title: Chevrolet Cruze

text: The Cruze returned to the BTCC in 2013 in the hands of Joe Girling and Tech-Speed Motorsport, who loaned the car from Finesse Motorsport. The increase in performance of the Next Generation Touring Car entries meant the older Super 2000 specification cars like the Cruze were now too uncompetitive to compete for wins but were provided with their own category. Now running a 2.0-litre turbocharged NGTC-specification engine, Girling took one class win at Donington Park but missed the second half of the season. The car returned to Finesse Motorsport who entered the Knockhill round of the championship with Aiden Moffat driving. At sixteen years old, Moffat became the BTCC's youngest driver at 16 years, 10 months and 28 days. This was to be the S2000 Cruze's final appearance in the BTCC, as S2000 cars are to be abolished from 2014. Andy Neate entered the 2013 season with a new NGTC-specification Cruze, built by his own team, IP Tech Race Engineering and used an engine built by RML. The car made its debut at Snetterton and competed at several rounds towards the end of the season. The car has since been sold to Aiden Moffat, who will run the car with his own team for 2014. BTC Racing will enter a hatchback variant of the Cruze for 2014, driven by Chris Stockton. The car was originally intended to be used by Jason Plato in 2012 but RML and Chevrolet withdrew from the BTCC and mothballed the shell. BTC Racing acquired it and were initially included on the entry list for 2013 but the car was not finished in time and never appeared all season.


title: Chevrolet Cruze

text: The first-generation Chevrolet Cruze debuted in the Argentine TC 2000 in 2011, and the second-generation in 2016. Agustín Canapino won the 2016 championship.


title: Chevrolet Cruze

text: The second generation of the Chevrolet Cruze made its debut at Stock Car Brasil in 2016 with tubular chassis and in 2020 the fiber fairing gives way to the original bodywork of the cars with the necessary changes for the adaptation.


title: Chevrolet Cruze

text: In August 2014, Cruze sales reached the milestone of 3 million units sold worldwide, 16 months after passing the 2 million mark. The following table shows the top selling markets .


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Alan Armstrong, known professionally as Alun Armstrong, is an English actor. He grew up in County Durham in North East England, and first became interested in acting through Shakespeare productions at his grammar school. Since his career began in the early 1970s, he has played, in his words, "the full spectrum of characters from the grotesque to musicals... I always play very colourful characters, often a bit crazy, despotic, psychotic".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: His credits include several Charles Dickens adaptations, and the eccentric ex-detective Brian Lane in "New Tricks". He is also an accomplished stage actor who spent nine years with the Royal Shakespeare Company. He originated the role of Thénardier in the London production of "Les Misérables", and won an Olivier Award in the title role in "".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Born Alan Armstrong in Annfield Plain, County Durham, his father was a coal miner and both his parents were Methodist lay preachers. He attended Annfield Plain Junior School, then Consett Grammar School, where a teacher inspired him to try acting. In the lower sixth, he played Petruchio in "The Taming of the Shrew", a role he later played with the Royal Shakespeare Company.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong took part in the National Youth Theatre summer school in 1964, but his background and northern accent made him feel out of place. He auditioned for RADA but was not accepted. He instead studied fine art at Newcastle University. He found the course pretentious and felt that he did not fit in, and he was expelled after two years when he stopped attending classes.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong had jobs with a bricklayer and as a gravedigger before he decided to try acting again. He started out as an assistant stage manager at the Cambridge Arts Theatre, then went on to a Theatre in Education company affiliated with the Sheffield Repertory Theatre. He also performed in several Radio 4 dramas.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong made his screen debut in "Get Carter" (1971). On learning that the film was being made in Newcastle, Armstrong wrote a letter to MGM, the studio making the film, and was invited to meet director Mike Hodges, who was keen to cast local actors.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong has appeared in a number of films, although usually in supporting roles. In "A Bridge Too Far" (1977), he had a small role as one of the British troops at the Battle of Arnhem. He played a French soldier, Lieutenant Lecourbe, in Ridley Scott's 1977 film "The Duellists". He had a supporting role as the bandit leader Torquil in the 1983 fantasy film "Krull".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: His first cinematic lead role was as Maxwell Randall, the titular vampire in Alan Clarke's snooker musical "Billy the Kid and the Green Baize Vampire" (1987). Armstrong sang "I Bite Back".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In "Patriot Games" (1992), Armstrong played an SO-13 officer. In "Braveheart" (1995), he played the Scottish noble Mornay who betrayed William Wallace. He was the villainous Egyptian cult leader Baltus Hafez in "The Mummy Returns" (2001), and he portrayed Saint Peter with a Geordie accent in "Millions" (2004). He also had small roles as the High Constable in "Sleepy Hollow" (1999), Cardinal Jinette in "Van Helsing" (2004), Magistrate Fang in Roman Polanski's "Oliver Twist" (2005) and Uncle Garrow in "Eragon" (2006).


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong has had over 80 roles in television productions. During the 1970s, he appeared in various TV series, including episodes of "Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads?, Porridge, Public Eye" and "The Sweeney".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: He was cast in two mini-series dealing with coal miners in North East England. He played Joe Gowlan in "The Stars Look Down" (1974) based on the novel by A. J. Cronin and he appeared in Ken Loach's "Days of Hope" (1975) set in his native County Durham. In a 2007 interview, Armstrong singled out "Days of Hope" as a favourite: "I loved that because it was my own history and background that was being dramatised and, in a way, nothing gets better than that".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In the comedy series "A Sharp Intake of Breath", he played a variety of characters who complicate the life of the main character played by David Jason. In 1977, he was the strict Deputy Headmaster in Willy Russell's "Our Day Out", a television play about a group of poor schoolchildren on a daytrip. He also starred in the 1981 Yorkshire Television drama "Get Lost!"


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong has portrayed characters from the works of Charles Dickens. He played Wackford Squeers and Mr. Wagstaff in the eight-hour Royal Shakespeare Company stage adaptation of "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby" that was filmed for television in 1982. He has appeared in two versions of "Oliver Twist": the 1999 ITV mini-series as Agnes Fleming's father Captain Fleming and the 2005 Roman Polanski film as Magistrate Fang. He has had roles in four BBC Dickens adaptations, as Daniel Peggotty in "David Copperfield" (1999); as Inspector Bucket in "Bleak House" (2005); as Jeremiah and Ephraim Flintwinch in "Little Dorrit" (2008); and as Hiram Grewgious in "The Mystery of Edwin Drood" (2012). Armstrong has been a fan of Dickens since reading "David Copperfield" aloud in school. He particularly remembered Dan Peggotty's houseboat on the beach, and in order to play the role he turned down an offer from Clint Eastwood, with whom he had worked on "White Hunter Black Heart".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In the BBC drama series "Our Friends in the North" (1996), he played Austin Donohue, a character based on the politician T. Dan Smith. Armstrong portrayed 18th century politician Henry Fox in the BBC serial "Aristocrats" (1999). In the 2000 TV film "", he portrayed George Oldfield, the Assistant Chief Constable for Crime at West Yorkshire Police whose health deteriorated during the investigation as he received messages purportedly from the killer. He was nominated for a Royal Television Society award for his role in "This Is Personal".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In the second series of "Bedtime" (2002), he played a widower concerned about his son's suspicious behaviour. He and Brenda Blethyn co-starred in "Between the Sheets" (2003) as a frustrated married couple in sex therapy. In an adaptation of "Carrie's War", he played a strict man who reluctantly takes in two children evacuated to Wales during World War II.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong is known for his role as Brian Lane in the BBC One series "New Tricks" about a group of former police detectives who help investigate unsolved and open cases for London's Metropolitan Police. The character of Brian Lane is an obsessive and socially inept recovering alcoholic who has a great capacity for remembering details of old cases and colleagues. In August 2012, Armstrong announced he would leave the show after the tenth series. The announcement followed comments by the cast in an interview with the "Radio Times" that criticised some of the series' writing, and which drew an angry rebuttal from the show's writer-director Julian Simpson.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: During the run of "New Tricks", Armstrong continued to take on other projects. He starred in the 2004 TV film "When I'm 64" about a lonely retired schoolteacher who starts a relationship with another man. He chose the role, despite his apprehension about filming a love scene with co-star Paul Freeman, because he thought it was a lovely and thought-provoking story. He also starred in "The Girls Who Came to Stay" (2006), about a British couple who take in two girls exposed to the effects of the Chernobyl disaster, and "" (2008), as the husband of "Clean-Up TV" activist Mary Whitehouse.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: For three series from 2009 to 2011, he played William Garrow's mentor John Southouse in the BBC period legal drama "Garrow's Law". In 2012, he played the Earl of Northumberland in the BBC2 adaptations of "Henry IV, Parts I and II". His son Joe Armstrong played Northumberland's son Hotspur. In the 2014 Showtime horror series "Penny Dreadful", Armstrong played Vincent Brand, an actor who gives Frankenstein's monster a job at the Grand Guignol. He guest starred in the 2014 Christmas special of "Downton Abbey", and took the role of Clifford Bentley in ITV cop drama Prime Suspect 1973.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In addition to his film and television work, Armstrong has acted in many theatre productions. One of his early roles was Billy Spencer in David Storey's play "The Changing Room" at the Royal Court Theatre directed by Lindsay Anderson in 1971. In 1975, he played Touchstone in "As You Like It" directed by Peter Gill at the Nottingham Playhouse.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong spent nine years with the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1979 to 1988. On tour and at the Donmar Warehouse in 1979–80, he played Dogberry in "Much Ado About Nothing" and Azdak in "The Caucasian Chalk Circle".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In 1981, Armstrong joined the cast of the eight-hour production of "The Life and Adventures of Nicholas Nickleby" as Wackford Squeers. The company went on tour to perform on Broadway at the Plymouth Theatre. The play was filmed for television at the Old Vic Theatre in 1982.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In productions at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, the Theatre Royal, Newcastle, and the Barbican Theatre in 1982–83, Armstrong played Trinculo in "The Tempest" and Petruchio in "The Taming of the Shrew" with Sinéad Cusack as Kate. In 1983, he played Ralph Trapdoor in "The Roaring Girl" starring Helen Mirren. He performed the roles of Leontes in "The Winter's Tale" and John Proctor in "The Crucible" on a national tour that included Christ Church, Spitalfields in 1984 and on tour to Poland in 1985. In 1985–86, he played Thersites in "Troilus and Cressida".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In the autumn of 1985, Armstrong took on what is perhaps his best-known stage role: Thénardier in the original London production of "Les Misérables". Thénardier and his wife, played by Susan Jane Tanner, are innkeepers whose shady practices are revealed in the song "Master of the House." Armstrong described Thénardier as "a gruesome and comic character."


