title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: On the day of the incident, Elaine Chao, the United States Secretary of Transportation, made a statement to "commend the pilots who safely landed the aircraft and the crew and fellow passengers who provided support and care for the injured, preventing what could have been far worse." Shortly thereafter, Martha McSally, then a member of the United States House of Representatives from Arizona, introduced a resolution in Congress commending Captain Shults.


title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: On May 1, 2018, U.S. President Donald Trump welcomed crew members and select passengers in a ceremony at the Oval Office of the White House, thanking them all for their heroism.


title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: Southwest Airlines gave each passenger $5,000 and a $1,000 voucher for future travel with the airline. Southwest Airlines bookings fell following the accident, resulting in a projected decline in revenue for the airline for the second quarter of 2018. Following the accident, Lilia Chavez, a passenger on board the flight, filed a lawsuit against Southwest Airlines claiming that she suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder since the accident. Her lawsuit was later settled.


title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: Captain Shults wrote a book about the incident titled "Nerves of Steel". The book was published in the United States on October 8, 2019.


title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: The aircraft, N772SW, a Boeing 737-7H4, was subsequently flown to Boeing in Everett on April 30, 2018 for repairs. The plane was moved into storage at Victorville on June 7, 2018. The aircraft remains there and has not made a scheduled revenue flight since. It has had its Southwest titles removed, but remains in the basic Southwest livery.


title: Southwest Airlines Flight 1380

text: The incident involving Flight 1380 was featured on the fifth episode of season 21 of the Canadian documentary series "Mayday", known in the United States as "Air Disasters". The episode is titled "Cabin Catastrophe".


title: 2022 Nevada gubernatorial election

text: The 2022 Nevada gubernatorial election took place on November 8, 2022, to elect the governor of Nevada. Incumbent Democratic governor Steve Sisolak was running for a second term. Clark County Sheriff Joe Lombardo was the Republican nominee.


title: 2022 Nevada gubernatorial election

text: Sisolak lost re-election to a second term, becoming the only incumbent governor to lose re-election in the 2022 elections. He was the first Democrat to seek re-election to Nevada's governorship since 1994, when Bob Miller cruised to re-election, but instead became the state's first incumbent governor to lose since 1982. Decision Desk HQ called the race for Lombardo on November 11. Amid a slate of failed gubernatorial pickup attempts, this was the only governorship Republicans flipped in the 2022 elections, as well as the only governorship in a state carried by one party in the prior presidential election to flip to the other party. This was also the first time since Pat Quinn's defeat in the 2014 Illinois gubernatorial election that an incumbent Democratic Governor had lost re-election.


title: 2022 Nevada gubernatorial election

text: Significantly, Lombardo's win marked the first time in history that a Republican had won the governorship without winning either Clark County or Washoe County, home to a combined 89% of the state's population. This was due to Lombardo's more competitive margins in Clark County; Sisolak's previous opponent, Adam Laxalt, received only 40.8% of the vote there, while Lombardo received 46%.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Real Club Celta de Vigo (; ), commonly known as Celta de Vigo or simply Celta, is a Spanish professional football club based in Vigo, Galicia, that competes in La Liga, the top tier of Spanish football. Nicknamed "Os Celestes" (The Sky Blues), the club was founded on 1923 as "Club Celta", following the merger of two Vigo-based teams. The club's home stadium is Balaídos, which seats 29,000 spectators.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: The club's name is derived from the Celts, a people who once lived in the region. Its main rival is fellow Galician club Deportivo La Coruña, with whom it contests the Galician derby.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Celta have never won the league title nor Copa del Rey, although they have reached the final three times in the latter. The club finished in their best-ever position of fourth in 2002–03, qualifying for the 2003–04 UEFA Champions League, where they were eliminated by Arsenal in the round of 16. In the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League, Celta reached the semi-finals for the first time, losing to Manchester United.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: R.C. Celta de Vigo was formed as a result of the ambition of Vigo's teams to achieve more at national level, where the Basque sides had been their "bête noire" in the Spanish Championship. The idea was to merge both teams to create a more powerful team at national level. The standard-bearer of this movement was Manuel de Castro, known as "Handicap", a sports writer for the "Faro de Vigo" who, from 1915, began to write in his articles about the need for a unitarian movement. The slogan of his movement was ""Todo por y para Vigo"" ("All for and to Vigo"), which eventually found support among the managers of Real Vigo Sporting and Real Club Fortuna de Vigo. It was backed unanimously when De Castro himself presented the motion at the assembly of the Royal Spanish Football Federation in Madrid on 22 June 1923.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: On 12 July 1923, at the annual general meetings (AGMs) of Vigo and Fortuna held at the Odeon Theatre and in the Hotel Moderno, respectively, the merger was approved. Thus the "Team of Galicia" was born, as it was dubbed. In the last AGM of Fortuna and Vigo to approve the formation of a new club held on 10 August 1923, the members decided upon the team's name. Various names suggested include "Real Unión de Vigo", "Club Galicia", "Real Atlántic", "Breogán" and "Real Club Olimpico". The latter name was popular, but they eventually decided on "Real Club Celta", an ethnic race linked to Galicia. The first president of Celta was Manuel Bárcena de Andrés, the Count of Torre Cedeira. At this AGM, the squad was also decided, which numbered 64 players in total and included some notable players from both Fortuna and Vigo, and managed by Francis Cuggy.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: In 1947–48, Celta ranked a joint-best 4th (with 2003) and reached the Copa del Generalísimo Final, where they lost 4–1 to Sevilla FC. Local striker Pahiño, who took the Pichichi Trophy for 21 goals in 22 games that season, subsequently moved to Real Madrid.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Celta were dubbed "EuroCelta" by the Spanish press as a result of their European exploits . This included a 4–1 aggregate win against Liverpool in a run to the quarter-finals of the 1998–99 UEFA Cup. In the next season's edition they again reached the last eight, with a 4–0 second leg win over Juventus and a 7–0 home win against Benfica (8–1 aggregate). Domestically, the team reached the 2001 Copa del Rey Final, losing 3–1 to Real Zaragoza in Seville.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Key players during the period included Alexander Mostovoi, Valery Karpin and Haim Revivo, though the squad also relied upon other international players as well, such as goalkeeper Pablo Cavallero; defender and future coach Eduardo Berizzo, midfielders Claude Makélélé and Mazinho; winger Gustavo López; and strikers Catanha and Lyuboslav Penev, amongst others.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: In 2002–03, Celta came 4th under Miguel Ángel Lotina (joint best with 1948) and qualified for the 2003–04 UEFA Champions League. They went out in the last 16 to Arsenal 5–2 on aggregate. Domestically that year, the team came 19th and suffered relegation to the Segunda División. Although the squad was heavily dismantled following the demotion, Celta earned an immediate return to the top flight after finishing second in 2004–05.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: In 2006–07, Celta finished in 18th and were once again relegated to the Segunda División. The team subsequently fought against relegation to the third tier, and the risk of bankruptcy. This trend was bucked in the 2010–11 season, when new striker David Rodríguez, winger Enrique de Lucas and manager Paco Herrera helped them finish sixth. They were eliminated in the first knockout round by Granada after a penalty shootout, the game having finished 1–1 in 90 minutes.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: On 3 June 2012, Celta returned to La Liga after a five-year absence. In their first season back, they avoided relegation to the Segunda División on the final day after beating RCD Espanyol 1–0 to ensure a 17th-place finish.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Under "EuroCelta" veteran Eduardo Berizzo in 2015–16, Celta came 6th for their best result in a decade and earned a spot in the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League. In their return to European competitions, Celta reached the semi-finals of the 2016–17 UEFA Europa League, where they were eliminated by eventual champions Manchester United.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Celta's original crest was rather simple, featuring a red shield with two stylised letter Cs (Club Celta) and the royal crown of Spain; in the year of its foundation the club became one of a number of Spanish football clubs that were granted patronage by Alfonso XIII and thus entitled to use the honorific "real" (Royal) in their names and the crown on their badge. The following year the shield's colour was changed to the traditional sky blue colour. Like many other Galician clubs, such as Compostela and Racing Ferrol, the crest also features the red cross of Saint James which was added in 1928. During the Spanish Second Republic (1931–1936), the honorific title and crown were removed from the club's name and crest; however, it was to return under the Spanish State.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Celta's home colours are sky blue and white. Originally, their home strip consisted of a red shirt, black shorts and blue socks. This was later changed at an unknown date to the current colours, representative of the Galician flag.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Celta had the longest-running sponsorship deal in Spanish football, and one of the longest-running in the world, with the French automobile manufacturer Citroën from 1985 to 2016. The company established its plant within walking distance from Balaídos in 1958, and had first sponsored the club's women's basketball team in 1980. In 2016, the sponsor was changed to that of Galician brewery, Estrella Galicia, which had advertised on the back of the shirts since 2011. Their business deal with kit supplier, Umbro, was also one of the longest-running ones, from 1986 to 2010.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: The following past and present Celta players have been capped at full international level for their national team.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: Real Club Celta de Vigo, S.A.D. is a "sociedad anónima deportiva", a public limited sports company, owned by the Spanish-Mexican businessman Carlos Mouriño, who has been the majority shareholder since May 2006 when he acquired Horacio Gómez's 39.84% shareholding in the club. He currently owns 67.9% of the club through the holding company Grupo Corporativo Ges, S.L.


