title: Heraldry

text: Supporters are human or animal figures or, very rarely, inanimate objects, usually placed on either side of a coat of arms as though supporting it. In many traditions, these have acquired strict guidelines for use by certain social classes. On the European continent, there are often fewer restrictions on the use of supporters. In the United Kingdom, only peers of the realm, a few baronets, senior members of orders of knighthood, and some corporate bodies are granted supporters. Often, these can have local significance or a historical link to the armiger.


title: Heraldry

text: If the armiger has the title of baron, hereditary knight, or higher, he may display a coronet of rank above the shield. In the United Kingdom, this is shown between the shield and helmet, though it is often above the crest in Continental heraldry.


title: Heraldry

text: Another addition that can be made to a coat of arms is the insignia of a baronet or of an order of knighthood. This is usually represented by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield. When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by an ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance.


title: Heraldry

text: Since arms pass from parents to offspring, and there is frequently more than one child per couple, it is necessary to distinguish the arms of siblings and extended family members from the original arms as passed on from eldest son to eldest son. Over time several schemes have been used.


title: Heraldry

text: To "blazon" arms means to describe them using the formal language of heraldry. This language has its own vocabulary and syntax, or rules governing word order, which becomes essential for comprehension when blazoning a complex coat of arms. The verb comes from the Middle English "blasoun", itself a derivative of the French "blason" meaning "shield". The system of blazoning arms used in English-speaking countries today was developed by heraldic officers in the Middle Ages. The blazon includes a description of the arms contained within the escutcheon or shield, the crest, supporters where present, motto and other insignia. Complex rules, such as the rule of tincture, apply to the physical and artistic form of newly created arms, and a thorough understanding of these rules is essential to the art of heraldry. Though heraldic forms initially were broadly similar across Europe, several national styles had developed by the end of the Middle Ages, and artistic and blazoning styles today range from the very simple to extraordinarily complex.


title: Heraldry

text: The emergence of heraldry occurred across western Europe almost simultaneously in the various countries. Originally, heraldic style was very similar from country to country. Over time, heraldic tradition diverged into four broad styles: German-Nordic, Gallo-British, Latin, and Eastern. In addition, it can be argued that newer national heraldic traditions, such as South African and Canadian heraldry, have emerged in the 20th century.


title: Heraldry

text: Coats of arms in Germany, the Nordic countries, Estonia, Latvia, the Czech lands and northern Switzerland generally change very little over time. Marks of difference are very rare in this tradition, as are heraldic furs. One of the most striking characteristics of German-Nordic heraldry is the treatment of the crest. Often, the same design is repeated in the shield and the crest. The use of multiple crests is also common. The crest is rarely used separately as in British heraldry, but can sometimes serve as a mark of difference between different branches of a family. Torse is optional. Heraldic courtoisie is observed: that is, charges in a composite shield (or two shields displayed together) usually turn to face the centre.


title: Heraldry

text: The Low Countries were great centres of heraldry in medieval times. One of the famous armorials is the Gelre Armorial or "Wapenboek", written between 1370 and 1414. Coats of arms in the Netherlands were not controlled by an official heraldic system like the two in the United Kingdom, nor were they used solely by noble families. Any person could develop and use a coat of arms if they wished to do so, provided they did not usurp someone else's arms, and historically, this right was enshrined in Roman Dutch law. As a result, many merchant families had coats of arms even though they were not members of the nobility. These are sometimes referred to as "burgher arms," and it is thought that most arms of this type were adopted while the Netherlands was a republic (1581–1806). This heraldic tradition was also exported to the erstwhile Dutch colonies. Dutch heraldry is characterised by its simple and rather sober style, and in this sense, is closer to its medieval origins than the elaborate styles which developed in other heraldic traditions.


title: Heraldry

text: The use of cadency marks to difference arms within the same family and the use of semy fields are distinctive features of Gallo-British heraldry (in Scotland the most significant mark of cadency being the bordure, the small brisures playing a very minor role). Marks of cadency are mandatory in Scotland, where no two persons can own identical arms at a time. It is common to see heraldic furs used. In the United Kingdom, the style is notably still controlled by royal officers of arms. French heraldry experienced a period of strict rules of construction under Napoleon. English and Scots heraldries make greater use of supporters than other European countries.


title: Heraldry

text: In Britain, a distinct category of burgher arms does not exist and heraldry is inherently associated with nobility. Armigers and their male-line legitimate descendants (i.e. those entitled to a matriculation, in Scotland with mandatory marks of cadency, rather than a grant of new arms) are considered to be, if possessing no higher dignity, members of the gentry or lower nobility. Men have the rank of Gentleman in the narrow sense of the word. Depending on interpretation, a grant of arms made by one of Britain's two heraldic officers, Garter King of Arms or Lord Lyon King of Arms, to a British subject, is either a grant or a confirmation of hereditary nobility, and recognized as such by CILANE and the Order of Malta. The majority, though not all, families of the hereditary Peerage and traditional Landed Gentry, are armigerous, non-armigerous families usually having inhreited their titles and/or estates in the female line and failed to apply for a grant of arms.