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong was one of the first to be cast, along with fellow Royal Shakespeare Company members Sue Jane Tanner and Roger Allam. He was involved in fleshing out his role, particularly in the second act song "Dog Eats Dog." He was surprised by the success of "Les Misérables" "because it is different to other musicals. Different because it is a sung musical throughout and also a little operatic; I didn't think it would be very popular." He left the production after a year because he became bored with the repetition and wanted to move on to other things.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: He sings on "Original London Cast Recording". He reprised the role, paired with Jenny Galloway as Mme. Thénardier, in "Les Misérables - The Dream Cast in Concert" at the Royal Albert Hall in October 1995, which was filmed and released on DVD. He also appeared in the 25th anniversary concert, though Matt Lucas performed the role of Thénardier.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong received nominations in two categories for the 1985 Olivier Award: Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Musical for "Les Misérables" and Actor of the Year for "The Crucible" and "The Winter's Tale". In 1988, he was again nominated for the Olivier Award for the roles of Barabas in an RSC production of "The Jew of Malta" and the Captain in a National Theatre production of "The Father" by August Strindberg. The "New York Times" review of "The Father" said: "At its imploding center is the superb actor Alun Armstrong... 'To eat or be eaten, that is the question,' says the captain. By evening's end, Mr. Armstrong seems to have been devoured alive by his inner demons..."


title: Alun Armstrong

text: During the short run of the musical "The Baker's Wife" at the Phoenix Theatre in 1989–90, he played the role of the baker Aimable Castagnet. The production, directed by Trevor Nunn, received positive reviews but did not attract large audiences and closed after 56 performances. He was nominated for an Olivier Award for Outstanding Performance of the Year by an Actor in a Musical.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong won the Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical in 1994 for his performance as Sweeney Todd in the 1993 London revival of the at the National Theatre. The play also won for Best Musical Revival and his co-star Julia McKenzie won Best Actress in a Musical.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: At the Donmar Warehouse, Armstrong appeared as Albert Einstein in Terry Johnson's "Insignificance" in 1995, and he played Hamm in Samuel Beckett's "Endgame" in 1996. He starred as Willy Loman in a 1996–97 National Theatre production of "Death of a Salesman". In 1997–98, he appeared in a production of the comedy "The Front Page" directed by Sam Mendes at the Donmar Warehouse. The "Independent" review noted: "As for Alun Armstrong, we don't meet him until late in the second of three acts but he dominates the entire evening. He barks, bleats and bellows across the stage, grabbing Hildy and the show by the scruff of the neck and hurtling through to a zinger of a climax."


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong took the lead role at short notice in Shelagh Stephenson's play "Mappa Mundi" in 2002, replacing Ian Holm who withdrew due to illness. In 2006, he returned to the stage to star in Trevor Nunn's production of "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" at the National Theatre. At the Proms in 2012, he played Alfred Doolittle in a performance of "My Fair Lady" starring Annalene Beechey and Anthony Andrews. Armstrong stars in a 2014 production of Ionesco's black comedy "Exit the King" at the Theatre Royal, Bath's Ustinov Studio.


title: Alun Armstrong

text: Armstrong and his wife, Sue, have three sons: Tom, Joe (also an actor), and Dan. Father and son played older and younger versions of the same character in the 2010 BBC drama "A Passionate Woman", and they played Northumberland and his son Hotspur in the 2012 BBC adaptation of "Henry IV". Dan was a musician in the band Clock Opera. Armstrong appeared in the music video for their song "The Lost Buoys".


title: Alun Armstrong

text: In July 2009, Armstrong was awarded two honorary degrees in recognition of his contributions to the arts. He received an Honorary Doctorate of Letters from the University of East Anglia and an Honorary Doctorate of Arts from the University of Sunderland. The theatre at the Civic Hall in Stanley, County Durham, near Armstrong's hometown, was named after him in 2014.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Heather Elizabeth Langenkamp (born July 17, 1964) is an American actress. She is considered an influential figure in horror films and in popular culture, noted for her acting in several works of the genre and her behind-the-scenes work coordinating prosthetic makeup. She is established as a scream queen, and was inducted into the Fangoria Chainsaw Hall of Fame in 1995.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Born in Tulsa, Oklahoma to an artist and a petroleum attorney, Langenkamp spent her childhood on a farm. While working for the "Tulsa Tribune" at the age of 19, she got cast as an extra in Francis Ford Coppola's "The Outsiders" (1983) and "Rumble Fish" (1983), and whilst attending Stanford University, she played her first leading role in the little-seen "Nickel Mountain" (1984). Langenkamp earned widespread recognition for headlining Wes Craven's slasher film "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984) as the resourceful 15-year-old heroine Nancy Thompson. The film emerged as a critical and commercial success and spawned the similarly-titled franchise, in which Langenkamp reprises the role of Nancy for its third installment, "" (1987). Her final appearance in the "Nightmare on Elm Street" franchise was the self-aware horror film "Wes Craven's New Nightmare" (1994), where she received acclaim for playing both a fictionalized version of herself and Nancy.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp has starred in numerous television series and made-for-television films throughout her career such as the drama film "Passions" (1984), the Emmy Award–winning ABC sitcoms "Growing Pains" (1988–1990) and "Just the Ten of Us" (1988–1990), the satirical film "" (1994), the anthology series "Perversions of Science" (1997), the Syfy–film "Truth or Dare" (2017), the adult animated series "JJ Villard's Fairy Tales" (2020), and the Mike Flanagan created Netflix series "The Midnight Club" (2022). Her further film roles include "The Butterfly Room" (2012), "Star Trek Into Darkness" (2013), "Cottonmouth" (2020) and "" (2021). She has expanded her career, and has worked as the special makeup effects coordinator for movies such as "Dawn of the Dead" (2004), "Cinderella Man" (2005), "Evan Almighty" (2007), and "The Cabin in the Woods" (2012).


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp met her husband, Oscar-winning make-up artist David LeRoy Anderson, at a wrap party for Wes Craven's "The Serpent and the Rainbow" (1988) and together they run the make-up FX firm AFX Studio.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Heather Elizabeth Langenkamp was born in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Her mother, Mary Alice (née Myers), is an artist. Her father, Robert Dobie Langenkamp, is a petroleum attorney. Her father was a Deputy Assistant Secretary of Energy in the Carter Administration, where he was partially responsible for realizing the Strategic Petroleum Reserve. He worked under the Clinton Administration, where he helped with privatizing Naval Petroleum Reserve No. 1. He later was the Director of the National Energy & Environmental Law & Policy Institute of the University of Tulsa College of Law. She later moved to Washington, D.C. after her father's appointment to the Carter administration, where she attended the National Cathedral School for Girls, with classmate and future Stanford University roommate Susan Rice.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: At the age of nineteen, Langenkamp worked for the "Tulsa Tribune". She saw an advertisement looking for extras for Francis Ford Coppola's "The Outsiders" in the summer of 1983. Auditions took place at a nearby elementary school where Langenkamp gave the casting director her Polaroid. She got a call back to appear in a high school scene. Amidst what seemed like "hundreds" of other adolescents, she had to wear 1950s based attire. The same summer, Coppola was shooting another film, "Rumble Fish". Her friend got a phone call to appear in a street scene. Her friend's mother felt more comfortable with Langenkamp going with her to the set at night. The assistant director informed her that they had dialogue and wanted to give it to her. She did several takes of her saying dialogue to Matt Dillon's character. The scenes didn't make it into the final product of either film. Despite this, these extra parts helped her get into the Screen Actors Guild. Langenkamp stayed in close contact with the casting director, her assistant, and the producer.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: While studying at Stanford University, she would travel to Los Angeles to pursue acting opportunities. Her first official Hollywood audition was for Drew Denbaum's "Nickel Mountain" (1984), an adaptation of John Gardner's 1973 novel. During the audition, her rented car got hit by a runaway truck on Cahuenga Boulevard. Denbaum and the casting director helped Langenkamp during the ordeal. She bonded with them and got cast in the lead role of Callie Wells. She has expressed regret for doing the nude scene as she feared voicing her discomfort at the time of filming. She later got cast as Beth alongside Joanne Woodward and Richard Crenna in the CBS television film "Passions" (1984). The direction towards her character received praise.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp became aware of auditions for a horror film known as "A Nightmare on Elm Street" (1984) in the winter of 1983. Casting director Annette Benson was familiar to Langenkamp as she had brought her in to read for the lead role in "Night of the Comet" (1984) although the part ultimately went to Catherine Mary Stewart. She auditioned for the highly sought after role of fifteen-year-old heroine Nancy. There were not enough chairs to accommodate the number of actresses auditioning. Her reading impressed both Benson and director Wes Craven enough that she was called back to read with another actress auditioning, Amanda Wyss. Craven stated that he wanted someone very "non-Hollywood" and someone who embodied the "all-American, girl-next-door" for the role and believed that Langenkamp had these qualities. Craven informed her that she got the part that winter, although shooting didn't begin until June 1984. She beat out more than 200 actresses auditioning for the part. She won the Best Actress Award at the Avoriaz Film Festival for her role as Nancy, and "Empire" magazine wrote that "Heather Langenkamp [is] an appealing high school lead."