title: RC Celta de Vigo

text: In October 2016, the club was the subject of a potential 100 million euro takeover by the Chinese CITS Group.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: Michael Leslie Jones (born 27 December 1944) is an English musician, songwriter and record producer, best known as the last remaining original member of the British-American rock band Foreigner. Prior to Foreigner, he was in the band Spooky Tooth.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: Michael Leslie Jones was born on 27 December 1944 in Portsmouth, England. Jones started playing guitar at an early age, and decided to pursue a career in music.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: He began his professional music career in the early 1960s as a member of the band Nero and the Gladiators, who scored two minor British hit singles in 1961. After the demise of Nero and the Gladiators, Jones worked as a songwriter and session musician in France for such artists as Françoise Hardy, Sylvie Vartan, and Johnny Hallyday ("The French Elvis"), for whom he wrote many songs, including "Je suis né dans la rue" and "À tout casser" (which features Jimmy Page on guitar). When The Beatles toured France in 1964, they befriended Jones when Hallyday's girlfriend and future wife, Sylvie Vartan, played on the same bill as they did. Between 1965 and 1971, Jones recorded in France with Tommy Brown (Thomas R. Browne) as State of Mickey & Tommy, as well as under other session names, including the Blackburds, Nimrod, and the J&B.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: After leaving France to return to his home country, Jones joined Gary Wright, formerly of the band Spooky Tooth, to form Wonderwheel in 1971. In 1972, Jones and Wright reformed Spooky Tooth and, after that, Jones was a member of the Leslie West Band. He also played guitar on the albums "Wind of Change" (1972) for Peter Frampton, and "Dark Horse" (1974) for George Harrison.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: In 1976, Jones formed Foreigner with Ian McDonald, and recruited lead singer Lou Gramm. Jones co-produced all of the band's albums and co-wrote most of their songs with Gramm. Jones is credited with writing the band's most successful single, "I Want to Know What Love Is", by himself. Tensions developed within the band during the late 1980s, attributed to a difference in musical taste between Gramm, who favoured a more hard-edged rock, as opposed to Jones' interest in synthesisers. Gramm left the band in 1990 but returned in 1992. In 1989, Jones released his only solo album titled "Mick Jones", on the Atlantic Records label. Jones is the only person to play on every Foreigner album.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: In between his Foreigner commitments, Jones also started a side career as a producer for such albums as Van Halen's "5150" (1986), Bad Company's "Fame and Fortune" (1986) and Billy Joel's "Storm Front" (1989).


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: He co-wrote with Eric Clapton the song "Bad Love" on Clapton's "Journeyman" album, and in 2002 co-wrote the song "On Her Mind" with Duncan Sheik. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, he played with Bill Wyman's Rhythm Kings.


title: Mick Jones (Foreigner guitarist)

text: Jones was married to socialite/writer Ann Dexter-Jones, mother of Mark, Samantha and Charlotte Ronson. He and Dexter-Jones have two children, Annabelle Dexter-Jones and Alexander Dexter-Jones. Married for nearly 25 years, they divorced in 2007. In 2017, the couple remarried. Jones also has two sons, Roman and Christopher Jones, from prior relationships.


title: Quality of life

text: Quality of life (QOL) is defined by the World Health Organization as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns". Standard indicators of the quality of life include wealth, employment, the environment, physical and mental health, education, recreation and leisure time, social belonging, religious beliefs, safety, security and freedom. QOL has a wide range of contexts, including the fields of international development, healthcare, politics and employment. Health related QOL (HRQOL) is an evaluation of QOL and its relationship with health.


title: Quality of life

text: One approach, called engaged theory, outlined in the journal of "Applied Research in the Quality of Life", posits four domains in assessing quality of life: ecology, economics, politics and culture. In the domain of culture, for example, it includes the following subdomains of quality of life:


title: Quality of life

text: Under this conception, other frequently related concepts include freedom, human rights, and happiness. However, since happiness is subjective and difficult to measure, other measures are generally given priority. It has also been shown that happiness, as much as it can be measured, does not necessarily increase correspondingly with the comfort that results from increasing income. As a result, standard of living should not be taken to be a measure of happiness. Also sometimes considered related is the concept of human security, though the latter may be considered at a more basic level and for all people.


title: Quality of life

text: Unlike "per capita" GDP or standard of living, both of which can be measured in financial terms, it is harder to make objective or long-term measurements of the quality of life experienced by nations or other groups of people. Researchers have begun in recent times to distinguish two aspects of personal well-being: "Emotional well-being", in which respondents are asked about the quality of their everyday emotional experiencesthe frequency and intensity of their experiences of, for example, joy, stress, sadness, anger and affectionand "life evaluation", in which respondents are asked to think about their life in general and evaluate it against a scale. Such and other systems and scales of measurement have been in use for some time. Research has attempted to examine the relationship between quality of life and productivity. There are many different methods of measuring quality of life in terms of health care, wealth, and materialistic goods. However, it is much more difficult to measure meaningful expression of one's desires. One way to do so is to evaluate the scope of how individuals have fulfilled their own ideals. Quality of life can simply mean happiness, the subjective state of mind. By using that mentality, citizens of a developing country appreciate more since they are content with the basic necessities of health care, education and child protection.


title: Quality of life

text: Perhaps the most commonly used international measure of development is the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines measures of life expectancy, education, and standard of living, in an attempt to quantify the options available to individuals within a given society. The HDI is used by the United Nations Development Programme in their Human Development Report. However, since year 2010, The Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the original HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality), while the original HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there was no inequality."


title: Quality of life

text: The World Happiness Report is a landmark survey on the state of global happiness. It ranks 156 countries by their happiness levels, reflecting growing global interest in using happiness and substantial well-being as an indicator of the quality of human development. Its growing purpose has allowed governments, communities and organizations to use appropriate data to record happiness in order to enable policies to provide better lives. The reports review the state of happiness in the world today and show how the science of happiness explains personal and national variations in happiness.


title: Quality of life

text: Developed again by the United Nations and published recently along with the HDI, this report combines both objective and subjective measures to rank countries by happiness, which is deemed as the ultimate outcome of a high quality of life. It uses surveys from Gallup, real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, freedom from corruption, and generosity to derive the final score. Happiness is already recognised as an important concept in global public policy. The World Happiness Report indicates that some regions have in recent years been experiencing progressive inequality of happiness.


title: Quality of life

text: The Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI) is a measure developed by sociologist M. D. Morris in the 1970s, based on basic literacy, infant mortality, and life expectancy. Although not as complex as other measures, and now essentially replaced by the Human Development Index, the PQLI is notable for Morris's attempt to show a "less fatalistic pessimistic picture" by focusing on three areas where global quality of life was generally improving at the time, while ignoring gross national product and other possible indicators that were not improving.


title: Quality of life

text: The Happy Planet Index, introduced in 2006, is unique among quality of life measures in that, in addition to standard determinants of well-being, it uses each country's ecological footprint as an indicator. As a result, European and North American nations do not dominate this measure. The 2012 list is instead topped by Costa Rica, Vietnam and Colombia.


title: Quality of life

text: In 2010, Gallup researchers trying to find the world's happiest countries found Denmark to be at the top of the list. For the period 2014–2016, Norway surpasses Denmark to be at the top of the list. uSwitch publishes an annual quality of life index for European countries. France topped the list from 2009 to 2011.


title: Quality of life

text: A 2010 study by two Princeton University professors looked at 1,000 randomly selected U.S. residents over an extended period. It concludes that their "life evaluations" – that is, their considered evaluations of their life against a stated scale of one to ten – rise steadily with income. On the other hand, their reported quality of "emotional daily experiences" (their reported experiences of joy, affection, stress, sadness, or anger) levels off after a certain income level (approximately $75,000 per year in 2010); income above $75,000 does not lead to more experiences of happiness nor to further relief of unhappiness or stress. Below this income level, respondents reported decreasing happiness and increasing sadness and stress, implying the pain of life's misfortunes, including disease, divorce, and being alone, is exacerbated by poverty.


title: Quality of life

text: Gross national happiness and other subjective measures of happiness are being used by the governments of Bhutan and the United Kingdom. The World Happiness report, issued by Columbia University is a meta-analysis of happiness globally and provides an overview of countries and grassroots activists using GNH. The OECD issued a guide for the use of subjective well-being metrics in 2013. In the U.S., cities and communities are using a GNH metric at a grassroots level.


