title: Revenge porn

text: Jurisdictions which have passed laws against revenge porn include Canada, Germany, Italy, Israel, Singapore, Spain, the United Kingdom, 48/50 states of the United States—plus Washington, D.C., the U.S. military and U.S. territories including Puerto Rico and Guam. Australia has also passed a law at the Commonwealth level that commenced on 1 September 2018. The Australian states and territories of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania, have complementary state level laws that criminalize this behaviour. Furthermore, Australia also has a civil penalties scheme.


title: Revenge porn

text: In the 1980s, "Hustler" magazine began a monthly feature of reader-submitted images of naked women called "Beaver Hunt". Beaver Hunt photographs were often accompanied by details about the woman, like her hobbies, her sexual fantasies, and sometimes her name. Not all of the women featured in Beaver Hunt submitted their own images and several women sued the magazine for publishing their photographs without their permission, or without verifying information on forged consent forms.


title: Revenge porn

text: Two decades later, Italian researcher Sergio Messina identified "realcore pornography", a new genre consisting of images and videos of ex-girlfriends distributed through Usenet groups. In 2008, amateur porn aggregator XTube began receiving complaints that pornographic content had been posted without subjects' consent. Several sites began staging consensual pornography to resemble revenge porn, as well as hosting "authentic" user-submitted content.


title: Revenge porn

text: Revenge porn began garnering international media attention when Hunter Moore launched the website "IsAnyoneUp" in 2010. The site featured user-submitted pornography, and was one of the first sites to adopt the model initiated by Beaver Hunt: "IsAnyoneUp" often included identifying information, such as the subjects' names, employers, addresses and links to social networking profiles. Activist Charlotte Laws was the first person to speak out against Moore and one of the first people to publicly support revenge porn victims. This prompted backlash from some of Moore's devotees, who stalked Laws and sent her death threats. Laws became known around the world as the "Erin Brockovich of revenge porn" and she was one of the first activists to meet with legislators in an effort to get laws passed against revenge porn.


title: Revenge porn

text: In February 2015, the social media site and online bulletin board Reddit announced a change to its privacy policy to ban the posting of sexually explicit content without the consent of those depicted. The announcement was made after a company meeting at which the issue of "illicit pornography—pictures and video—was a burning one". In March 2015, Twitter followed suit with new rules to address the posting of unauthorized content and specifically revenge porn. Starting March 11 of that year, Twitter stated it would immediately remove "any 'link to a photograph, video, or digital image of you in a state of nudity or engaged in any act of sexual conduct' that has been posted without consent." According to a "Washington Post" article, the changes were in response to growing concerns "that [Twitter] has not done enough to prevent bad behavior on its site."


title: Revenge porn

text: In June 2015, Google announced it would remove links to revenge porn on request. Microsoft followed suit in July. Both have placed forms on-line for victims to complete. Together the two organizations account for nearly 90% of the internet search market in the U.S.


title: Revenge porn

text: The term "revenge porn" is controversial because those who share images without permission may be motivated by profit, notoriety, entertainment, or other goals besides revenge; and because not all visual depictions of nudity or sexual activity are pornographic.


title: Revenge porn

text: The website "endrevengeporn.org" was founded by Holly Jacobs, a revenge porn victim, to campaign for the criminalization of revenge porn, which it considered a form of sexual abuse. Jacobs also founded the Cyber Civil Rights Initiative (CCRI), a nonprofit organization that seeks to challenge cyber harassment. Danielle Citron, known for her discourse on cyber harassment as a civil rights issue, the vice-president of the CCRI. Mary Anne Franks, CCRI's president and Legislative & Tech Policy Director, has been heavily involved with legislative and policy efforts to combat revenge porn. Dr. Laura Hilly and Kira Allmann of the Oxford Human Rights Hub have characterized revenge porn as a kind of gendered hate speech designed to silence women. An article of theirs argues that this stifling of free expression is often ignored in debates over revenge porn. Dr. Charlotte Laws, often called "the Erin Brockovich of revenge porn", was a CCRI board member until 2016. She is perhaps the first victims' advocate and one of the first to meet with elected officials in an effort to get legislation passed against nonconsensual pornography.


title: Revenge porn

text: Katie Hill, U.S. representative for California, announced in late 2019 she would advocate against revenge porn.


title: Revenge porn

text: While not solely focused on revenge porn, the non-profit organization "Without My Consent" provided legal resources related to it and lobbies to protect the privacy and free speech rights of online harassment victims. In 2019,"Without My Consent" ceased operating and transferred to CCRI all of the comprehensive resources it had developed to aid victims of online abuse. Since 2012, there has also been a website "Women Against Revenge Porn", calling itself "not an organization or a business", which has been cited as an advocacy group for people exposed in revenge porn. In late 2014, Elisa D'Amico and David Bateman, partners at the law firm K&L Gates, launched the Cyber Civil Rights Legal Project (CCRLP), a project offering free legal help to victims of revenge porn.


title: Revenge porn

text: To better facilitate the introduction of relevant legislation, some anti-revenge porn activists have called upon others in their community to use gender-neutral language more often when discussing the issue. The term "revenge porn" itself has also come under fire. The CCRI for instance prefers the term "nonconsensual pornography". In analogy with "child sexual abuse images" being the preferred term for child pornography, McGlynn and Rackley proposed "image-based sexual abuse". Along with journalist Sarah Jeong, they have argued that it is harmful to associate revenge porn with pornography which revolves around consent. Jeong also considers it a mistake for activists to focus on revenge porn itself as the main problem, rather than the underlying culture which leads to its subjects being socially ostracized.


title: Revenge porn

text: In the Australian Capital Territory, an electronic petition was started in March 2017 that called upon the A.C.T. Legislative Assembly to consider criminalizing the non-consensual disclosure of sexual images and videos. The A.C.T Legislative Assembly consequently passed the "Crimes (Intimate Image Abuse) Amendment Act (2017) (ACT)" that criminalised the distribution, or threatened distribution, of intimate photos and videos on 16 August 2017.


title: Revenge porn

text: According to Steven Carlson, the creator of the website Cyberbully.watch, the number of boys targeted by cyberbullying may actually be higher than reported. "Society has the false presumption that boys are always stronger, and girls are weaker", Carlson told the website Parentology, adding many cases where boys are the victim go unreported because it goes against the societal view of boys.


title: Revenge porn

text: Laws banning revenge porn have been slow to emerge. Contributing factors include a lack of understanding about the gravity of the problem, free speech concerns, belief that existing law provides adequate protection, a lack of care, historically, for women's issues, and "misunderstandings of First Amendment doctrine" (Citron & Franks). The American Civil Liberties Union and the Electronic Frontier Foundation have drawn attention to the implications for free speech if legislation is too broad.


title: Revenge porn

text: One concern with revenge porn laws is that they may not be tailored narrowly enough to satisfy the strict scrutiny applicable to content-based restrictions on speech. Prohibition of revenge porn may not be constitutional according to the "Miller v. California" decision if the porn does not categorically appeal to the prurient interest; if it is not, in itself, patently offensive; or if it has literary or political value.


title: Revenge porn

text: In South Africa, the Films and Publications Amendment Act, 2019 makes it a crime to distribute a private sexual photograph or film without the consent of the pictured individual and with the intent to cause them harm. The penalty is a fine of up to R150,000 and/or up to two years' imprisonment; or double that if the victim is identifiable in the photograph or film.


title: Revenge porn

text: Since 2009, the Philippines has criminalized copying, reproducing, sharing or exhibiting sexually explicit images or videos over the Internet without written consent of the individual depicted.


title: Revenge porn

text: Japan passed a bill in November 2014 which made it a crime to communicate "a private sexual image of another person" without consent.


title: Revenge porn

text: In South Korea the distribution of revenge porn is punishable by up to three years' imprisonment or by a fine of up to 5 million South Korean won. If the subject is filmed illicitly the penalty is up to ten years in prison or a fine of up to 10 million won ($8,900; £6,900). The use of hidden cameras for illicitly filming people, known as "molka", is widespread in the country and in 2018 more than 6,000 incidents of spy-cam porn were being reported to the police annually, with only 2% of reported cases leading to a prison sentence. The website Sora.net specialised in the publishing of spy-cam porn until it was banned in 2016 following a campaign against it. Some of those depicted had committed suicide. In May 2018, ten thousand women demonstrated in Seoul demanding increased official action against digital sex crime. In October 2018 a petition of over 200,000 signatories called for increased punishment for the possession of revenge porn, regardless of whether it had been distributed.


title: Revenge porn

text: Israel responded quickly to public pressure in January 2014 and passed a law making sharing sexually explicit videos without the consent of the pictured individual punishable by up to five years in prison. After Israel's bill was passed, it was widely predicted that nearby countries such as Egypt, Lebanon and Saudi Arabia would not introduce similar bills as they have been slow to adopt legislation against sexual harassment in general. However, some commentators have suggested that victims could find recourse in existing laws against pornography, indecency, defamation and invasion of privacy.


title: Revenge porn

text: Singapore passed the Criminal Law Reform Act on 6 May 2019, which includes the criminalisation of revenge porn. Penalties include a jail term of up to five years with fines and caning as a sentencing option. If the crime is committed against a victim under 14 years of age, a mandatory jail term will be imposed. The Act took effect on 1 January 2020.


title: Revenge porn

text: Sharing sexual images or videos without consent is unlawful under three different, but parallel, types of law in Australia; the Civil Law, the Criminal Law, and a Civil Penalties scheme.