title: Heraldry

text: The heraldry of southern France, Andorra, Spain, and Italy is characterized by a lack of crests, and uniquely shaped shields. Portuguese heraldry, however, does use crests. Portuguese and Spanish heraldry, which together form a larger Iberian tradition of heraldry, occasionally introduce words to the shield of arms, a practice usually avoided in British heraldry. Latin heraldry is known for extensive use of quartering, because of armorial inheritance via the male and the female lines. Moreover, Italian heraldry is dominated by the Roman Catholic Church, featuring many shields and achievements, most bearing some reference to the Church.


title: Heraldry

text: Trees are frequent charges in Latin arms. Charged bordures, including bordures inscribed with words, are seen often in Spain.


title: Heraldry

text: Eastern European heraldry is in the traditions developed in Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine. Eastern coats of arms are characterized by a pronounced, territorial, clan system – often, entire villages or military groups were granted the same coat of arms irrespective of family relationships. In Poland, nearly six hundred unrelated families are known to bear the same Jastrzębiec coat of arms. Marks of cadency are almost unknown, and shields are generally very simple, with only one charge. Many heraldic shields derive from ancient house marks. At least fifteen per cent of all Hungarian personal arms bear a severed Turk's head, referring to their wars against the Ottoman Empire.


title: Heraldry

text: True heraldry, as now generally understood, has its roots in medieval Europe. However, there have been other historical cultures which have used symbols and emblems to represent families or individuals, and in some cases these symbols have been adopted into Western heraldry. For example, the coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire incorporated the royal tughra as part of its crest, along with such traditional Western heraldic elements as the escutcheon and the compartment.


title: Heraldry

text: Ancient Greeks were among the first civilizations to use symbols consistently in order to identify a warrior, clan or a state. The first record of a shield blazon is illustrated in Aeschylus' tragedy "Seven Against Thebes".


title: Heraldry

text: , also , , and , are Japanese emblems used to decorate and identify an individual or family. While "mon" is an encompassing term that may refer to any such device, "kamon" and "mondokoro" refer specifically to emblems used to identify a family. An authoritative "mon" reference compiles Japan's 241 general categories of "mon" based on structural resemblance (a single "mon" may belong to multiple categories), with 5116 distinct individual "mon" (it is however well acknowledged that there exist lost or obscure "mon" that are not in this compilation).


title: Heraldry

text: The devices are similar to the badges and coats of arms in European heraldic tradition, which likewise are used to identify individuals and families. "Mon" are often referred to as crests in Western literature, another European heraldic device similar to the "mon" in function.


title: Heraldry

text: Japanese helmets ("kabuto") also incorporated elements similar to crests, called "datemono", which helped identify the wearer while they were concealed by armour. These devices sometimes incorporated "mon", and some figures, like Date Masamune, were well-known for their helmet designs.


title: Heraldry

text: Communist states often followed a unique style characterized by communist symbolism. Although commonly called "coats of arms", most such devices are not actually coats of arms in the traditional heraldic sense and should therefore, in a strict sense, not be called arms at all. Many communist governments purposely diverged from the traditional forms of European heraldry in order to distance themselves from the monarchies that they usually replaced, with actual coats of arms being seen as symbols of the monarchs.


title: Heraldry

text: The Soviet Union was the first state to use this type of emblem, beginning at its creation in 1922. The style became more widespread after World War II, when many other communist states were established. Even a few non-socialist states have adopted the style, for various reasons—usually because communists had helped them to gain independence—but also when no apparent connection to a Communist nation exists, such as the emblem of Italy. After the fall of the Soviet Union and the other communist states in Eastern Europe in 1989–1991, this style of heraldry was often abandoned for the old heraldic practices, with many (but not all) of the new governments reinstating the traditional heraldry that was previously cast aside.


title: Heraldry

text: A tamga or tamgha "stamp, seal" (, Turkic: tamga) is an abstract seal or stamp used by Eurasian nomadic peoples and by cultures influenced by them. The tamga was normally the emblem of a particular tribe, clan or family. They were common among the Eurasian nomads throughout Classical Antiquity and the Middle Ages (including Alans, Mongols, Sarmatians, Scythians and Turkic peoples). Similar "tamga-like" symbols were sometimes also adopted by sedentary peoples adjacent to the Pontic-Caspian steppe both in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, such as the East Slavs, whose ancient royal symbols are sometimes referred to as "tamgas" and have similar appearance.


title: Heraldry

text: Unlike European coats of arms, tamgas were not always inherited, and could stand for families or clans (for example, when denoting territory, livestock, or religious items) as well as for specific individuals (such as when used for weapons, or for royal seals). One could also adopt the tamga of one's master or ruler, therefore signifying said master's patronage. Outside of denoting ownership, tamgas also possessed religious significance, and were used as talismans to protect one from curses (it was believed that, as symbols of family, tamgas embodied the power of one's heritage). Tamgas depicted geometric shapes, images of animals, items, or glyphs. As they were usually inscribed using heavy and unwieldy instruments, such as knives or brands, and on different surfaces (meaning that their appearance could vary somewhat), tamgas were always simple and stylised, and needed to be laconic and easily recognisable.