title: Quality of life

text: The Social Progress Index measures the extent to which countries provide for the social and environmental needs of their citizens. Fifty-two indicators in the areas of basic human needs, foundations of wellbeing, and opportunity show the relative performance of nations. The index uses outcome measures when there is sufficient data available or the closest possible proxies.


title: Quality of life

text: Day-Reconstruction Method was another way of measuring happiness, in which researchers asked their subjects to recall various things they did on the previous day and describe their mood during each activity. Being simple and approachable, this method required memory and the experiments have confirmed that the answers that people give are similar to those who repeatedly recalled each subject. The method eventually declined as it called for more effort and thoughtful responses, which often included interpretations and outcomes that do not occur to people who are asked to record every action in their daily lives.


title: Quality of life

text: The term "quality of life" is also used by politicians and economists to measure the livability of a given city or nation. Two widely known measures of livability are the Economist Intelligence Unit's Where-to-be-born Index and Mercer's Quality of Living Reports. These two measures calculate the livability of countries and cities around the world, respectively, through a combination of subjective life-satisfaction surveys and objective determinants of quality of life such as divorce rates, safety, and infrastructure. Such measures relate more broadly to the population of a city, state, or country, not to individual quality of life. Livability has a long history and tradition in urban design, and neighborhoods design standards such as LEED-ND are often used in an attempt to influence livability.


title: Quality of life

text: Some crimes against property (e.g., graffiti and vandalism) and some "victimless crimes" have been referred to as "quality-of-life crimes." American sociologist James Q. Wilson encapsulated this argument as the broken windows theory, which asserts that relatively minor problems left unattended (such as litter, graffiti, or public urination by homeless individuals) send a subliminal message that disorder, in general, is being tolerated, and as a result, more serious crimes will end up being committed (the analogy being that a broken window left broken shows an image of general dilapidation).


title: Quality of life

text: Wilson's theories have been used to justify the implementation of zero tolerance policies by many prominent American mayors, most notably Oscar Goodman in Las Vegas, Richard Riordan in Los Angeles, Rudolph Giuliani in New York City and Gavin Newsom in San Francisco. Such policies refuse to tolerate even minor crimes; proponents argue that this will improve the quality of life of local residents. However, critics of zero tolerance policies believe that such policies neglect investigation on a case-by-case basis and may lead to unreasonably harsh penalties for crimes.


title: Quality of life

text: Within the field of healthcare, quality of life is often regarded in terms of how a certain ailment affects a patient on an individual level. This may be a debilitating weakness that is not life-threatening; life-threatening illness that is not terminal; terminal illness; the predictable, natural decline in the health of an elder; an unforeseen mental/physical decline of a loved one; or chronic, end-stage disease processes. Researchers at the University of Toronto's Quality of Life Research Unit define quality of life as "The degree to which a person enjoys the important possibilities of his or her life" (UofT). Their Quality of Life Model is based on the categories "being", "belonging", and "becoming"; respectively who one is, how one is connected to one's environment, and whether one achieves one's personal goals, hopes, and aspirations.


title: Quality of life

text: Experience sampling studies show substantial between-person variability in within-person associations between somatic symptoms and quality of life. Hecht and Shiel measure quality of life as "the patient's ability to enjoy normal life activities" since life quality is strongly related to wellbeing without suffering from sickness and treatment. There are multiple assessments available that measure Health-Related Quality of Life, e.g., AQoL-8D, EQ5D – Euroqol, 15D, SF-36, SF-6D, HUI.


title: Quality of life

text: Quality of life has been deemed an important concept in the field of international development because it allows development to be analyzed on a measure that is generally accepted as more comprehensive than standard of living. Within development theory, however, there are varying ideas concerning what constitutes desirable change for a particular society. The different ways that quality of life is defined by institutions, therefore, shape how these organizations work for its improvement as a whole.


title: Quality of life

text: Organisations such as the World Bank, for example, declare a goal of "working for a world free of poverty", with poverty defined as a lack of basic human needs, such as food, water, shelter, freedom, access to education, healthcare, or employment. In other words, poverty is defined as a low quality of life. Using this definition, the World Bank works towards improving quality of life through the stated goal of lowering poverty and helping people afford a better quality of life.


title: Quality of life

text: Other organizations, however, may also work towards improved global quality of life using a slightly different definition and substantially different methods. Many NGOs do not focus at all on reducing poverty on a national or international scale, but rather attempt to improve the quality of life for individuals or communities. One example would be sponsorship programs that provide material aid for specific individuals. Although many organizations of this type may still talk about fighting poverty, the methods are significantly different.


title: Quality of life

text: Improving quality of life involves action not only by NGOs but also by governments. Global health has the potential to achieve greater political presence if governments were to incorporate aspects of human security into foreign policy. Stressing individuals' basic rights to health, food, shelter, and freedom addresses prominent inter-sectoral problems negatively impacting today's society and may lead to greater action and resources. Integration of global health concerns into foreign policy may be hampered by approaches that are shaped by the overarching roles of defense and diplomacy.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Phone Booth is a 2002 American psychological thriller film directed by Joel Schumacher, produced by David Zucker and Gil Netter, written by Larry Cohen and starring Colin Farrell, Forest Whitaker, Katie Holmes, Radha Mitchell, and Kiefer Sutherland. In the film, a malevolent hidden sniper calls a phone booth, and when a young publicist inside answers the phone, he quickly finds his life is at risk. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and was a box office hit, grossing $97 million worldwide against a production budget of $13 million.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The film was premiered at the 2002 Toronto International Film Festival, and was set to be theatrically released in November 2002, but the D.C. sniper attacks in October 2002 prompted 20th Century Fox to delay the release of the film, and it opened in the United States on April 4, 2003.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Stuart Shepard is an arrogant and dishonest New York City publicist who has been having an affair with Pamela McFadden behind the back of his wife Kelly. While in Times Square, Stuart uses a public phone booth to contact Pam, allowing him to avoid detection by Kelly. During the call, he is interrupted by a pizza delivery man who attempts to deliver a free pizza to him, but Stuart aggressively turns him away. As soon as Stuart completes his call, the phone rings. Stuart answers; a man on the other end, who knows his name, warns him not to leave the booth, threatening to tell Kelly about Pam.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The caller tells Stuart that he has tested two previous individuals who have done wrong deeds in a similar manner, giving each a chance to reveal the truth to those they wronged, but in both cases they refused and were killed. Stuart must confess his feelings to both Kelly and Pam to avoid the same fate. To demonstrate the threat, the caller fires a suppressed sniper rifle with pinpoint accuracy. The caller then contacts Pam and connects her to Stuart, who admits that he is married.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The booth is approached by three sex workers demanding to use the phone, but Stuart refuses to leave, without revealing his dilemma. Leon, a pimp, breaks the glass side of the booth, grabs Stuart and pummels him while the sex workers cheer. The caller offers to "make him stop" and in Stuart's confusion, he inadvertently asks for this; the caller shoots Leon dead. The sex workers immediately blame Stuart, accusing him of having a gun, as the police and news crews converge on the location.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: NYPD Captain Ed Ramey seals off the area and negotiates to make Stuart leave the booth, but he refuses. Stuart tells the caller that there is no way they can incriminate him, but the caller draws his attention to a handgun planted in the roof of the phone booth. As Kelly and Pam both arrive on the scene, the caller demands that Stuart tell Kelly the truth, which he does. The caller then orders Stuart to choose between Kelly and Pam, and the woman he does not choose will be shot.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Stuart secretly uses his cell phone to call Kelly, allowing her to overhear his conversation with the caller; she quietly informs Ramey of this. Meanwhile, Stuart continues to confess to everyone that his whole life is a lie, to make himself look better than he really is. Stuart's confession provides sufficient distraction to allow the police to trace the payphone call to a nearby building. Stuart warns the caller that the police are on the way, and the caller replies that if he is caught, he will kill Kelly. Desperate, Stuart grabs the handgun and leaves the booth, begging for the sniper to kill him instead. The police fire upon Stuart, while a SWAT team breaks into the room that the caller was tracked to, only to find a rifle and a man's corpse.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Stuart regains consciousness; the police fired only rubber bullets, stunning but not harming him. Stuart and Kelly happily reconcile. As the police bring down the body, Stuart identifies it as the pizza delivery man from earlier. Stuart gets medical treatment at a local ambulance; as he does, the real caller passes by, warning Stuart that if his newfound honesty does not last, he will return, before disappearing into the crowd. Later, the pay phone rings and another man answers.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: In the 1960s, Larry Cohen pitched Alfred Hitchcock an idea for a film which took place in real time, entirely within the confines of a telephone booth. Hitchcock liked the idea, but the project did not move forward, because the two men were unable to devise a plot which explained why the action had to be restricted to the one location. Cohen recalled that Hitchcock would ask him if he had a solution to the problem when they periodically met over the following years, but was not until the late 1990s, some two decades after Hitchcock's death, when he came up with the answer of a sniper forcing the protagonist to remain within the phone booth, and was able to write a script.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Creative Artists Agency signed a contract with Cohen and the script appealed to several A-list actors, such as Tom Cruise, Will Smith, Mel Gibson, Robin Williams, Anthony Hopkins, and Nicolas Cage; directors placed in contention included Gibson, Steven Spielberg, the Hughes brothers, and Michael Bay. According to Cohen, Bay was removed from consideration after the first question he asked about the script was, "OK, how do we get this thing out of the damn telephone booth?" Eventually, Joel Schumacher, who had been considered early in development, was brought back on to direct the film. Jim Carrey was originally cast as Stu Shepard, but he dropped out. Schumacher said: "We were going to shoot it that summer and he was fitted for the suit. But I got a call from Jim one night and told me he had cold feet. He really didn't feel comfortable with it. Actors never give up their role. If an actor gives up a part then it's not right for them."


