. This guideline was achieved by the 1960s with the 155 mm L15 shell, developed as part of the German-British FH-70 program. The key requirement for increasing the HE content without increasing shell weight was to reduce the thickness of shell walls, which required improvements in high tensile steel.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The most common shell type is high explosive, commonly referred to simply as HE. They have a strong steel case, a bursting charge, and a fuse. The fuse detonates the bursting charge which shatters the case and scatters hot, sharp case pieces ("fragments", "splinters") at high velocity. Most of the damage to soft targets, such as unprotected personnel, is caused by shell pieces rather than by the blast. The term "shrapnel" is sometimes used to describe the shell pieces, but shrapnel shells functioned very differently and are long obsolete. The speed of fragments is limited by Gurney equations. Depending on the type of fuse used the HE shell can be set to burst on the ground (percussion), in the air above the ground, which is called air burst (time or proximity), or after penetrating a short distance into the ground (percussion with delay, either to transmit more ground shock to covered positions, or to reduce the spread of fragments). Projectiles with enhanced fragmentation are called high-explosive fragmentation (HE-FRAG).


title: Shell (projectile)

text: RDX and TNT mixtures are the standard chemicals used, notably Composition B and Cyclotol. The introduction of "insensitive munition" requirements, agreements and regulations in the 1990s caused modern western designs to use various types of plastic bonded explosives (PBX) based on RDX.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Common shells designated in the early (i.e. 1800s) British explosive shells were filled with "low explosives" such as "P mixture" (gunpowder) and usually with a fuze in the nose. Common shells on bursting (non-detonating) tended to break into relatively large fragments which continued along the shell's trajectory rather than laterally. They had some incendiary effect.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: In the late 19th century "double common shells" were developed, lengthened so as to approach twice the standard shell weight, to carry more powder and hence increase explosive effect. They suffered from instability in flight and low velocity and were not widely used.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: In 1914, common shells with a diameter of 6-inches and larger were of cast steel, while smaller diameter shells were of forged steel for service and cast iron for practice. They were replaced by "common lyddite" shells in the late 1890s but some stocks remained as late as 1914. In British service common shells were typically painted black with a red band behind the nose to indicate the shell was filled.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Common pointed shells, or CP were a type of common shell used in naval service from the 1890s – 1910s which had a solid nose and a percussion fuze in the base rather than the common shell's nose fuze. The ogival two C.R.H. solid pointed nose was considered suitable for attacking shipping but was not armor-piercing – the main function was still explosive. They were of cast or forged (three- and six-pounder) steel and contained a gunpowder bursting charge slightly smaller than that of a common shell, a trade off for the longer heavier nose.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: In British service common pointed shells were typically painted black, except 12-pounder shells specific for QF guns which were painted lead colour to distinguish them from 12-pounder shells usable with both BL and QF guns. A red ring behind the nose indicated the shell was filled.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: By World War II they were superseded in Royal Navy service by common pointed capped (CPC) and semi-armor piercing (SAP), filled with TNT.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Common lyddite shells were British explosive shells filled with Lyddite were initially designated "common lyddite" and beginning in 1896 were the first British generation of modern "high explosive" shells. Lyddite is picric acid fused at and allowed to solidify, producing a much denser dark-yellow form which is not affected by moisture and is easier to detonate than the liquid form. Its French equivalent was "melinite", Japanese equivalent was "shimose". Common lyddite shells "detonated" and fragmented into small pieces in all directions, with no incendiary effect. For maximum destructive effect the explosion needed to be delayed until the shell had penetrated its target.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Early shells had walls of the same thickness for the whole length, later shells had walls thicker at the base and thinning towards the nose. This was found to give greater strength and provide more space for explosive. Later shells had 4 c.r. heads, more pointed and hence streamlined than earlier 2 c.r.h. designs.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Proper detonation of a lyddite shell would show black to grey smoke, or white from the steam of a water detonation. Yellow smoke indicated simple explosion rather than detonation, and failure to reliably detonate was a problem with lyddite, especially in its earlier usage. To improve the detonation "exploders" with a small quantity of picric powder or even of TNT (in smaller shells, 3 pdr, 12 pdr – 4.7 inch) was loaded between the fuze and the main lyddite filling or in a thin tube running through most of the shell's length.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Lyddite presented a major safety problem because it reacted dangerously with metal bases. This required that the interior of shells had to be varnished, the exterior had to be painted with leadless paint and the fuze-hole had to be made of a leadless alloy. Fuzes containing any lead could not be used with it.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: When World War I began Britain was replacing lyddite with modern "high explosive" (HE) such as TNT. After World War I the term "common lyddite" was dropped, and remaining stocks of lyddite-filled shells were referred to as HE (high explosive) shell filled lyddite. Hence "common" faded from use, replaced by "HE" as the explosive shell designation.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Common lyddite shells in British service were painted yellow, with a red ring behind the nose to indicate the shell had been filled.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The mine shell is a particular form of HE shell developed for use in small caliber weapons such as 20 mm to 30 mm cannon. Small HE shells of conventional design can contain only a limited amount of explosive. By using a thin-walled steel casing of high tensile strength, a larger explosive charge can be used. Most commonly the explosive charge also was a more expensive but higher-detonation-energy type.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The "mine shell" concept was invented by the Germans in the Second World War primarily for use in aircraft guns intended to be fired at opposing aircraft. Mine shells produced relatively little damage due to fragments, but a much more powerful blast. The aluminium structures and skins of Second World War aircraft were readily damaged by this greater level of blast.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Shrapnel shells are an anti-personnel munition which delivered large numbers of bullets at ranges far greater than rifles or machine guns could attain – up to 6,500 yards by 1914. A typical shrapnel shell as used in World War I was streamlined, 75 mm (3 in) in diameter and contained approximately 300 lead–antimony balls (bullets), each around 1/2-inch in diameter. Shrapnel used the principle that the bullets encountered much less air resistance if they travelled most of their journey packed together in a single streamlined shell than they would if they travelled individually, and could hence attain a far greater range.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The gunner set the shell's time fuze so that it was timed to burst as it was angling down towards the ground just before it reached its target (ideally about 150 yards before, and 60–100 feet above the ground). The fuze then ignited a small "bursting charge" in the base of the shell which fired the balls forward out of the front of the shell case, adding 200–250 ft/second to the existing velocity of 750–1200 ft/second. The shell body dropped to the ground mostly intact and the bullets continued in an expanding cone shape before striking the ground over an area approximately 250 yards × 30 yards in the case of the US 3-inch shell. The effect was of a large shotgun blast just in front of and above the target, and was deadly against troops in the open. A trained gun team could fire 20 such shells per minute, with a total of 6,000 balls, which compared very favorably with rifles and machine-guns.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: However, shrapnel's relatively flat trajectory (it depended mainly on the shell's velocity for its lethality, and was lethal only in the forward direction) meant that it could not strike trained troops who avoided open spaces and instead used dead ground (dips), shelters, trenches, buildings, and trees for cover. It was of no use in destroying buildings or shelters. Hence, it was replaced during World War I by the high-explosive shell, which exploded its fragments in all directions (and thus more difficult to avoid) and could be fired by high-angle weapons, such as howitzers.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Cluster shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Like cluster bombs, an artillery shell may be used to scatter smaller sub-munitions, including anti-personnel grenades, anti-tank top-attack munitions, and landmines. These are generally far more lethal against both armor and infantry than simple high-explosive shells, since the multiple munitions create a larger kill zone and increase the chance of achieving the direct hit necessary to kill armor. Many modern armies make significant use of cluster munitions in their artillery batteries.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Artillery-scattered mines allow for the quick deployment of minefields into the path of the enemy without placing engineering units at risk, but artillery delivery may lead to an irregular and unpredictable minefield with more unexploded ordnance than if mines were individually placed.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Signatories of the Convention on Cluster Munitions have accepted restrictions on the use of cluster munitions, including artillery shells: the treaty requires that a weapon so defined must contain nine or fewer submunitions, which must each weigh more than 4 kilograms, be capable of detecting and engaging a single target, and contain electronic self-destruct and self-deactivation systems. Submunitions which weigh 20 kg or more are not restricted.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Chemical shells contain just a small explosive charge to burst the shell, and a larger quantity of a chemical agent or riot control agent of some kind, in either liquid, gas or powdered form. In some cases such as the M687 Sarin gas shell, the payload is stored as two precursor chemicals which are mixed after the shell is fired. Some examples designed to deliver powdered chemical agents, such as the M110 155mm Cartridge, were later repurposed as smoke/incendiary rounds containing powdered white phosphorus.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Chemical shells were most commonly employed during the First World War. Use of chemical agents of all kinds has been forbidden by numerous international treaties starting with the 1925 Geneva Protocol (not to be confused with the Geneva Convention), with the 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention being the most modern treaty which also outlaws production, stockpiling and transfer of such weapons. All signatories have renounced the use of both lethal chemical agents and incapacitating agents in warfare.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Nuclear artillery shells are used to provide battlefield scale nuclear weapons for tactical use. These range from the relatively small 155 mm shell to the 406 mm shell used by heavy battleship cannon and shore defense units equipped with the same guns.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Not all shells are designed to kill or destroy. The following types are designed to achieve particular non-lethal effects. They are not completely harmless: smoke and illumination shells can accidentally start fires, and impact by the discarded carrier of all three types can wound or kill personnel, or cause minor damage to property.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Smoke shells are used to create smoke screens to mask movements of friendly forces or disorient enemies, or to mark specific areas. The main types are bursting (using a payload powdered chemicals) and base ejection (delivering three or four smoke canisters which are deployed from the rear of the shell prior to impact, or a single canister containing submunitions distributed via a bursting charge). Base ejection shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Base ejection smoke is usually white, however, colored smoke has been used for marking purposes. The original canisters typically used hexachloroethane-zinc (HC), modern ones use red phosphorus because of its multi-spectral properties. However, other compounds have been used; in World War II, Germany used oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) and pumice.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Due to the nature of their payload, powder smoke shells using white phosphorus in particular have a secondary effect as incendiary weapons, though they are not as effective in this role as dedicated weapons using thermite.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Modern illuminating shells are a type of carrier shell or cargo munition. Those used in World War I were shrapnel pattern shells ejecting small burning "pots".