title: Heraldry

text: Every sultan of the Ottoman Empire had his own monogram, called the tughra, which served as a royal symbol. A coat of arms in the European heraldic sense was created in the late 19th century. Hampton Court requested from Ottoman Empire the coat of arms to be included in their collection. As the coat of arms had not been previously used in Ottoman Empire, it was designed after this request and the final design was adopted by Sultan Abdul Hamid II on April 17, 1882. It included two flags: the flag of the Ottoman Dynasty, which had a crescent and a star on red base, and the flag of the Islamic Caliph, which had three crescents on a green base.


title: Heraldry

text: Heraldry flourishes in the modern world; institutions, companies, and private persons continue using coats of arms as their pictorial identification. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the English Kings of Arms, Scotland's Lord Lyon King of Arms, and the Chief Herald of Ireland continue making grants of arms. There are heraldic authorities in Canada, South Africa, Spain, and Sweden that grant or register coats of arms. In South Africa, the right to armorial bearings is also determined by Roman Dutch law, due to its origins as a 17th-century colony of the Netherlands.


title: Heraldry

text: Heraldic societies abound in Africa, Asia, Australasia, the Americas and Europe. Heraldry aficionados participate in the Society for Creative Anachronism, medieval revivals, micronations and other related projects. Modern armigers use heraldry to express ancestral and personal heritage as well as professional, academic, civic, and national pride. Little is left of class identification in modern heraldry, where the emphasis is more than ever on expression of identity.


title: Heraldry

text: Heraldry continues to build on its rich tradition in academia, government, guilds and professional associations, religious institutions, and the military. Nations and their subdivisions – provinces, states, counties, cities, etc. – continue to build on the traditions of civic heraldry. The Roman Catholic Church, Anglican churches, and other religious institutions maintain the traditions of ecclesiastical heraldry for clergy, religious orders, and schools.


title: Heraldry

text: Many of these institutions have begun to employ blazons representing modern objects. For example, some heraldic symbols issued by the United States Army Institute of Heraldry incorporate symbols such as guns, airplanes, or locomotives. Some scientific institutions incorporate symbols of modern science such as the atom or particular scientific instruments. The arms of the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority uses traditional heraldic symbols to depict the harnessing of atomic power. Locations with strong associations to particular industries may incorporate associated symbols. The coat of arms of Stenungsund Municipality in Sweden incorporates a hydrocarbon molecule, alluding to the historical significance of the petrochemical industry in the region.


title: Heraldry

text: Heraldry in countries with heraldic authorities continues to be regulated generally by laws granting rights to arms and recognizing possession of arms as well as protecting against their misuse. Countries without heraldic authorities usually treat coats of arms as creative property in the manner of logos, offering protection under copyright laws. This is the case in Nigeria, where most of the components of its heraldic system are otherwise unregulated.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Citrus bergamia, the bergamot orange (pronounced ), is a fragrant citrus fruit the size of an orange, with a yellow or green color similar to a lime, depending on ripeness.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Genetic research into the ancestral origins of extant citrus cultivars found bergamot orange to be a probable hybrid of lemon and bitter orange. Extracts have been used as an aromatic ingredient in food, tea, snus, perfumes, and cosmetics. Use on the skin can increase photosensitivity, resulting in greater damage from sun exposure.


title: Bergamot orange

text: The word bergamot is derived from the Italian word , derived either from the Italian town of Bergamo or Turkish ("prince's pear").


title: Bergamot orange

text: "Citrus bergamia" is a small tree that blossoms during the winter. The juice tastes less sour than lemon, but more bitter than grapefruit.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Bergamot fruit or oil contains flavonoids, such as neoeriocitrin, naringin, neohesperidin, ponceritin, melitidin, mitrocin, miriflin, brutieridin, and bergamottin. Bergamot leaves contain different indole alkaloids, such as N,N,N-trimethyltryptamine.


title: Bergamot orange

text: The bergamot orange is unrelated to the herbs known as bergamot, wild bergamot, bergamot mint, or bergamint – "Monarda didyma", "Monarda fistulosa", and Eau de Cologne mint (the taxonomy of which is disputed). Those are all in the mint family, and are named for their similar aroma.


title: Bergamot orange

text: "Citrus bergamia" has also been classified as "Citrus aurantium" subsp. "bergamia" (i.e. a subspecies of bitter orange).


title: Bergamot orange

text: "Citrus bergamia" is sometimes confused with (but is not the same as): "Citrus medica" – citron, the yellow fruit of which is also known as etrog; or "Citrus limetta", the "sweet lemon" or "sweet lime".