title: Revenge porn

text: Under the Civil Law, the Supreme Court of Western Australia decision in the case of "Wilson v Ferguson", delivered on 16 January 2015, is specific precedent that establishes that the non-consensual publication of sexual images or videos on the internet is unlawful. In that case, a defendant shared sexual images and videos of the plaintiff on social media. The Court decided that the publication of “"explicit images of a former partner which had been confidentially shared between the sexual partners during their relationship"” constituted a breach of an equitable obligation of confidence. The Court granted an injunction prohibiting further publication and awarded equitable compensation to the plaintiff. The defendant was found liable for A$48,404 in damages, plus costs. This case was successfully argued on grounds previously established by the case of "Giller v Procopets", which was argued on the equity of breach of confidence and tort grounds.


title: Revenge porn

text: Under the Criminal Law, the Parliaments in the Australian States and Territories of South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania, have all passed laws that amend the relevant statutory criminal law to criminalise the non-consensual sharing of sexual images or videos. Furthermore, the Parliament of Australia has also passed a law that amends the Commonwealth statutory criminal law (which operates in parallel to State and Territory criminal law) to criminalise the non-consensual sharing of sexual images or videos. Most jurisdictions provide for higher sentences where the image that is shared is of a child. The particular law in each of these jurisdictions is described below, in chronological order of their enactment.


title: Revenge porn

text: In March 2013, the Parliament of South Australia passed the "Summary Offences (Filming Offences) Amendment Act (2013) (SA)" that specifically created a criminal offence for distributing an invasive image or video without consent, which commenced on 10 May 2013. The distribution of an invasive image offence is contained in "s. 26C" of the "Summary Offences Act (1953) (SA)", and the maximum penalty is A$10,000 or imprisonment for 2 years. In September 2016, the Parliament of South Australia further passed the "Summary Offences (Filming and Sexting Offences) Amendment Act (2016)" to create a criminal offence for threatening to distribute an invasive image or video, which commenced on 28 October 2018. The threatening to distribute offence is contained in "s. 26DA" of the "Summary Offences Act (1953) (SA)", and the maximum penalty is A$5,000 or imprisonment for 1 year.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 15 October 2014, the Parliament of Victoria passed the "Crimes Amendment (Sexual Offences and Other Matters) Act (2014) (Vic)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, a sexual image or video without consent, which commenced on 3 November 2014 (and was repealed on 6 September 2022). The distribution of an intimate image offence was contained in "s. 41DA" of the "Summary Offences Act (1966) (Vic)", and the maximum penalty was imprisonment for 2 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence was contained in "s. 41DB" of the "Summary Offences Act (1966) (Vic)", and the maximum penalty was imprisonment for 1 year. On 30 August 2022, the Parliament of Victoria further passed the "Justice Legislation Amendment (Sexual Offences and Other Matters) Act (2022) (Vic)" that amends the "Summary Offences Act (1966) (Vic)", (which will commence on 30 June 2023, unless proclaimed earlier). The amendment relocates the criminal offence of distributing an intimate image to "s. 53S" of the "Crimes Act (1958) (Vic)," and the offence of threatening to distribute an intimate image to "s. 53T" of the "Crimes Act (1958) (Vic)". The maximum penalty for either offence is imprisonment for 3 years. This Act also creates a specific criminal offence for producing an intimate image without consent. The producing an intimate image offence will be contained in "s. 53R" of the "Crimes Act (1958) (Vic)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. Furthermore, this Act will create a disposal order scheme. The intimate image disposal order will be contained in "s. 53Z of the Crimes Act (1958) (Vic)."


title: Revenge porn

text: On 21 June 2017, the Parliament of New South Wales passed the "Crimes Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2017) (NSW)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, or threatening to record, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 28 August 2017. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 91Q" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)", and the maximum penalty is an A$11,000 fine, or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The threatening to distribute, or threatening to record an intimate image offences, are contained in "s. 91R" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)", and the maximum penalty for either offences is an A$11,000 fine, or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in "s. 91S" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (NSW)", and the maximum penalty is an A$5,500 fine, or imprisonment for 2 years, or both.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 16 August 2017, the Legislative Assembly of the Australian Capital Territory passed the "Crimes (Intimate Image Abuse) Amendment Act (2017) (ACT)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, or threatening to capture, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 30 August 2017. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 72C" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)", and the maximum penalty is A$45,000 or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The threatening to distribute, or threatening to capture, an intimate image offences are contained in "s. 72E" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)", and the maximum penalty is A$45,000 or imprisonment for 3 years, or both. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in "s. 72H" of the "Crimes Act (1900) (ACT)", and the maximum penalty is an A$30,000 fine, or imprisonment for 2 years, or both.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 22 March 2018, the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory passed the "Criminal Code Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2018) (NT)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 9 May 2018. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 208AB" of the "Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 208AC" of the "Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in "s. 208AE" of the "Criminal Code Act (1983) (NT)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 2 years.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 16 August 2018, the Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia passed the "Enhancing Online Safety (Non‑consensual Sharing of Intimate Images) Act (2018) (Cth)" that created specific criminal offences (that operates in parallel to State and Territory criminal law) for distributing, or threatening to distribute, a sexual image or video without consent, which commenced on 1 September 2018. The distribution of a private sexual image offence is contained in "s. 474.17A" of the "Criminal Code Act (1995) (Cth)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 5 years.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 13 February 2019, the Parliament of Queensland passed the "Criminal Code (Non-consensual Sharing of Intimate Images) Amendment Act (2019) (Qld)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 21 February 2019. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 223" of the "Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 229A" of the "Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in "s. 229AA" of the "Criminal Code Act (1899) (Qld)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 2 years.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 19 February 2019, the Parliament of Western Australia passed the "Criminal Law Amendment (Intimate Images) Act (2018) (WA)" that created specific criminal offences for distributing, or threatening to distribute, an intimate image or video without consent, and provided for Rectification Orders that empower a Court to order the removal and destruction of the intimate image or video, which commenced on 15 April 2019. The distribution of an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 221BD of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The threatening to distribute an intimate image offence is contained in "s. 338 of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 3 years. The contravention of a Rectification Order offence is contained in "s. 221BE of the Criminal Code Act Compilation Act (1913) (WA)", and the maximum penalty is imprisonment for 1 year and an A$12,000 fine.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 19 September 2019, the Parliament of Tasmania passed the "Criminal Code Amendment (Bullying) Act (2019) (Tas)" that extended the criminal offence of stalking to include distributing an offensive image or video, which commenced on 8 September 2019. The distribution of an offensive image offence is contained in "s. 192(1)" of the "Criminal Code Act (1924) (Tas)", and the offence is a serious indictable crime that can only be tried on indictment in the Supreme Court. The threat offence is contained in "s. 192(1)(ea)" of the "Criminal Code Act (1924) (Tas)", and the offence is a serious indictable crime that can only be tried on indictment in the Supreme Court.


title: Revenge porn

text: Under the civil penalties scheme, Australians can report the posting, or threatened posting, of sexual images and videos without consent, to the Australian Government Office of the eSafety Commissioner. The eSafety Commissioner is empowered to receive and investigate complaints, issue take-down notices, and enforce civil penalties against individuals and corporations who fail to comply. In July 2015, the Australian Government established the Office of the eSafety Commissioner. In October 2017, the Office of the eSafety Commissioner launched the Image Based Abuse online reporting portal, which enables Australians to report non-consensually shared sexual images and videos that had been posted to social media, or websites, and enables the eSafety Commissioner to seek their removal. On 16 August 2018, the Parliament of Australia passed "Enhancing Online Safety (Non‑consensual Sharing of Intimate Images) Act (2018) (Cth)" that establishes a civil penalties scheme. Under this law, the eSafety Commissioner is empowered to investigate a complaint, or an objection, regarding the non-consensual sharing of intimate images or videos on social media, by email or SMS/MMS, on websites, or peer-to-peer file-sharing services. Furthermore, under this law, a person who non-consensually posts, or threatens to post, an intimate image or video may be liable for a civil penalty. This law also empowers the eSafety Commissioner to issue removal notices requiring providers of a social media service, a relevant electronic service, or a designated internet service, to remove the intimate image from the service. Similar powers can be enforced against end-users, and hosting service providers. Civil penalties for individuals are up to a maximum of A$105,000 and for corporations are up to a maximum of A$525,000.


title: Revenge porn

text: In 2014, with the passage of the Protecting Canadians from Online Crime Act, Canada criminalized the "non-consensual distribution of intimate images" that were made under a "reasonable expectation of privacy".


title: Revenge porn

text: Tort, privacy, copyright, and criminal laws offer remedies against people who submit revenge porn. 48 states have laws against revenge porn as of July 2021.


title: Revenge porn

text: For example, New Jersey law prohibits both the capture and the distribution of sexually explicit photographs and films by any person, "knowing that he is not licensed or privileged to do so" and without the subjects' consent. The law was used to prosecute Dharun Ravi, the Rutgers student who distributed webcam footage of his roommate Tyler Clementi engaging in sexual activity, after which Clementi killed himself. The law has also been used to prosecute several men who allegedly distributed revenge porn of their ex-girlfriends.


title: Revenge porn

text: Mary Anne Franks, a law professor and constitutional scholar who drafted the model legislation and advised legislators in the majority of the above states, emphasizes that many of these laws are still deeply flawed.


title: Revenge porn

text: Representatives from the Department of Justice, California's Office of the Attorney General, 50 major technology companies, victim advocates, and legislative and law enforcement leaders joined in 2015 to form a Cyber Exploitation Working Group, and have announced the creation of a working hub "to combat so-called cyber exploitation – the practice of anonymously posting explicit photographs of others online, often to extort money from the victims."