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: In 1984, she starred in the music video for ZZ Top's "Sleeping Bag". In 1986, she guest-starred in "CBS Schoolbreak Special" and "ABC Afterschool Specials". Langenkamp was cast in "Suburban Beat" (1985), a television pilot that was not picked up for a full series, where she played Hope Sherman, the youngest housewife. Craven approached Langenkamp to reprise her role of Nancy in the sequel "" (1987), about the survivors of Freddy Krueger's previous attempts; it opened to box office success in 1987 grossing over $44 million, and earned positive reviews. Later, she had a guest appearance as Tracy in the television series "The New Adventures of Beans Baxter" and Monica on the soap opera "Hotel" (both in 1987). Langenkamp obtained further recognition when she portrayed lead character Marie Lubbock on the ABC television series "Just the Ten of Us", a spin-off of the popular ABC situation comedy "Growing Pains" (on which she guest-starred), from 1988 to 1990. Both shows won Emmy Awards. That year, she and her castmates were nominated for the Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor/Actress Ensemble in a Television Comedy, Drama Series or Special.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp had a cameo role as the first victim of Horace Pinker in Wes Craven's horror film "Shocker" (1989). In the film, she is on a news report being pulled away on a stretcher. Following this, she portrayed the figure skater Nancy Kerrigan in the NBC television film "Tonya & Nancy: The Inside Story" (also released in 1994), which focused on Tonya Harding's husband's attack.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp returned to the "Elm Street" franchise with "Wes Craven's New Nightmare", which is a standalone film, and follows the journey Freddy Krueger takes to the real world. She instead starred as a fictionalized version of herself, which was based on a stalking incident she was subject to that involved a fan angry over the cancellation of her show, "Just the Ten of Us". On the film, Langenkamp stated "It's a really interesting concept, and it's one of the only horror movies where the monster's really in the background, at least until the end. But it's all about our mentality about fear." "Wes Craven's New Nightmare" was released in 1994, and opened to critical praise, being cited as an influential "metahorror" film. Langenkamp's acting earned acclaim, with several critics dubbing it her magnum opus. Review website "Slasher Studios" wrote that "The performances are pitch perfect, led by a tour-de-force performance by the amazing Langenkamp." In a video ranking the "Nightmare on Elm Street" films, James A. Janisse, the host of the YouTube channel Dead Meat, stated that Langenkamp "is in top form and gives her best performance of the franchise here, likely a product of her age and greater life experience." For her performance, she won the Fangoria Chainsaw Award for Best Actress.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp starred in Robert Kurtzman's low-budget superhero film "The Demolitionist" (1995). In 1997, she portrayed Lou Ann Solomon in one episode of the short-lived science fiction/horror television series "Perversions of Science". She later starred in the direct-to-video film "Fugitive Mind" (1999). In 2000, she had a guest role in "18 Wheels of Justice" as a waitress. The following year, she and her husband, David LeRoy Anderson, launched the Malibu Gum Factory which sold locally manufactured chewing gum that featured trading cards of local surfers inside each package. Langenkamp played Janet Thompson in an episode of "JAG" (2002). After this, she took a break from acting to focus on her family. In 2005, she was cast in the Wes Craven horror film "Cursed". The film had to be reshot and rewritten, causing her to leave due to scheduling conflicts.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Langenkamp portrayed a fictionalized version of herself in the indie mockumentary film "The Bet" (2007). It was released as a web series with the same title in April 2020. She starred in, executive produced, and narrated the 2010 documentary "". The following year, she produced a documentary entitled "I Am Nancy", which focused on her experience portraying Nancy in the "A Nightmare on Elm Street" films. Langenkamp portrayed Dorothy in the horror film "The Butterfly Room" (2012). As a partner in her husband's Special FX Make-up company, AFX Studio, she worked on the horror-comedy film "The Cabin in the Woods". In 2013, Langenkamp appeared as herself in the documentary "Fantasm" and had a small role of an alien in the film, "Star Trek Into Darkness" in which her husband David LeRoy Anderson designed all of the Special FX make-up. In 2014, she made a cameo appearance in the fourth season of the horror anthology series "American Horror Story", titled "", as a Tupperware party lady.


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: In 2015, Langenkamp was cast in the short film "Intruder", portrayed Sharon Monroe in four episodes of the drama series "The Bay", and narrated the short horror film "Vault of the Macabre II". In 2016, she starred in the horror drama film "Home". Langenkamp had a cameo role in the short horror comedy film "The Sub" (2017) and appeared as herself in the documentary "Unearthed & Untold: The Path to Pet Sematary" (2017). She has a cameo appearance in the horror sequel film "". Also that year, she portrayed the adult version of the "final girl" Donna Boone in the Syfy television horror film "Truth or Dare", guiding a group of teenagers with their battle with a deadly spirit that left her physically scarred several years prior. She is confirmed to have the anchoring role in the Mike Flanagan written, directed, and executive produced Netflix series "The Midnight Club" (2022). Langenkamp voices Dazzle Feather and Mayflower in "" (2021).