title: Bergamot orange

text: The bergamot is a citrus fruit native to southern Italy. Production is mostly limited to the Ionian Sea coastal areas of the province of Reggio di Calabria in Italy, to such an extent that it is a symbol of the entire city. Most of the bergamot comes from a short stretch of land there, where the temperature is favourable. The fruit is also produced in Argentina, Brazil, Algeria, the Ivory Coast, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, and South-East Asia.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Citrus bergamot is commercially grown in southern Calabria (province of Reggio), southern Italy. It is also grown in southern France and the Ivory Coast for the essential oil and in Antalya in southern Turkey for its marmalade. The fruit is not generally grown for juice consumption. However, in Mauritius where it is grown on a small-scale basis, it is largely consumed as juice by the locals.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Adulteration with cheaper products such as oil of rosewood and bergamot mint has been a problem for consumers. To protect the reputation of their produce, the Italian government introduced tight controls, including testing and certificates of purity. The "Stazione Sperimentale per le Industrie delle Essenze e dei Derivati dagli Agrumi" (Experimental Station for Essential Oil and Citrus By-Products) located in Reggio di Calabria, was the quality control body for the essential oil "Bergamotto di Reggio Calabria" DOP.


title: Bergamot orange

text: During World War II, Italy was unable to export to countries such as the Allied powers. Rival products from Brazil and Mexico came on to the market as a substitute, but these were produced from other citrus fruits such as sweet lime.


title: Bergamot orange

text: An essence extracted from the aromatic skin of this sour fruit is used to flavour Earl Grey and Lady Grey teas, as well as confectionery (including Turkish delight). Bergamot is one of the most common "casings" (flavorings) added to Swedish snus, a form of smokeless tobacco product.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Bergamot oil is one of the most commonly used ingredients in perfumery. It is prized for its ability to combine with an array of scents to form a bouquet of aromas that complement each other. Bergamot is a major component of the original composed by Jean-Marie Farina at the beginning of the 18th century in Germany. The first use of bergamot oil as a fragrance ingredient was recorded in 1714, and can be found in the Farina Archive in Cologne. However, much "Bergamot oil" is today derived instead from eau de Cologne mint, also known as bergamot mint, which is a variety of water mint and is unrelated to citrus.


title: Bergamot orange

text: In several patch test studies, application of some sources of bergamot oil directly to the skin of guinea pigs was shown to have a concentration-dependent phototoxic effect of increasing redness after exposure to ultraviolet light (due to the chemical bergapten, and possibly also citropten, bergamottin, geranial, and neral). This is a property shared by many other citrus fruits and other members of Rutaceae, including rue.


title: Bergamot orange

text: Used in cosmetics and perfume products, bergamot may cause skin irritation. In the past, psoralen extracted from bergamot oil was used in tanning accelerators and sunscreens. Known to be photocarcinogenic since 1959, the substances nonetheless were used in tanning activators until 1995, contributing to many cases of melanoma and death.


title: Bergamot orange

text: As of 2017, clinical research conducted on bergamot oil has been of poor quality, with no conclusions about its possible biological effects. Consuming bergamot oil as a component of tea may cause muscle cramps. Use on the skin may be unsafe, particularly for children and pregnant women, and may cause rashes resulting from photodermatotoxicity.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction between a fuel (the reductant) and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed as smoke. Combustion does not always result in fire, because a flame is only visible when substances undergoing combustion vaporize, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic indicator of the reaction. While the activation energy must be overcome to initiate combustion (e.g., using a lit match to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion is often a complicated sequence of elementary radical reactions. Solid fuels, such as wood and coal, first undergo endothermic pyrolysis to produce gaseous fuels whose combustion then supplies the heat required to produce more of them. Combustion is often hot enough that incandescent light in the form of either glowing or a flame is produced. A simple example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen into water vapor, a reaction which is commonly used to fuel rocket engines. This reaction releases 242kJ/mol of heat and reduces the enthalpy accordingly (at constant temperature and pressure):


title: Combustion

text: Uncatalyzed combustion in air requires relatively high temperatures. Complete combustion is stoichiometric concerning the fuel, where there is no remaining fuel, and ideally, no residual oxidant. Thermodynamically, the chemical equilibrium of combustion in air is overwhelmingly on the side of the products. However, complete combustion is almost impossible to achieve, since the chemical equilibrium is not necessarily reached, or may contain unburnt products such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and even carbon (soot or ash). Thus, the produced smoke is usually toxic and contains unburned or partially oxidized products. Any combustion at high temperatures in atmospheric air, which is 78 percent nitrogen, will also create small amounts of several nitrogen oxides, commonly referred to as NOx, since the combustion of nitrogen is thermodynamically favored at high, but not low temperatures. Since burning is rarely clean, fuel gas cleaning or catalytic converters may be required by law.


title: Combustion

text: Fires occur naturally, ignited by lightning strikes or by volcanic products. Combustion (fire) was the first controlled chemical reaction discovered by humans, in the form of campfires and bonfires, and continues to be the main method to produce energy for humanity. Usually, the fuel is carbon, hydrocarbons, or more complicated mixtures such as wood that contains partially oxidized hydrocarbons. The thermal energy produced from combustion of either fossil fuels such as coal or oil, or from renewable fuels such as firewood, is harvested for diverse uses such as cooking, production of electricity or industrial or domestic heating. Combustion is also currently the only reaction used to power rockets. Combustion is also used to destroy (incinerate) waste, both nonhazardous and hazardous.


title: Combustion

text: Oxidants for combustion have high oxidation potential and include atmospheric or pure oxygen, chlorine, fluorine, chlorine trifluoride, nitrous oxide and nitric acid. For instance, hydrogen burns in chlorine to form hydrogen chloride with the liberation of heat and light characteristic of combustion. Although usually not catalyzed, combustion can be catalyzed by platinum or vanadium, as in the contact process.