title: Revenge porn

text: As of October 1, 2022, a new section of the US Federal Code, "Civil action relating to disclosure of intimate images", went into effect. This was passed via Section 1309 of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022 and amended the Violence Against Women Act, allowing victims of revenge porn to file civil suits against those who released the materials. Victims may sue for up to US$150,000 in actual damages as well as legal fees; restraining orders and injunctions may also be issued to temporarily or permanently halt any further distribution or disclosure. It is the first Federal law concerning revenge porn and helps address the patchwork of state laws in effect at the time of its passage. The burden of bringing such a suit is still on the victim and the code does not formally criminalize the release of revenge porn. Communications platforms, including websites, would be liable if they solicited such material or if they deal predominantly in revenge porn. Importantly, the legal code includes specific wording which holds that a victim's allowance of such materials to be created and any instances where the victim shared that material with specific individuals do not imply wholesale consent to share the material with any other individuals, two commonly anticipated defenses which defendants may raise.


title: Revenge porn

text: Observers have also noted the shame which may make many victims reluctant to report or pursue such investigations. While victims of sexual abuse can have their identities kept out of court proceedings, which will only refer to them as Jane Doe or John Doe, few such safeguards exist for victims of revenge porn. Depending on jurisdiction, images in court cases may be entered as evidence and become publicly viewable. Suggestions have been made to revise evidentiary laws to allow anonymization of plaintiffs and de-identification of images entered as evidence. specifically allowed for injunctions to preserve plaintiff anonymity when filing civil suits in Federal court.


title: Revenge porn

text: Several well-known revenge porn websites, including "IsAnyoneUp" and the "Texxxan", have been taken down in response to actual or threatened legal action. The former was investigated by the FBI after anti-revenge porn activist Charlotte Laws uncovered a hacking scheme associated with the website. Indictments for fifteen felonies were handed down under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act in January 2014 for the site owner and his accomplices, and the trial was initially set to begin in November 2014 in Los Angeles. Hunter Moore, the owner of "IsAnyoneUp" pleaded guilty to hacking and identity theft in early 2015. Moore was sentenced to two and a half years in prison on 2 December 2015. By May 2017, Moore was out of prison.


title: Revenge porn

text: In December 2013, California Attorney General Kamala Harris charged Kevin Bollaert, who ran the revenge porn website "UGotPosted", with 31 felony counts, including extortion and identity theft. In March 2014, because the victim was under eighteen years old in the photos, a court in Ohio awarded damages of $385,000 against Bollaert. In April 2015 Bollaert was sentenced to 18 years in prison. "Sitting behind a computer, committing what is essentially a cowardly and criminal act, will not shield predators from the law or jail", said Attorney General Harris following the verdict. Also in California, a man named Noe Iniguez was given jail time for posting a naked photo of his ex-girlfriend on her employer's Facebook page.


title: Revenge porn

text: Casey Meyering, the operator of revenge porn website "WinByState", was arrested in Oklahoma in 2014 and extradited to Napa County. Meyering's website invited users to submit nude photos of ex-girlfriends and other women, with the photos categorized by state. He would then make the women featured on his website pay $250 to have their photos taken down. There were about 400 images of California women on the website, including at least one in Napa Valley, where California Attorney General Kamala Harris had filed the case. After originally pleading not guilty, on 8 May 2015, the 28-year-old man pleaded no contest to one count of extortion, three counts of attempted extortion, and one count of conspiracy. He was sentenced to three years' imprisonment as of early June 2015.


title: Revenge porn

text: States without specific laws about revenge porn have seen lawsuits alleging invasion of privacy, public disclosure of private fact and intentional infliction of emotional distress against the individuals who uploaded the images. Forty states, including California, New Jersey, and New York, have anti-cyberharassment laws that may be applicable to cases of revenge porn.


title: Revenge porn

text: In February 2014, a US$500,000 settlement was awarded to a Texas woman who brought suit against her ex-boyfriend for posting video and photos of her on the Internet. The state did not have a specific "revenge porn" law at the time of the lawsuit. California has a private right of action in tort for acts of revenge pornography within the civil code, as well as a specific criminal statute punishing revenge pornography as an invasion of privacy.


title: Revenge porn

text: Some revenge porn lawsuits have named service providers and websites as defendants alongside individuals who uploaded the images. Section 230 (§230) of the Communications Decency Act shields websites and service providers from liability for content posted by users providing they are not themselves co-creators of the content. If user-generated content posted to a website does not violate copyright or federal criminal laws, sites have no obligation to remove the content under §230.


title: Revenge porn

text: An estimated 80% of revenge porn pictures and videos are taken by the subjects themselves. Those individuals can bring actions for copyright infringement against the person who uploaded their nude or semi-nude "selfies". American victims may file Digital Millennium Copyright Act takedown notices with service providers. Revenge porn site MyEx.com has been a defendant in a copyright infringement case.


title: Revenge porn

text: Some free speech advocates object to revenge porn laws on First Amendment grounds, citing the fact that US laws restricting expression have a history of being overturned. Journalist Sarah Jeong argues that new criminal laws meant to combat revenge porn are likely to be overbroad, resulting in unintended consequences.


title: Revenge porn

text: Revenge porn uploaders and websites may also challenge lawsuits using state protections against strategic lawsuit against public participations (anti-SLAPP laws), which allow defendants to counter lawsuits aimed at stifling free speech.


title: Revenge porn

text: Many European countries have broad privacy statutes that may be applicable to revenge porn. France also criminalizes the willful violation of the intimate private life of another by "transmitting the picture of a person who is within a private place, without the consent of the person concerned". A German High Court made a May 2014 ruling that intimate photographs of partners should be deleted if the partner so requests. In 2019 Italy approved a law punishing whoever disseminates images or videos with sexually explicit content, intended to remain private, without the consent of the persons represented, with a jail sentence from one to six years and a fine from €5,000 to €15,000.


title: Revenge porn

text: In 2020, pornhub removed 10 million videos uploaded by unverified users after accusations from the public and refusal of mastercard and visa to work with site.


title: Revenge porn

text: A law criminalising revenge porn in Malta entered into force in November 2016. Article 208E of the Maltese Criminal Code punishes whoever, with an intent to cause distress, emotional harm or harm of any nature, discloses a private sexual photograph or film without the consent of the person or persons displayed or depicted in such photograph or film. Such person would, on conviction be liable to imprisonment for a term of up to two years or to a fine of not less than €3,000 and not more than €5,000, or to both such imprisonment and fine.


title: Revenge porn

text: In 2012, the English singer-songwriter Tulisa Contostavlos obtained an injunction preventing the distribution of a sex tape of her and a former lover that had been published on the internet. The case was set to include considerable damages, but was settled out of court before it could be considered.


title: Revenge porn

text: In April 2014, UK charities including The National Stalking Helpline, Women's Aid, and the UK Safer Internet Centre reported increased use of revenge porn websites. Women's Aid Charity Chief Executive Polly Neate stated, "To be meaningful, any attempt to tackle revenge porn must also take account of all other kinds of psychological abuse and controlling behaviour, and revenge porn is just another form of coercive control. That control is central to domestic violence, which is why we're campaigning for all psychological abuse and coercive control to be criminalised". In July Chris Grayling, the Secretary of State for Justice, announced plans to "take appropriate action" to address revenge porn in Britain. A House of Lords Committee, in a report on social media and the law, subsequently called for clarification from the DPP as to when revenge porn becomes a crime.


title: Revenge porn

text: The Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 received Royal Assent. Section 33 of the Act makes it an offence in England and Wales to disclose private sexual photographs and films without the consent of the individual depicted and with the intent to cause distress. There is a maximum sentence of two years' imprisonment.


title: Revenge porn

text: On 23 April 2015, a seminar was held in Westminster on the new legislation. The seminar was organised by the Oxford Human Rights Hub and co-hosted with the law firm McAllister Olivarius, the End Violence Against Women Coalition, the University of Durham, and the University of Birmingham. The seminar called for the law to be extended to cover upskirting, a change that was subsequently made with the passing of the Voyeurism (Offences) Act 2019.


title: Revenge porn

text: In June 2015 Chrissy Chambers, a YouTube star from the United States, pursued a civil suit against her British ex-boyfriend who posted sexually-explicit videos taken without her knowledge or consent to Facebook where they were repeatedly shared. Chambers chose to pursue a civil case as the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 does not apply retroactively to content posted prior to its passage. She was represented by McAllister Olivarius and in January 2018 won "substantial damages". Drawing on this and other cases, Dr. Ann Olivarius of the same firm gave a TEDxReading talk on "Revenge Porn: The Naked Truth".


title: Revenge porn

text: Between April 2015 (the date that section 33 of the Criminal Justice and Courts Act 2015 came into force) and December 2015 the number of reported incidents of revenge pornography in England and Wales was 1,160. However, 61% of them resulted in no action being taken and the number of people prosecuted for disclosing private sexual images during the legislation's first year was 206. It emerged that cases of those who had been victims of revenge porn before April 2015 were not pursued under the new law, causing criticism that perpetrators "got away with" their crimes when committed before the Act came into force. Before April 2015, the law most applicable to revenge porn, specifically image-based sexual abuse, was the 1988 Malicious Communication Act, and "With police officers' understanding of revenge porn now being based on the newer legislation, prosecution under the Malicious Communications Act for similar cases is less likely to be considered. And so police officers may be less likely to consider alternative legislation for those cases which predate April 2015."


title: Revenge porn

text: The Revenge Porn Helpline was set up in 2015. In 2019 it was announced that the Law Commission would examine the possibility of reclassifying revenge porn from a "communications crime" to a sexual offence, thus giving victims anonymity.


title: Revenge porn

text: In Scotland, revenge porn became a specific offence in April 2016 with the adoption of the Abusive Behaviour and Sexual Harm Act, which came into force in July 2017.


title: Revenge porn

text: In Northern Ireland, revenge porn was made a crime in February 2016 through the amendment of an existing law.


title: Revenge porn

text: If the video or images in question are of individuals who are minors, this can lead to legal action for child pornography as has happened in non-revenge porn related cases involving sexting.