title: Heather Langenkamp

text: Jill Simpson, the assistant to "The Outsiders" (1984) casting director, became a close friend of Langenkamp. Simpson worked as the assistant on Wes Craven's "The Serpent and the Rainbow" (1988) and suggested that Langenkamp attend a wrap party to meet one of the crew members. There, she met make-up artist David LeRoy Anderson and the two began a relationship shortly after. Anderson proposed to her on the set of Mary Lambert's "Pet Sematary" (1989) and they wed that year. They had two children together, son Daniel "Atticus" Anderson, who died in 2018 as the result of a brain tumor, and daughter Isabelle Anderson. She was previously married to Alan Pasqua, a musician, from 1984 until 1987.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing ( abbreviated: MAL ; born 3 July 1956) is a Burmese politician and army general who has ruled Myanmar as the chairman of the State Administration Council since seizing power in the February 2021 coup d'état. He took the nominally civilian role of prime minister of Myanmar in August 2021 upon the formation of the Provisional Government. He has also been the commander-in-chief of Defence Services since March 2011. He previously served as Joint Chief of Staff of the Ministry of Defence from 2010 to 2011 and was a member of the National Defence and Security Council (NDSC) chaired by the president of Myanmar.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Born in Minbu, Burma, Min Aung Hlaing studied law at the Rangoon Arts and Science University before joining the military. Rising through its ranks, he became a five-star general by 2013. During the period of civilian rule from 2011 to 2021, Min Aung Hlaing worked to ensure the military's continued role in politics and forestalled the peace process with ethnic armed groups. Min Aung Hlaing was closely involved with the military's crackdown on the Rohingyas that led to the Rohingya crisis.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Claiming voting irregularities and electoral fraud in the 2020 Myanmar general election, Min Aung Hlaing seized power in the 2021 coup. Having detained several lawmakers, including the President U Win Myint and State Counsellor Aung San Su Kyi, he established the interim State Administration Council (SAC) military junta. With the outbreak of the 2021 Myanmar protests, Min Aung Hlaing ordered a clampdown and suppression of demonstrations. With allegations of extensive human rights abuses and corruption, Min Aung Hlaing has been subjected to a series of international sanctions.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing was born on 3 July 1956 in Minbu, Magway Region, Burma to Khin Hlaing and Hla Mu, as the fourth of five children. His parents were teachers from Dawei, in Tanintharyi Region. His family moved to Mandalay as duty when he was 5 years. His father, Khin Hlaing, was an artist.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing passed his matriculation exam in 1972 at BEHS 1 Latha of Rangoon (now Yangon). He attended and studied law at the Rangoon Arts and Science University from 1973 to 1974. On his third attempt, he was admitted to the Defence Services Academy in 1974 as part of the 19th Intake, and he graduated in 1977. According to classmates, Min Aung Hlaing was taciturn, and an unremarkable cadet. He was reportedly shunned by classmates because of his reserved personality.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Following graduation, Min Aung Hlaing went on to serve in different command positions, rising slowly through the ranks. Early in his career, military colleagues gave him a nickname referring to cat feces, "something deposited quietly but leaving a powerful stink." As he rose through the ranks, Min Aung Hlaing earned a reputation as a hardliner. His military work earned him the favour of Senior General Than Shwe. Min Aung Hlaing is characterized as having a "big man" management style not conducive to collaboration or listening.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In 2002, he was promoted to commander of the in Eastern Shan State and was a central figure in negotiations with two rebel groups, the United Wa State Army (UWSA) and the National Democratic Alliance Army (NDAA). Min Aung Hlaing was reportedly close with former Thai prime minister and General Prem Tinsulanonda, considering Prem a father figure.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing supported the military crackdown of the Saffron Revolution in 2008. He rose to prominence in 2009 after leading an offensive against the insurgent Myanmar Nationalities Democratic Alliance Army in Kokang. In June 2010, Min Aung Hlaing replaced General Shwe Mann as Joint Chief of Staff of the Army, Navy, and Air Force.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In the lead-up to 2011, the military began embarking on a series of political reforms to transition Myanmar to a quasi-democracy. The ruling junta, the State Peace and Development Council, engineered its formal departure from power, after holding the 2010 Myanmar general election, which was won by the Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP), the military's proxy party. On 30 March 2011, outgoing head of state, Senior General Than Shwe, then the incumbent Commander-in-Chief of Myanmar's Armed Forces, appointed Min Aung Hlaing as his successor, ahead of more senior officers. Min Aung Hlaing's appointment coincided with USDP's rise to power, during which he oversaw a series of military reforms, and supported efforts by the USDP-led government to strike peace deals with ethnic armed groups.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In November 2011, according to "The Irrawaddy News", it was "widely believed" that following Min Aung Hlaing's meetings with Chinese military officials that month and his leadership in creating a bilateral agreement on defense cooperation with the Chinese, he had also held talks with Chinese vice-president Xi Jinping regarding cooperation from China with respect to the Kachin Conflict.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 27 March 2012, during a speech in Naypyidaw, Min Aung Hlaing defended the military's continued role in national politics. On 3 April 2012, the Government of Myanmar announced that Min Aung Hlaing had been promoted to vice-senior general, the second highest rank in Myanmar's Armed Forces. He was promoted to senior general in March 2013.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In 2014, as Min Aung Hlaing approached the age of 60, which is the mandatory age of retirement for military officers, the Armed Forces' Department of Defence Council issued a directive, enabling Min Aung Hlaing to extend his mandatory retirement age to 65, in 2021.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In August 2015, the USDP fractured, and President Thein Sein purged the faction led by Shwe Mann, a former general and Speaker of the Pyithu Hluttaw. Min Aung Hlaing oversaw a direct military intervention to oust Shwe Mann from power, indicating the military's desire to continue furthering its agenda through USDP. Shwe Mann had advocated for legislation and constitutional amendments that would have decreased the military's influence, against the interests of the military and USDP.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: The 2015 Myanmar general election saw the National League for Democracy (NLD), led by Aung San Suu Kyi, win in a landslide. With the transition from an USDP to NLD-led government, Min Aung Hlaing shifted his priorities to recovering state power for the military establishment. His intransigence and refusal to cooperate with the civilian-led government undermined progress toward Myanmar's peace process. As the NLD assumed power, Min Aung Hlaing began intensifying an ongoing military crackdown on the Rohingya, beginning in October 2016. At the Union Peace Conference - 21st Century Panglong in August 2020, he sharply warned the NLD against scapegoating the military for its role in the ongoing ethnic conflicts.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing also began to signal his interest in civilian politics. He began assuming a more statesman-like persona, and became increasingly assertive about the military's role. In the lead-up to the 2020 Myanmar general election, he worked with the USDP to position himself as the next President. Throughout 2019, Min Aung Hlaing made several public appearances dubbed a "charm offensive," at several religious sites and charity functions, raising speculation about his political ambitions. To cultivate his public persona, he began two Facebook pages that commanded a combined following of 4.1 million followers. In January 2020, Min Aung Hlaing met with Chinese leader Xi Jinping in Nay Pyi Taw. Xi promoted the practical cooperation under the framework of the One Belt One Road to achieve results at an early date and benefit Myanmar's people. In May 2020, Min Aung Hlaing reshuffled senior military ranks, promoting a new generation of officers loyal to Min Aung Hlaing, including Kyaw Swar Lin, who became the military's youngest lieutenant-general.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In February 2020, Min Aung Hlaing, his wife Kyu Kyu Hla and with his close astrologer Vasipake Sayadaw placed the "Hti" umbrella atop Bagan's most powerful ancient Htilominlo Temple. The meaning of the temple name is "need the royal umbrella, need the King". He was following in the footsteps of some of Myanmar's most powerful political figures including his predecessor, Senior General Than Shwe. Many people believed that the ceremony was a yadaya and seeking divine blessings for his glory.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In November 2020, Min Aung Hlaing made a series of public comments questioning the legitimacy of the upcoming 2020 election, in potential violation of the Civil Services Personnel Law. On 5 November, the Tatmadaw declared that Min Aung Hlaing's rank is equivalent to Vice President of Myanmar. After casting his ballot in the 2020 election, Min Aung Hlaing vowed to accept the election results. The 2020 election saw NLD win in a larger landslide than in 2015, forestalling Min Aung Hlaing's political ambitions. In response, the military began intensifying allegations of electoral fraud and irregularities, submitting formal complaints to the Union Election Commission. On 27 January 2021, Min Aung Hlaing publicly remarked that he would not rule out a coup d'état and abolition of the constitution, if allegations of voter fraud during last year's election were not adequately addressed. These comments sparked concern about another potential coup in the country. The following day, the Union Election Commission issued a statement rejecting claims of electoral fraud, citing the lack of evidence submitted to substantiate these claims. On 29 January, the military issued clarifying statements pledging to protect and abide by the constitution and applicable laws.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 1 February 2021, Min Aung Hlaing detained elected leaders including President U Win Myint, State Councillor Aung San Suu Kyi and declared himself as commander in chief of Myanmar, one day before democratically-elected members of parliament were scheduled to be sworn in as members of the Assembly of the Union. The following day, he established the State Administration Council as the country's interim ruling body.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 22 May 2021, Min Aung Hlaing gave his first interview since the coup to Hong Kong-based Chinese language Phoenix Television. During the interview, he referred to deposed leader Aung San Suu Kyi and he said that she "is in good health. She is at her home and healthy. She is going to face trial at the court in a few days." On the same day, "Myanmar Now" reported that shortly after the coup, Min Aung Hlaing appointed himself indefinitely as the commander-in-chief and therefore the "de facto" leader of Myanmar.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Six months after the coup, on 1 August 2021, Min Aung Hlaing formed a caretaker government and established himself as the country's prime minister. He also remains the Chairman of the SAC.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: After four pro-democracy activists were executed on 24 July 2022, the chairman of the ASEAN, Hun Sen, UN representatives, and Western leaders condemned the executions.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 7 September 2022, Min Aung Hlaing met with Russian President Vladimir Putin on the sidelines of an economic meeting in eastern Russia, the first time that the pair have met since last February’s coup d’etat.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: The UNHRC reported that Min Aung Hlaing's soldiers have been deliberately targeting civilians in Northern states of Myanmar and have been committing systemic discrimination and human rights violations against minority communities in Rakhine State. In particular, he has been accused of ethnic cleansing against the Rohingya people. These human rights violations could amount to genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: In 2018, the United Nations Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Myanmar, led by Marzuki Darusman, determined that Min Aung Hlaing and other Myanmar military generals oversaw atrocities against the Rohingya in Rakhine, Kachin and Shan states, and did so with genocidal intent. The UN investigative panel said that Min Aung Hlaing, along with four other commanders (Soe Win, Aung Kyaw Zaw, Maung Maung Soe, and Than Oo) should be tried for war crimes and crimes against humanity (including genocide) in the International Criminal Court or an ad hoc international tribunal.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Facebook banned Min Aung Hlaing from its platform along with 19 other top Burmese officials and organisations to prevent further heated ethnic and religious tensions in Myanmar. This action followed a UN investigation's report that certain military leaders in Myanmar be investigated and prosecuted for genocide over a crackdown on Rohingya Muslims. Twitter later banned him on 16 May 2019.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 17 March 2019, Kyaw Zaw Oo, an Arakanese MP, published a bilingual open letter to Min Aung Hlaing about the many human rights violations of the Tatmadaw in Rakhine State that harmed the lives and property of civilians and damaged buildings of cultural heritage.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: The United States has imposed sanctions against Min Aung Hlaing. In July 2019, the U.S. government banned him from travel to the United States. In December 2020, it froze Min Aung Hlaing's American-based assets and criminalized financial transactions between him and anyone in the United States.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing has courted enduring controversy for his family's extensive business assets and potential conflicts of interest. He is a major shareholder in the army-owned Myanmar Economic Holdings Limited (MEHL). During the 2010–11 fiscal year, he had owned 5,000 shares and received an annual dividend of $250,000. He sits on MEHL's Patron Group, which runs the conglomerate.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing's son, Aung Pyae Sone, owns a number of companies, including Sky One Construction Company and Aung Myint Mo Min Insurance Company. He also has a majority stake in Mytel, a national telecoms carrier. In 2013, his son Aung Pyae Sone won a no-bid government permit well below market rates, for a 30-year lease on land at the Yangon People's Park for a high-end restaurant and art gallery, following his father's promotion to Commander-in-Chief. Aung Pyae Sone also runs "A&M Mahar", which offers Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approvals and customs clearance services for drugs and medical devices. Myanmar's customs department is led by Kyaw Htin, a former MEHL director.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: His daughter Khin Thiri Thet Mon founded a major film studio, 7th Sense Creation, in 2017. That same year, his daughter-in-law, Myo Yadanar Htaik, founded another entertainment company, Stellar Seven Entertainment. The American Embassy, Yangon came under media scrutiny in December 2020, for collaborating with 7th Sense Creation, because Min Aung Hlaing is technically subject to US economic sanctions.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: The U.S. Department of the Treasury has imposed sanctions on Min Aung Hlaing since 10 December 2019, pursuant to Executive Order 13818, which builds upon and implements the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act and targets perpetrators of serious human rights abuse and corruption. He has committed serious human rights abuse against members of ethnic minority groups across Burma. This US sanctions include a freezing of assets under the US and a ban on transactions with any US person.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: About one year later, 11 February 2021 -- following the 1 February 2021 coup led by Hlaing -- he was also placed on the sanctions list of the OFAC pursuant to Executive Order 14014, in response to the Burmese military's coup against the democratically elected civilian government of Burma. Shortly thereafter, 25 March 2021, OFAC also sanctioned some of the companies that Hlaing and/or his associates owned or controlled, including the MEC conglomerate headed by Hlaing.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: The Government of Canada has imposed sanctions on him since 18 February 2021, pursuant to Special Economic Measures Act and Special Economic Measures (Burma) Regulations, in response to the gravity of the human rights and humanitarian situation in Myanmar (formerly Burma). Canadian sanctions include a freezing of assets under Canada and a ban on transactions with any Canadian person.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: HM Treasury and the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office of the United Kingdom have imposed sanctions on him since 25 February 2021, for his responsibility for serious human rights violations in Burma. The UK sanctions include a freezing of assets under the UK and a ban on entry or transit to the UK.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Furthermore, the Council of the European Union has imposed sanctions on him since 22 March 2021, pursuant to Council Regulation (EU) 2021/479 and Council Implementing Regulation (EU) 2021/480 which amended Council Regulation (EU) No 401/2013, for his responsibility for the military coup and the subsequent military and police repression against peaceful demonstrators. The EU sanctions include a freezing of assets under member countries of the EU and a ban on entry or transit to the countries.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: Min Aung Hlaing is married to Kyu Kyu Hla, a retired lecturer, in 1980. He has three children, including son Aung Pyae Sone and daughter Khin Thiri Thet Mon.


title: Min Aung Hlaing

text: On 7 October 2019, the Young Men's Buddhist Association (YMBA) awarded him the title of "Mingaladhamma Zawtika Dhaza" and the permanent patron of YMBA. On 9 December 2020, YMBA awarded him the title of "Thado Thiri Agga Maha Mingalar Zawtika".