title: Shell (projectile)

text: A modern illumination shell has a time fuze that ejects a flare "package" through the base of the carrier shell at a standard height above ground (typically about 600 metres), from where it slowly falls beneath a non-flammable parachute, illuminating the area below. The ejection process also initiates a pyrotechnic flare emitting white or "black" infrared light.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Typically illumination flares burn for about 60 seconds. These are also known as "starshell" or "star shell". Infrared illumination is a more recent development used to enhance the performance of night-vision devices. Both white- and black-light illuminating shells may be used to provide continuous illumination over an area for a period of time and may use several dispersed aimpoints to illuminate a large area. Alternatively, firing single illuminating shells may be coordinated with the adjustment of HE shell fire onto a target.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The carrier shell is simply a hollow carrier equipped with a fuze that ejects the contents at a calculated time. They are often filled with leaflets (see external links), but can be filled with anything that meets the weight restrictions and is able to withstand the shock of firing. Famously, on Christmas Day 1899 during the siege of Ladysmith, the Boers fired into Ladysmith a carrier shell without a fuze, which contained a Christmas pudding, two Union Flags and the message "compliments of the season". The shell is still kept in the museum at Ladysmith.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: A proof shot is not used in combat but to confirm that a new gun barrel can withstand operational stresses. The proof shot is heavier than a normal shot or shell, and an oversize propelling charge is used, subjecting the barrel to greater than normal stress. The proof shot is inert (no explosive or functioning filling) and is often a solid unit, although water, sand or iron powder filled versions may be used for testing the gun mounting. Although the proof shot resembles a functioning shell (of whatever sort), so that it behaves as a real shell in the barrel, it is not aerodynamic as its job is over once it has left the muzzle of the gun. Consequently, it travels a much shorter distance and is usually stopped by an earth bank for safety measures.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The gun, operated remotely for safety in case it fails, fires the proof shot, and is then inspected for damage. If the barrel passes the examination, "proof marks" are added to the barrel. The gun can be expected to handle normal ammunition, which subjects it to less stress than the proof shot, without being damaged.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Guided or "smart" ammunition features some method of guiding itself post-launch, usually through the addition of steering fins that alter its trajectory in an unpowered glide. Due to their much higher cost, they have yet to supplant unguided munitions in all applications.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: The fuze of a shell has to keep the shell safe from accidental functioning during storage, due to (possibly) rough handling, fire, etc. It also has to survive the violent launch through the barrel, then reliably function at the appropriate moment. To do this it has a number of arming mechanisms which are successively enabled under the influence of the firing sequence.


title: Shell (projectile)

text: Sometimes, one or more of these arming mechanisms fail, resulting in a projectile that is unable to detonate. More worrying (and potentially far more hazardous) are fully armed shells on which the fuze fails to initiate the HE firing. This may be due to a shallow trajectory of fire, low-velocity firing or soft impact conditions. Whatever the reason for failure, such a shell is called a "blind" or "unexploded ordnance (UXO)" (the older term, "dud", is discouraged because it implies that the shell "cannot" detonate.) Blind shells often litter old battlefields; depending on the impact velocity, they may be buried some distance into the earth, all the while remaining potentially hazardous. For example, antitank ammunition with a piezoelectric fuze can be detonated by relatively light impact to the piezoelectric element, and others, depending on the type of fuze used, can be detonated by even a small movement. The battlefields of the First World War still claim casualties today from leftover munitions. Modern electrical and mechanical fuzes are highly reliable: if they do not arm correctly, they keep the initiation train out of line or (if electrical in nature) discharge any stored electrical energy.


title: Periyar

text: Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy (17 September 1879 – 24 December 1973), revered as Periyar or Thanthai Periyar, was an Indian social activist and politician who started the Self-Respect Movement and Dravidar Kazhagam. He is known as the 'Father of the Dravidian movement'. He rebelled against Brahminical dominance and gender and caste inequality in Tamil Nadu. Since 2021, the Indian state of Tamil Nadu celebrates his birth anniversary as 'Social Justice Day'.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919, but resigned in 1925 when he felt that the party was only serving the interests of Brahmins. He questioned the subjugation of non-Brahmin Dravidians as Brahmins enjoyed gifts and donations from non-Brahmins but opposed and discriminated against non-Brahmins in cultural and religious matters. In 1924, Ramasamy participated in non-violent agitation (satyagraha) in Vaikom, Travancore. From 1929 to 1932 Ramasamy made a tour of British Malaya, Europe, and Soviet Union which influenced him. In 1939, Ramasamy became the head of the Justice Party, and in 1944, he changed its name to "Dravidar Kazhagam". The party later split with one group led by C. N. Annadurai forming the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949. While continuing the Self-Respect Movement, he advocated for an independent Dravida Nadu (land of the Dravidians).


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy promoted the principles of rationalism, self-respect, women’s rights and eradication of caste. He opposed the exploitation and marginalisation of the non-Brahmin Dravidian people of South India and the imposition of what he considered Indo-Aryan India.


title: Periyar

text: Erode Venkatappa Ramasamy was born on 17 September 1879 to a Kannada Balija merchant family in Erode, then a part of the Coimbatore district of the Madras Presidency. Ramasamy's father was Venkatappa Nayakar (or Venkata), and his mother was Chinnathyee, Muthammal. He had one elder brother named Krishnaswamy and two sisters named Kannamma and Ponnuthoy. He later came to be known as "Periyar" meaning 'respected one' or 'elder' in the Tamil.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy married when he was 19, and had a daughter who lived for only 5 months. His first wife, Nagammai, died in 1933. Ramasamy married for a second time in July 1948. His second wife, Maniammai, continued Ramasamy's social work after his death in 1973, and his ideas then were advocated by Dravidar Kazhagam.


title: Periyar

text: In 1929, Ramasamy announced the deletion of his caste title "Naicker" from his name at the First Provincial Self-Respect Conference of Chengalpattu. He could speak two Dravidian languages: Kannada and Tamil. Ramasamy attended school for five years after which he joined his father's trade at the age of 12. He used to listen to Tamil Vaishnavite gurus who gave discourses in his house enjoying his father's hospitality. At a young age, he began questioning the apparent contradictions in the Hindu mythological stories. As Ramasamy grew, he felt that people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and therefore took it as one of his duties in life to warn people against superstitions and priests.


title: Periyar

text: In 1904, Ramasamy went on a pilgrimage to Kashi to visit the revered Shiva temple of Kashi Vishwanath. Though regarded as one of the holiest sites of Hinduism, he witnessed immoral activities such as begging, and floating dead bodies. His frustrations extended to functional Hinduism in general when he experienced what he called Brahmanic exploitation.


title: Periyar

text: However, one particular incident in Kasi had a profound impact on Ramasamy's ideology and future work. At the worship site there were free meals offered to guests. To Ramasamy's shock, he was refused meals at choultries, which exclusively fed Brahmins. Due to extreme hunger, Ramasamy felt compelled to enter one of the eateries disguised as a Brahmin with a sacred thread on his bare chest, but was betrayed by his moustache. The gatekeeper at the temple concluded that Ramasamy was not a Brahmin, as Brahmins were not permitted by the Hindu "shastras" to have moustaches. He not only prevented Ramasamy's entry but also pushed him rudely into the street.


title: Periyar

text: As his hunger became intolerable, Ramasamy was forced to feed on leftovers from the streets. Around this time, he realised that the eatery which had refused him entry was built by a wealthy non-Brahmin from South India. This discriminatory attitude dealt a blow to Ramasamy's regard for Hinduism, for the events he had witnessed at Kasi were completely different from the picture of Kasi he had in mind, as a holy place which welcomed all. Ramasamy was a theist until his visit to Kasi, after which his views changed and he became an atheist.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy joined the Indian National Congress in 1919 after quitting his business and resigning from public posts. He held the chairmanship of Erode Municipality and wholeheartedly undertook constructive programs spreading the use of Khadi, picketing toddy shops, boycotting shops selling foreign cloth, and eradicating untouchability. In 1921, Ramasamy courted imprisonment for picketing toddy shops in Erode. When his wife as well as his sister joined the agitation, it gained momentum, and the administration was forced to come to a compromise. He was again arrested during the Non-Cooperation movement and the Temperance movement. In 1922, Ramasamy was elected the President of the Madras Presidency Congress Committee during the Tirupur session, where he advocated strongly for reservation in government jobs and education. His attempts were defeated in the Congress party due to discrimination and indifference, which led to his leaving the party in 1925.


title: Periyar

text: According to the prevalent caste system in Kerala and the rest of India, low-caste Hindus were denied entry into temples. In Kerala, they were denied permission to walk on the roads that led to the temples also. (Kerala state was formed in 1956; earlier it was broadly divided into Malabar (North Kerala), Cochin and Travancore kingdoms).


title: Periyar

text: In the Kakinada meet of the Congress Party in 1923, T K Madhavan presented a report citing the discrimination faced by the depressed castes in Kerala. That session decided to promote movements against untouchability.


title: Periyar

text: In Kerala, a committee was formed comprising people of different castes to fight untouchability in the region. The committee was chaired by K Kelappan; the rest of the members were T K Madhavan, Velayudha Menon, Kurur Neelakantan Namboodiripad and T R Krishnaswami Iyer. In February 1924, they decided to launch a ‘Keralaparyatanam’ to gain temple entry and also the right to use public roads for every Hindu irrespective of caste or creed.