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The principal photography on the film was completed in ten days, with an additional two days of establishing shots, pickups, and re-shoots. This accelerated filming schedule was aided by the adoption of French hours, a work schedule that skips the typical one-hour production shutdown for lunch break, in exchange for making food available all throughout the shooting day.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: This was costume designer Daniel Orlandi's second feature with Joel Schumacher, having previously worked together on "Flawless". According to him, Dolce & Gabbana created the suit and shirt worn by Colin Farrell. Though the fashion house was tasked with making additional suit copies for filming, they unfortunately would not arrive until the last day of shooting. Thankfully, the film was shot chronologically and thus the costume could sustain damage without slowing down production. Orlandi was able to keep one of the suit copies for himself as he and Farrell were the same size.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The film is set in real time, so the timespan in which the film takes place is as long as it takes to watch it, much like the television series "24", which also stars Kiefer Sutherland. Like "24", it also uses split screens. Although the film is set in New York City, it was filmed in front of what is now the CB1 Gallery in downtown Los Angeles, in November 2000. This is made evident by the LACMTA buses periodically driving by. The exact location of the phone booth in the film is the corner of West 5th Street and Frank Court, given away by the black gate in the background.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The film premiered on September 10, 2002, at the Toronto International Film Festival. It was originally due to be released in the United States on November 15 of that year. However, in October 2002, the Beltway sniper attacks occurred in the Washington, D.C., area, prompting 20th Century Fox to delay the release of the film to April 5, 2003.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: The film grossed $46.5 million in the United States and $51.3 million internationally for a total gross of $97.8 million, from a $13 million production budget.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 72% based on 188 reviews, with an average rating of 6.5/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Quick pacing and Farrell's performance help make "Phone Booth" a tense nail-biter." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "C+" on scale of A+ to F.


title: Phone Booth (film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three stars, and said of Sutherland's performance, "if the voice doesn't work, neither does the movie. It does." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" magazine criticized the film for not having enough material even for its relatively short length, and wrote: "Gussied up with a host of filmmaking tricks in an attempt to keep things lively, this intensely acted little exercise just doesn't have enough going for it, with the exception of gradually growing interest in lead Colin Farrell."


title: Sari

text: A sari (sometimes also saree or shari) is a women's garment from the Indian subcontinent, that consists of an un-stitched stretch of woven fabric arranged over the body as a robe, with one end tied to the waist, while the other end rests over one shoulder as a stole (shawl), sometimes baring a part of the midriff. It may vary from in length, and in breadth, and is form of ethnic wear in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Nepal. There are various names and styles of sari manufacture and draping, the most common being the Nivi style. The sari is worn with a fitted bodice commonly called a choli ( or in southern India, and in Nepal) and a petticoat called , , or . It remains fashionable in the Indian Subcontinent today.


title: Sari

text: The Hindustani word (, ), described in Sanskrit which means 'strip of cloth' and or in Pali, and which evolved to in modern Indian languages. The word is mentioned as describing women's dharmic attire in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist literature called Jatakas. This could be equivalent to the modern day sari. The term for female bodice, the evolved from ancient . "Rajatarangini", a tenth-century literary work by Kalhana, states that the choli from the Deccan was introduced under the royal order in Kashmir.


title: Sari

text: The petticoat is called (, ) in Hindi-Urdu, () in Marathi, () in Tamil ( in other parts of South India: , , ), () in Bengali and eastern India, and () in Sinhalese. Apart from the standard "petticoat", it may also be called "inner skirt" or an inskirt.


title: Sari

text: History of Sari-like drapery is traced back to the Indus Valley civilisation, which flourished during 2800–1800 BCE around the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent. Cotton was first cultivated and woven on the Indian subcontinent around the 5th millennium BCE. Dyes used during this period are still in use, particularly indigo, lac, red madder and turmeric. Silk was woven around 2450 BCE and 2000 BCE.


title: Sari

text: The word "sari" evolved from () mentioned in earliest Hindu literature as women's attire. The sari or evolved from a three-piece ensemble comprising the , the lower garment; the ; a veil worn over the shoulder or the head; and the , a chestband. This ensemble is mentioned in Sanskrit literature and Buddhist Pali literature during the 6th century BCE. Ancient antariya closely resembled the "dhoti" wrap in the "fishtail" version which was passed through the legs, covered the legs loosely and then flowed into long, decorative pleats at front of the legs. It further evolved into "Bhairnivasani" skirt, today known as "ghagri" and "lehenga". Uttariya was a shawl-like veil worn over the shoulder or head. It evolved into what is known today known as dupatta and ghoonghat. Likewise, the evolved into the "choli" by the 1st century CE.


title: Sari

text: The ancient Sanskrit work "Kadambari" by Banabhatta and ancient Tamil poetry, such as the "Silappadhikaram", describes women in exquisite drapery or sari. In ancient India, although women wore saris that bared the midriff, the Dharmasastra writers stated that women should be dressed such that the navel would never become visible, which may have led to a taboo on navel exposure at some times and places.


title: Sari

text: It is generally accepted that wrapped sari-like garments for lower body and sometimes shawls or scarf like garment called 'uttariya' for upper body, have been worn by Indian women for a long time, and that they have been worn in their current form for hundreds of years. In ancient couture the lower garment was called 'nivi' or 'nivi bandha', while the upper body was mostly left bare. The works of Kalidasa mention the , a form of tight fitting breast band that simply covered the breasts. It was also sometimes referred to as an or .


title: Sari

text: Poetic references from works like Silappadikaram indicate that during the Sangam period in ancient Tamil Nadu in southern India, a single piece of clothing served as both lower garment and head covering, leaving the midriff completely uncovered. Similar styles of the sari are recorded paintings by Raja Ravi Varma in Kerala. Numerous sources say that everyday costume in ancient India until recent times in Kerala consisted of a pleated dhoti or (sarong) wrap, combined with a breast band called or and occasionally a wrap called that could at times be used to cover the upper body or head. The two-piece Kerala mundum neryathum (mundu, a dhoti or sarong, neryath, a shawl, in Malayalam) is a survival of ancient clothing styles. The one-piece sari in Kerala is derived from neighbouring Tamil Nadu or Deccan during medieval period based on its appearance on various temple murals in medieval Kerala.


title: Sari

text: Early Sanskrit literature has a wide vocabulary of terms for the veiling used by women, such as "Avagunthana" (oguntheti/oguṇthikā), meaning cloak-veil, "Uttariya" meaning shoulder-veil, "Mukha-pata" meaning face-veil and "Sirovas-tra" meaning head-veil. In the "Pratimānātaka", a play by Bhāsa describes in context of "Avagunthana" veil that ""ladies may be seen without any blame (for the parties concerned) in a religious session, in marriage festivities, during a calamity and in a forest"". The same sentiment is more generically expressed in later Sanskrit literature. Śūdraka, the author of Mṛcchakatika set in fifth century BCE says that the "Avagaunthaha" was not used by women everyday and at every time. He says that a married lady was expected to put on a veil while moving in the public. This may indicate that it was not necessary for unmarried females to put on a veil. This form of veiling by married women is still prevalent in Hindi-speaking areas, and is known as "ghoonghat" where the loose end of a sari is pulled over the head to act as a facial veil.


title: Sari

text: Based on sculptures and paintings, tight bodices or "cholis" are believed to have evolved between the 2nd century BCE to 6th century CE in various regional styles. Early "cholis" were front covering tied at the back; this style was more common in parts of ancient northern India. This ancient form of bodice or choli are still common in the state of Rajasthan today. Varies styles of decorative traditional embroidery like gota patti, mochi, pakko, kharak, suf, kathi, phulkari and gamthi are done on "cholis". In Southern parts of India, choli is known as "ravikie" which is tied at the front instead of back, kasuti is traditional form of embroidery used for cholis in this region. In Nepal, choli is known as "cholo" or "chaubandi cholo" and is traditionally tied at the front.