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The flag of New Zealand (), also known as the New Zealand Ensign, is based on the British maritime Blue Ensigna blue field with the Union Jack in the "canton" or upper hoist corneraugmented or "defaced" with four red stars centred within four white stars, representing the Southern Cross constellation.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: New Zealand's first internationally accepted national flag, the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand, was adopted in 1834, six years before New Zealand's separation from New South Wales and creation as a separate colony following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Chosen by an assembly of Māori chiefs at Waitangi in 1834, the flag was of a St George's Cross with another cross in the canton containing four stars on a blue field. After the formation of the colony in 1840, British ensigns began to be used. The current flag was designed and adopted for use on the colony's ships in 1869, was quickly adopted as New Zealand's national flag, and given statutory recognition in 1902.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: For several decades there has been debate about changing the flag. In 2016, a two-stage binding referendum on a flag change took place with voting on the second final stage closing on 24 March. In this referendum, the country voted to keep the existing flag by 57% to 43%.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In its original usage as the flag of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Union Jack combined three heraldic crosses which represent the countries of the United Kingdom (as constituted in 1801):


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The Southern Cross constellation is one of the striking features of the Southern Hemisphere sky, and has been used to represent New Zealand, among other Southern Hemisphere colonies, since the early days of European settlement. Additionally, in Māori mythology the Southern Cross is identified as "Māhutonga", an aperture in "Te Ikaroa" (the Milky Way) through which storm winds escaped.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The flag should be rectangular in shape and its length should be two times its width, translating into an aspect ratio of 1:2. It has a royal blue background with a Union Jack in the canton, and four five-pointed red stars centred within four five-pointed white stars on the fly (outer or right-hand side). The exact colours are specified as Pantone 186 C (red), Pantone 280 C (blue), and white. According to the Ministry for Culture and Heritage, the government department responsible for the flag, the royal blue background is "reminiscent of the blue sea and sky surrounding us", and the stars "signify [New Zealand's] place in the South Pacific Ocean". The New Zealand Government history website states: "Its royal blue background is derived from the ensign of the Blue Squadron of the Royal Navy."


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The notice that appeared in the "New Zealand Gazette" on 27 June 1902 gave a technical description of the stars and their positions on the New Zealand Ensign:


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: There is no recorded flag culture among the Māori before Europeans introduced them to New Zealand. By the early 1800s, flags had become an important part of Māori culture. During this time, some Māori attached fern leaves or traditional woven cloth, such as paki, to their ships when participating in international trade. These are considered by some to be the first flags of New Zealand.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In 1830, the trading ship "Sir George Murray", built in the Hokianga, sailed to the port of Sydney flying a kaitaka flag. The ship was seized by customs officials in the port who deemed the cloth not to meet the British navigation laws requiring ships to fly national ensigns. Among the passengers on the ship were two high-ranking Māori chiefs, believed to be Patuone and Taonui. The ship's detention was reported as arousing indignation among the Māori population.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The "Murray" was sold at auction to Thomas McDonnell who flew a St. George's cross with a blue canton charged with a half moon from the ship. This flag was described by the "Sydney Herald" as 'the New Zealand colours', though they may have been simply McDonnell's house flag.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The first flag of New Zealand was adopted 9 (or 20) March 1834 by a vote made by the United Tribes of New Zealand, a meeting of Māori chiefs convened at Waitangi by British resident James Busby. The United Tribes later made the Declaration of Independence of New Zealand at Waitangi in 1835. Three flags were proposed, all designed by the missionary Henry Williams, who was to play a major role in the translation of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. The chiefs rejected two other proposals which included the Union Jack, in favour of a modified St George's Cross or the White Ensign, which was the flag used by Henry Williams on the Church Missionary Society ships. This flag became known as the flag of the United Tribes of New Zealand and was officially gazetted in New South Wales in August 1835, with a general description not mentioning fimbriation or the number of points on the stars.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The United Tribes' flag is still flown on the flag pole at Waitangi, and can be seen on Waitangi Day.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: After the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi, the Union Jack was used, although the former United Tribes flag was still used by a number of ships from New Zealand and in many cases on land. The New Zealand Company settlement at Wellington, for example, continued to use the United Tribes flag until Governor William Hobson sent a small armed force to Wellington in May 1840 (following his declaration of British sovereignty). The Union Jack, as a symbol of British authority, became the focus of the Flagstaff War which began in 1844, marking (according to some historians) the start of the New Zealand Wars.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The Union Jack was described as the "superior flag", to be flown above the New Zealand flag prior to 1965.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: During the Invasion of the Waikato (July 1863 – April 1864) period of the New Zealand Wars the British forces realised they needed access to colonial ships to fight Māori. The colonial government subsequently acquired vessels which were staffed by Royal Navy officers. The vessels were under local and not Admiralty control. An armed ship, "Victoria", owned by the Colony of Victoria transported reinforcements to New Zealand for the campaign and took part in bombardments of Māori. The British government was concerned about its colonies developing their own navies, not under the control of the Royal Navy's Admiralty.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: This led to the British parliament passing the Colonial Naval Defence Act 1865, which allowed the colonial governments to own ships, including for military purposes, under the provision that they would have to be under the Royal Navy's command. In 1866 the British Admiralty advised colonies that if they possessed vessels governed by the Act, they must fly the Royal Navy Blue Ensign but that they must also include on the flag the seal or badge of the colony. New Zealand did not have a colonial badge, or indeed a coat of arms of its own at this stage, and so in 1867 the letters "NZ" were simply added to the blue ensign, following a decree by Governor George Grey on 15 January 1867.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In 1869 the then First Lieutenant of the Royal Navy vessel "Blanche", Albert Hastings Markham, submitted a design to Sir George Bowen, the Governor of New Zealand, for a national ensign for New Zealand. This followed a request by Bowen to Markham to come up with a new flag design, following a request to Bowen from the Colonial Office. His proposal, incorporating the Southern Cross, was approved on 23 October 1869. It was initially to be used only on government ships.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: To end confusion between various designs of the flag, New Zealand's Liberal Government passed the New Zealand Ensign Act 1901, which was approved by King Edward VII on 24 March 1902.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: One of the first recorded accounts of the New Zealand Blue Ensign flag being flown in battle was at Quinn's Post, Gallipoli, in 1915. It was not flown officially. The flag was brought back to New Zealand by Private John Taylor, Canterbury Battalion. The first time the flag of New Zealand was flown in a naval battle and the first time officially in any battle, was from HMS "Achilles" during the Battle of the River Plate in 1939.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 governs the usage of the national flag and all other official flags. This Act, like most other laws, can be amended or repealed by a simple majority in Parliament. Section 5(2) of the Act declares the flag to be "the symbol of the Realm, Government, and people of New Zealand". Section 11(1) outlines two offences: altering the flag without lawful authority, and using, displaying, damaging or destroying the flag in or within view of a public place with the intention of dishonouring it.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage has authority to prescribe when and how the flag should be flown and what the standard sizes, dimensions, proportions and colours should be. In its advisory role, the Ministry for Culture and Heritage has issued guidelines to assist persons in their use of the flag. No permission is needed to fly the flag, and it may be flown on every day of the year—government and public buildings with flagpoles are especially encouraged to fly the flag during working hours. However, it should never be flown in a dilapidated condition.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: From November 1941 to October 1984 the Ceremony of Honouring the Flag Regulations 1941 required state schools to commemorate Waitangi, Anzac, Empire, King's birthday, Trafalgar, Armistice and Dominion Days. In 1984 the cost of flags and poles was estimated to be $340,000.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: Unlike some other countries there is no single official "Flag Day" in New Zealand, and no pledge of allegiance to the flag. Flag flying may be encouraged on certain commemorative days, at the discretion of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The flag is usually only used as a vehicle flag by certain high-ranking officeholders, including: the prime minister and other ministers; ambassadors and high commissioners (when overseas); and the chief of Defence Force. In such cases, no distinguishing defacement or fringing of the flag is used.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The flag is flown at half-mast in New Zealand—always at the discretion of the Minister for Arts, Culture and Heritage—to indicate a period of mourning. Notable occasions on which the flag was half-masted include: the death of former prime minister David Lange, and the death and state funeral of mountaineer Sir Edmund Hillary. When the flag is flown at half-mast, it should be lowered to a position recognisably at half-mast to avoid the appearance of a flag which has accidentally fallen away from the top of the flagpole; the flag should be at least its own height from the top of the flagpole.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: With the Union Jack in its upper left-hand quarter, the flag still proclaims New Zealand's origins as a British colony. Some New Zealanders believe a new flag would better reflect the country's independence, while others argue that the design represents New Zealand's strong past and present ties to the United Kingdom and its history as a part of the British Empire. Relatedly, debate about changing the flag has often arisen in connection with the issue of republicanism in New Zealand. The Southern Cross constellation is depicted on other flags, such as the flag of Australia—although in Australia's case there are five all-white stars and an additional larger star beneath the Union Jack canton, while New Zealand's four stars have red centres. The similar flags of Australia and New Zealand are often mistaken for each other, and this confusion was cited by the NZ Flag.com Trust as a reason for adopting a different design.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: Debate on keeping or changing the New Zealand flag started before May 1973, when a remit for "New Zealand to be declared a republic, change the