title: Periyar

text: In Vaikom, a small town in Kerala state, then Travancore, there were strict laws of untouchability in and around the temple area. Dalits, also known as Harijans, were not allowed into the close streets around and leading to the temple, let alone inside it. Anti-caste feelings were growing and in 1924 Vaikom was chosen as a suitable place for an organised "Satyagraha." Under his guidance a movement had already begun with the aim of giving all castes the right to enter the temples. Thus, agitations and demonstrations took place. On 14 April, Ramasamy and his wife Nagamma arrived in Vaikom. They were immediately arrested and imprisoned for participation. In spite of Gandhi's objection to non-Keralites and non-Hindus taking part, Ramasamy and his followers continued to give support to the movement until it was withdrawn. He received the title "Vaikom Veeran", given by his followers who participated in the Satyagraha.


title: Periyar

text: The way in which the "Vaikom Satyagraha" events have been recorded provides a clue to the image of the respective organisers. In an article entitle "Gandhi and Ambedkar, A Study in Leadership", Eleanor Zelliot relates the 'Vaikom Satyagraha', including Gandhi's negotiations with the temple authorities in relation to the event. Furthermore, the editor of Ramasamy's "Thoughts" states that Brahmins purposely suppressed news about Ramasamy's participation. A leading Congress magazine, "Young India", in its extensive reports on Vaikom never mentions Ramasamy.


title: Periyar

text: The movement gained all-India prominence and support came from far and wide. The Akalis of Punjab lend their support by setting up kitchens to provide food to the Satyagrahis. Even Christian and Muslim leaders came forward for support. This was shunned by Gandhi who wanted the movement to be an intra-Hindu affair. On advice from Gandhi, the movement was withdrawn temporarily in April 1924. After the talks with caste-Hindus failed, the leaders resumed the movement. Leaders T K Madhavan and K P Kesava Menon were arrested. Ramasamy came from Tamil Nadu to give his support. He was arrested.


title: Periyar

text: On 1 October 1924, a group of Savarnas marched in a procession and submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani Sethulakshmi Bai of Travancore with about 25,000 signatures for temple entry to everyone. Gandhi also met with the Regent Maharani. This procession of savarnas was led by Mannath Padmanabhan Nair. Starting with about 500 people at Vaikom, the number increased to about 5000 when the procession reached Thiruvananthapuram in November 1924.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy and his followers campaigned constantly to influence and pressure the government to take measures to remove social inequality (abolish untouchability, manual scavenging system etc.), even while other nationalist forerunners focused on the struggle for political independence. The Self-Respect Movement was described from the beginning as "dedicated to the goal of giving non-Brahmins a sense of pride based on their Dravidian past".


title: Periyar

text: In 1952, the Ramasamy "Self-Respect Movement Institution" was registered with a list of objectives of the institution from which may be quoted as for the diffusion of useful knowledge of political education; to allow people to live a life of freedom from slavery to anything against reason and self respect; to do away with needless customs, meaningless ceremonies, and blind superstitious beliefs in society; to put an end to the present social system in which caste, religion, community and traditional occupations based on the accident of birth, have chained the mass of the people and created "superior" and "inferior" classes... and to give people equal rights; to completely eradicate untouchability and to establish a united society based on brother/sisterhood; to give equal rights to women; to prevent child marriages and marriages based on law favourable to one sect, to conduct and encourage love marriages, widow marriages, inter caste and inter-religious marriages and to have the marriages registered under the Civil Law; and to establish and maintain homes for orphans and widows and to run educational institutions. Propagation of the philosophy of "self respect" became the full-time activity of Ramasamy since 1925. A Tamil weekly "Kudi Arasu" started in 1925, while the English journal "Revolt" started in 1928 carried on the propaganda among the English educated people. The "Self-Respect Movement" began to grow fast and received the sympathy of the heads of the Justice Party from the beginning. In May 1929, a conference of Self-Respect Volunteers was held at Pattukkotai under the presidency of S. Guruswami. K.V. Alagiriswami took charge as the head of the volunteer band. Conferences followed in succession throughout the Tamil districts of the former Madras Presidency. A training school in Self-Respect was opened at Erode, the home town of Ramasamy. The object was not just to introduce social reform but to bring about a social revolution to foster a new spirit and build a new society.


title: Periyar

text: Between 1929 and 1935, under the strain of the Great Depression, political thinking worldwide received a jolt from the spread of international communism. Indian political parties, movements and considerable sections of leadership were also affected by inter-continental ideologies. The Self-Respect Movement also came under the influence of the leftist philosophies and institutions. Ramasamy, after establishing the "Self-Respect Movement" as an independent institution, began to look for ways to strengthen it politically and socially. To accomplish this, he studied the history and politics of different countries, and personally observed these systems at work.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy toured Malaya for a month, from December 1929 to January 1930, to propagate the "self-respect" philosophy. Embarking on his journey from Nagapattinam with his wife Nagammal and his followers, Ramasamy was received by 50,000 Tamil Malaysians in Penang. During the same month, he inaugurated the Tamils Conference, convened by the Tamils Reformatory Sangam in Ipoh, and then went to Singapore. In December 1931 he undertook a tour of Europe, accompanied by S. Ramanathan and Erode Ramu, to personally acquaint himself with their political systems, social movements, way of life, economic and social progress and administration of public bodies. He visited Egypt, Greece, Turkey, the Soviet Union, Germany, England, Spain, France and Portugal, staying in Russia for three months. On his return journey he halted at Ceylon and returned to India in November 1932.


title: Periyar

text: The tour shaped the political ideology of Ramasamy to achieve the social concept of Self-Respect. The communist system in the Soviet Union appealed to him as appropriately suited to deal with the social ills of the country. Thus, on socio-economic issues Ramasamy was Marxist, but he did not advocate for abolishing private ownership. Immediately after his return, Ramasamy, in alliance with the enthusiastic communist, M. Singaravelar, began to work out a socio-political scheme incorporating socialist and self-respect ideals. This marked a crucial stage of development in the "Self-Respect Movement" which got politicised and found its compatibility in Tamil Nadu.


title: Periyar

text: In 1937, when Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency, he introduced Hindi as a compulsory language of study in schools, thereby igniting a series of anti-Hindi agitations. Tamil nationalists, the Justice Party under Sir A. T. Panneerselvam, and Ramasamy organised anti-Hindi protests in 1938 which ended with numerous arrests by the Rajaji government.


title: Periyar

text: During the same year, the slogan "Tamil Nadu for Tamilians" was first used by Ramasamy in protest against the introduction of Hindi in schools. He claimed that the introduction of Hindi was a dangerous mechanism used by the Aryans to infiltrate Dravidian culture. He reasoned that the adoption of Hindi would make Tamils subordinate to the Hindi-speaking North Indians. Ramasamy claimed that Hindi would not only halt the progress of Tamil people, but would also completely destroy their culture and nullify the progressive ideas that had been successfully inculcated through Tamil in the recent decades.


title: Periyar

text: Cutting across party lines, South Indian politicians rallied together in their opposition to Hindi. There were recurrent anti-Hindi agitations in 1948, 1952 and 1965.


title: Periyar

text: A political party known as the "South Indian Libertarian Federation" (commonly referred to as "Justice Party") was founded in 1916, principally to oppose the economic and political power of the Brahmin groups. The party's goal was to render social justice to the non-Brahmin groups. To gain the support of the masses, non-Brahmin politicians began propagating an ideology of equality among non-Brahmin castes. Brahmanical priesthood and Sanskritic social class-value hierarchy were blamed for the existence of inequalities among non-Brahmin "caste" groups.


title: Periyar

text: In 1937, when the government required that Hindi be taught in the school system, Ramasamy organised opposition to this policy through the "Justice Party". After 1937, the Dravidian movement derived considerable support from the student community. In later years, opposition to Hindi played a big role in the politics of Tamil Nadu. The fear of the Hindi language had its origin in the conflict between Brahmins and non-Brahmins. To the Tamils, acceptance of Hindi in the school system was a form of bondage. When the "Justice Party" weakened in the absence of mass support, Ramasamy took over the leadership of the party after being jailed for opposing Hindi in 1939. Under his tutelage the party prospered, but the party's conservative members, most of whom were rich and educated, withdrew from active participation.


title: Periyar

text: At a rally in 1944, Ramasamy, in his capacity as the leader of the Justice Party, declared that the party would henceforth be known as the "Dravidar Kazhagam", or "Dravidian Association". However, a few who disagreed with Ramasamy started a splinter group, claiming to be the original Justice Party. This party was led by veteran Justice Party leader P. T. Rajan and survived until 1957.


title: Periyar

text: The "Dravidar Kazhagam" came to be well known among the urban communities and students. Villages were influenced by its message. Hindi, and ceremonies that had become associated with Brahmanical priesthood, were identified as alien symbols that should be eliminated from Tamil culture. Brahmins, who were regarded as the guardians of such symbols, came under verbal attack. From 1949 onwards, the "Dravidar Kazhagam" intensified social reformist work and put forward the fact that superstitions were the cause for the degeneration of Dravidians. The "Dravidar Kazhagam" vehemently fought for the abolition of untouchability amongst the "Dalits". It also focused its attention on the liberation of women, women's education, willing marriage, widow marriage, orphanages and mercy homes.