title: Sari

text: Red is the most favoured colour for wedding saris, which are the traditional garment choice for brides in Hindu wedding. Women traditionally wore various types of regional handloom saris made of silk, cotton, ikkat, block-print, embroidery and tie-dye textiles. Most sought after brocade silk saris are Banasari, Kanchipuram, Gadwal, Paithani, Mysore, Uppada, Bagalpuri, Balchuri, Maheshwari, Chanderi, Mekhela, Ghicha, Narayan pet and Eri etc. are traditionally worn for festive and formal occasions. Silk Ikat and cotton saris known as Patola, Pochampally, Bomkai, Khandua, Sambalpuri, Gadwal, Berhampuri, Bargarh, Jamdani, Tant, Mangalagiri, Guntur, Narayan pet, Chanderi, Maheshwari, Nuapatn, Tussar, Ilkal, Kotpad and Manipuri were worn for both festive and everyday attire. Tie-dyed and block-print saris known as Bandhani, Leheria/Leheriya, Bagru, Ajrakh, Sungudi, Kota Dabu/Dabu print, Bagh and Kalamkari were traditionally worn during monsoon season. Gota Patti is popular form of traditional embroidery used on saris for formal occasions, various other types of traditional folk embroidery such mochi, pakko, kharak, suf, kathi, phulkari and gamthi are also commonly used for both informal and formal occasion. Today, modern fabrics like polyester, georgette and charmeuse are also commonly used.


title: Sari

text: There are more than 80 recorded ways to wear a sari. The most common style is for the sari to be wrapped around the waist, with the loose end of the drape to be worn over the shoulder, baring the midriff. However, the sari can be draped in several different styles, though some styles do require a sari of a particular length or form. Ṛta Kapur Chishti, a sari historian and recognised textile scholar, has documented 108 ways of wearing a sari in her book, 'Saris: Tradition and Beyond'. The book documents the sari drapes across fourteen states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. The French cultural anthropologist and sari researcher Chantal Boulanger categorised sari drapes in the following families:


title: Sari

text: The Sari Series, a non-profit project created in 2017 is a digital anthology documenting India's regional sari drapes providing over 80 short films on how-to-drape the various styles.


title: Sari

text: The Nivi in most common style of sari worn today, which originated in Deccan region. In the Deccan region the Nivi existed in two styles, a style similar to modern Nivi and the second style worn with front pleats of Nivi tucked in the back.


title: Sari

text: The increased interactions during colonial era saw most women from royal families come out of purdah in the 1900s. This necessitated a change of dress. Maharani Indira Devi of Cooch Behar popularised the chiffon sari. She was widowed early in life and followed the convention of abandoning her richly woven Baroda shalus in favour of the unadorned mourning white as per tradition. Characteristically, she transformed her "mourning" clothes into high fashion. She had saris woven in France to her personal specifications, in white chiffon, and introduced the silk chiffon sari to the royal fashion repertoire.


title: Sari

text: Under colonial rule, petticoat was adopted, along with Victorian styles of puffed-sleeved blouses, which was commonly seen among the elites in Bombay presidency and Bengal presidency. Nivi drape starts with one end of the sari tucked into the waistband of the petticoat, usually a plain skirt. The cloth is wrapped around the lower body once, then hand-gathered into even pleats below the navel. The pleats are tucked into the waistband of the petticoat. They create a graceful, decorative effect which poets have likened to the petals of a flower. After one more turn around the waist, the loose end is draped over the shoulder. The loose end is called the "aanchal", "pallu", "pallav", "seragu", or "paita" depending on the language. It is draped diagonally in front of the torso. It is worn across the right hip to over the left shoulder, partly baring the midriff. The navel can be revealed or concealed by the wearer by adjusting the "pallu", depending on the social setting. The long end of the "pallu" hanging from the back of the shoulder is often intricately decorated. The "pallu" may be hanging freely, tucked in at the waist, used to cover the head, or used to cover the neck, by draping it across the right shoulder as well. Some Nivi styles are worn with the "pallu" draped from the back towards the front, coming from the back over the right shoulder with one corner tucked by the left hip, covering the torso/waist. The Nivi sari was popularised through the paintings of Raja Ravi Varma. In one of his paintings, the Indian subcontinent was shown as a mother wearing a flowing Nivi sari. The ornaments sometimes worn in the midriff region on top of a sari are waist chains. They are sometimes worn as a part of bridal jewellery.


title: Sari

text: Because of the harsh extremes in temperature on the Indian subcontinent, the sari fills a practical role as well as a decorative one. It is not only warming in winter and cooling in summer, but its loose-fitting tailoring is preferred by women who must be free to move as their duties require. For this reason, it is the uniform of Biman Bangladesh Airlines and Air India uniform for air hostesses. An air hostess-style sari is draped in similar manner to a traditional sari, but most of the pleats are pinned to keep them in place. Bangladeshi female newsreaders and anchors also drape their sari in this particular style.


title: Sari

text: Saris are worn as uniforms by the female hotel staff of many five-star luxury hotels in India, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh as the symbol of Indian, Sri Lankan, and Bangladeshi culture, respectively.


title: Sari

text: Similarly, the female politicians of all three countries wear the sari in a professional manner. Bangladeshi politicians usually wear saris with long sleeve blouse while covering their midriff. Some politicians pair up saris with hijabs or shawls for more coverage.


title: Sari

text: The women of the Nehru–Gandhi family like Indira Gandhi and Sonia Gandhi have worn a special blouse for the campaign trail which is longer than usual and is tucked in to prevent any midriff showing while waving to the crowds. Stylist Prasad Bidapa has to say, "I think Sonia Gandhi is the country's most stylish politician. But that's because she's inherited the best collection of saris from her mother-in-law. I'm also happy that she supports the Indian handloom industry with her selection."


title: Sari

text: Most female MPs in the Sri Lankan Parliament wear a Kandyan osari. This includes prominent women in politics, the first female premier in the world, Sirimavo Bandaranaike and President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga. Contemporary examples include Pavithra Wanniarachchi, the sitting health minister in Cabinet. The adoption of the sari is not exclusive to Sinhalese politicians; Muslim MP Ferial Ashraff combined a hijab with her sari while in Parliament.


title: Sari

text: Sari is the national wear of Bangladeshi women. All girls and married women used to wear sari as their regular clothes but nowadays most working women choose to wear shalwar kameez or western outfits instead.


title: Sari

text: However, almost all women wear sari as an on formal event and social gatherings. Women of certain occupation such as teachers wear sari to their workplace. Young girls also wear it on special occasions.


title: Sari

text: Sari is the national attire for women in Bangladesh, Although Dhakai Jamdani (hand made sari) is worldwide known and most famous to all women who wear sari but there are also many variety of saris in Bangladesh. There are many regional variations of them in both silk and cotton. e.g.- Cotton sari, Dhakai Banarasi sari, Rajshahi silk, Tangail sari, Tant sari, Tassar silk sari, Manipuri sari and Katan sari are the most popular in Bangladesh.


title: Sari

text: Sari is considered as a dress code in news channels, educational institutions, workplaces and formal events etc. of Bangladesh and the uniform of the air hostesses of Biman Bangladesh Airlines.


title: Sari

text: In 2013, the traditional art of weaving jamdani was declared a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.


title: Sari

text: Sri Lankan women wear saris in many styles. Two ways of draping the sari are popular and tend to dominate: the Indian style (classic nivi drape) and the Kandyan style (or in Sinhala). The Kandyan style is generally more popular in the hill country region of Kandy from which the style gets its name. Though local preferences play a role, most women decide on style depending on personal preference or what is perceived to be most flattering for their figure.


title: Sari

text: The traditional Kandyan (Osariya) style consists of a full blouse which covers the midriff completely and is partially tucked in at the front. However, the modern intermingling of styles has led to most wearers baring the midriff. The final tail of the sari is neatly pleated rather than free-flowing. This is rather similar to the pleated rosette used in the "Pin Kosuvam" style noted earlier in the article.


title: Sari

text: The Kandyan style is considered the national dress of Sinhalese women. It is the uniform of the air hostesses of SriLankan Airlines.


title: Sari

text: During the 1960s, the mini sari known as 'hipster' sari created a wrinkle in Sri Lankan fashion, since it was worn below the navel and barely above the line of prosecution for indecent exposure. The conservative people described the 'hipster' as ""an absolute travesty of a beautiful costume almost a desecration"" and ""a hideous and purposeless garment"".