title: Combustion

text: In complete combustion, the reactant burns in oxygen and produces a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will primarily yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements are burned, the products are primarily the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide, sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide, and iron will yield iron(III) oxide. Nitrogen is not considered to be a combustible substance when oxygen is the oxidant. Still, small amounts of various nitrogen oxides (commonly designated species) form when the air is the oxidative.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation, and it can be temperature-dependent. For example, sulfur trioxide is not produced quantitatively by the combustion of sulfur. species appear in significant amounts above about , and more is produced at higher temperatures. The amount of is also a function of oxygen excess.


title: Combustion

text: In most industrial applications and in fires, air is the source of oxygen (). In the air, each mole of oxygen is mixed with approximately of nitrogen. Nitrogen does not take part in combustion, but at high temperatures some nitrogen will be converted to (mostly , with much smaller amounts of ). On the other hand, when there is insufficient oxygen to combust the fuel completely, some fuel carbon is converted to carbon monoxide, and some of the hydrogens remain unreacted. A complete set of equations for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in the air, therefore, requires an additional calculation for the distribution of oxygen between the carbon and hydrogen in the fuel.


title: Combustion

text: The amount of air required for complete combustion to take place is known as pure air. However, in practice, the air used is 2-3 times that of pure air.


title: Combustion

text: Incomplete combustion will occur when there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely to produce carbon dioxide and water. It also happens when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink, such as a solid surface or flame trap. As is the case with complete combustion, water is produced by incomplete combustion; however, carbon, carbon monoxide, and hydroxide are produced instead of carbon dioxide.


title: Combustion

text: For most fuels, such as diesel oil, coal, or wood, pyrolysis occurs before combustion. In incomplete combustion, products of pyrolysis remain unburnt and contaminate the smoke with noxious particulate matter and gases. Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.


title: Combustion

text: The designs of combustion devices can improve the quality of combustion, such as burners and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by environmental legislation for cars in most countries. They may be necessary to enable large combustion devices, such as thermal power stations, to reach legal emission standards.


title: Combustion

text: The degree of combustion can be measured and analyzed with test equipment. HVAC contractors, firefighters and engineers use combustion analyzers to test the efficiency of a burner during the combustion process. Also, the efficiency of an internal combustion engine can be measured in this way, and some U.S. states and local municipalities use combustion analysis to define and rate the efficiency of vehicles on the road today.


title: Combustion

text: Carbon monoxide is one of the products from incomplete combustion. Carbon is released in the normal incomplete combustion reaction, forming soot and dust. Since carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas, complete combustion is preferable, as carbon monoxide may also lead to respiratory troubles when breathed since it takes the place of oxygen and combines with hemoglobin.


title: Combustion

text: These oxides combine with water and oxygen in the atmosphere, creating nitric acid and sulfuric acids, which return to Earth's surface as acid deposition, or "acid rain." Acid deposition harms aquatic organisms and kills trees. Due to its formation of certain nutrients that are less available to plants such as calcium and phosphorus, it reduces the productivity of the ecosystem and farms. An additional problem associated with nitrogen oxides is that they, along with hydrocarbon pollutants, contribute to the formation of ground level ozone, a major component of smog.


title: Combustion

text: Breathing carbon monoxide causes headache, dizziness, vomiting, and nausea. If carbon monoxide levels are high enough, humans become unconscious or die. Exposure to moderate and high levels of carbon monoxide over long periods is positively correlated with risk of heart disease. People who survive severe carbon monoxide poisoning may suffer long-term health problems. Carbon monoxide from air is absorbed in the lungs which then binds with hemoglobin in human's red blood cells. This would reduce the capacity of red blood cells to carry oxygen throughout the body.


title: Combustion

text: Smoldering is the slow, low-temperature, flameless form of combustion, sustained by the heat evolved when oxygen directly attacks the surface of a condensed-phase fuel. It is a typically incomplete combustion reaction. Solid materials that can sustain a smoldering reaction include coal, cellulose, wood, cotton, tobacco, peat, duff, humus, synthetic foams, charring polymers (including polyurethane foam) and dust. Common examples of smoldering phenomena are the initiation of residential fires on upholstered furniture by weak heat sources (e.g., a cigarette, a short-circuited wire) and the persistent combustion of biomass behind the flaming fronts of wildfires.


title: Combustion

text: Rapid combustion is a form of combustion, otherwise known as a fire, in which large amounts of heat and light energy are released, which often results in a flame. This is used in a form of machinery such as internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons. Such a combustion is frequently called a Rapid combustion, though for an internal combustion engine this is inaccurate. An internal combustion engine nominally operates on a controlled rapid burn. When the fuel-air mixture in an internal combustion engine explodes, that is known as detonation.


title: Combustion

text: Spontaneous combustion is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating (increase in temperature due to exothermic internal reactions), followed by thermal runaway (self-heating which rapidly accelerates to high temperatures) and finally, ignition.