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: national flag, and the national anthem" was voted down by the Labour Party at their national conference. In November 1979 Minister of Internal Affairs Allan Highet suggested that the design of the flag should be changed, and sought an artist to design a new flag with a silver fern on the fly, but the proposal attracted little support.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In 1994 Christian Democrat MP Graeme Lee introduced a Flags, Anthems, Emblems, and Names Protection Amendment Bill. If passed, the bill would have entrenched the Act that governs the flag (see ) and added New Zealand's anthems, requiring a majority of 65 percent of votes in Parliament before any future legislation could change the flag. The bill passed its first reading but was defeated at its second reading, 26 votes to 37.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In 1998 Prime Minister Jenny Shipley backed Cultural Affairs Minister Marie Hasler's call for the flag to be changed. Shipley, along with the New Zealand Tourism Board, put forward the quasi-national silver fern flag (a silver fern on a black field, along the lines of the Canadian Maple Leaf flag) as a possible alternative flag.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: On 5 August 2010 Labour list MP Charles Chauvel submitted a member's bill for a consultative commission followed by a referendum on the New Zealand flag.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: On 11 March 2014, Prime Minister John Key announced in a speech his intention to hold a referendum, during the next parliamentary term, on adopting a new flag. Key stated, "It's my belief, and I think one increasingly shared by many New Zealanders, that the design of the New Zealand flag symbolises a colonial and post-colonial era whose time has passed". Following his party's re-election that year, the details of the two referendums were announced. The first referendum was set for November 2015 allowing voters to decide on a preferred design from five choices. The second referendum would see the preferred design voted on against the current flag in March 2016.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: Had the flag changed, the current flag (described as the "1902 flag") of New Zealand would have been "recognised as a flag of historical significance", and its continued use would have been permitted. Official documents depicting the current flag would have been replaced only through ordinary means, e.g. an existing driving licence would have remained valid until its renewal date.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: On 11 December 2015, preliminary results were announced for the first referendum. The black, white and blue design, with a silver fern and red stars, was the winning flag. This flag design did not win the second referendum; according to preliminary results announced on 24 March 2016, the existing 1902 flag was chosen to remain the New Zealand flag. 56.7% were in favour of retaining the flag, with a voter turnout of 67.3%. 43.3% were in favour of changing the flag to the Lockwood design.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: A red version of the flag, officially called the Red Ensign and nicknamed the "red duster", was adopted in 1903 to be flown on non-government ships. It was flown on New Zealand merchant ships during both world wars.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The Red Ensign has sometimes been flown incorrectly on land in the belief that it is the national flag. The Flags, Emblems, and Names Protection Act 1981 does allow for the Red Ensign to be used on land on occasions of Māori significance, continuing the long preference of Māori for the use of red in flags.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: The flag commonly known as the "tino rangatiratanga" (Māori: absolute sovereignty) flag was designed in 1989. It has been acknowledged as a national flag for the Māori.


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: There are two official flags which, when flown in the appropriate circumstance, take precedence over the national flag of New Zealand:


title: Flag of New Zealand

text: In addition, the New Zealand Police, New Zealand Fire Service, New Zealand Customs Service, and the services of the New Zealand Defence Force have their own flags. A few local authorities have commissioned their own flags, such as that of the City of Nelson.


title: Todd Howard

text: Todd Andrew Howard (born 1970) is an American video game designer, director, and producer. He serves as director and executive producer at Bethesda Game Studios, where he has led the development of the "Fallout" and "The Elder Scrolls" series.


title: Todd Howard

text: Todd Andrew Howard was born in 1970 in Lower Macungie Township, Pennsylvania, to Ronald (Ron) and Priscilla Howard. His elder brother, Jeffrey Mark (Jeff) Howard, was later the director of creative affairs for Disney, where he oversaw the production of "Bambi II". He developed an interest in computers, particularly video games, at a very young age. Howard considers the 1980s role-playing video games "Wizardry" and "" to be inspirations for his future games.


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard attended Emmaus High School in Emmaus, Pennsylvania, graduating in 1989. He then attended the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, where he majored in business while taking computer classes for credit. He graduated from William and Mary in 1993. Howard later stated that a business major appeared as the easiest path through college.


title: Todd Howard

text: During the holiday break of his senior year in college, Howard obtained a copy of "Wayne Gretzky Hockey" (1988) by Bethesda Softworks. On Martin Luther King Jr. Day, he visited the offices of Bethesda Softworks, which he passed by daily on his commute to and from school. He asked for a job at the company but was rejected and told that he needed to finish school as a prerequisite. After graduating, he went back to Bethesda for a job but was rejected again due to a lack of job opportunities at the time. Instead, Howard started working for a smaller game company in Yorktown, Virginia, which enabled him to visit several conventions like the Consumer Electronics Show, where he continued approaching Bethesda to request being hired.


title: Todd Howard

text: Bethesda Softworks eventually recruited Howard in 1994 as a producer. His first game development credit for Bethesda was as the producer and designer of "" (1995), followed by work as a designer on "Skynet" and "", both released in 1996. He was project leader for the first time on "", released in 1998.


title: Todd Howard

text: In 2000, Howard was appointed project leader and designer for "" and the expansions that followed. The game was released in 2002 and was a critical and commercial success, winning several Game of the Year awards. He then led the creation of "" (2006) as its executive producer. After this, he served as game director and executive producer of "Fallout 3", released in 2008.


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard returned to "The Elder Scrolls" series to lead the development as the creative director of its fifth installment, "", which was released in November 2011. He subsequently directed "Fallout 4", released in November 2015, and "Fallout 76", a multiplayer installment in the series that attracted criticism upon its release in November 2018. Howard will also serve as the executive producer of the upcoming game based on the "Indiana Jones" series of films, currently in development by MachineGames and Lucasfilm Games.


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard admitted in 2011 that "The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion" had sacrificed what made "The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind" "particular", saying: "With "Oblivion", we're dealing with the capital province, and we wanted to get back to the more classic "Arena" and "Daggerfall" feel of a fantasy world that felt more refined and welcoming. But in that, we sacrificed some of what made "Morrowind" special: the wonder of discovery." He said Bethesda's philosophy for "The Elder Scrolls" games was to allow people to "live another life, in another world".


title: Todd Howard

text: In 2012, Howard also said he was favorable to modding in video games, claiming he did not understand why many developers do not allow it. In 2016, after the release of "Fallout 4", Howard admitted that he was well aware of the criticisms received by the game, especially with regards to the dialogue system, saying: "The way we did some dialogue stuff [in "Fallout 4"], that didn't work as well. But I know the reasons we tried that – to make a nice interactive conversation – but [it was] less successful than some other things in the game."


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard has been a frequent speaker at industry events and conferences. He spoke to developers at the 2009 D.I.C.E. Summit, sharing his rules of game development. He returned as a keynote speaker at the 2012 D.I.C.E. Summit. He said developers should ignore demographics and installed base, and follow their passions, saying that "if install base really mattered, we'd all make board games, because there are a lot of tables".


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard's work has often received attention by the generalist media and press; his games have been featured in "Newsweek", CNN, "USA Today", and "The Today Show". The high popularity of the games Howard has directed and produced has turned him, and some of his quotes, into Internet memes.


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard was the 16th recipient of a Game Developers Conference Lifetime Achievement Award. The magazine "GamePro" named him among the "Top 20 Most Influential People in Gaming over the Last 20 Years". Howard also received the D.I.C.E. Award for "Best Game Director" in 2012 and 2016. In 2014, he was awarded the Lara of Honor, a lifetime achievement award from Germany. In 2013, "IGN" listed Howard 70th in a ranking of "The Top 100 Game Creators of All Time". He was inducted into the Hall of Fame of the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences in 2017. In 2020, Howard received the 2020 Develop Star award for "outstanding achievements and contribution to the industry".


title: Todd Howard

text: During an appearance on Lex Fridman's podcast, Howard stated that he considers Tetris to be the greatest game ever created. He also stated that is one of his personal favorites, and it had a large influence on the games he has developed.


title: Todd Howard

text: Howard married Kimberly Lynn Yaissle, an elementary education teacher, on July 8, 1995, at the St. Thomas More Catholic Church in Allentown, Pennsylvania. He has a son, Luke, who was born in .


title: Free Solo

text: Free Solo is a 2018 American documentary film directed by Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi and Jimmy Chin that profiles rock climber Alex Honnold on his quest to perform a free solo climb of El Capitan in Yosemite National Park in June 2017.


title: Free Solo

text: The film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on August 31, 2018, and also screened at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival, where it won the . It was released in the United States on September 28, 2018 and grossed over $28 million.


title: Free Solo

text: The film received acclaim from critics and numerous accolades, including winning Best Documentary Feature at the 91st Academy Awards.


title: Free Solo

text: Climber Alex Honnold has been dreaming of free-soloing the rock wall El Capitan in Yosemite National Park, a feat no-one has been able to perform. Honnold, who has performed the climb with equipment several times, is a shy loner, who lives in his van with then-girlfriend Sanni McCandless.


title: Free Solo

text: Alex goes climbing with Sanni, but while Sanni is feeding the rope through a grigri, she makes a mistake in which the rope is not fed through the grigri, and Alex falls. He visits a physician, where it is revealed he has a compression fracture. Alex then admits wanting to break up with Sanni. In the summer of 2016, Alex and Tommy Caldwell are climbing in Morocco in preparation for his free solo. The crew also prepares, discussing where to place cameras to best capture Alex’s climb while minimizing distractions and interference. Producer Jimmy Chin discusses the ethical dilemma of creating this documentary knowing Alex may die on camera. Alex also receives an MRI in order to understand his brain’s response to fear.


title: Free Solo

text: In the fall of 2016, Alex sprains his ankle while climbing the "Freeblast Slab" on El Capitan with equipment. Although his foot is swollen, Alex continues to climb in fear of his schedule being delayed. During Halloween, Alex and Sanni visit Tommy and his wife and children for carving pumpkins. This prompts Alex to describe his upbringing: the word “love” was not used in his household, as his father lacked the ability to form emotional bonds. Alex and Tommy eventually rappel down El Capitan, and Alex outlines his route, discussing the areas about which he is apprehensive: one section offers him two alternative pathways he calls "The Teflon Corner", a right-angled section with a smooth slippery surface, or "The Boulder Problem", a particularly intricate piece of the rock wall that he must finish either with a jump or a wide "karate kick" stance. Both the crew and Sanni suggest abandoning the plan, and Alex admits that he does not want his friends to see him die if he falls while free soloing; he finds out about the death of Ueli Steck, and reflects on his own risk-taking. In a trial run, Alex climbs El Capitan with equipment but stops after The Freeblast Slab. Jimmy as a result grows apprehensive of filming Alex, fearful it will put unnecessary pressure on him.