title: Sari

text: The sari is the most commonly worn women's clothing in Nepal where a special style of sari draping is called "haku patasihh". The sari is draped around the waist and a shawl is worn covering the upper half of the sari, which is used in place of a "pallu".


title: Sari

text: In Pakistan, the saris are still popular and worn on special occasions. The Shalwar kameez, however, is worn throughout the country on a daily basis. The sari nevertheless remains a popular garment among the middle and upper class for many formal functions. Saris can be seen worn commonly in metropolitan cities such as Karachi and Islamabad and are worn regularly for weddings and other business types of functions. Saris are also worn by many Muslim women in Sindh to show their status or to enhance their beauty. Phulkari, Kota doria, banarasi, Ajrak are the most worn.


title: Sari

text: Black Sari Day, is an celebration of Iqbal Bano a women who fought in a Black sari in Lahore against Zia. She sang Hum Dekhenge. Although this event is to bring family closer and to enjoy the day of Iqbal Bano.


title: Sari

text: While the sari is typical to traditional wear for women in the Indian subcontinent, clothing worn by women in Southeast Asian countries like Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Cambodia, Thailand and Laos resemble it, where a long rectangular piece of cloth is draped around the body. These are different from the sari as they are wrapped around the lower-half of body as a skirt, worn with a shirt/blouse and resemble a sarong, as seen in the Burmese (; ), Filipino and , Laotian (; ), Laotian and Thai (; ) and (, ; , , ), Cambodian () and "sampot" (, , ) and Timorese . Saris, worn predominantly in the Indian subcontinent are usually draped with one end of the cloth fastened around the waist, and the other end placed over the shoulder baring the midriff.


title: Sari

text: Saris are woven with one plain end (the end that is concealed inside the wrap), two long decorative borders running the length of the sari, and a one to three-foot section at the other end which continues and elaborates the length-wise decoration. This end is called the "pallu"; it is the part thrown over the shoulder in the nivi style of draping.


title: Sari

text: In past times, saris were woven of silk or cotton. The rich could afford finely woven, diaphanous silk saris that, according to folklore, could be passed through a finger ring. The poor wore coarsely woven cotton saris. All saris were handwoven and represented a considerable investment of time or money.


title: Sari

text: Simple hand-woven villagers' saris are often decorated with checks or stripes woven into the cloth. Inexpensive saris were also decorated with block printing using carved wooden blocks and vegetable dyes, or tie-dyeing, known in India as "bhandani" work.


title: Sari

text: More expensive saris had elaborate geometric, floral, or figurative ornaments or brocades created on the loom, as part of the fabric. Sometimes warp and weft threads were tie-dyed and then woven, creating "ikat" patterns. Sometimes threads of different colours were woven into the base fabric in patterns; an ornamented border, an elaborate "pallu", and often, small repeated accents in the cloth itself. These accents are called "buttis" or "bhuttis" (spellings vary). For fancy saris, these patterns could be woven with gold or silver thread, which is called "zari" work.


title: Sari

text: Sometimes the saris were further decorated, after weaving, with various sorts of embroidery. "Resham" work is embroidery done with coloured silk thread. "Zardozi" embroidery uses gold and silver thread, and sometimes pearls and precious stones. Cheap modern versions of "zardozi" use synthetic metallic thread and imitation stones, such as fake pearls and Swarovski crystals.


title: Sari

text: In modern times, saris are increasingly woven on mechanical looms and made of artificial fibres, such as polyester, nylon, or rayon, which do not require starching or ironing. They are printed by machine, or woven in simple patterns made with "floats" across the back of the sari. This can create an elaborate appearance on the front, while looking ugly on the back. The "punchra" work is imitated with inexpensive machine-made tassel trim. Fashion designer Aaditya Sharma declared, "I can drape a sari in 54 different styles".


title: Sari

text: Hand-woven, hand-decorated saris are naturally much more expensive than the machine imitations. While the overall market for handweaving has plummeted (leading to much distress among Indian handweavers), hand-woven saris are still popular for weddings and other grand social occasions.


title: Sari

text: The traditional sari made an impact in the United States during the 1970s. Eugene Novack who ran the New York store, Royal Sari House told that he had been selling it mainly to the Indian women in New York area but later many American business women and housewives became his customers who preferred their saris to resemble the full gown of the western world. He also said that men appeared intrigued by the fragility and the femininity it confers on the wearer. Newcomers to the sari report that it is comfortable to wear, requiring no girdles or stockings and that the flowing garb feels so feminine with unusual grace.


title: Sari

text: The sari has gained its popularity internationally because of the growth of Indian fashion trends globally. Many Bollywood celebrities, like Aishwarya Rai, have worn it at international events representing India's cultural heritage. In 2010, Bollywood actress Deepika Padukone wanted to represent her country at an international event, wearing the national costume. On her very first red carpet appearance at the Cannes International Film Festival, she stepped out on the red carpet in a Rohit Bal sari.


title: Sari

text: Many foreign celebrities have worn traditional sari attire designed by Indian fashion designers. American actress Pamela Anderson made a surprise guest appearance on Bigg Boss, the Indian version of Big Brother, dressed in a sari that was specially designed for her by Mumbai-based fashion designer Ashley Rebello. Ashley Judd donned a purple sari at the YouthAIDS Benefit Gala in November 2007 at the Ritz Carlton in Mclean, Virginia. There was an Indian flavour to the red carpet at the annual Fashion Rocks concert in New York, with designer Rocky S walking the ramp along with Jessica, Ashley, Nicole, Kimberly and Melody – the Pussycat Dolls – dressed in saris. in 2014, American singer Selena Gomez was seen in a sari for an UNICEF charity event at Nepal.


title: Sari

text: In the United States, the sari has recently become politicised with the digital-movement, "Sari, Not Sorry". Tanya Rawal-Jindia, a gender studies professor at UC Riverside, initiated this anti-xenophobia fashion-campaign on Instagram.


title: Sari

text: While an international image of the modern style sari may have been popularised by airline flight attendants, each region in the Indian subcontinent has developed, over the centuries, its own unique sari style. Following are other well-known varieties, distinct on the basis of fabric, weaving style, or motif, in the Indian subcontinent


title: Sari

text: Handloom sari weaving is one of India's cottage industries. The handloom weaving process requires several stages in order to produce the final product. Traditionally the processes of dyeing (during the yarn, fabric, or garment stage), warping, sizing, attaching the warp, weft winding and weaving were done by weavers and local specialists around weaving towns and villages.


title: Enchilada

text: An enchilada (, ) is a Mexican dish consisting of a corn tortilla rolled around a filling and covered with a savory sauce. Enchiladas can be filled with various ingredients, including meats, cheese, beans, potatoes, vegetables, or combinations. Enchilada sauces include chili-based sauces, such as salsa roja, various moles, tomatillo-based sauces, such as salsa verde, or cheese-based sauces, such as chile con queso.


title: Enchilada

text: The Royal Spanish Academy defines the word "enchilada", as used in Mexico, as a rolled maize tortilla stuffed with meat and covered with a tomato and chili sauce. "Enchilada" is the past participle of Spanish "enchilar", "to add chili pepper to"; literally, "to season (or decorate) with chili".


title: Enchilada

text: Enchiladas originated in Mexico, where the practice of rolling tortillas around other food dates back at least to Aztec times. The people living in the lake region of the Valley of Mexico traditionally ate corn tortillas folded or rolled around small fish. Writing at the time of the Spanish conquistadors, Bernal Díaz del Castillo documented a feast enjoyed by Europeans hosted by Hernán Cortés in Coyoacán, which included foods served in corn tortillas. (Note that the native Nahuatl name for the flat corn bread used was "tlaxcalli"; the Spanish gave it the name "tortilla".) The Nahuatl word for enchilada is "chīllapītzalli" , which is formed of the Nahuatl word for "chili", "chīlli" and the Nahuatl word for "flute", "tlapītzalli" . In the 19th century, as Mexican cuisine was being memorialized, enchiladas were mentioned in the first Mexican cookbook, "El cocinero mexicano" (""The Mexican Chef""), published in 1831, and in Mariano Galvan Rivera's "Diccionario de Cocina", published in 1845.


title: Enchilada

text: Mexican cooking authority Diana Kennedy cites an early reference from an American traveler from 1883 who remarked, "Enchiladas, a greasy tortilla sandwich containing chiles and a number of other uninviting looking compounds and other nasty messes, are sold everywhere, filling the air with a pungent, nauseous smell." Kennedy goes on to heartily disagree with that characterization, likely brought on by culture shock. Another early English-language mention is found in the "California Mexican-Spanish Cookbook" (1914) by Bertha Haffner Ginger.


title: Enchilada

text: In their original form as Mexican street food, enchiladas were simply corn tortillas dipped in chili sauce and eaten without fillings. There are now many varieties, which are distinguished primarily by their sauces, fillings and, in one instance, by their form. Various adjectives may be used to describe the recipe content or origin, e.g. "enchilada tapatia" would be a recipe from Jalisco.