title: Periyar

text: In 1949, Ramasamy's chief lieutenant, Conjeevaram Natarajan Annadurai, established a separate association called the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" (DMK), or Dravidian Progressive Federation. This was due to differences between the two, while Ramasamy advocated a separate independent Dravidian or Tamil state, Annadurai compromised with the Delhi government, at the same time claiming increased state independence. Ramasamy was convinced that individuals and movements that undertake the task of eradicating the social evils in the Indian sub-continent have to pursue the goal with devotion and dedication without deviating from the path and with uncompromising zeal. Thus, if they contest elections aiming to assume political power, they would lose vigour and a sense of purpose. But among his followers, there were those who had a different view, wanting to enter into politics and have a share in running the government. They were looking for an opportunity to part with Ramasamy. Thus, when Ramasamy married Maniammai on 9 July 1948, they quit the "Dravidar Kazhagam", stating that Ramasamy married Maniammayar who was the daughter of Kanagasabhai when he was 70 and she 32. Those who parted company with Ramasamy joined the DMK. Though the DMK split from the "Dravidar Kazhagam", the organisation made efforts to carry on Ramasamy's Self-Respect Movement to villagers and urban students. The DMK advocated the thesis that the Tamil language was much richer than Sanskrit and Hindi in content, and thus was a key which opened the door to subjects to be learned. The "Dravidar Kazhagam" continued to counter Brahminism, Indo-Aryan propaganda, and uphold the Dravidians' right of self-determination.


title: Periyar

text: In 1956, despite warnings from P. Kakkan, the President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, Ramasamy organised a procession to the Marina to burn pictures of the Hindu God Rama. Ramasamy was subsequently arrested and confined to prison.


title: Periyar

text: The activities of Ramasamy continued when he went to Bangalore in 1958 to participate in the All India Official Language Conference. There he stressed the need to retain English as the Union Official Language instead of Hindi. Five years later, Ramasamy travelled to North India to advocate the eradication of the caste system. In his last meeting at Thiagaraya Nagar, Chennai on 19 December 1973, Ramasamy declared a call for action to gain social equality and a dignified way of life. On 24 December 1973, Ramasamy died at the age of 94.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy spent over fifty years giving speeches, propagating the realisation that everyone is an equal citizen and the differences on the basis of caste and creed were man-made to keep the innocent and ignorant as underdogs in the society. Although Ramasamy's speeches were targeted towards the illiterate and more mundane masses, scores of educated people were also swayed. Ramasamy viewed reasoning as a special tool. According to him, all were blessed with this tool, but very few used it. Thus Ramasamy used reasoning with respect to subjects of social interest in his presentations to his audiences. Communal differences in Tamil society were considered by many to be deep-rooted features until Ramasamy came to the scene.


title: Periyar

text: The bedrock of Ramasamy's principles and the movements that he started was rationalism. He thought that an insignificant minority in society was exploiting the majority and trying to keep it in a subordinate position forever. He wanted the exploited to sit up and think about their position, and use their reason to realise that they were being exploited by a handful of people. If they started thinking, they would realise that they were human beings like the rest, that birth did not and should not endow superiority over others and that they must awaken themselves and do everything possible to improve their own lot.


title: Periyar

text: Likewise, Ramasamy explained that wisdom lies in thinking and that the spear-head of thinking is rationalism. On caste, he stated that no other living being harms or degrades its own class. But man, said to be a rational living being, does these evils. The differences, hatred, enmity, degradation, poverty, and wickedness, now prevalent in the society are due to lack of wisdom and rationalism and not due to God or the cruelty of time. Ramasamy had written in his books and magazines dozens of times of various occasions that the British rule is better than self-rule


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy also blamed the capitalists for their control of machineries, creating difficulties for the workers. According to his philosophy, rationalism, which has to lead the way for peaceful life to all, had resulted in causing poverty and worries to the people because of dominating forces. He stated that there is no use of simply acquiring titles or amassing wealth if one has no self-respect or scientific knowledge. An example he gave was the West sending messages to the planets, while the Tamil society in India were sending rice and cereals to their dead forefathers through the Brahmins.


title: Periyar

text: In a message to the Brahmin community, Ramasamy stated, "in the name of god, religion, and sastras you have duped us. We were the ruling people. Stop this life of cheating us from this year. Give room for rationalism and humanism". He added that "any opposition not based on rationalism, science, or experience will one day or another, reveal the fraud, selfishness, lies and conspiracies".


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy's philosophy of self-respect was based on his image of an ideal world and a universally accepted one. His philosophy preaches that human actions should be based on rational thinking. Further, the outcome of the natural instinct of human beings is to examine every object and every action and even nature with a spirit of inquiry, and to refuse to submit to anything irrational as equivalent to slavery. Thus, the philosophy of self-respect taught that human actions should be guided by reason, right and wrong should follow from rational thinking and conclusions drawn from reason should be respected under all circumstances. Freedom means respect to thoughts and actions considered 'right' by human beings on the basis of 'reason'. There is not much difference between 'freedom' and 'self-respect'.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy's foremost appeal to people was to develop self-respect. He preached that the Brahmins had monopolised and cheated other communities for decades and deprived them of self-respect. He stated that most Brahmins claimed to belong to a "superior" community with the reserved privilege of being in charge of temples and performing archanas. He felt that they were trying to reassert their control over religion by using their superior caste status to claim the exclusive privilege to touch idols or enter the sanctum sanctorum.


title: Periyar

text: As a rationalist and ardent social reformer, Ramasamy advocated forcefully throughout his life that women should be given their legitimate position in society as the equals of men and that they should be given good education and have the right to property. He thought age and social customs was not a bar in marrying women. He was keen that women should realise their rights and be worthy citizens of their country.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy fought against the orthodox traditions of marriage as suppression of women in Tamil Nadu and throughout the Indian sub-continent. Though arranged marriages were meant to enable a couple to live together throughout life, it was manipulated to enslave women. Much worse was the practice of child marriages practised throughout India at the time. It was believed that it would be a sin to marry after puberty. Another practice, which is prevalent today, is the dowry system where the bride's family is supposed to give the husband a huge payment for the bride. The purpose of this was to assist the newly wedded couple financially, but in many instances dowries were misused by bridegrooms. The outcome of this abuse turned to the exploitation of the bride's parents wealth, and in certain circumstances, lead to dowry deaths. There have been hundreds of thousands of cases where wives have been murdered, mutilated, and burned alive because the father of the bride was unable to make the dowry payment to the husband. Ramasamy fiercely stood up against this abuse meted out against women.


title: Periyar

text: Women in India also did not have rights to their families' or husbands' property. Ramasamy fought fiercely for this and also advocated for women to have the right to separate or divorce their husbands under reasonable circumstances. While birth control remained taboo in society of Ramasamy's time, he advocated for it not only for the health of women and population control, but for the liberation of women.


title: Periyar

text: He criticised the hypocrisy of chastity for women and argued that it should either apply also to men, or not at all for both genders. While fighting against this, Ramasamy advocated getting rid of the Devadasi system. In his view it was an example of a list of degradations of women, attaching them to temples for the entertainment of others, and as temple prostitutes. Further, for the liberation of women, Ramasamy pushed for their right to have an education and to join the armed services and the police force.


title: Periyar

text: According to biographer M.D. Gopalakrishnan, Ramasamy and his movement achieved a better status for women in Tamil society. Ramasamy held that, in matters of education and employment, there should be no difference between men and women. Gopalakrishnan states that Ramasamy's influence in the State departments and even the Center made it possible for women to join police departments and the army. Ramasamy also spoke out against child marriage.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy wanted thinking people to see their society as far from perfect and in urgent need of reform. He wanted the government, the political parties and social workers to identify the evils in society and boldly adopt measures to remove them. Ramasamy's philosophy did not differentiate social and political service. According to him, the first duty of a government is to run the social organisation efficiently, and the philosophy of religion was to organise the social system. Ramasamy stated that while Christian and Islamic religions were fulfilling this role, the Hindu religion remained totally unsuitable for social progress. He argued that the government was not for the people, but, in a "topsy-turvy" manner, the people were for the government. He attributed this situation to the state of the social system contrived for the advantage of a small group of people.


title: Periyar

text: One of the areas of Ramasamy's focus was on the upliftment of rural communities. In a booklet called "Village Uplift", Ramasamy pleaded for rural reform. At that time rural India still formed the largest part of the Indian subcontinent, in spite of the ongoing process of urbanisation. Thus, the distinction between rural and urban had meant an economic and social degradation for rural inhabitants. Ramasamy wanted to eradicate the concept of "village" as a discrimination word among places, just as the concept of "outcast" among social groups. Ramasamy advocated for a location where neither the name nor the situation or its conditions imply differences among people. He further advocated for the modernisation of villages by providing public facilities such as schools, libraries, radio stations, roads, bus transport, and police stations.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions to dominate Indian society, so he emphasised that individuals must first develop self-respect and learn to analyse propositions rationally. According to Ramasamy, a self-respecting rationalist would readily realise that the caste system had been stifling self-respect and therefore he or she would strive to get rid of this menace.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy stated that the caste system in South India is, due to Indo-Aryan influence, linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north. Ancient Tamil Nadu (part of Tamilakkam) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions ("Tinai"), determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living. Ramasamy also argued that birds, animals, and worms, which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes, or differences of high and low in their own species. But man, considered to be a rational being, was suffering from these because of religion and discrimination.


title: Periyar

text: The Samathuvapuram (Equality Village) social equality system introduced by the Government of Tamil Nadu in the late 1990s is named after Ramasamy.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy claimed that Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada came from the same mother language of Old Tamil. He explained that the Tamil language is called by four different names since it is spoken in four different Dravidian states. Nevertheless, current understanding of Dravidian languages contradicts such claims. For example, the currently known classification of Dravidian languages provides the following distinct classes: Southern (including Tamil–Malayalam, Kannada and Tulu); Central (including Telugu–Kui and Kolami–Parji); and, Northern (including Kurukh–Malto and Brahui).