title: Combustion

text: For example, phosphorus self-ignites at room temperature without the application of heat. Organic materials undergoing bacterial composting can generate enough heat to reach the point of combustion.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion resulting in a turbulent flame is the most used for industrial application (e.g. gas turbines, gasoline engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.


title: Combustion

text: The term 'micro' gravity refers to a gravitational state that is 'low' (i.e., 'micro' in the sense of 'small' and not necessarily a millionth of Earth's normal gravity) such that the influence of buoyancy on physical processes may be considered small relative to other flow processes that would be present at normal gravity. In such an environment, the thermal and flow transport dynamics can behave quite differently than in normal gravity conditions (e.g., a candle's flame takes the shape of a sphere.). Microgravity combustion research contributes to the understanding of a wide variety of aspects that are relevant to both the environment of a spacecraft (e.g., fire dynamics relevant to crew safety on the International Space Station) and terrestrial (Earth-based) conditions (e.g., droplet combustion dynamics to assist developing new fuel blends for improved combustion, materials fabrication processes, thermal management of electronic systems, multiphase flow boiling dynamics, and many others).


title: Combustion

text: Combustion processes which happen in very small volumes are considered micro-combustion. The high surface-to-volume ratio increases specific heat loss. Quenching distance plays a vital role in stabilizing the flame in such combustion chambers.


title: Combustion

text: If the stoichiometric combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen present in the air (Atmosphere of Earth) can be added to the equation (although it does not react) to show the stoichiometric composition of the fuel in air and the composition of the resultant flue gas. Note that treating all non-oxygen components in air as nitrogen gives a 'nitrogen' to oxygen ratio of 3.77, i.e. (100% - O2%) / O2% where O2% is 20.95% vol:


title: Combustion

text: Various other substances begin to appear in significant amounts in combustion products when the flame temperature is above about . When excess air is used, nitrogen may oxidize to and, to a much lesser extent, to . forms by disproportionation of , and and form by disproportionation of .


title: Combustion

text: For example, when of propane is burned with of air (120% of the stoichiometric amount), the combustion products contain 3.3% . At , the equilibrium combustion products contain 0.03% and 0.002% . At , the combustion products contain 0.17% , 0.05% , 0.01% , and 0.004% .


title: Combustion

text: Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United States and European Union enforce limits to vehicle nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of special catalytic converters or treatment of the exhaust with urea (see Diesel exhaust fluid).


title: Combustion

text: The incomplete (partial) combustion of a hydrocarbon with oxygen produces a gas mixture containing mainly , , , and . Such gas mixtures are commonly prepared for use as protective atmospheres for the heat-treatment of metals and for gas carburizing. The general reaction equation for incomplete combustion of one mole of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:


title: Combustion

text: When "z" falls below roughly 50% of the stoichiometric value, can become an important combustion product; when "z" falls below roughly 35% of the stoichiometric value, elemental carbon may become stable.


title: Combustion

text: The products of incomplete combustion can be calculated with the aid of a material balance, together with the assumption that the combustion products reach equilibrium. For example, in the combustion of one mole of propane () with four moles of , seven moles of combustion gas are formed, and "z" is 80% of the stoichiometric value. The three elemental balance equations are:


title: Combustion

text: For example, at the value of "K" is 0.728. Solving, the combustion gas consists of 42.4% , 29.0% , 14.7% , and 13.9% . Carbon becomes a stable phase at and pressure when z is less than 30% of the stoichiometric value, at which point the combustion products contain more than 98% and and about 0.5% .


title: Combustion

text: Substances or materials which undergo combustion are called fuels. The most common examples are natural gas, propane, kerosene, diesel, petrol, charcoal, coal, wood, etc.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapor that burns, not the liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature: its flash point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion of gaseous fuels may occur through one of four distinctive types of burning: diffusion flame, premixed flame, autoignitive reaction front, or as a detonation. The type of burning that actually occurs depends on the degree to which the fuel and oxidizer are mixed prior to heating: for example, a diffusion flame is formed if the fuel and oxidizer are separated initially, whereas a premixed flame is formed otherwise. Similarly, the type of burning also depends on the pressure: a detonation, for example, is an autoignitive reaction front coupled to a strong shock wave giving it its characteristic high-pressure peak and high detonation velocity.


title: Combustion

text: Efficient process heating requires recovery of the largest possible part of a fuel's heat of combustion into the material being processed. There are many avenues of loss in the operation of a heating process. Typically, the dominant loss is sensible heat leaving with the offgas (i.e., the flue gas). The temperature and quantity of offgas indicates its heat content (enthalpy), so keeping its quantity low minimizes heat loss.


title: Combustion

text: In a perfect furnace, the combustion air flow would be matched to the fuel flow to give each fuel molecule the exact amount of oxygen needed to cause complete combustion. However, in the real world, combustion does not proceed in a perfect manner. Unburned fuel (usually and ) discharged from the system represents a heating value loss (as well as a safety hazard). Since combustibles are undesirable in the offgas, while the presence of unreacted oxygen there presents minimal safety and environmental concerns, the first principle of combustion management is to provide more oxygen than is theoretically needed to ensure that all the fuel burns. For methane () combustion, for example, slightly more than two molecules of oxygen are required.