title: Enchilada

text: Fillings include meat (e.g. beef, poultry, pork, seafood) or cheese, potatoes, vegetables, beans, tofu, and any combination thereof. Enchiladas are commonly topped or garnished with cheese, sour cream, lettuce, olives, chopped onions, chili peppers, sliced avocado, and salsa, or fresh cilantro.


title: Enchilada

text: In Costa Rica, the enchilada is a common, small, spicy pastry made with puff pastry and filled with diced potatoes spiced with a common variation of tabasco sauce or other similar sauces. Other variations include fillings made of spicy chicken or minced meat.


title: Enchilada

text: In Honduras, enchiladas look and taste very different from those in Mexico; they are not corn tortillas rolled around a filling, but instead are flat, fried, corn tortillas topped with ground beef, salad toppings (usually consisting of cabbage and tomato slices), a tomato sauce (often ketchup blended with butter and other spices such as cumin), and crumbled or shredded cheese. They look and taste much like what many people call a tostada.


title: Enchilada

text: In Nicaragua, enchiladas are different from the other ones in Central America and resemble those in Mexico; they are corn tortillas filled with a mixture of ground beef and rice with chilli, they are then folded and covered in egg batter and deep fried. It is commonly served with a cabbage and tomato salad (either pickled salad or in cream and tomato sauce). The Nicaraguan enchilada resembles the empanada of other countries.


title: Enchilada

text: In Guatemala, enchiladas look much like Honduran enchiladas but the recipe is different. This version most commonly begins with a leaf of fresh lettuce, then a layer of 'picado de carne,' which includes meat (generally ground beef, shredded chicken, or pork) and diced vegetables (carrot, potato, onion, celery, green bean, peas, red bell pepper, garlic, bay leaf, seasoned with salt and black pepper). The next layer in the recipe is the 'curtido' layer which includes more vegetables (cabbage, beets, onions, and carrots). After this is two or three pieces of sliced hard boiled egg, then thin sliced white onion, and finally a drizzle of mild red salsa. The dish is topped with either queso seco or queso fresco and garnished with cilantro.


title: You (season 2)

text: The second season of the American psychological thriller television series "You" was ordered by Lifetime on July 26, 2018. On December 3, 2018, it was announced that the network had passed on the second season and that the series would move to Netflix as a Netflix Original series. Penn Badgley and Ambyr Childers reprise their roles while new cast members include Victoria Pedretti, James Scully, Jenna Ortega, and Carmela Zumbado. The 10-episode second season is loosely based on the novel "Hidden Bodies" by Caroline Kepnes and was entirely released on Netflix on December 26, 2019.


title: You (season 2)

text: In the second season, Joe Goldberg moves from New York to Los Angeles to escape his past, and starts over with a new identity. He meets a series of people, including his neighbors Delilah and Ellie Alves, and Forty Quinn. When he meets avid chef Love Quinn, sister of Forty, Joe begins falling into his old patterns of obsession and violence. As Joe attempts to forge a new love, he strives to make his relationship with Love succeed at all costs, to avoid the fate of his past romantic endeavors.


title: You (season 2)

text: "You" was renewed for a second season in July 2018, by Lifetime. In November 2018, Gamble confirmed that like "Hidden Bodies", the sequel novel to "You", the setting of the series would move to Los Angeles for the second season. On December 3, 2018, it was confirmed that Lifetime had passed on the series and that Netflix picked up the series ahead of the release of the second season.


title: You (season 2)

text: On January 30, 2019, it was announced that Victoria Pedretti had been cast in the main role of Love Quinn on the second season. On January 31, 2019, James Scully was cast in a main role as Forty Quinn, Love's brother and Jenna Ortega was also cast in a main role as Ellie Alves.


title: You (season 2)

text: On February 1, 2019, "Deadline Hollywood" reported that Ambyr Childers had been promoted to a series regular role, ahead of the premiere of the second season. On February 6, 2019, Adwin Brown was cast in the recurring role of Calvin on the second season. On February 15, 2019, Robin Lord Taylor was cast in the recurring role of Will on the second season. On February 21, 2019, Carmela Zumbado was cast in the series regular role of Delilah Alves on the second season. On March 4, 2019, Marielle Scott had been cast in the recurring role of Lucy on the second season. On March 5, 2019, Chris D’Elia was cast in the recurring role of Henderson on the second season. On March 26, 2019, Charlie Barnett was cast in the recurring role of Gabe on the second season. On April 4, 2019, Melanie Field and Magda Apanowicz were cast in recurring roles as Sunrise and Sandy, respectively. On June 4, 2019, Danny Vasquez had been cast in a recurring role. On June 24, 2019, it was confirmed that John Stamos would reprise his role as Dr. Nicky in the second season. On October 17, 2019, Elizabeth Lail confirmed in a BUILD Series interview that she would reprise her role as Guinevere Beck in a guest appearance on the second season.


title: You (season 2)

text: Filming for the second season took place on location in Los Angeles, California from February 2019 to June 2019.


title: You (season 2)

text: The second season received positive reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the season holds a 87% approval rating with an average rating of 8.01/10 based on 45 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Penn Badgley's perversely endearing serial stalker keeps looking for love in all the wrong places during a second season that maintains the subversive tension while adding some welcome variations on the series' formula." On Metacritic, the second season has a weighted average score of 74 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: You (season 2)

text: Alicia Lutes of IGN gave the second season, a 8.7/10, stating that ""You" goes the distance in its second season, giving us plenty of reasons to hang around Joe Goldberg’s toxic Nice Guy Serial Killer Shack a little longer" and adds that the "show's twists and turns take us places both expected and unexpected, putting a larger focus on the internal struggle of Joe's obsessive personality." Robyn Bahr from "The Hollywood Reporter" mentioned in a glowing review of the second season, that ""You" remains as captivating as ever. Any other show would beg you to love its protagonist while revealing their childhood trauma. This one reminds you to keep your empathy under lock and key." Sonia Saraiya from "Vanity Fair" recommended the second season in her review by highlighting that ""You" is committed to keeping the audience guessing, and as with the first season, much of the story is a chain of wild twists". Commending the show writers' approach in the second season, she adds that ""You" exhibits no sophomore slump".


title: You (season 2)

text: Tilly Pearce from "Metro" praised the second season, stating that it is ""You" Season 2 is more than enough to quench your thirst for twisted-in-a-sexy-way killers and keep you hooked for a serious binge session. The show doesn’t exactly change the wheel when it comes to the format, but ultimately there’s enough changes that you can get over it quickly. Penn Badgley is perfect in this role, as is Victoria Pedretti, and we can’t wait to see what season three (assuming it happens) brings."


title: You (season 2)

text: Joshua Rivera of "The Verge" gave the second season a positive recommendation, writing that "At first, it seems like "You" is simply repeating itself, playing the same beats with a different woman in Joe’s sights..." but adds that due to "a combination of Badgley’s performance and the incredible savvy of every member of the crew that points a camera or light at him, you frequently suffer whiplash for liking him, as he goes from charming book nerd to sardonic lead to super creep in the same shot." Clémence Michallon of "The Independent" gave the second season a very positive review, writing: "What follows is a dark psychological thriller that manages to be in every way as enthralling as its predecessor – a rare feat in a world where too many TV shows fail to quit while they’re ahead." He said further, "Rivetingly told and well acted, "YOU" manages to make a viscerally unlikable protagonist endlessly interesting. That is no small achievement."


title: You (season 2)

text: In a positive review of the second season, Angelica Jade Bastién from "Vulture" wrote that, ""You" proves itself to be a momentous, darkly spun treat this season that doles out blissful fun while providing fascinating commentary about the nature of desire, and it continues to be a great showcase for Badgley’s wiry menace." Kimberly Ricci from "Uproxx" complimented the second season in her review, adding that it "begins as twisted comfort food for fans, but by midseason, it becomes clear that this is a whole new stalker ballgame." She concluded with a positive recommendation, noting that "the season finale dangles a promise of even more madness to come." LaToya Ferguson from "IndieWire" gave the series an A− grade, praising the second season for its "sly sense of humor" which she further adds "continues to make the series pretty funny". She ends her review in a recommendation, highlighting that the second season "proves Season 1 wasn’t lightning in a bottle".


title: You (season 2)

text: On December 5, 2019, a teaser trailer for the second season was released by Netflix. On December 16, 2019, the official trailer for the second season was released. The second season was released on December 26, 2019.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Heliocentrism (also known as the Heliocentric model) is the astronomical model in which the Earth and planets revolve around the Sun at the center of the universe. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the third century BC by Aristarchus of Samos, who had been influenced by a concept presented by Philolaus of Croton (c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers Philolaus and Hicetas had the thought on different occasions that our Earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe. In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the Hellenistic period.