title: Periyar

text: With relation to writing, Ramasamy stated that using the Tamil script about the arts, which are useful to the people in their life and foster knowledge, talent and courage, and propagating them among the masses, will enlighten the people. Further, he explained that it will enrich the language, and thus it can be regarded as a zeal for Tamil. Ramasamy also stated that if words of North Indian origin (Sanskrit) are removed from Telugu, Kannada, and Malayalam, only Tamil will be left. On the Brahmin usage of Tamil, he stated that the Tamil spoken by the Andhras and the Malayali people was far better than the Tamil spoken by the Brahmins. Ramasamy believed that Tamil language will make the Dravidian people unite under the banner of Tamil culture, and that it will make the Kannadigas, Andhras and the Malayalees be vigilant. With regards to a Dravidian alliance under a common umbrella language, Ramasamy stated that "a time will come for unity. This will go on until there is an end to the North Indian domination. We shall reclaim an independent sovereign state for us".


title: Periyar

text: At the same time, Ramasamy was also known to have made controversial remarks on the Tamil language and people from time to time. On one occasion, he referred to the Tamil people as "barbarians" and the Tamil language as the "language of barbarians". However, Anita Diehl explains that Ramasamy made these remarks on Tamil because it had no respective feminine verbal forms. But Anita Diehl's explanation doesn't match with Ramasamy's own explanation. Ramasamy himself explained reasons many times in his speeches and writings, for instance, an excerpt from his book Thamizhum, Thamizharum(Tamil and Tamil people) reads, "I say Tamil as barbarian language. Many get angry with me for saying so. But no one ponders over why I say so. They say Tamil is a 3,000 to 4,000 years-old language and they boast about this. Precisely that is what the reason why I call Tamil as barbarian language. People should understand the term primitive and barbarism. What was the status of people living 4,000 years ago and now? We are just blindly sticking to old glories. No one has come forward to reform Tamil language and work for its growth."


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy's ideas on Tamil alphabet reforms included those such as the reasons for the vowel 'ஈ' (i) having a cursive and looped representation of the short form 'இ' (I). In stone inscriptions from 400 or 500 years ago, many Tamil letters are found in other shapes. As a matter of necessity and advantage to cope with printing technology, Ramasamy thought that it was sensible to change a few letters, reduce the number of letters, and alter a few signs. He further explained that the older and more divine a language and its letters were said to be, the more they needed reform. Because of changes brought about by means of modern transport and international contact, and happenings that have attracted words and products from many countries, foreign words and their pronunciations have been assimilated into Tamil quite easily. Just as a few compound characters have separate signs to indicate their length as in ' கா ', ' கே ' (kA:, kE:), Ramasamy questioned why other compound characters like ' கி ', ' கீ ', 'கு ', ' கூ ' (kI, ki:, kU, ku:) (indicated integrally as of now), shouldn't also have separate signs. Further, changing the shape of letters, creating new symbols and adding new letters and similarly, dropping those that are redundant, were quite essential according to Ramasamy. Thus, the glory and excellence of a language and its script depend on how easily they can be understood or learned and on nothing else"


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy hailed the "Thirukkural" as a valuable scripture which contained many scientific and philosophical truths. He also praised the secular nature of the work. Ramasamy praised Thiruvalluvar for his description of God as a formless entity with only positive attributes. He also suggested that one who reads the Thirukkural will become a Self-respecter, absorbing knowledge in politics, society, and economics. According to him, though certain items in this ancient book of ethics may not relate to today, it permitted such changes for modern society.


title: Periyar

text: On caste, he believed that the Kural illustrates how Vedic laws of Manu were against the Sudras and other communities of the Dravidian race. On the other hand, Ramasamy opined that the ethics from the Kural was comparable to the Christian Bible. The Dravidar Kazhagam adopted the Thirukkural and advocated that Thiruvalluvar's Kural alone was enough to educate the people of the country.


title: Periyar

text: One of Ramasamy's quotes on the Thirukkural from Veeramani's "Collected Works of Ramasamy" was "when Dravida Nadu (Dravidistan) was a victim to Indo-Aryan deceit, Thirukkural was written by a great Dravidian Thiruvalluvar to free the Dravidians".


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy also asserted that due to the secular nature of Thirukkural, it has the capacity to be the common book of faith for all humanity and can be kept on par or above the holy books of all religions.


title: Periyar

text: The Dravidian-Aryan conflict was believed to be a continuous historical phenomenon that started when the Aryans first set their foot in the Dravidian lands. Even a decade before the idea of separation appeared, Ramasamy stated that, "as long as Aryan religion, Indo-Aryan domination, propagation of Aryan Vedas and Aryan "Varnashrama" existed, there was need for a "Dravidian Progressive Movement" and a "Self-Respect Movement". Ramasamy became very concerned about the growing North Indian domination over the south which appeared to him no different from foreign domination. He wanted to secure the fruits of labour of the Dravidians to the Dravidians, and lamented that fields such as political, economic, industrial, social, art, and spiritual were dominated by the north for the benefit of the North Indians. Thus, with the approach of independence from Britain, this fear that North India would take the place of Britain to dominate South India became more and more intense.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy was clear about the concept of a separate nation, comprising Tamil areas, that is part of the then existing Madras Presidency with adjoining areas into a federation guaranteeing protection of minorities, including religious, linguistic, and cultural freedom of the people. A separatist conference was held in June 1940 at Kanchipuram when Ramasamy released the map of the proposed "Dravida Nadu", but failed to get British approval. On the contrary, Ramasamy received sympathy and support from people such as Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar and Muhammad Ali Jinnah for his views on the Congress, and for his opposition to Hindi. They then decided to convene a movement to resist the Congress.


title: Periyar

text: The concept of "Dravida Nadu" was later modified down to Tamil Nadu. This led to a proposal for a union of the Tamil people of not only South India but including those of Ceylon as well. In 1953, Ramasamy helped to preserve Madras as the capital of Tamil Nadu, which later was the name he substituted for the more general Dravida Nadu. In 1955 Ramasamy threatened to burn the national flag, but on Chief Minister Kamaraj's pledge that Hindi should not be made compulsory, he postponed the action. In his speech of 1957 called "Suthantara Tamil Nadu En?" (Why an independent Tamil Nadu?), he criticised the Central Government of India, inducing thousands of Tamilians to burn the constitution of India. The reason for this action was that Ramasamy held the Government responsible for maintaining the caste system. After stating reasons for separation and turning down opinions against it, he closed his speech with a "war cry" to join and burn the map of India on 5 June. Ramasamy was sentenced to six months imprisonment for burning the Indian constitution.


title: Periyar

text: Advocacy of such a nation became illegal when separatist demands were banned by law in 1957. Regardless of these measures, a "Dravida Nadu Separation Day" was observed on 17 September 1960 resulting in numerous arrests. However, Ramasamy resumed his campaign in 1968. He wrote an editorial on 'Tamil Nadu for Tamilians' in which he stated, that by nationalism only Brahmins had prospered and nationalism had been developed to abolish the rights of Tamils. He advocated that there was need to establish a "Tamil Nadu Freedom Organization" and that it was necessary to work towards it.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy was a radical advocate of anti-Brahmanism. Ramasamy's ideology of anti-Brahmanism is quite often confused as being anti-Brahmin. Even a non-Brahmin who supports inequality based on caste was seen as a supporter of Brahmanism. Ramasamy called on both Brahmins and non-Brahmins to shun Brahmanism.


title: Periyar

text: In 1920, when the Justice Party came to power, Brahmins occupied about 70 percent of the high level posts in the government. After reservation was introduced by the Justice Party, it reversed this trend, allowing non-Brahmins to rise in the government of the Madras Presidency. Ramasamy, through the Justice Party, advocated against the imbalance of the domination of Brahmins who constituted only 3 percent of the population, over government jobs, judiciary and the Madras University. His Self-Respect Movement espoused rationalism and atheism and the movement had currents of anti-Brahminism. Furthermore, Ramasamy stated that:


title: Periyar

text: "Our Dravidian movement does not exist against the Brahmins or the Bania. If anyone thinks so, I would only pity him. But we will not tolerate the ways in which Brahminism and Baniaism is degrading Dravidanadu. Whatever support they may have from the government, neither myself nor my movement will be of cowardice".


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy also criticised Subramanya Bharathi in the journal "Ticutar" for portraying Mother Tamil as a sister of Sanskrit in his poems:


title: Periyar

text: "They say Bharati is an immortal poet...Even if a rat dies in an akrakāram, they would declare it to be immortal. ... of Tamilnadu praises him. Why should this be so? Supposedly because he sang fulsome praises of Tamil and Tamilnadu. What else could he sing? His own mother tongue, Sanskrit, has been dead for years. What other language did he know? He cannot sing in Sanskrit. ... He says Tamilnadu is the land of Aryas."


title: Periyar

text: However, Ramaswamy did make incendiary statements towards the encouragement of violence against the Brahmin community: "Pambaium parpanaium partha parpanai adi" - If you see a snake and a Brahmin, beat the Brahmin.


title: Periyar

text: In the Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924, Ramasamy and Gandhi both cooperated and confronted each other in socio-political action. Ramasamy and his followers emphasised the difference in point of view between Gandhi and himself on the social issues, such as fighting the Untouchability Laws and eradication of the caste system.


title: Periyar

text: According to the booklet "Gandhi and Periyar", Ramasamy wrote in his paper "Kudi Arasu" in 1925, reporting on the fact that Gandhi opposed resolutions for the maintaining of caste and Untouchability Laws which would spoil his efforts to bring about Hindu-Muslim unity. From this, Gandhi learned the need for pleasing the Brahmins if anything was to be achieved.