title: Revenge porn

text: Some couples draft "social media" prenuptial agreements, which may include provisions relating to revenge porn. Clauses may state that couples agree not to share photos or posts that are likely to harm a spouse's professional reputation.


title: Revenge porn

text: The novel "The Drowning Pool" (1950) by Ross Macdonald, part of the series starring fictional detective Lew Archer, features a subplot of a woman trying to stop distribution of a sexual film taken without her knowledge.


title: Revenge porn

text: The 2017 independent film "From Jennifer" tackles the subject of revenge porn. In the film, the main character's acting career is derailed by an ex-boyfriend who posts a video of them online without her consent. When the video goes viral, her manager drops her as a client, and the ensuing humiliation she suffers leads her toward a path of destruction and counter-revenge.


title: Revenge porn

text: In 2021, the BBC film "Zara McDermott: Revenge Porn" came out, in which Zara McDermott recalled the experience of having her nude photos leaked as a teenager.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is the capital city of the U.S. state of Nebraska and the county seat of Lancaster County. The city covers with a population of 292,657 in 2021. It is the second-most populous city in Nebraska and the 73rd-largest in the United States. The city is the economic and cultural anchor of a substantially larger metropolitan area in the southeastern part of the state called the Lincoln Metropolitan and Lincoln-Beatrice Combined Statistical Areas. The statistical area is home to 361,921 people, making it the 104th-largest combined statistical area in the United States.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The city was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster on the wild salt marshes and arroyos of what was to become Lancaster County. Renamed after President Abraham Lincoln, it became Nebraska's state capital in 1869. The Bertram G. Goodhue–designed state capitol building was completed in 1932, and is the second tallest capitol in the United States. As the city is the seat of government for the state of Nebraska, the state and the United States government are major employers. The University of Nebraska was founded in Lincoln in 1869. The university is the largest in Nebraska with 26,079 students enrolled, and is the city's third-largest employer. Other primary employers fall into the service and manufacturing industries, including a growing high-tech sector. The region makes up a part of what is known as the greater Midwest Silicon Prairie.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Designated as a "refugee-friendly" city by the U.S. Department of State in the 1970s, the city was the twelfth-largest resettlement site per capita in the United States by 2000. Refugee Vietnamese, Karen (Burmese ethnic minority), Sudanese and Yazidi (Iraqi ethnic minority) people, as well as other refugees from Iraq, the Middle East and Afghanistan, have been resettled in the city. During the 2018–2019 school year, Lincoln Public Schools provided support for approximately 3,000 students from 150 countries, who spoke 125 different languages.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Prior to the expansion westward of settlers, the prairie was covered with buffalo grass. Plains Indians, descendants of indigenous peoples who occupied the area for thousands of years, lived in and hunted along Salt Creek. The Pawnee, which included four tribes, lived in villages along the Platte River. The Great Sioux Nation, including the "Ihanktowan-Ihanktowana" and the Lakota, located to the north and west, used Nebraska as a hunting and skirmish ground, although they did not have any long-term settlements in the state. An occasional buffalo could still be seen in the plat of Lincoln in the 1860s.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln was founded in 1856 as the village of Lancaster and became the county seat of the newly created Lancaster County in 1859. The village was sited on the east bank of Salt Creek. The first settlers were attracted to the area due to the abundance of salt. Once J. Sterling Morton developed his salt mines in Kansas, salt in the village was no longer a viable commodity. Captain W. T. Donovan, a former steamer captain, and his family settled on Salt Creek in 1856. In the fall of 1859, the village settlers met to form a county. A caucus was formed and the committee, which included Captain Donovan, selected the village of Lancaster to be the county seat. The county was named Lancaster. After the passage of the 1862 Homestead Act, homesteaders began to inhabit the area. The first plat was dated August 6, 1864.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: By the close of 1868, Lancaster had a population of approximately 500 people. The township of Lancaster was renamed Lincoln with the incorporation of the city of Lincoln on April 1, 1869. In 1869, the University of Nebraska was established in Lincoln by the state with a land grant of about 130,000 acres. Construction of University Hall, the first building, began the same year.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Nebraska was granted statehood on March 1, 1867. The capital of the Nebraska Territory had been Omaha since the creation of the territory in 1854. Most of its population lived south of the Platte River. After much of the territory south of the Platte River considered annexation to Kansas, the territorial legislature voted to locate the capital city south of the river and as far west as possible. Prior to the vote to remove the capital city from Omaha, a last ditch effort by Omaha Senator J. N. H. Patrick attempted to derail the move by having the future capital city named after recently assassinated President Abraham Lincoln. Many of the people south of the Platte River had been sympathetic to the Confederate cause in the recently concluded Civil War. It was assumed that senators south of the river would not vote to pass the measure if the future capital was named after the former president. In the end, the motion to name the future capital city Lincoln was ineffective in blocking the measure and the vote to change the capital's location south of the Platte River was successful with the passage of the Removal Act in 1867.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Removal Act called for the formation of a Capital Commission to locate a site for the capital on state-owned land. The Commission, composed of Governor David Butler, Secretary of State Thomas Kennard and State Auditor John Gillespie, began to tour sites on July 18, 1867, for the new capital city. The village of Lancaster was chosen, in part due to the salt flats and marshes. Lancaster had approximately 30 residents. Disregarding the original plat of the village of Lancaster, Thomas Kennard platted Lincoln on a broader scale. The plat of the village of Lancaster was not dissolved nor abandoned; it became Lincoln when the Lincoln plat files were finished September 6, 1867. To raise money for the construction of a capital city, a successful auction of lots was held.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Newcomers began to arrive and Lincoln's population grew. The Nebraska State Capitol was completed on December 1, 1868; a two-story building constructed with native limestone with a central cupola. The Kennard house, built in 1869, is the oldest remaining building in the original plat of Lincoln.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1888, a new capitol building was constructed on the site of the first capitol. The new building replaced the structurally unsound former capitol. The second capitol building was a classical design by architect William H. Willcox. Construction began on a third capitol building in 1922. Bertram G. Goodhue was selected in a national competition as its architect. By 1924, the first phase of construction was completed and state offices moved into the new building. In 1925, the Willcox-designed capitol building was razed. The Goodhue-designed capitol was constructed in four phases, with the completion of the fourth phase in 1932. The capitol is the second tallest capitol building in the United States.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The worldwide economic depression of 1890 saw Lincoln's population fall from 55,000 to 40,169 by 1900 (per the 1900 census). Volga-German immigrants from Russia settled in the North Bottoms neighborhood and as Lincoln expanded with the growth in population, the city began to annex nearby towns. Normal was the first town annexed in 1919. Bethany Heights, incorporated in 1890, was annexed in 1922. In 1926, the town of University Place was annexed. College View, incorporated in 1892, was annexed in 1929. Union College, a Seventh Day Adventist institution, was founded in College View in 1891. In 1930, Lincoln annexed the town of Havelock. Havelock actively opposed annexation to Lincoln and only relented due to a strike by the Burlington railroad shop workers which halted progress and growth for the city.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Burlington and Missouri River Railroad's first train arrived in Lincoln on June 26, 1870, and the Midland Pacific (1871) and the Atchison and Nebraska (1872) soon followed. The Union Pacific began service in 1877. The Chicago and North Western and Missouri Pacific began service in 1886. The Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific extended service to Lincoln in 1892. Lincoln became a rail hub.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: As automobile travel became more common, so did the need for better roads in Nebraska and throughout the U.S. In 1911, the Omaha-Denver Trans-Continental Route Association, with support from the Good Roads Movement, established the Omaha-Lincoln-Denver Highway (O-L-D) through Lincoln. The goal was to have the most efficient highway for travel throughout Nebraska, from Omaha to Denver.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1920, the Omaha-Denver Association merged with the Detroit-Lincoln-Denver Highway Association. As a result, the O-L-D was renamed the Detroit-Lincoln-Denver Highway (D-L-D) with the goal of having a continuous highway from Detroit to Denver. The goal was eventually realized by the mid-1920s; of constantly improved highway through six states. The auto route's success in attracting tourists led entrepreneurs to build businesses and facilities in towns along the route to keep up with the demand. In 1924, the D-L-D was designated as Nebraska State Highway 6. In 1926, the highway became part of the Federal Highway System and was renumbered U.S. Route 38. In 1931, U.S. 38 was renumbered as a U.S. 6/U.S. 38 overlap and in 1933, the U.S. 38 route designation was dropped.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In the early years of air travel, Lincoln had three airports and one airfield. Union Airport, was established northeast of Lincoln in 1920. The Lincoln Flying School was founded by E.J. Sias in a building he built at 2145 O Street. Charles Lindbergh was a student at the flying school in 1922. The flying school closed in 1947. Some remnants of the Union Airport are still visible between N. 56th and N. 70th Streets, north of Fletcher Avenue; mangled within a slowly developing industrial zone. Arrow Airport was established around 1925 as a manufacturing and test facility for Arrow Aircraft and Motors Corporation, primarily the Arrow Sport. The airfield was near Havelock; or to the west of where the North 48th Street Small Vehicle Transfer Station is today. Arrow Aircraft and Motors declared bankruptcy in 1939 and Arrow Airport closed roughly several decades later. An Arrow Sport is on permanent display, hanging in the Lincoln Airport's main passenger terminal.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: As train, automobile, and air travel increased, business flourished and the city prospered. Lincoln's population increased 38.2% from 1920 to a population of 75,933 in 1930. In 1930, the city's small municipal airfield was dedicated to Charles Lindbergh and named Lindbergh Field for a short period as another airfield was named Lindbergh in California. It was north of Salt Lake, in an area known over the years as Huskerville, Arnold Heights and Air Park; and was approximately within the western half of the West Lincoln Township. The air field was a stop for United Airlines in 1927 and a mail stop in 1928.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1942, the Lincoln Army Airfield was established at the site. During World War II, the U.S. Army used the facility to train over 25,000 aviation mechanics and process over 40,000 troopers for combat. The Army closed the base in 1945, but the Air Force reactivated it in 1952 during the Korean War. In 1966, after the Air Force closed the base, Lincoln annexed the airfield and the base's housing units. The base became the Lincoln Municipal Airport, and later the Lincoln Airport, under the Lincoln Airport Authority's ownership. The two main airlines that served the airport were United Airlines and Frontier Airlines. The Authority shared facilities with the Nebraska National Guard, who continued to own parts of the old Air Force base.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1966, Lincoln annexed the township of West Lincoln, incorporated in 1887. West Lincoln voters rejected Lincoln's annexation until the state legislature passed a bill in 1965 that allowed cities to annex surrounding areas without a vote.