title: Combustion

text: The second principle of combustion management, however, is to not use too much oxygen. The correct amount of oxygen requires three types of measurement: first, active control of air and fuel flow; second, offgas oxygen measurement; and third, measurement of offgas combustibles. For each heating process, there exists an optimum condition of minimal offgas heat loss with acceptable levels of combustibles concentration. Minimizing excess oxygen pays an additional benefit: for a given offgas temperature, the NOx level is lowest when excess oxygen is kept lowest.


title: Combustion

text: Adherence to these two principles is furthered by making material and heat balances on the combustion process. The material balance directly relates the air/fuel ratio to the percentage of in the combustion gas. The heat balance relates the heat available for the charge to the overall net heat produced by fuel combustion. Additional material and heat balances can be made to quantify the thermal advantage from preheating the combustion air, or enriching it in oxygen.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion in oxygen is a chain reaction in which many distinct radical intermediates participate. The high energy required for initiation is explained by the unusual structure of the dioxygen molecule. The lowest-energy configuration of the dioxygen molecule is a stable, relatively unreactive diradical in a triplet spin state. Bonding can be described with three bonding electron pairs and two antibonding electrons, with spins aligned, such that the molecule has nonzero total angular momentum. Most fuels, on the other hand, are in a singlet state, with paired spins and zero total angular momentum. Interaction between the two is quantum mechanically a "forbidden transition", i.e. possible with a very low probability. To initiate combustion, energy is required to force dioxygen into a spin-paired state, or singlet oxygen. This intermediate is extremely reactive. The energy is supplied as heat, and the reaction then produces additional heat, which allows it to continue.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion of hydrocarbons is thought to be initiated by hydrogen atom abstraction (not proton abstraction) from the fuel to oxygen, to give a hydroperoxide radical (HOO). This reacts further to give hydroperoxides, which break up to give hydroxyl radicals. There are a great variety of these processes that produce fuel radicals and oxidizing radicals. Oxidizing species include singlet oxygen, hydroxyl, monatomic oxygen, and hydroperoxyl. Such intermediates are short-lived and cannot be isolated. However, non-radical intermediates are stable and are produced in incomplete combustion. An example is acetaldehyde produced in the combustion of ethanol. An intermediate in the combustion of carbon and hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, is of special importance because it is a poisonous gas, but also economically useful for the production of syngas.


title: Combustion

text: Solid and heavy liquid fuels also undergo a great number of pyrolysis reactions that give more easily oxidized, gaseous fuels. These reactions are endothermic and require constant energy input from the ongoing combustion reactions. A lack of oxygen or other improperly designed conditions result in these noxious and carcinogenic pyrolysis products being emitted as thick, black smoke.


title: Combustion

text: The rate of combustion is the amount of a material that undergoes combustion over a period of time. It can be expressed in grams per second (g/s) or kilograms per second (kg/s).


title: Combustion

text: Detailed descriptions of combustion processes, from the chemical kinetics perspective, requires the formulation of large and intricate webs of elementary reactions. For instance, combustion of hydrocarbon fuels typically involve hundreds of chemical species reacting according to thousands of reactions.


title: Combustion

text: Inclusion of such mechanisms within computational flow solvers still represents a pretty challenging task mainly in two aspects. First, the number of degrees of freedom (proportional to the number of chemical species) can be dramatically large; second, the source term due to reactions introduces a disparate number of time scales which makes the whole dynamical system stiff. As a result, the direct numerical simulation of turbulent reactive flows with heavy fuels soon becomes intractable even for modern supercomputers.


title: Combustion

text: Therefore, a plethora of methodologies has been devised for reducing the complexity of combustion mechanisms without resorting to high detail level. Examples are provided by:


title: Combustion

text: The kinetic modelling may be explored for insight into the reaction mechanisms of thermal decomposition in the combustion of different materials by using for instance Thermogravimetric analysis.


title: Combustion

text: Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the "flue gas").


title: Combustion

text: In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on all of the following:


title: Combustion

text: The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the "adiabatic flame temperature") increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios approaching one.


title: Combustion

text: Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around (for inlet air and fuel at ambient temperatures and for formula_14), around for oil and for natural gas.


title: Combustion

text: In industrial fired heaters, power station steam generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of more than the stoichiometric combustion air is "percent excess combustion air". For example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.


title: Combustion

text: Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can be as high as 180dB, and long-term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduce the life of engine components. In rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage to the combustion chamber and surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines, the droplet size and distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine engines because of emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion temperature and thus reduce the emissions; however, running the combustion lean makes it very susceptible to combustion instability.


title: Combustion

text: The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion instability and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability


title: Combustion

text: When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations, the Rayleigh Index is positive and the magnitude of the thermo acoustic instability is maximised. On the other hand, if the Rayleigh Index is negative, then thermoacoustic damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that a thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh Index.


title: Open relationship

text: An open relationship is an intimate relationship that is sexually non-monogamous. The term is distinct from polyamory, in that it generally indicates a relationship where there is a primary emotional and intimate relationship between two partners, who agree to at least the possibility of sexual or emotional intimacy with other people.