title: Periyar

text: Peiryar in his references to Gandhi used opportunities to present Gandhi as, on principle, serving the interests of the Brahmins. In 1927, Ramasamy and Gandhi met at Bangalore to discuss this matter. The main difference between them came out when Ramasamy stood for the total eradication of Hinduism to which Gandhi objected saying that Hinduism is not fixed in doctrines but can be changed. In the "Kudi Arasu", Ramasamy explained that:


title: Periyar

text: "With all his good qualities, Gandhi did not bring the people forward from foolish and evil ways. His murderer was an educated man. Therefore nobody can say this is a time of high culture. If you eat poison, you will die. If electricity hits the body, you will die. If you oppose the Brahmin, you will die. Gandhi did not advocate the eradication of Varnasrama "Dharma" structure, but sees in it a task for the humanisation of society and social change possible within its structure. The consequence of this would be continued high-caste leadership. Gandhi adapted Brahmins to social change without depriving them of their leadership".


title: Periyar

text: Gandhi accepted "karma" in the sense that "the "Untouchables" reap the reward of their "karma", but was against discrimination against them using the revaluing term "Harijans". As shown in the negotiations at Vaikom his methods for abolishing discrimination were: to stress on the orthodox, inhumane treatment of "Untouchables"; to secure voluntary lifting of the ban by changing the hearts of caste Hindus; and to work within a Hindu framework of ideas.


title: Periyar

text: On the Temple Entry issue, Gandhi never advocated the opening of "Garbha Griha" to "Harijans" in consequence of his Hindu belief. These sources which can be labelled "pro-Periyar" with the exception of M. Mahar and D.S. Sharma, clearly show that Ramasamy and his followers emphasised that Ramasamy was the real fighter for the removal of Untouchability and the true upliftment of Hairjans, whereas Gandhi was not. This did not prevent Ramasamy from having faith in Gandhi on certain matters.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy was generally regarded as a pragmatic propagandist who attacked the evils of religious influence on society, mainly what he regarded as Brahmin domination. He offered criticism of both Dharmic and Abrahamic religions.


title: Periyar

text: At a young age, he felt that some people used religion only as a mask to deceive innocent people and regarded it as his life's mission to warn people against superstitions and priests. Anita Diehl explains that Ramasamy cannot be called an atheist philosopher. Ramasamy, however, qualified what the term "atheist" implies in his address on philosophy. He repudiated the term as without real sense: "...the talk of the atheist should be considered thoughtless and erroneous. The thing I call god... that makes all people equal and free, the god that does not stop free thinking and research, the god that does not ask for money, flattery and temples can certainly be an object of worship. For saying this much I have been called an atheist, a term that has no meaning".


title: Periyar

text: Anita Diehl explains that Ramasamy saw faith as compatible with social equality and did not oppose religion itself. In a book on revolution published in 1961, Ramasamy stated: "be of help to people. Do not use treachery or deceit. Speak the truth and do not cheat. That indeed is service to God."


title: Periyar

text: On Hinduism, Ramasamy believed that it was a religion with no distinctive sacred book (Bhagawad Gita) or origins, but an imaginary faith preaching the "superiority" of the Brahmins, the inferiority of the Shudras, and the untouchability of the Dalits (Panchamas). Maria Misra, a lecturer at Oxford University, compares him to the philosophes, stating: "his contemptuous attitude to the baleful influence of Hinduism in Indian public life is strikingly akin to the anti-Catholic diatribes of the enlightenment philosophes". In 1955 Ramasamy was arrested for his public action of burning pictures of Rama in public places as a symbolic protest against the Indo-Aryan domination and degradation of the Dravidian leadership according to the Ramayana epic. Ramasamy also shoed images of Krishna and Rama, stating that they were Aryan gods that considered the Dravidian Shudras to be "sons of prostitutes".


title: Periyar

text: Periyar was also critical of Christianity and Islam. He said "It will be more difficult to abolish Islam and Christianity from society", and "What was said 2000 years ago can not be relevant today". He added that "Heaven in all religion is a way of collecting money. Can you accept Christ according to reason?"


title: Periyar

text: "Muslims are following the ancient philosophies of the Dravidians. The Arabic word for Dravidian religion is Islam. When Brahmanism was imposed in this country, it was Mohammad Nabi who opposed it, by instilling the Dravidian religion's policies as Islam in the minds of the people"


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy viewed Christianity as similar to the monotheistic faith of Islam. He explained that the Christian faith says that there can be only one God which has no name or shape. Ramasamy took an interest in Martin Luther - both he and his followers wanted to liken him and his role to that of the European reformer. Thus Christian views, as expressed for example in "The Precepts of Jesus" (1820) by Ram Mohan Roy, had at least an indirect influence on Ramasamy.


title: Periyar

text: Ramasamy also found Buddhism a basis for his philosophy, though he did not accept that religion. It was again an alternative in the search for self-respect and the object was to get liberation from the discrimination of Hinduism. The fact that Buddha denied the classical Hindu concepts of Brahman, “god” and Atman soul, appealed to Periyar and so also the fact that Buddha-Bodhi could be interpreted as wisdom, sense and that early Buddhism thus advocated reason or enlightenment. Periyar linked this interpretation with his rationalist concepts. The search for basis began in the course of the movement and was intensified soon after independence. It was again an experiment in the search for self-respect and the object was to get liberation from the shudrahood of Hinduism. Periyar stated that what he was propagating could be found in the teachings of Buddha given 2000 years ago and wanted to revive them as an independent movement. Ramasamy claimed that Buddha Vihars at Srirangam, Kanchi, Palani and Tirupati were converted into Hindu temples.


title: Periyar

text: Through Ramasamy's movement, "Temple Entry Acts" of 1924, 1931, and up to 1950 were created for non-Brahmins. Another accomplishment took place during the 1970s when Tamil replaced Sanskrit as the temple language in Tamil Nadu, while Dalits finally became eligible for priesthood.


title: Periyar

text: When B. Munuswamy Naidu became the Chief Minister of Madras Presidency in 1930, he endorsed the inclusion of Brahmins in the Justice Party, saying:


title: Periyar

text: So long as we exclude one community, we cannot as a political party speak on behalf of, or claim to represent all the people of our presidency. If, as we hope, provincial autonomy is given to the provinces as a result of the reforms that may be granted, it should be essential that our Federation should be in a position to claim to be a truly representative body of all communities. What objection can there be to admit such Brahmins as are willing to subscribe to the aims and objects of our Federation? It may be that the Brahmins may not join even if the ban is removed. But surely our Federation will not thereafter be open to objection on the ground that it is an exclusive organisation.


title: Periyar

text: Though certain members supported the resolution, a faction in the Justice Party known as the "Ginger Group" opposed the resolution and eventually voted it down. Ramasamy, who was then an observer in the Justice Party, criticised Munuswamy Naidu, saying:


title: Periyar

text: At a time when non-Brahmins in other parties were gradually coming over to the Justice Party, being fed up with the Brahmin's methods and ways of dealing with political questions, it was nothing short of folly to think of admitting him into the ranks of the Justice Party.


title: Periyar

text: This factionism continued until 1932 when Munuswamy Naidu stepped down as the Chief Minister of Madras and the Raja of Bobbili became the chief minister.


title: Periyar

text: In 2021, the Madurai Bench of the Madras High Court directed the state government to remove a false information from school and college syllabus that claimed that the UNESCO had conferred the title "Socrates of South-East Asia" on Periyar.


title: Periyar

text: After the death of Ramasamy in 1973, conferences were held throughout Tamil Nadu for a week in January 1974. The same year Ramasamy's wife, Maniyammai, the new head of the "Dravidar Kazhagam", set fire to the effigies of 'Rama', 'Sita' and 'Lakshmana' at Ramasamy Thidal, Madras. This was in retaliation to the "Ramaleela" celebrations where effigies of 'Ravana', 'Kumbakarna' and 'Indrajit' were burnt in New Delhi. For this act she was imprisoned. During the 1974 May Day meetings held at different places in Tamil Nadu, a resolution urging the Government to preserve 80 percent of jobs for Tamils was passed. Soon after this, a camp was held at Ramasamy Mansion in Tiruchirapalli to train young men and women to spread the ideals of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" in rural areas.


title: Periyar

text: On Ramasamy's birthday on 17 September 1974, Ramasamy's "Rationalist Library" and "Research Library" and "Research Institute" was opened by the then Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi. This library contained Ramasamy's rationalist works, the manuscripts of Ramasamy and his recorded speeches. Also during the same year Ramasamy's ancestral home in Erode, was dedicated as a commemoration building. On 20 February 1977, the opening function of "Ramasamy Building" in Madras was held. At the meeting which the Managing Committee of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" held, there on that day, it was decided to support the candidates belonging to the "Janata Party", the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam" (DMK), and the "Marxist Party" during the General Elections.


title: Periyar

text: On 16 March 1978, Maniyammai died. The "Managing Committee of the Dravidar Kazhagam" elected K. Veeramani as General Secretary of the "Dravidar Kazhagam" on 17 March 1978. From then on, the "Periyar-Maniyammai Educational and Charitable Society" started the "Periyar Centenary Women's Polytechnic" at Thanjavur on 21 September 1980. On 8 May 1982, the "College for Correspondence Education" was started under the auspices of the "Periyar Rationalist Propaganda Organization".


title: Periyar

text: Over the years, Ramasamy influenced Tamil Nadu's political party heads such as C.N. Annadurai and M. Karunanidhi of the "Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam"' (DMK), V. Gopalswamy founder of the Marumalarchi Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (MDMK), S. Ramadoss founder of the Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK), Thol. Thirumavalavan, founder of the Dalit Panthers of India (DPI), and "Dravidar Kazhagam's" K. Veeramani. Nationally, Ramasamy is main ideological icon for India's third largest voted party, Bahujan Samaj Party and its founder Kanshi Ram. Other political figures influenced by Ramasamy were former Congress minister K. Kamaraj, former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh Mayawati. Ramasamy's life and teachings have also influenced writers and poets such as Kavignar Inkulab, and Bharathidasan and actors such as Kamal Haasan and Sathyaraj. Noted Tamil Comedian N. S. Krishnan was a close friend and follower of Ramasamy. W. P. A. Soundarapandian Nadar was a close confidant of Ramasamy and encouraged Nadars to be a part of the Self-Respect Movement. A writer from Uttar Pradesh, Lalai Singh Yadav translated Ramasamy's notable works into Hindi.