title: Free Solo

text: On June 3, 2017, Alex begins his free solo climb of El Capitan; Sanni leaves and expresses her apprehensions. As Alex is climbing, the crew narrates his progress, and watches nervously as Alex completes The Boulder Problem; one cameraman turns away. Alex continues with his climb, and completes the free solo, and celebrates at the top with Jimmy and Sanni over a phone call.


title: Free Solo

text: The documentary ends with information on the climb—Alex completed it in 3 hours and 56 minutes—and Alex contemplating his next steps.


title: Free Solo

text: Prior to filming, directors Vasarhelyi and Chin struggled with the ethical ramifications and decisions behind creating "Free Solo" knowing Honnold may die on camera. They ultimately decided to go through with the film and devoted some time to documenting its own production process, with director Jimmy Chin and his camera crew (all experienced climbers themselves) discussing the challenge of not endangering climber Alex Honnold by distracting him or pressuring him to attempt the climb at all. According to director Elizabeth Chai Vasarhelyi, filming while not endangering Honnold was achieved with careful planning and practice. As the cameramen were all climbers, they were able to effectively capture Honnold’s climb from different vantage points. The production team captured 700 hours of footage using 12 cameras. This included cameramen on the ground, cameramen on the cliff face, remote trigger cameras, and a helicopter with a 1,000mm lens to capture the 4k video. Wireless mics, however, could not be used to record sound from Honnold due to his distance from the cameras. As a result, the filmmakers created a special recording device and had Honnold carry it inside his chalk bag.


title: Free Solo

text: The film was made by National Geographic Partners, which at the time of the film's release was majority-owned by 21st Century Fox, with the remainder owned by the National Geographic Society.


title: Free Solo

text: "Free Solo" premiered in the United States on August 31, 2018 at the Telluride Film Festival and in Canada on September 9, 2018, at the Toronto International Film Festival. It has been shown at multiple film festivals internationally since then. "Free Solo" was later released in theatres in the USA on September 28, 2018.


title: Free Solo

text: "Free Solo" grossed $17.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $11.1 million in other territories, for a total worldwide gross of $28.6 million.


title: Free Solo

text: The film made $300,804 from four theaters in its opening weekend, surpassing "Eighth Grade" and "", respectively, for the highest per-venue average of 2018 and of a documentary all-time with $75,201. It expanded to 41 theaters in its second weekend, making $562,786. The film grossed $859,051 from 129 theaters in its third weekend and $1 million from 251 theaters in its fourth weekend. During its fifth weekend, it earned $1.06 million from 394 theaters, bringing the total box office gross to over $5 million.


title: Free Solo

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""Free Solo" depicts athletic feats that many viewers will find beyond reason – and grounds the attempts in passions that are all but universal." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 83 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Free Solo

text: Writing for "Variety", Peter Debrudge praised the pacing of the documentary: "Apart from a slow stretch around the hour mark, the filmmakers keep things lively (with a big assist from Marco Beltrami's pulse-quickening score, the nail-biting opposite of Tim McGraw's soaring end-credits single, "Gravity")." Richard Lawson of "Vanity Fair" called the film "bracingly made" and thought the filmmakers properly conveyed the challenges and dangers faced by Honnold in his endeavors: ""Free Solo"s detailed, transfixing portrait of their hero will at least show some sort of barrier to entry, communicating to those eager wannabes that very few people indeed are built quite like Alex Honnold. And thank goodness, in a way, for that."


title: Free Solo

text: Michael Hale, London-based journalist for "Sight and Sound", praised the filming techniques and the resulting effect. He argued that an image reminiscent of Greek mythology is evoked in Alex Honnold as the height and scale of El Capitan is captured. Film critic for the "Globe and Mail" John Doyle similarly praised the film, focusing on the “texture” of "Free Solo". He specifically praised the tension and intensity when Honnold repeatedly risked death, along with the relatability of Honnold and his girlfriend. Similarly, journalist Sam Wollastan argued that "Free Solo" effectively captures an amazing athletic feat, the emotional development of Honnold, and the budding romance between Honnold and McCandless. The emotional development is further praised by "The Times" journalist Jane Mulkerrins, who remarks on the duality of the documentary as it examines the preparation and climb of Alex Honnold along with his relationship with girlfriend Sanni McCandless: “["Free Solo"] captures the death-defying climb with vertigo-inducing camerawork. We see Honnold getting ready for the climb… At the same time, the armour of invincibility he's built up over the years fractures when he begins to fall in love with Sanni.”


title: Free Solo

text: Georgetown University professor of English and Film and Media studies Caetlin Benson-Allott argues that "Free Solo" infringes upon expectations of viewers when Alex Honnold was frequently and unexpectedly at risk to die: “I could no longer trust Vasarhelyi and Chin to deliver the safe spectatorial experience I’d expected, once they’d acknowledged that they were equally committed to filming their subject’s death." Benson-Allott acknowledges his implied death as a mechanism to achieve certain emotional effects, but remarks on its minimal focus on women. Director Elizabeth Chai Vaserhelyi and girlfriend Sanni McCandless, for instance, are reduced to supporting roles, according to Benson-Allott, while Jimmy Chin is highlighted and depicted as “"Free Solo"s sole author." Furthermore, Alex Honnold’s depiction ties into gendered stereotypes, argues Benson-Allott: “Not all extreme athletes are men, yet the self-destructive masculinity of these athletes is also imposed on their spectators." These gender-stereotypes are reinforced, contends Benson-Allott, when Honnold criticizes his girlfriend Sanni McCandless for “wanting to be ‘happy and cozy’ rather than pursuing a life-threatening goal."


title: Free Solo

text: These analyses are shared by Simon Fraser University professor of History and Geography Joseph Taylor. In his analysis, Taylor remarks on the gendered stereotypes and the contrast between Honnold and McCandless, claiming that "Free Solo" employs a “hypermasculine narrative”. Taylor also argues that “the soul of the documentary” is the looming possibility of Honnold’s death and the coping mechanisms of his friends and coworkers. Honnold’s lack of fear in the face of likely death, for instance, intimidates his friends and family, eliciting ethical dilemmas and constant apprehensions. Taylor echoes Benson-Allott in the depiction of Honnold's challenges and risks throughout the film: “Make no mistake: we are watching the commodification of actuarial suicide."