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The downtown core retail district from 1959 to 1984 saw profound changes as retail shopping moved from downtown to the suburban Gateway Shopping Mall. In 1956, Bankers Life Insurance Company of Nebraska announced plans to build a $6 million shopping center next to their new campus on Lincoln's eastern outskirts. Gateway Shopping Center, now called Gateway Mall, opened at 60th and O streets in 1960. By 1984, 75% of Lincoln's revenue from retail sales tax came from within a one-mile radius of the Mall. The exodus of retail and service businesses led the downtown core to decline and deteriorate.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1969, the Nebraska legislature legislated laws for urban renewal. Soon afterward, Lincoln began a program of revitalization and beautification. Most of the urban renewal projects focused on downtown and the near South areas. Many ideas were considered and not implemented. Successes included Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, designed by Philip Johnson; new branch libraries, new street lighting, the First National Bank Building and the National Bank of Commerce Building designed by I.M. Pei.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 1971, an expansion of Gateway Mall was completed. 1974 marked a new assembly facility in Lincoln, a subsidiary of Kawasaki Heavy Industries in Japan to produce motorcycles for the North American market. Lincoln's first woman mayor, Helen Boosalis, was elected in 1975. Mayor Boosalis was a strong supporter of the revitalization of Lincoln with the downtown beautification project being completed in 1978. In 1979, the square-block downtown Centrum was opened and connected to buildings with a skywalk. The Centrum was a two-level shopping mall with a garage for 1,038 cars. With the beautification and urban renewal projects, many historic buildings were razed in the city. In 2007 and 2009, the city of Lincoln received beautification grants for improvements on O and West O Streets, west of the Harris Overpass, commemorating the history of the D-L-D.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: After the fall of Saigon in 1975, Vietnamese refugees created a large residential and business community along the 27th Street corridor alongside Mexican eateries and African markets. Lincoln was designated as a "Refugee Friendly" city by the U.S. Department of State in the 1970s. In 2000, Lincoln was the twelfth-largest resettlement site per capita in the country. As of 2011, Lincoln had the second largest Karen (Burmese ethnic minority) population in the United States (behind Omaha), with an estimated 1,500 in 2019. As of the same year, Nebraska was one of the largest resettlement sites for the people of Sudan, mostly in Lincoln and Omaha. In 2014, some social service organizations estimated that up to 10,000 Iraqi refugees had resettled in Lincoln. In recent years, Lincoln had the largest Yazidi (Iraqi ethnic minority) population in the U.S., with over 2,000–3,000 having settled within the city (as of late 2017). In a three-year period, the immigrant and refugee student population at Lincoln Public Schools increased 52% - from 1,606 students in 2014, to 2,445 in 2017.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The decade from 1990 to 2000 saw a significant rise in population from 191,972 to 225,581. North 27th Street and Cornhusker Highway were redeveloped with new housing and businesses built. The boom housing market in south Lincoln created new housing developments including high end housing in areas like Cripple Creek, Willamsburg and The Ridge. The shopping center Southpointe Pavilions was completed in competition of Gateway Mall.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 2001, Westfield America Trust purchased the Gateway Mall and named it Westfield Shoppingtown Gateway. In 2005, the company renamed it the Westfield Gateway. Westfield made a $45 million makeover of the mall in 2005 including an expanded food court, a new west-side entrance and installation of an Italian carousel. In 2012, Westfield America Trust sold Westfield Gateway to Starwood Capital Group. Starwood reverted the mall's name from Westfield Gateway to Gateway Mall and has made incremental expansions and renovations.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 2015, ALLO Communications announced it would bring ultra-high speed fiber internet to the city. Speeds up to 1 Gigabit per second were available for business and households by building off of the city's existing fiber network. Construction on the citywide network began in March 2016 and was estimated to be complete by 2019, making it one of the largest infrastructure projects in the United States. Telephone and cable TV service were also included, making it the third company to compete for such services within the same Lincoln footprint. In April 2016, Windstream Communications announced that 2,300 customers in Lincoln had 1 Gigabit per second fiber internet with an expected expansion of services to 25,000 customers by 2017. On November 29, 2017, Lincoln was named a Smart Gigabit Community by U.S. Ignite Inc. and in early 2018, Spectrum joined the ranks of internet service providers providing 1 gigabit internet within the city.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has an area of , of which is land and is water, according to the United States Census Bureau in 2020.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is one of the few large cities of Nebraska not along either the Platte River or the Missouri River. The city was originally laid out near Salt Creek and among the nearly flat saline wetlands of northern Lancaster County. The city's growth has led to development of the surrounding land, much of which is composed of gently rolling hills. In recent years, Lincoln's northward growth has encroached on the habitat of the endangered Salt Creek tiger beetle.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Lincoln Metropolitan Statistical Area consists of Lancaster County and Seward County. Seward County was added to the metropolitan area in 2003. Lincoln is also in the Lincoln-Beatrice Combined Statistical Area which consists of the Lincoln metropolitan area and the micropolitan area of Beatrice. The city of Beatrice is the county seat of Gage County. The Lincoln-Beatrice combined statistical area is home to 363,733 people (2021 estimate) making it the 104th-largest combined statistical area in the United States.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln's neighborhoods include both old and new development. Some neighborhoods in Lincoln were formerly small towns that Lincoln later annexed, including University Place in 1926, Belmont, Bethany (Bethany Heights) in 1922, College View in 1929, Havelock in 1930, and West Lincoln in 1966. A number of Historic Districts are near downtown Lincoln, while newer neighborhoods have appeared primarily in the south and east. As of December 2013, Lincoln had 45 registered neighborhood associations within the city limits.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: One core neighborhood that has seen rapid residential growth in recent years is the downtown Lincoln area. In 2010, there were 1,200 downtown Lincoln residents; in 2016, there were 3,000 (an increase of 140%). Around the middle of the same decade, demand for housing and rent units began outpacing supply. With Lincoln's population expected to grow to more than 311,000 people by 2020, prices for homes and rent costs have risen. Home prices rose 10% from the first quarter of 2015 to the first quarter of 2016; rent prices rose 30% from 2007 to 2017 with a 5–8% increase in 2016 alone.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Located in the Great Plains far from the moderating influence of mountains or large bodies of water, Lincoln has a highly variable four season humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfa"): winters are cold and summers are hot. With little precipitation during winter, precipitation is concentrated in the warmer months, when thunderstorms frequently roll in, often producing tornadoes. Snow averages per season but seasonal accumulation has ranged from in 1967–1968 to in 2018-2019. Snow tends to fall in light amounts, though blizzards are possible. There is an average of 38 days with a snow depth of or more. The average window for freezing temperatures is October 7 thru April 25, allowing a growing season of 164 days.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The monthly daily average temperature ranges from in January to in July. However, the city is subject both to episodes of bitter cold in winter and heat waves during summer, with 10.1 nights of or lower lows, 41.8 days of + highs, and 3.5 days of + highs. The city straddles the boundary of USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 5b and 6a. Temperature extremes have ranged from on January 12, 1974 up to on July 25, 1936. Readings as high as or as low as occur somewhat rarely; the last occurrence of each was July 22, 2012 and February 16, 2021. The second lowest temperature ever recorded in Lincoln was on February 16, 2021, which broke the monthly record of last set a day earlier. It occurred during the wider February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm, which impacted the Midwestern and Northeastern United States as a whole.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Based on 30-year averages obtained from NOAA's National Climatic Data Center for the months of December, January and February, the Weather Channel ranked Lincoln the seventh-coldest major U.S. city in a 2014 article. In 2014, the Lincoln-Beatrice area was among the "Cleanest U.S. Cities for Ozone Air Pollution" in the American Lung Association's "State of the Air 2014" report.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is the second-most-populous city in Nebraska. The U.S. government designated Lincoln in the 1970s as a refugee-friendly city due to its stable economy, educational institutions, and size. Since then, refugees from Vietnam settled in Lincoln, and more refugees came from other countries. In 2013, Lincoln was named one of the "Top Ten Most Welcoming Cities in America" by Welcoming America.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: As of the census of 2020, the city had 291,082 people. The population density was . The city's racial makeup was 84.9% White, 4.4% African American, 0.7% Native American, 4.6% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander and 3.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.6% of the population.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: There were 113,551 households, of which 6.5% had children under the age of 5, 22.5% had children under the age of 18, 13.0% had someone 65 years of age or older and the city's gender makeup was 49.8% female. The average household size was 2.38.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln's economy is fairly typical of a mid-sized American city; most economic activity is derived from the service and manufacturing industries. Government and the University of Nebraska are both large contributors to the local economy. Other prominent industries in Lincoln include finance, insurance, publishing, manufacturing, pharmaceutical, telecommunications, railroads, high technology, information technology, medical, education and truck transport.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: For October 2021, the Lincoln Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) preliminary unemployment rate was 1.3% (not seasonally adjusted). With a tight labor market, Lincoln has seen rapid wage growth. From the summer of 2014 to the summer of 2015, the average hourly pay for both public and private employees have increased by 11%. From October 2014 to October 2015, wages were also up by 8.4%.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: One of the largest employers is Bryan Health, which consists of two major hospitals and several large outpatient facilities across the city. Healthcare and medical jobs account for a large portion of Lincoln's employment: as of 2009, full-time healthcare employees in the city included 9,010 healthcare practitioners in technical occupations, 4,610 workers in healthcare support positions, 780 licensed and vocational nurses, and 150 medical and clinical laboratory technicians.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Several national business were originally established in Lincoln; these include student lender Nelnet, Ameritas, Assurity, Fort Western Stores, CliffsNotes and HobbyTown USA. Several regional restaurant chains began in Lincoln, including Amigos/Kings Classic, Runza Restaurants, and Valentino's.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Lincoln area makes up a part of what is known as the greater Midwest Silicon Prairie. The city is also a part of a rapidly growing craft brewing industry. In 2013, Lincoln ranked No. 4 on "Forbes"' list of the Best Places for Business and Careers, No. 1 on "NerdWallet's Best Cities for Job Seekers in 2015 and No. 2 on SmartAsset's Cities with the Best Work-life Balance in 2019.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: According to the City's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the principal employers of the city are:


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: 1974 saw the establishment of a Kawasaki motorcycles assembly facility named the American Kawasaki Motors Corporation (KMC), to complete Japan-produced components into finished products for the North American market. Incorporated in 1981, Kawasaki Motors Manufacturing Corp. (KMM) and assumed control of KMC. As of 2022, their webpresence named tallies "All-Terrain Vehicles, Utility Vehicles, Personal Watercraft, Recreation Utility Vehicles, and Passenger Rail Cars" as their range.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Kawasaki is one of Lincoln's largest private employers with over 2,400 employees, and it has the largest square footage of manufacturing space. Newer product lines are rail cars and aircraft cargo doors.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Nebraska Air and Army National Guard's Joint Force Headquarters are in Lincoln along with other major units of the Nebraska National Guard. During the early years of the Cold War, the Lincoln Airport was the Lincoln Air Force Base; currently, the Nebraska Air National Guard, along with the Nebraska Army National Guard, have joint-use facilities with the Lincoln Airport. Alongside the National Guard, the 55th Wing of Offutt Air Force Base is temporarily headquartered in Lincoln through September 2022.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Since Pinnacle Bank Arena opened in 2013, Lincoln's music scene has grown to the point where it is sometimes referred to as a "Music City." Primary venues for live music include Pinnacle Bank Arena, Bourbon Theatre, Duffy's Tavern, and the Zoo Bar. The Pla-Mor Ballroom is a classic Lincoln music and dance scene with its in-house Sandy Creek Band. Pinewood Bowl hosts a range of performances – from national music performances to local plays – during the warm summer months.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Lied Center is a venue for national tours of Broadway productions, concert music, guest lectures, and regularly features its resident orchestra Lincoln's Symphony Orchestra. Lincoln has several performing arts venues. Plays are staged by UNL students in the Temple Building; community theater productions are held at the Lincoln Community Playhouse, the Loft at The Mill, and the Haymarket Theater.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has a growing number of arts galleries, some including the Sheldon Museum of Art, Burkholder Project and Noyes Art Gallery.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: For movie viewing, Marcus Theatres owns 32 screens at four locations, and the University of Nebraska's Mary Riepma Ross Media Arts Center shows independent and foreign films. Standalone cinemas in Lincoln include the Joyo Theatre and Rococo Theater. The Rococo Theater also hosts benefits and other engagements. The downtown section of O Street is Lincoln's largest bar and nightclub district. There is also the Bourbon Theatre, which is primarily used for bands in the metal rock and other related genres.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is the hometown of Zager and Evans, known for their international No. 1 hit record, "In the Year 2525" (1969). It is also the home town of several notable musical groups, such as Remedy Drive, VOTA, For Against, Lullaby for the Working Class, Matthew Sweet, Dirtfedd, The Show is the Rainbow and Straight. Lincoln is home to Maroon 5 guitarist James Valentine.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 2012, the city was listed among the 10 best places to retire in the United States by "U.S. News & World Report".


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Annual events in Lincoln have come and gone throughout time, such as Band Day at the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus and the Star City Holiday Parade. However, some events have never changed while new traditions have been created. Current annual cultural events in Lincoln include the Lincoln National Guard Marathon and Half-Marathon in May,


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Celebrate Lincoln in early June, the Uncle Sam Jam around July 3, and Boo at the Zoo in October. A locally popular event is the Haymarket Farmers' Market, running from May to October in the Historic Haymarket, one of several farmers markets throughout the city.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Tourist attractions and activities include the Sunken Gardens, basketball games at Pinnacle Bank Arena, the Lincoln Children's Zoo, the dairy store at UNL's East Campus, and Mueller Planetarium on the city campus. The Nebraska State Capitol, which is also the tallest building in Lincoln, offers tours.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Speedway Motors Museum of American Speed preserves, interprets, and displays physical items significant in racing and automotive history. The National Museum of Roller Skating extends public knowledge of roller skating history and seeks to preserve its legacy for future generations. In late 2016, Lincoln was ranked #3 on Lonely Planet's "Best in the U.S.," destinations to see in 2017 list.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is home to the University of Nebraska's football team, the Nebraska Cornhuskers. In total, the university fields 22 men's and women's teams in 14 NCAA Division I sports. Nebraska football began play in 1890. Among the 128 Division I-A teams, Nebraska is one of ten football programs to win 800 or more games. Notable coaches were Tom Osborne, and Bob Devaney. Osborne coached from 1973–1997. Devaney coached from 1962–1972 and the university's indoor arena, the Bob Devaney Sports Center, was named for him.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Other sports teams are the Nebraska Wesleyan Prairie Wolves, an NCAA Division III University; the Lincoln Saltdogs, an American Association independent minor league baseball team; the Lincoln Stars, a USHL junior ice hockey team; and the No Coast Derby Girls, a member of the Women's Flat Track Derby Association.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has an extensive park system, with over 131 individual parks connected by a system of recreational trails, a system of bike lanes and a system of cycle tracks. The MoPac Trail is a bicycling, equestrian and walking trail built on an abandoned Missouri Pacific Railroad corridor which runs for from the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus eastward to Wabash, Nebraska.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Regional parks include Antelope Park from S. 23rd and "N" Streets to S. 33rd Street and Sheridan Boulevard, Bicentennial Cascade Fountain, Hamann Rose Garden, Lincoln Children's Zoo, Veterans Memorial Garden, and Holmes Park at S. 70th Street and Normal Boulevard. Pioneers Park includes the Pioneers Park Nature Center at S. Coddington Avenue and W. Calvert Streets.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Community parks include Ballard Park, Bethany Park, Bowling Lake Park, Densmore Park, Erwin Peterson Park, Fleming Fields, Irvingdale Park, Mahoney Park, Max E. Roper Park, Oak Lake Park, Peter Pan Park, Pine Lake Park, Sawyer Snell Park, Seacrest Park, Tierra Briarhurst, University Place Park and Woods Park.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Other notable parks include Iron Horse Park, Lincoln Community Foundation Tower Square, Nine Mile Prairie owned by the University of Nebraska Foundation, Sunken Gardens, Union Plaza, and Wilderness Park. Smaller neighborhood parks are scattered throughout the city. Additionally, there are five public recreation centers, nine outdoor public pools and five public golf courses not including private facilities in Lincoln.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has a mayor–council government. The mayor and a seven-member city council are selected in nonpartisan elections. Four members are elected from city council districts; the remaining three members are elected at-large. Lincoln's health, personnel, and planning departments are joint city/county agencies; most city and Lancaster County offices are in the County/City Building. The most recent city general election was held on May 4, 2021.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Since Lincoln is the state capital, many Nebraska state and United States Government offices are in Lincoln. The city lies within the Lincoln Public Schools school district. The Lincoln Fire and Rescue Department shoulders the city's fire fighting and emergency ambulatory services while private companies provide non-emergency medical transport and volunteer fire fighting units support the city's outlying areas.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The city's public library system is Lincoln City Libraries, which has eight branches. Lincoln City Libraries circulates more than three million items per year to the residents of Lincoln and Lancaster County. Lincoln City Libraries is also home to Polley Music Library and the Jane Pope Geske Heritage Room of Nebraska authors.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Lincoln Police Department has just over 350 police officers. The police per capita rate is extremely low at 1.2 officers per 1,000 people (the average being 1.94), and the violent crime rate of 522 per 100,000 people. The department is nationally accredited by the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies and was the first law enforcement agency in Nebraska to become so.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln Public Schools (LPS) is the public school district which includes the majority of the city limits. It includes six traditional high schools: Lincoln High, East, Northeast, North Star, Southeast, and Southwest. Two additional, smaller high schools are currently under construction: Northwest and Standing Bear. LPS is also home to special interest high school programs, including the Arts and Humanities Focus Program, the Bryan Community School, The Career Academy and the Science Focus Program (Zoo School). Other programs include the Pathfinder Education Program, the Yankee Hill Program and the Lincoln Air Force JROTC.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Some outerlying sections of Lincoln are in other school districts: Norris School District 160 and Waverly School District 145.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: There are several private parochial elementary and middle schools throughout the community. Like Lincoln Public Schools, these schools are broken into districts, but most will allow attendance outside of boundary lines. Lincoln's private high schools are College View Academy, Lincoln Christian, Lincoln Lutheran, Parkview Christian School and Pius X High School.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has nine colleges and universities. The University of Nebraska–Lincoln, the main campus of the University of Nebraska system, is the largest university in Nebraska, with 20,830 undergraduate, 4,426 postgraduate students and 564 professionals enrolled in 2018. Out of the 25,820 enrolled, 2,187 undergraduate and 1,040 postgraduate students/professionals were international. With 135 countries outside of the U.S. represented, the five countries with the highest international enrollment were China, India, Malaysia, Oman and Rwanda.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Nebraska Wesleyan University, as of 2020, has 1,924 undergraduate and 151 postgraduate students. The school teaches in the tradition of a liberal arts college education. Nebraska Wesleyan was ranked the #1 liberal arts college in Nebraska by "U.S. News & World Report" in 2002. In 2009, Forbes ranked it 84th of America's Best Colleges. It remains affiliated with the United Methodist Church. Union College is a private Seventh-day Adventist four-year coeducational college with 911 students enrolled 2013–14.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Bryan College of Health Sciences offers undergraduate degrees in nursing and other health professions; a Masters in Nursing; a Doctoral degree in nurse anesthesia practice, as well as certificate programs for ancillary health professions. Universities with satellite locations in Lincoln are Bellevue University, Concordia University (Nebraska) and Doane University. Lincoln also hosts the College of Hair Design and Joseph's College of Cosmetology.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Southeast Community College is a community college system in southeastern Nebraska, with three campuses in Lincoln and an enrollment of 9,751 students as of fall 2013. The two-year Academic Transfer program is popular among students who want to complete their general education requirements before they enroll in a four-year institution. The University of Nebraska-Lincoln is the most popular transfer location.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has four licensed broadcast full power television stations; and one serving the city, but licensed to an area outside its limits:


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The headquarters of Nebraska Public Media, which is affiliated with the Public Broadcasting Service and National Public Radio, are in Lincoln. The city has two low power digital TV stations in Lincoln area: including the translator KFDY-LD (simulcast of (KOHA-LD)) owned by Flood Communications of Nebraska LLC, including for main Spanish-language network affiliate Telemundo on 27.1, NCN (Ind.) on 27.2, and religious network affiliate 3ABN on 27.3 in Lincoln area only, on virtual channel 27, digital channel 27; and another low power digital KCWH-LD on CW+ affiliate, owned by Gray on channel 18.1 included subchannels like Ion on 18.2, and CBS (Simulcast of KOLN) on 18.3.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: There are 18 radio stations licensed in Lincoln, not including radio stations licensed outside of the city that serve the Lincoln area. Most areas of Lincoln also receive radio signals from Omaha and other surrounding communities.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The "Lincoln Journal Star" is the city's major daily newspaper. The "Daily Nebraskan "is the official monthly magazine of the University of Nebraska's Lincoln campus and "The DailyER" is the university's biweekly satirical paper. Other university newspapers include the "Reveille", the official periodical campus paper of Nebraska Wesleyan University and the "Clocktower", the official weekly campus paper of Union College.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is served by Interstate 80 via seven interchanges, connecting the city to San Francisco in the west and Teaneck, New Jersey in the New York City metropolitan area in the east. Other Highways that serve the Lincoln area are Interstate 180, U.S. Route 6, U.S. Highway 34, U.S. Highway 77 and nearby Nebraska Highway 79. The eastern segment of Nebraska Highway 2 is a primary trucking route that connects the Kansas City metropolitan area (Interstate 29) to the I-80 corridor in Lincoln. A few additional minor State Highway segments are located within the city as well.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: A public bus transit system, StarTran, operates in Lincoln. StarTran's fleet consists of 67 full-sized buses and 13 Handi-Vans. The transit system has 18 bus routes, with a circular bus route downtown. Annual ridership for the fiscal year 2017–18 was 2,463,799.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: The Lincoln Airport (KLNK/LNK) provides passengers with daily non-stop service to Chicago O'Hare International Airport, Denver International Airport, and Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport. General aviation support is provided through several private aviation companies. The Lincoln Airport was among the emergency landing sites for the NASA Space Shuttle. The site was chosen chiefly because of a runway; the longest of three at the airport.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln is served by both Express Arrow and Burling Trailways for regional bus service between Omaha, Denver and points beyond. Megabus, in partnership with Windstar Lines, provides bus service between Lincoln and Chicago with stops in Omaha, Des Moines, Iowa City and Moline.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Amtrak provides service to Lincoln station, operating its California Zephyr daily in each direction between Chicago and Emeryville, California, using BNSF's Lincoln – Denver route through Nebraska. The city is an Amtrak crew-change point.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Rail freight travels coast-to-coast, to and through Lincoln via BNSF Railway, the Union Pacific Railroad, Lincoln's own Omaha, Lincoln and Beatrice Railway Company and an Omaha Public Power District rail line. Lincoln was once served by the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railroad (Rock Island), the Missouri Pacific Railroad (MoPac) and the Chicago and North Western Transportation Company (C&NW). The abandoned right-of-way of these former railroads have since been turned into bicycle trails.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has a third-generation dock-based bike share program that began in mid-April 2018, called BikeLNK. The first phase of the program included 19 docks and 100 bicycles, scattered throughout downtown and around the UNL City, UNL East & Nebraska Innovation campuses. A second phase in 2019 increased the number of docks to 21, total bicycles to 105 and expanded to a location outside of downtown. Lincoln also has a fleet of commercial pedicabs that operates in the downtown area.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 2016, 80.5 percent of working Lincoln residents commuted by driving alone, 9.6 percent carpooled, 1.1 percent used public transportation, and 3.1 percent walked. About 2.4 percent used all other forms of transportation, including taxis, bicycles, and motorcycles as well as ride-sharing services such as Lyft and Uber which entered the Lincoln market in the summer of 2014. About 3.3 percent worked at home.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: In 2015, 6.3 percent of city of Lincoln households were without a car, which decreased slightly to 5.8 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Lincoln averaged 1.78 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Power in Lincoln is provided by the Lincoln Electric System (LES). The LES service area covers , serving Lincoln and several other communities outside of the city. A public utility, LES's electric rates are the 8th lowest in the nation, according to a nationwide survey conducted by LES in 2018. Current LES power supply resources are 35% oil and gas, 34% renewable and 31% coal. Renewable resources have increased with partial help from the addition of an LES-owned five Megawatt solar energy farm put into service June, 2016. The solar farm produces enough energy to power 900 homes. LES also owns two wind turbines in the northeast part of the city.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Water in Lincoln is provided through the Lincoln Water System. In the 1920s, the city of Lincoln undertook the task of building the Lincoln Municipal Lighting and Waterworks Plant (designed by Fiske & Meginnis). The building worked as the main hub for water from nearby wells and power in Lincoln for decades until it was replaced and turned into an apartment building. Most of Lincoln's water originates from wells along the Platte River near Ashland, Nebraska. Wastewater is in turn collected by the Lincoln Wastewater System. The city of Lincoln owns both systems.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Landline telephone service has had a storied history within the regional Lincoln area with the Lincoln Telephone & Telegraph Company, founded in 1880. In its history, LT&T introduced the first rotary dial telephone exchange in the U.S. in 1904; the first Radiotelephone in 1946; and piloted the first 911 system in the nation in 1968. Many years later, LT&T was renamed Aliant Communications and shortly thereafter merged in 1998 with Alltel. In 2006, Windstream Communications was formed with the spinoff of Alltel and a merge with VALOR Communications Group. Windstream Communications provides telephone service both over VoIP and conventional telephone circuits to the Lincoln area. Spectrum offers telephone service over VoIP on their cable network. In addition, ALLO Communications provides telephone, television and internet service over their underground fiber network to all parts of the city.


title: Lincoln, Nebraska

text: Lincoln has three major hospitals within two health care systems serving the city: Bryan Health and CHI Health St. Elizabeth. Madonna Rehabilitation Hospital is a geriatric facility and a physical medicine & rehabilitation center. Lincoln has two specialty hospitals: Lincoln Surgical Hospital and the Nebraska Heart Institute. A U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs Community-Based Outpatient Clinic (CBOC) is in Lincoln (Lincoln VA Clinic, part of the Nebraska-Western Iowa Health Care System).