title: Periyar

text: Sathyaraj and Khushboo Sundar starred in a government-sponsored film "Periyar" (2007). Directed by Gnana Rajasekaran, the film was screened in Malaysia on 1 May 2007 and was screened at the Goa International Film Festival in November that year.


title: Periyar

text: Sathyaraj reprised his role as Periyar in the film "Kalavadiya Pozhudugal" directed by Thangar Bachan which released in 2017.


title: Michael Essien

text: Michael Kojo Essien (born 3 December 1982) is a Ghanaian former professional footballer who played as a midfielder and is currently a member of Danish Superliga club Nordsjælland's coaching staff. He was also capped for the Ghana national team more than 50 times. During his prime, Essien was considered one of the best midfielders in the world.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien started his career playing for Liberty Professionals in Ghana. In 2000, he moved to France to join Bastia, where he would spend three seasons and appear in over 60 matches before joining Ligue 1 title holders Lyon in 2003. At Lyon, Essien won back-to-back league titles in 2003–04 and 2004–05, and won Ligue 1 Player of the Year in 2005. During his five-year stint in France, he acquired French citizenship. In 2005, Essien signed with Premier League side Chelsea for a £24.4 million transfer fee and, at the time of his signing, was the most expensive African footballer in history. At Chelsea, Essien helped the club win the Premier League in 2006 and 2010, as well as three FA Cups and one League Cup. He won the UEFA Champions League in 2011–12, while also placing as runner-up in the 2007–08 UEFA Champions League. He has won the Chelsea Goal of the Season award twice, in the 2006–07 and 2008–09 seasons.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien is a former Ghanaian international. At youth level, he represented his country at the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship and 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship, with the latter team finishing as runner-up. Essien made his senior team debut in January 2002 and has represented his nation at three Africa Cup of Nations tournaments. Essien has also represented Ghana at the 2006 and 2014 FIFA World Cups.


title: Michael Essien

text: Born in Accra to Aba Gyandoh and James Essien, Essien attended Gomoa Nyanyano DC Primary and JSS. He began his football career after graduating from St. Augustine's College in Cape Coast, playing at a local club called Liberty Professionals.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien broke through when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand. European scouts began to take notice, and Essien had a trial at Manchester United in April 2000. He played in the club's under-17 team's defeat to Derby County.


title: Michael Essien

text: Manchester United offered him a contract, but he was ineligible to obtain a work permit in the United Kingdom. He, therefore, considered joining Belgian feeder club Royal Antwerp until he was eligible to move to England. However, his mother meanwhile preferred a move to France instead.


title: Michael Essien

text: In July 2000, Essien was signed by Division 1 club Bastia and made his debut for the club on 30 September 2000 in a league match against Metz, appearing as a substitute for captain Laurent Casanova. Essien did not immediately command a consistent place in the team, being deployed in various positions in the back four. He ultimately finished the 2000–01 campaign with only 13 league appearances and one goal, which came in the return leg against Metz in a 3–2 defeat. The following season, Essien was given an opportunity by manager Robert Nouzaret to play in central midfield and flourished in this new role. Essien formed midfield partnerships with Nicolas Dieuze and Cyril Jeunechamp and scored vital goals in victories over Nantes, Lorient and Guingamp. On 12 January 2002, Essien scored the equalising goal against Marseille at the Stade Vélodrome to even the match at 2–2. He also scored a goal in the Coupe de la Ligue against Le Mans. Future Chelsea teammate Didier Drogba converted a goal for Le Mans in the match.


title: Michael Essien

text: In the 2002–03 season, Essien developed into an undisputed starter under new manager Gérard Gili. However, his tenacious and physical style of play also began to take form as he collected a staggering 12 yellow cards in league play. He opened the new campaign by scoring on his season debut against Lens in a 1–1 draw and converted five more league goals, which included one in a surprising 2–0 victory over the defending champions Lyon. Following the campaign, in which Bastia finished mid-table for the third consecutive season, Essien drew interest from Paris Saint-Germain, Lyon and Marseille.


title: Michael Essien

text: Paris Saint-Germain made Bastia the best offer and it was accepted. However, Essien rejected PSG's contract offer, instead of agreeing to terms with the two-time defending champions Lyon, who paid Bastia €7.8 million for the transfer. Upon his arrival, Essien was assigned the number 4 shirt and played as a box-to-box midfielder, which allowed him the freedom to protect and assist playmaker Juninho while defensive midfielders Edmílson and Mahamadou Diarra assisted the defence and directed the distribution. Essien made his club debut in the team's 2003 Trophée des champions match against Auxerre on 27 July 2003. In just the fifth minute of play, Essien scored his first goal for the club, and four minutes later, Diarra scored a goal. Lyon won the match 2–1, giving Essien his first club honour as a player. In just the third match of the campaign, Essien scored his first league goal for the club in a 3–1 victory over Monaco. He featured regularly for the rest of the campaign, making 33 more league appearances and scoring two more goals, against Bordeaux and Rennes respectively. On 23 May 2004, Lyon sealed their third consecutive league title by defeating Lille 3–0 at the Stade Gerland. Essien appeared as a substitute in the match. In the UEFA Champions League, Essien appeared in eight of the ten matches Lyon contested and the club was ultimately eliminated by eventual champions, Porto.


title: Michael Essien

text: In his final season at Lyon, Essien appeared in all but one league match as Lyon were crowned champions for the fourth straight season. The match he missed was as a result of a red card endured in the previous league match. Essien also scored three goals and collected 11 yellow cards, tied for second-worst in the league. His performances in the league resulted in him being voted the 2005 Player of the Year by France's National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP). Essien also helped Lyon to reach the quarter-finals of the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League where he put in dynamic performances and scored five goals in the tournament. Lyon was eventually eliminated from the tournament in a penalty shoot-out against PSV. At the end of the season, he was named Ligue 1 Player of the Year. His honour started a record streak of UNFP Player of the Year awards for Lyon players, with the streak coming to an end in 2008 following Karim Benzema's victory. He was also nominated for the 2005 FIFA World Player of the Year Award. He placed 22nd in 2005. His acclaim drew attention from Chelsea which he eventually signed for.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 14 August 2005, Lyon and Chelsea agreed a £24.4 million fee for Essien, ending one of the longest-running transfer sagas. At the time, the fee made Essien Chelsea's most expensive signing of all-time, surpassing the £24 million Chelsea paid for Didier Drogba the previous summer. The transfer went through on 19 August. The transfer came under scrutiny in the Stevens inquiry report, which expressed concerns because of the lack of co-operation from agents Pini Zahavi and Barry Silkman.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien made his debut as a second-half substitute against Arsenal on 21 August 2005, wearing the number 5 on his shirt. The match ended in a 1–0 victory to Chelsea. He made an assist in his full debut against West Bromwich Albion, and he replaced the injured Claude Makélélé in the defensive midfield role against Sunderland in the 2–0 win on 10 September 2005. He soon cemented his place in José Mourinho's side, starting in 31 domestic league matches, as well as 11 appearances in other cup competitions.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 15 December 2005, Essien was handed a two-match ban by UEFA for a controversial tackle on Dietmar Hamann, which resulted in his suspension from Chelsea's Champions League second round tie with eventual European champions Barcelona. Essien apologised to Hamann for the challenge, stating that while he desires to be perceived as a player who "unsettles" opponents, he was not a malicious or an unsporting player; Hamann publicly accepted Essien's apology. In January 2006, Essien was himself stretchered off the field after a challenge from West Ham United captain Nigel Reo-Coker, and was sidelined for three weeks.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien scored his first goal for Chelsea from a low cross from Shaun Wright-Phillips on 11 March 2006, in a 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. His second goal came on 17 April 2006, against Everton with a powerful strike after an assertive burst through the defensive line. Essien ended his maiden season in England with two goals, both in the Premier League.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien was nominated for the 2006 FIFA World Player of the Year Award on 12 October 2006, where he placed 22nd. One week later, he was nominated for the 2006 Ballon d'Or. He was voted as the third Best African Footballer of the Year in 2006, a feat he also achieved in 2005. He won the 2006 BBC African footballer of the year award.


title: Michael Essien

text: The following season, Essien scored several important goals, including his first Champions League goal for Chelsea in a 2–0 victory over Werder Bremen on 12 September 2006. Later in the competition, Essien scored a late winner in the quarter-final second leg against Valencia at the Mestalla Stadium to send Chelsea through to the semifinals with a 2–1 victory on the night and a 3–2 win on aggregate. It was his first match back in the team after several weeks out with a knee injury. Essien also scored a stunning late equaliser at home against Arsenal on 10 December 2006, as the match was going to end Chelsea's long unbeaten run.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 15 May 2007, Chelsea fans voted Essien as Chelsea Player of the Year for his contributions in the 2006–07 season, becoming the first African to receive the honour. His late dramatic equalising goal against Arsenal was also voted as Chelsea Goal of the Season for 2006–07.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 12 August 2007, Essien scored the winner with his first goal of the 2007–08 Premier League campaign, as Chelsea defeated Birmingham City to set an English record for unbeaten league matches at home, eclipsing Liverpool's previous top-flight record of 63 sets between 1978 and 1981.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 10 October 2007, Essien was nominated for the prestigious 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Award for the third consecutive year and on 21 October 2007, he was also nominated for the 2007 Ballon d'Or Award for the third consecutive year. He was voted 15th Best Player in the World at the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Awards. On 12 December 2007, he was nominated for the 2007 African Footballer of the Year, the third consecutive time he had been nominated. He was runner-up to that year's winner, Frédéric Kanouté.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 22 July 2008, Essien signed a new five-year deal with Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2013. He also extended his contract on 12 March 2007.