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Religion in South Korea is diverse. A substantial number of South Koreans have no religion. Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism) and Buddhism are the dominant confessions among those who affiliate with a formal religion. Buddhism and Confucianism play an influential role in the lives of many South Korean people. Buddhism, which arrived in Korea in 372 AD, has tens of thousands of temples built across the country.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: According to Pew Research Center (2010), about 46% of the population have no religious affiliation, 23% are Buddhist and 29% are Christians. According to 2015 national census, 56.1% are irreligious, Protestantism represents (19.7%) of the total population, Korean Buddhism (15.5%), and Catholicism (7.9%). A small percentage of South Koreans (0.8% in total) are members of other religions, including Won Buddhism, Confucianism, Cheondoism, Daesun Jinrihoe, Islam, Daejongism, Jeungsanism and Orthodox Christianity.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Buddhism was influential in ancient times and Christianity had influenced large segments of the population in the 18th and 19th century, yet they grew rapidly in membership only by the mid-20th century, as part of the profound transformations that South Korean society went through in the past century. But they have shown some decline from the year 2000 onwards. Native shamanic religions (i.e. "Sindo") remain popular and could represent a large part of the unaffiliated. Indeed, according to a 2012 survey, only 15% of the population declared themselves to be not religious in the sense of "atheism". According to the 2015 census, the proportion of the unaffiliated is higher among the youth, about 69% among the 20-years old.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Korea entered the 20th century with an already ingrained Christian presence and a vast majority of the population practicing native religion, Sindo. The latter never gained the high status of a national religious culture comparable to Chinese folk religion, Vietnamese folk religion and Japan's Shinto; this weakness of Korean Sindo was among the reasons that left a free hand to an early and thorough rooting of Christianity. The population also took part in Confucianising rites and held private ancestor worship. Organised religions and philosophies belonged to the ruling elites and the long patronage exerted by the Chinese empire led these elites to embrace a particularly strict Confucianism (i.e. Korean Confucianism). Korean Buddhism, despite an erstwhile rich tradition, at the dawn of the 20th century was virtually extinct as a religious institution, after 500 years of suppression under the Joseon kingdom. Christianity had antecedents in the Korean peninsula as early as the 18th century, when the philosophical school of "Seohak" supported the religion. With the fall of the Joseon in the last decades of the 19th century, Koreans largely embraced Christianity, since the monarchy itself and the intellectuals looked to Western models to modernise the country and endorsed the work of Catholic and Protestant missionaries. During Japanese colonisation in the first half of the 20th century, the identification of Christianity with Korean nationalism was further strengthened, as the Japanese tried to combine native Sindo with their State Shinto.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: With the division of Korea into two states after 1945, the communist north and the capitalist south, the majority of the Korean Christian population that had been until then in the northern half of the peninsula, fled to South Korea. It has been estimated that Christians who migrated to the south were more than one million. Throughout the second half of the 20th century, the South Korean state enacted measures to further marginalise indigenous Sindo, at the same time strengthening Christianity and a revival of Buddhism. According to scholars, South Korean censuses do not count believers in indigenous Sindo and underestimate the number of adherents of Sindo sects. Otherwise, statistics compiled by the ARDA estimate that as of 2010, 14.7% of South Koreans practice ethnic religion, 14.2% adhere to new movements, and 10.9% practice Confucianism.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: According to some observers, the sharp decline of some religions (Catholicism and Buddhism) recorded between the censuses of 2005 and 2015 is due to the change in survey methodology between the two censuses. While the 2005 census was an analysis of the entire population ("whole survey") through traditional data sheets compiled by every family, the 2015 census was largely conducted through the internet and was limited to a sample of about 20% of the South Korean population. It has been argued that the 2015 census penalised the rural population, which is more Buddhist and Catholic and less familiar with the internet, while advantaging the Protestant population, which is more urban and has easier access to the internet. Both the Buddhist and the Catholic communities criticised the 2015 census' results.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Before the introduction of Buddhism, all Koreans believed in their indigenous religion socially guided by "mu" (shamans). Buddhism was introduced from the Chinese Former Qin state in 372 to the northern Korean state of Goguryeo and developed into distinctive Korean forms. At that time, the peninsula was divided into three kingdoms: the aforementioned Goguryeo in the north, Baekje in the southwest, and Silla in the southeast. Buddhism reached Silla only in the 5th century, but it was made the state religion only in that kingdom in the year 552. Buddhism became much more popular in Silla and even in Baekje (both areas now part of modern South Korea), while in Goguryeo the Korean indigenous religion remained dominant. In the following unified state of Goryeo (918–1392) Buddhism flourished, and even became a political force.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: The Joseon kingdom (1392–1910), adopted an especially strict version of Neo-Confucianism (i.e. Korean Confucianism) and suppressed and marginalised Korean Buddhism and Korean shamanism. Buddhist monasteries were destroyed, and their number dropped from several hundreds to a mere thirty-six; Buddhism was eradicated from the life of towns as monks and nuns were prohibited from entering them and were marginalised to the mountains. These restrictions lasted until the 19th century.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: In the late 19th century, the Joseon state was politically and culturally collapsing. The intelligentsia was looking for solutions to invigorate and transform the nation. It was in this critical period that they came into contact with Western Christian missionaries who offered a solution to the plight of Koreans. Christian communities had already existed in Joseon since the 17th century; however, it was only by the 1880s that the government allowed a large number of Western missionaries to enter the country. Christian missionaries set up schools, hospitals and publishing agencies. The royal family supported Christianity.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: During the absorption of Korea into the Japanese Empire (1910–1945) the already formed link of Christianity with Korean nationalism was strengthened, as the Japanese tried to impose State Shinto, co-opting within it native Korean Sindo, and Christians refused to take part in Shinto rituals. At the same time, numerous religious movements that since the 19th century had been trying to reform the Korean indigenous religion, notably Cheondoism, flourished.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: With the division of Korea into two states in 1945, the communist north and the anti-communist south, the majority of the Korean Christian population that had been until then in the northern half of the peninsula, fled to South Korea. Christians who resettled in the south were more than one million. Cheondoists, who were concentrated in the north like Christians, remained there after the partition, and South Korea now has no more than few thousands Cheondoists.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: The so-called "movement to defeat the worship of gods" promoted by governments of South Korea in the 1970s and 1980s prohibited indigenous cults and wiped out nearly all traditional shrines ("sadang" 사당) of the Confucian kinship religion. This was particularly tough under the rule of Park Chung-hee, who was a Buddhist. This measure, combined with the rapid social changes of the same period, favoured a rapid revival of Buddhism, as it traditionally intermingled with folk religion and allowed a way for these traditional believers to express their folk beliefs in the context of an officially accepted religion. This period also saw the growth of Christian churches in a trend to register as members of organised religions.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: The number of Buddhist temples rose from 2,306 in 1962 to 11,561 in 1997, Protestant churches rose from 6,785 in 1962 to 58,046 in 1997, the Catholic Church had 313 churches in 1965 and 1,366 in 2005, Won Buddhism had 131 temples in 1969 and 418 in 1997. Similarly, Daesun Jinrihoe's temples have grown from 700 in 1983 to 1,600 in 1994. Statistics from censuses show that the proportion of the South Korean population self-identifying as Buddhist has grown from 2.6% in 1962 to 22.8% in 2005, while the proportion of Christians has grown from 5% in 1962 to 29.2% in 2005. However, both religions have shown a decline between the years 2005 and 2015, with Buddhism sharply declining in influence to 15.5% of the population, and a less significant decline of Christianity to 27.6%.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: In response to the rapidly changing demographics of religion in South Korea, 여론 속의 여론 ("Yeolon Sog-ui Yeolon") a Korean research journal, performed a survey on the present religious demographic in South Korea. According to the survey, new results deviate from the traditional sentiments of South Korean culture. While much of the population is irreligious, Protestants make up the largest religious group. The latter half of the population that are religious, are split in the following way: 18% believe in Protestantism, 16% believe in Buddhism, 13% believe in Catholicism, and 1% being other religions or cults. Essentially, the studies findings show that 50% of South Korean are now non-religious, 32% follow some section of Christianity, 16% are Buddhist, and 2% believe in some other form of religion. The deviation from the traditionally religious South Korea culture and demographics, is the rise of Atheists.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Previous to this sudden change, "A Cohort Analysis of Religious Population Change in Korea" launched by the Korean Citation Index analyzed Korean religious demographics from 1999 to 2015. The data from the study focused on understanding religious conversion, switching, or abandonment within the demographic. Today, the study has given insight on the potential effects of the deviation in South Korea's religious demographic.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: The study performed by the research journal, 여론 속의 여론 ("Yeolon Sog-ui Yeolon"), discovered the change in the South Korea religious demographics stemmed from the youth. The younger demographic of South Korea tend to have a higher percentage of atheists, while the older demographics have remained relatively religious. The study states that 33% of Koreans who are around the age of 20 believe in religion, while above 61% of those aged 60 or older continue to believe in religion. The study also reveals that the demographic of believers and non believers are also affected by many more variables. For example, the specific religion and the age at which the religion was introduced to the individual can have effects on the probability of an individual to stay religious throughout their lives. Overall, there seems to be a large deviation between those who were introduced to religion before elementary and those who were introduced after their 50s. Of 101 individuals interviewed, 29 were introduced to religion before elementary school, 18 during elementary, 9 in their 40s, and 7 in their 50s. While Catholicism and Protestantism maintained a similar standard deviation, believers of Buddhism seemed to start during and near their 30s. With the younger generation of South Korea remaining increasingly non-religious, and South Korea traditionally being a religious nation, the developments of South Korea's religious demographics will have many implications on the nation's culture, politics, and way of life.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Since the 1980s and the 1990s there have been acts of hostility committed by Protestants against Buddhists and followers of traditional religions in South Korea. This include the arson of temples, the beheading of statues of Buddha and bodhisattvas, and red Christian crosses painted on either statues or other Buddhist and other religions' properties. Some of these acts have even been promoted by churches' pastors.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Buddhism (불교/佛敎 "Bulgyo") entered Korea from China during the period of the three kingdoms (372, or the 4th century). Buddhism was the dominant religious and cultural influence in the North–South States Period (698–926) and subsequent Goryeo (918–1392) states. Confucianism was also brought to Korea from China in early centuries, and was formulated as Korean Confucianism in Goryeo. However, it was only in the subsequent Joseon kingdom (1392–1910) that Korean Confucianism was established as the state ideology and religion, and Korean Buddhism underwent 500 years of suppression. Buddhism in the contemporary state of South Korea is stronger in the east of the country, namely the Yeongnam and Gangwon regions, as well as in Jeju.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: There are a number of different schools in Korean Buddhism (대한불교/大韓佛敎 "Daehanbulgyo"), including the "Seon" (Korean Zen). Seon is represented by Jogye Order and Taego Order. The overwhelming majority of Buddhist temples in contemporary South Korea belong to the dominant Jogye Order, traditionally related to the Seon school. The order's headquarters are at Jogyesa in central Seoul, and it operates most of the country's old and famous temples, such as Bulguksa and Beomeosa. Jogye requires their monastics to be celibate. Taego lineage is a form of Seon (Zen) and it differs from Seon by allowing priests to marry.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Jingak Order, is a modern esoteric form of Vajrayana Buddhism, which also permits its priests to marry. Cheontae is a modern revival of the Tiantai lineage in Korea, focusing on the "Lotus Sutra". Cheontae orders requires their monastics to be celibate.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Won Buddhism (원불교/圓佛敎 "Wonbulgyo") is a modern reformed Buddhism that seeks to make enlightenment possible for everyone and applicable to regular life. The scriptures and practices are simplified so that anyone, regardless of their wealth, occupation, or other external living conditions, can understand them.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: According to a 2005 government survey, a quarter of South Koreans are practicing Buddhist. However, the actual number of Buddhists in South Korea is ambiguous as there is no exact or exclusive criterion by which Buddhists can be identified, unlike the Christian population. With Buddhism's incorporation into traditional Korean culture, it is now considered a philosophy and cultural background rather than a formal religion. As a result, many people outside of the practicing population are deeply influenced by these traditions. Thus, when counting secular believers or those influenced by the faith while not following other religions, the number of Buddhists in South Korea is considered to be much larger. Similarly, in officially atheist North Korea, while Buddhists officially account for 4.5% of the population, a much larger number (over 70%) of the population are influenced by Buddhist philosophies and customs.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Foreign Roman Catholic missionaries did not arrive in Korea until 1794, a decade after the return of Yi Sung-hun, a diplomat who was the first baptised Korean in Beijing. He established a grass roots lay Catholic movement in Korea. However, the writings of the Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci, who was resident at the imperial court in Beijing, had been already brought to Korea from China in the 17th century. Scholars of the "Silhak" ("Practical Learning") were attracted to Catholic doctrines, and this was a key factor for the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s.


title: Religion in South Korea

text: Christianity (그리스도교/----敎 "Geurisdogyo" or 기독교/基督敎 "Gidoggyo", both meaning religion of Christ) in South Korea is dominated by four denominations: Catholic (천주교/天主敎 pronounced "Cheonjugyo"), Protestant Presbyterianism (장로교 pronounced "Jangnogyo"), Methodism (감리교 pronounced "Gamnigyo") and Baptists (침례교 pronounced "Chimnyegyo"). The Yoido Full Gospel Church is the largest Pentecostal church in the country. Some non-denominational churches also exist. According to 2015 census, Protestants and Catholics numbered 9.6 million and 3.8 million respective. There are also small Eastern Orthodox communities.