title: Heliocentrism

text: It was not until the sixteenth century that a mathematical model of a heliocentric system was presented by the Renaissance mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, Nicolaus Copernicus, leading to the Copernican Revolution. In the following century, Johannes Kepler introduced elliptical orbits, and Galileo Galilei presented supporting observations made using a telescope.


title: Heliocentrism

text: With the observations of William Herschel, Friedrich Bessel, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the barycenter of the Solar System, was not at any center of the universe.


title: Heliocentrism

text: While the sphericity of the Earth was widely recognized in Greco-Roman astronomy from at least the 4th century BC, the Earth's daily rotation and yearly orbit around the Sun was never universally accepted until the Copernican Revolution.


title: Heliocentrism

text: While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in Pythagoreanism, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the geocentric model described in Ptolemy's "Almagest".


title: Heliocentrism

text: The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Ptolemy himself, in his "Almagest", says that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used.


title: Heliocentrism

text: However, he rejected the idea of a spinning Earth as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. Within his model the distances of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits' celestial spheres as contiguous realities, which gave the stars' distance as less than 20 Astronomical Units, a regression, since Aristarchus of Samos's heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier necessarily placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Problems with Ptolemy's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the Copernican heliocentrism developed in Renaissance astronomy.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The non-geocentric model of the universe was proposed by the Pythagorean philosopher Philolaus (d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the universe was a "central fire", around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth" invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans' "central fire" as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid[e] their teachings".


title: Heliocentrism

text: Heraclides of Pontus (4th century BC) said that the rotation of the Earth explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed Mercury and Venus to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth. Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius (AD 395–423) later described this as the "Egyptian System," stating that "it did not escape the skill of the Egyptians," though there is no other evidence it was known in ancient Egypt.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was Aristarchus of Samos . Like his contemporary Eratosthenes, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth and measured the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth, and thought that the larger object would have the most attractive force.


title: Heliocentrism

text: His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary, Archimedes, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes' description of Aristarchus' theory is given in the former's book, "The Sand Reckoner". The entire description comprises just three sentences, which Thomas Heath translates as follows:


title: Heliocentrism

text: Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their parallax would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful telescopes had been developed in the 1830s.


title: Heliocentrism

text: No references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the common era. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of Plutarch. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes' account—namely, that Aristarchus' theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in "On the Face in the Orb of the Moon":


title: Heliocentrism

text: Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes' writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers", Diogenes Laërtius lists "A reply to Aristarchus" (Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes' works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The remaining references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in Aëtius' "Opinions of the Philosophers", Sextus Empiricus' "Against the Mathematicians", and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius' "Opinions of the Philosophers" reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Since Plutarch mentions the "followers of Aristarchus" in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus' heliocentric model was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a Hellenistic astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the Seleucid empire. Seleucus was a proponent of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus. Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a geometric model for the heliocentric theory and developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early trigonometric methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of Hipparchus. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by Rhazes (b. 865).


title: Heliocentrism

text: Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of tides, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth and Moon's center of mass.


title: Heliocentrism

text: There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In Roman Carthage, the pagan Martianus Capella (5th century A.D.) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the Early Middle Ages by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The Tamil classical literary work "Ciṟupāṇāṟṟuppaṭai" from c. 3rd century CE by Nattattaṉār uses "the sun being orbited by planets" as an analogy for food served by a king in golden plates surrounded by sides.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The Ptolemaic system was also received in Indian astronomy. Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus "Aryabhatiya" (499), propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. His immediate commentators, such as Lalla, and other later authors, rejected his innovative view about the turning Earth. He also made many astronomical calculations, such as the times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhaskara II.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The Aitareya Brahmana (dated to 500 BCE or older) states that "The sun does never set nor rise. When people think the sun is setting (it is not so)."


title: Heliocentrism

text: For a time, Muslim astronomers accepted the Ptolemaic system and the geocentric model, which were used by to show that the distance between the Sun and the Earth varies. In the 10th century, accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis. According to later astronomer al-Biruni, al-Sijzi invented an astrolabe called "al-zūraqī" based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries that the apparent motion of the stars was due to the Earth's movement, and not that of the firmament. Islamic astronomers began to criticize the Ptolemaic model, including Ibn al-Haytham in his " 'alā Baṭalamiyūs" ("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy", c. 1028), who branded it an impossibility.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Al-Biruni discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and orbited the Sun, but in his "Masudic Canon" (1031), he expressed his faith in a geocentric and stationary Earth. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, it would be consistent with his astronomical observations, but considered it a problem of natural philosophy rather than one of mathematics.


title: Heliocentrism

text: In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers, such as Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. His system spread throughout most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The Maragha school of astronomy in Ilkhanid-era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic" planetary models involving Earth's rotation. Notable astronomers of this school are Al-Urdi (d. 1266) Al-Katibi (d. 1277), and Al-Tusi (d. 1274).


title: Heliocentrism

text: The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by Averroes and by the Maragha school explicitly address the Earth's rotation but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid-era Samarkand observatory under Qushji (1403–1474).


title: Heliocentrism

text: European scholarship in the later medieval period actively received astronomical models developed in the Islamic world and by the 13th century was well aware of the problems of the Ptolemaic model. In the 14th century, bishop Nicole Oresme discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa in his "Learned Ignorance" asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world ("machina mundi") will "quasi" have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere," recalling Hermes Trismegistus.


title: Heliocentrism

text: In India, Nilakantha Somayaji (1444–1544), in his "Aryabhatiyabhasya", a commentary on Aryabhata's "Aryabhatiya", developed a computational system for a geo-heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the system later proposed by Tycho Brahe. In the "Tantrasamgraha" (1501), Somayaji further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and Copernican models, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha's planetary system also incorporated the Earth's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics seem to have accepted his planetary model.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Some historians maintain that the thought of the Maragheh observatory, in particular the mathematical devices known as the Urdi lemma and the Tusi couple, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus by Copernicus.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. The exact replacement of the equant by two epicycles used by Copernicus in the "Commentariolus" was found in an earlier work by Ibn al-Shatir (d. c. 1375) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's.


title: Heliocentrism

text: While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the


title: Heliocentrism

text: Maragha school, postulated by Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957, remains an open question. Since the Tusi couple was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. One possible route of transmission may have been through Byzantine science, which translated some of al-Tusi's works from Arabic into Byzantine Greek. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi couple are still extant in Italy. The Mathematics Genealogy Project suggests that there is a "geneaology" of Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī → Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī → Gregory Chioniades → Manuel Bryennios → Theodore Metochites → Gregory Palamas → Nilos Kabasilas → Demetrios Kydones → Gemistos Plethon → Basilios Bessarion → Johannes Regiomontanus → Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara → Nicolaus (Mikołaj Kopernik) Copernicus. Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.") and he was a student of a student of Bessarion according to the Mathematics Genealogy Project. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "Islamic Golden Age" (10th to 12th centuries) in "De Revolutionibus": Albategnius (Al-Battani), Averroes (Ibn Rushd), Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra), Arzachel (Al-Zarqali), and Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji), but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school.


title: Heliocentrism

text: It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from Proclus's "Commentary on the First Book of Euclid", which Copernicus cited.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Another possible source for Copernicus's knowledge of this mathematical device is the "Questiones de Spera" of Nicole Oresme, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in Georg von Peuerbach's "Theoricae Novae Planetarum" (printed in 1472 by Regiomontanus). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Nicolaus Copernicus in his "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" ("On the revolution of heavenly spheres", first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his "Almagest".


title: Heliocentrism

text: Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus's system did not predict the planets' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than real: it was a parallax effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric Tychonic system; the latter, however, while eliminating the major epicycles, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a "pretzel".


title: Heliocentrism

text: Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of "De Revolutionibus" (which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by Cicero he had found an account of the theories of Hicetas and that Plutarch had provided him with an account of the Pythagoreans, Heraclides Ponticus, Philolaus, and Ecphantus. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun.


title: Heliocentrism

text: The first information about the heliocentric views of Nicolaus Copernicus was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals.


title: Heliocentrism

text: This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith. Melanchthon, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Nicolaus Copernicus published the definitive statement of his system in "De Revolutionibus" in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to Pope Paul III, the published form contained an unsigned preface by Osiander defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be heretical during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among Dominicans that the teaching of heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.


title: Heliocentrism

text: Some years after the publication of "De Revolutionibus" John Calvin preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".


title: Heliocentrism

text: Prior to the publication of "De Revolutionibus", the most widely accepted system had been proposed by Ptolemy, in which the Earth was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. Tycho Brahe, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus's heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo-heliocentric system now known as the Tychonic system in which the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth, Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun inside the Sun's orbit of the Earth, and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun outside the Sun's orbit of the Earth.