title: Michael Essien

text: It was feared Essien would miss the 2008–09 Premier League season after sustaining anterior cruciate ligament damage on 5 September while playing for Ghana. However, on 7 March 2009, he came on as a substitute in the second half of the FA Cup match against Coventry City. In his second match back from the knee injury, Essien scored just before half-time to give Chelsea a vital away goal against Juventus in the Champions League first knockout round. Chelsea went on the draw the match 2–2 and through to the quarter-finals 3–2 on aggregate. He made his first league start from injury against Manchester City, scoring the only goal in the match.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 6 May 2009, Essien scored a stunning left-footed volley in the second leg of the Champions League semifinal against Barcelona, a tie that Chelsea ultimately lost due to the away goal rule. The goal was later voted as Chelsea's Goal of the Season by the club's fans.


title: Michael Essien

text: In the 2009–10 Premier League season, Essien put in an excellent performance against Blackburn Rovers on 24 October 2009 and scored his first goal of the season with a swerving 35-yard shot on 52 minutes in a 5–0 victory at Stamford Bridge. He scored his first brace for Chelsea against Wolverhampton Wanderers with a header and a low shot from outside the box and came close to completing his first hat-trick for the club with a flurry of second-half shots, one of which was tipped onto the bar by Wolves goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey. Essien was injured on international duty during the 2010 African Nations Cup and missed the remainder of the English domestic season. On 4 June 2010, he signed a two-year extension to his existing contract which would have kept him at the club until 2015. Essien returned to action on 17 July 2010 in a friendly against Crystal Palace and scored the only goal of the match to give Chelsea the win.


title: Michael Essien

text: After missing the 2010 FIFA World Cup through injury, Essien had a bright start to the season for Chelsea. He scored the only goal in a pre-season friendly win against Crystal Palace and was an ever-present in Chelsea's unbeaten month of August. He scored a brace against West Ham United, and he scored against MŠK Žilina in the UEFA Champions League. Essien also put in impressive performances against Marseille, Blackburn Rovers and Fulham, the latter a match in which he scored the only goal and received a red card. However, Essien would again incur an injury and missed two months of the season, during which Chelsea won just one out of nine matches. He returned to score in the penalty shoot-out loss in the FA Cup against Everton but ultimately had a poor second half of the season. After Chelsea's final match, the Ghana Football Association announced Essien had returned to the international squad.


title: Michael Essien

text: In pre-season training for the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus, undergoing surgery on 11 July 2011. His recovery was said to take up to six months. However, he began training lightly in late November 2011 and made his comeback on 9 January 2012, playing 75 minutes of the reserves' 3–2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion. He made his 150th Premier League appearance for Chelsea as a substitute in a 1–0 win over Sunderland. On 21 January 2012, Essien featured as late substitute in Chelsea's 0–0 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road.


title: Michael Essien

text: Due to missing most of the beginning half of the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien was unable to gain favour with manager André Villas-Boas. On 21 February 2012, during a Champions League match against Napoli, Villas-Boas left Frank Lampard, Essien and Ashley Cole on the substitutes' bench. Chelsea lost 3–1 and the club's technical director asked for an explanation of the team selection on behalf of Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich. On 4 March 2012, following a 1–0 league defeat against West Brom which left Chelsea three points adrift of Arsenal in the battle for fourth place in the Premier League, Villas-Boas' employment was terminated by Chelsea, with assistant manager Roberto Di Matteo being appointed as caretaker manager on an interim basis until the end of the season. Di Matteo immediately showed favour towards veteran Chelsea players like Essien, Lampard and John Terry. Subsequently, Essien started in Chelsea's second leg champions league fixture against Napoli, with Chelsea winning 4–1 – and 5–4 on aggregate – in an entertaining match allowing Chelsea to advance to the quarter-final, where they met Benfica. Essien subsequently remained an unused substitute in Chelsea's Champions League run, culminating in "the Blues"' victory over Bayern Munich in the final, making Chelsea the first London-based club to win the title.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 31 August 2012, Essien signed a season-long loan deal with Real Madrid, reuniting him with his former manager at Chelsea, José Mourinho. At his introductory press conference with Real Madrid, Mourinho affectionally referred to Essien as "his son" while Essien referred to Mourinho as his "Daddy". On 3 November, Essien scored his first goal for Real Madrid. During the last match of the season – and Essien's last game as a Madrid player – Essien scored his second goal for Madrid, which he dedicated to Mourinho.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 2 June 2015, Essien signed a two-year contract with Greek club Panathinaikos. The deal made him the club's highest-paid player, with an annual salary of €800,000. He spent the first three months of the season recovering from a leg injury. He was due to make his debut on 21 November 2015 against Panathinaikos' archrivals Olympiacos, but the match was cancelled. He played his first match one week later. On 24 January 2016, he scored his first goal for Panathinaikos in a 2–0 away league win over Levadiakos. After a season in Greece, Essien was omitted from Panathinaikos' squad for the 2016–17 season, with the expectation he would be released from his contract. His termination by the club was confirmed almost three months later after the two parties reached a mutual agreement over his release.


title: Michael Essien

text: After the agreement was reached and Essien was released from his contract, the club failed to remit the money owed to him and Essien appealed to the competent court for football affairs in Greece, which ordered Panathinaikos to pay him the outstanding sum of about €36,000 or face the deduction of three points in the coming 2018/19 competition.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 13 March 2017, Essien joined the Indonesian club side Persib Bandung, signing a one-year contract with an option to extend for an additional year. He took the number 5 shirt for the 2017 Liga 1 season, the same number he wore during his nine years at Chelsea. Speaking about his move to Indonesia, Essien told the club's official website, "I hope I am the prelude to other world players moving to Indonesia." On 22 April, he scored his first goal from the header in a 2–2 draw over PS TNI.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 17 March 2018, Persib's club chief executive, Zainuri Hasyim said that Persib has now released Essien because the club already filling their maximum quota of four foreign players based on the PSSI's regulation.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 16 March 2019, Essien signed a one-and-a-half-year contract with Sabail FK of the Azerbaijan Premier League, which will also see him coach their U19 team.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien's international career started with the Ghana under-17 national team, the "Black Starlets" when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand and won the bronze medal. In 2001, despite being one of the youngest players in the tournament, Essien participated in the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship with the "Black Satellites" in Argentina, where the nation finished runners-up to Argentina. His exceptional performances captured the attention of many and was widely tipped to be one of Africa's next rising stars.


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien made his competitive senior debut in the 2002 Africa Cup of Nations against Morocco on 21 January 2002. but had played for Ghana in a pre-tournament friendly against Egypt on 4 January 2002.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 16 May 2006, Essien was selected to be part of the team that represented Ghana at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. He played in midfield with team captain Stephen Appiah and Sulley Muntari. Essien played in Ghana's 2–0 defeat to Italy, their 2–0 victory over the Czech Republic, and the 2–1 victory over the United States, and helped Ghana become the only African team to reach the second-round of the 2006 World Cup. However, he was suspended for Ghana's second round match against Brazil and could only watch as Ghana lost 3–0. Upon the team's return to Ghana, Essien said the team had gained invaluable experience and would be aiming to make the next finals, held in Africa for the first time in the tournament's history at the 2010 World Cup.


title: Michael Essien

text: In the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, Essien turned in another strong performance, driving the team to the semifinals with his power-packed performances. In the quarter-final against Nigeria, when team captain John Mensah was dismissed on the stroke of the hour for a professional foul on Nigeria's Peter Odemwingie, Essien assumed the captaincy for the remainder of the match as Ghana eventually won 2–1. He was voted as an All-Star Player during the tournament. The Team of the Tournament was decided by the Technical Study Group (TSG) after careful observations of all the tournament's matches.


title: Michael Essien

text: During an international match played against Libya on 5 September 2008, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament playing for Ghana in the World Cup qualification stage and was out of action for six months, missing the majority of the 2008–09 season, before returning on 4 March to play for Chelsea Reserves against Aston Villa Reserves. He scored the last goal in the 4–3 loss. He still managed to take part in 10 of Ghana's 11 qualification matches, amassing more than 800 minutes of game time as Ghana finished at the top of their group to seal qualification to the 2010 World Cup. However, it was announced on 27 May 2010 that Essien would miss the World Cup after he was told he would not fully recover from his knee injury until the end of July, more than two weeks after the tournament was to end. Since then, Essien has announced that he will be standing down from the Ghana national side for the near future to focus on his career with Chelsea, having suffered two significant injuries while playing for Ghana in recent years. Having recovered from those injuries, Essien subsequently promised his availability to his nation "very soon".


title: Michael Essien

text: Essien returned to Ghana's squad in August 2013 for the team's final 2014 World Cup qualifiers. He appeared as a second-half substitute in a 2–1 defeat of Zambia as the "Black Stars" secured qualification to the final round. He started in both play-off matches against Egypt and was named in Ghana's squad for the tournament finals. He made one appearance, coming on as a second-half substitute in the opening 2–1 defeat to the United States.


title: Michael Essien

text: In July 2018, Essien has announced his retirement from international football, after over 12 years of active service with Ghana. He said that he even retired before the 2014 FIFA World Cup but he was called back by former Ghana coach, James Kwesi Appiah to come and help the team.


title: Michael Essien

text: On 19 August 2020 it was revealed, that Essien was training with Danish Superliga club Nordsjælland, where he also got the opportunity to be part of the work around the Superliga team and several of the club's academy teams, just as he got a better knowledge of the teaching and development of young people off the field in FCN, as inspiration for his ongoing coaching education. Nordsjælland is in partnership with Right to Dream Academy in Ghana.