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: Four Brothers is a 2005 American action film directed by John Singleton. The film stars Mark Wahlberg, Tyrese Gibson, André Benjamin and Garrett Hedlund as four adopted brothers who set out to avenge the murder of their adoptive mother. The film was shot in Detroit, Michigan and the Greater Toronto Area. It has been described as blaxploitation-influenced. Released on August 12, 2005, the film received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $92 million worldwide.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: An elderly woman, Evelyn Mercer, is murdered at a convenience store in Highland Park, Michigan when a robbery occurs that results in the death of the store clerk, and Evelyn was left as the one and only witness. The incident brings her four adoptive sons back home to Detroit, Michigan to find out what happened. The oldest is a lifelong criminal, hot-tempered Bobby; the second oldest is family man and Union construction worker Jeremiah; the third oldest is an ex-hustler and former US Marine, Angel; and the youngest is aspiring rock musician Jack.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: Originally under the impression the crime was a simple robbery gone wrong, the brothers chase down and interrogate a false witness to the police, after which the brothers discover that the robbery was a cover for a hit put out on Evelyn. The brothers track down the pair of hired guns who shot and killed Evelyn, and after refusing to give up any information, the two hitmen are executed by the enraged Bobby and Angel. The next day, Detroit Police Lieutenant Green and Detective Fowler confront the brothers about the murders. While the brothers deny involvement, Lieutenant Green warns them that their interference with Evelyn's case is ill-advised and that it will put them in over their heads.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: After confronting Jeremiah about the revelation of his failing business and benefiting from Evelyn's life insurance, Jeremiah informs his brothers that his construction company was failing precisely because he was not getting involved with gang lord Victor Sweet and that for a project to succeed he had to pay off the right people, which he initially failed to do. In his effort to restore his business and relieve pressure on himself, he tried to pay off Sweet's henchmen. As for the life insurance, Jeremiah explains that the money went directly to him for his daughters, because he paid all of Evelyn's bills while the other brothers were not around. Sweet's men attack the brothers; Jack is shot during the attack and subsequent gunfight, and dies shortly after. Bobby and Angel manage to fend off and kill the gunmen. Bobby finds one of the gunmen still alive and questions him about who sent them, confirming it was Sweet.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: Lieutenant Green arrives and informs them that Evelyn filed a police report regarding Victor Sweet and his involvement in Jeremiah's affairs, and his partner, Detective Fowler, passed that report on to Sweet. Green warns them to stay out of the matter and let him handle Fowler, and then they will work together on Sweet. Later at a bar, Green asks Fowler about Fowler seeing Evelyn a week before she was killed and asks him, "Why didn't you tell me that? Don't you think that that's relevant to a murder investigation?" Fowler simply responds, "I didn't tell you because it wasn't relevant at all". Fowler then lies and says the police report that Evelyn filed was given to another department to handle, though Green already knows that Fowler gave the report to Sweet. Realizing that Fowler is a crooked cop, Green attacks Fowler with a pool stick and orders Fowler to hand in his badge. After they walk out of the bar, Fowler shoots and kills Green and calls into dispatch claiming two Black assailants had fired upon Green.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: The remaining brothers devise a plan to buy Victor Sweet off with the $400,000 from their mother's life insurance. Arriving at Fowler's, Angel subdues him. Jeremiah goes to meet Sweet while Angel's girlfriend, Sofi, heads to the police station, where she tells them that Angel is planning to kill a police officer. Hearing the sirens in the distance, Fowler believes they are coming for Angel, until Angel opens his jacket revealing a wire. Angel claims the whole conversation was taped, including Fowler's admission that he killed Green. The police arrive at Fowler's in full force, at which point Fowler gets the upper hand on Angel. With his gun pointed at Angel's head, Fowler tells the officers outside to back off, and despite telling him they are there to rescue him, Fowler opens fire on the officers, who kill him.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: Meanwhile, at frozen-over Lake St. Clair, Jeremiah meets with Sweet, who reveals that he intends to kill him. Then Jeremiah reveals that the $400,000 is to pay off Sweet's henchmen, who are already embittered towards him because of his blatant mistreatment of them, in exchange for killing Sweet. Sweet angrily demands to know who will be the one to kill him, just as Bobby shows up. Bobby and Sweet brawl, during which Bobby uses his hockey playing skills to get the upper hand, knocking Sweet unconscious. His former henchmen seal his fate, dropping him into a hole carved in the ice.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: The three brothers, taken into police custody, are beaten in an attempt to make them confess to the murder of Sweet but give up nothing. Back home, they set about repairing their mother's house and continuing their lives together.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: The music for the film includes, in a repeating refrain, the song "I Wish It Would Rain", written by Barrett Strong and Norman Whitfield, and performed by The Temptations, courtesy of Motown Records.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: "Four Brothers" grossed $74.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $18 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $92.5 million, against a budget of $30 million.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 52% based on 133 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Despite striking a believable rapport among its principal actors, "Four Brothers" overwhelms with ultra-violent, vigilante-glorifying action and devolves into too many fractured, insubstantial thematic directions." At Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 49 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: An article written in 2010 suggested that Paramount Pictures was developing a sequel for the film, with Mark Wahlberg returning to reprise his role. It would be written by David Elliot and Paul Lovett.


title: Four Brothers (film)

text: In a 2020 post on his Instagram page, Tyrese Gibson claimed a script for a sequel, "Five Brothers", is in the works.


title: Kampala

text: Kampala (, ) is the capital and largest city of Uganda. The city proper has a population of 1,680,000 and is divided into the five political divisions of Kampala Central Division, Kawempe Division, Makindye Division, Nakawa Division, and Rubaga Division.


title: Kampala

text: Kampala's metropolitan area consists of the city proper and the neighboring Wakiso District, Mukono District, Mpigi District, Buikwe District and Luweero District. It has a rapidly growing population that is estimated at 6,709,900 people in 2019 by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics in an area of .


title: Kampala

text: In 2015, this metropolitan area generated an estimated nominal GDP of $13.80221 billion (constant US dollars of 2011) according to Xuantong Wang et al., which was more than half of Uganda's GDP for that year, indicating the importance of Kampala to Uganda's economy.


title: Kampala

text: Kampala is reported to be among the fastest-growing cities in Africa, with an annual population growth rate of 4.03 percent, by City Mayors. Mercer (a New York-based consulting firm) has regularly ranked Kampala as East Africa's best city to live in, ahead of Nairobi and Kigali.


title: Kampala

text: Kampala originally referred to only the present-day Old Kampala hill, on whose summit Fort Lugard was located, and the initial headquarters of the British colonial authorities in the soon to be Uganda Protectorate.


title: Kampala

text: Before the British construction of Fort Lugard, the hill was a hunting reserve of the Kabaka (King) of Buganda and had several species of antelope, especially the impala. As a result, when the British colonial officials were allocated this hill by the then Kabaka (King) of Buganda, they referred to it as "The Hill of the Impala".


title: Kampala

text: The Baganda, in whose territory this British settlement was located, then translated "Hill of the Impala" as Akasozi ke'Empala. This was then shortened to K'empala and finally Kampala. "Kasozi" means "hill", "ke" "of", and "empala" the plural of "impala". Hence the name "Kampala" came to refer to this initial British colonial settlement that would later on spread out from the occupied Old Kampala hill near the pre-existing Kibuga (capital) of the Buganda Kingdom.


title: Kampala

text: This area of numerous hills and swamps that later become known as Kampala was part of the core of the highly centralised Buganda Kingdom. It was also the site of the shifting "Kibuga" (capital) of the different "Bassekabaka" (kings) of the Buganda Kingdom, with each "Kabaka" (king) upon coronation, or subsequently during their reign, setting up their "Kibuga" (capital) on a new and or different hill as they wished or desired.


title: Kampala

text: The first written description of this "Kibuga" (capital) was by the explorer Sir Richard Burton in his book, "The Lake Region of East Africa", published in 1860. In the book, Burton, relying on the information collected by Snay Bin Amir, an Arab trader, described the "Kibuga" as


title: Kampala

text: In 1862, when explorer John Speke arrived in Buganda, the "Kibuga" (capital) was at Bandabarogo, present-day Banda Hill, and the reigning "Kabaka" (King) was Mutesa I.


title: Kampala

text: In 1875, explorer Henry Morton Stanley reported the capital as being at present-day Lubaga Hill where he met the same "Kabaka",


title: Kampala

text: During this visit, Henry M. Stanley wrote a letter that was published in the "Daily Telegraphy", inviting missionaries to come to Buganda. He also described the "Kibuga" in his 1870s dispatches to "The New York Herald", thus:


title: Kampala

text: In 1877, the first missionaries from the Church Mission Society, who were of the Protestant faith, arrived from the United Kingdom and were allocated Namirembe Hill. Two years later, in 1879, the Catholic White Fathers also arrived, first settling at the present day village of Kitebi near Lubaga; subsequently, they would be allocated Lubaga Hill. The arrival of these two missionary groups laid the ground for the religious wars of 1888 to 1892 between their new converts, and forced the missionaries from Great Britain to then lobby for the British government to take over Buganda/Uganda as a protectorate.


title: Kampala

text: In 1890, Frederick Lugard, an agent of the Imperial British East Africa Company, arrived in Buganda during the reign of Ssekabaka Mwanga II, with whom he signed a treaty of protection by the British government over Buganda, and the "Kibuga" (capital) was located at Mengo Hill. Captain Lugard would, later on, be allocated the hill that would soon be known as Old Kampala, and on which he built a fort.


title: Kampala

text: In 1895, Mengo Senior School, the first school offering Western education in Kampala, was opened by the Church Missionary Society at Namirembe hill, where mostly the children of chiefs and pages of the royal palaces were students.


title: Kampala

text: In 1897, Ssekabaka Mwanga launched a rebellion but was defeated and was subsequently captured and exiled, in 1899, to the Seychelles alongside Omukama Kabalega, and his 3-year-old son was made "Kabaka" by the combined forces of the European officers leading Nubian and Baganda colonial soldiers. This state of affairs later culminated in the signing of the Buganda Agreement (1900) that formalised British colonial rule in Buganda.


title: Kampala

text: Also in 1897, Kampala's first Western-style health facility, Mengo Hospital, was opened on Namirembe hill by British doctor and missionary Sir Albert Ruskin Cook. In addition, Sir Albert Ruskin Cook would in 1913 found Mulago Hospital, the current National Referral Hospital, at Mulago hill.


title: Kampala

text: In 1900, the regents of the infant "Kabaka" Daudi Cwa II (who were Apolo Kagwa, the "Katikiro" (Prime Minister) of Buganda, Stanislaus Mugwanya, the "Mulamuzi" (Chief Judge) of Buganda, and Zakaria Kisingiri, the "Muwanika" (Chief Treasurer) of Buganda, with Bishop Alfred Tucker), signed the Buganda Agreement on behalf of Buganda with Sir Harry Johnston, who signed on behalf of the British government.


title: Kampala

text: This agreement with Sir Harry Johnston created new land tenures such as freehold, Crown land, and mailo, and divided up and allocated the land in such a way that would come to define the development of Kampala.


title: Kampala

text: The land in Buganda's "Kibuga" (capital), including Mengo Hill and Makerere Hill, was allocated to the young "Kabaka", the Baganda colonial collaborators, etc., under mailo and freehold.