title: Open relationship

text: An "open" relationship is where one or more parties have permission to be romantically or sexually involved with people outside of the relationship. This is opposed to the traditionally "closed" relationship, where both parties agree on being with one another exclusively. The concept of an open relationship has been recognized since the 1970s.


title: Open relationship

text: To a large degree, open relationships are a generalization of the concept of a relationship beyond monogamous relationships. A form of open relationship is the open marriage, in which the participants in a marriage have an open relationship.


title: Open relationship

text: The term open relationship is sometimes used interchangeably with the closely related term polyamory, but the two concepts are not identical.


title: Open relationship

text: The main unifying element to open relationship styles is non-exclusivity of romantic or sexual relationships. Another generic term for all these types of relationships is open love.


title: Open relationship

text: Swinging is a form of open relationship in which the partners in a committed relationship engage in sexual activities with others at the same time. Swingers may regard the practice as a recreational or social activity that adds variety or excitement into their otherwise conventional sex lives or for curiosity. Swingers who engage in casual sex maintain that sex among swingers is often more frank and deliberative and therefore more honest than infidelity. Some couples see swinging as a healthy outlet and means to strengthen their relationship.


title: Open relationship

text: An open marriage, sometimes referred to as consensual non-monogamy or CNM, is a type of marriage wherein the involved parties unequivocally consent to their partners entering or engaging in romantic and/or sexual relationships with other people.


title: Open relationship

text: Polyamory is the practice, desire, or acceptance of having more than one intimate relationship at a time with the knowledge and consent of everyone involved. While "open relationship" is sometimes used as a synonym for "polyamory" or "polyamorous relationship", the terms are not synonymous. The "open" in "open relationship" refers to the sexual aspect of a relationship, whereas "polyamory" refers to allowing bonds to form (which may be sexual or otherwise) as additional long-term relationships.


title: Open relationship

text: The terms "polyamory" and "friends with benefits" are fairly recent, having come about within the past few decades though the concept is as old as society.


title: Open relationship

text: Some believe that open relationships occur more frequently in certain demographics, such as the young rather than the old in America, including, more specifically, the college-educated middle-class rather than the uneducated working-class, or people of certain ethnic and/or other racial minorities. According to the 2012 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior, 4% of respondents reported being in an open relationship. It was also found that males and LGB individuals are more likely to report being in an open relationship, with 33% of gay men, 23% of bisexual men, 5% of lesbian females, and 22% of bisexual females reporting an open relationship.


title: Open relationship

text: A 1974 study showed that male students who either cohabit or live in a communal group are more likely to become involved in open relationships than females, and are still more interested in the concept than females even if not participating in open relationships. A survey taken by gay men's "health and life magazine", "FS Magazine", of the 1,006 gay men they surveyed 41% are in, or have previously experienced, an open relationship. Of the men who are in an open relationship, 75% believe that open relationships are great.


title: Open relationship

text: Many couples within open relationships are dual-career, meaning that both primary partners have a stable job and/or a career. Both men and women in these, especially in closed groups, are also more likely to be in managerial jobs. Most also are either childfree, or post child-rearing.


title: Open relationship

text: “It has been proposed that men (both gay and straight), in contrast to women, are able to cognitively separate sex from emotions (or love) in a process commonly termed compartmentalization." This means it is not unusual for homosexual men to have open relationships, which means breaking the ‘norm’ of a committed and ‘typical’ heterosexual relationship. That is not to suggest that open relationships do not work; research has shown comparable relationship satisfaction for both monogamous and non-monogamous couples. However, it could be that there is a lack of emotional investment in the relationship that makes it harder to navigate through tough times.


title: Open relationship

text: Many couples consider open relationships, but choose not to follow through with the idea. If a person attempts to approach their committed monogamous partner about transitioning to an open relationship, the monogamous partner may convince or coerce them to either stay monogamous or pursue a new partner. There may also be concern that when beginning an open relationship, a partner may become only concerned in their personal development and pay less attention to their partner.


title: Open relationship

text: Jealousy is often present in monogamous relationships, and adding one or more partners to the relationship may cause it to increase. Results of some studies have suggested that jealousy remains a problem in open relationships because the actual involvement of a third party is seen as a trigger. In Constantine & Constantine (1971), the researchers found that 80% of participants in open marriages had experienced jealousy at one point or another.


title: Open relationship

text: Consensual nonmonogamous relationships have negative stereotypes around them, including less sexually fulfilling, more sexually risky, and less moral. These stereotypes are reinforced by mononormativity, which is simply the belief that monogamous relationships are the most natural and culturally acceptable relationship.


title: Open relationship

text: Cultural pressure may also dissuade initiating or switching to an open relationship. There is a commonly held societal stereotype that those involved in open relationships are less committed or mature than those who are in monogamous relationships. Films, media, and self-help books present the message that to desire more than one partner means not having a "true" relationship. In the post-WWII 1950s-1970s, it was traditional to "date around" (with guidelines such not going out with one particular suitor twice in a row) until ready to start "going steady" (the onset of exclusivity and sexual exploration); since then, non-exclusive dating around has lost favour and going directly to steady (now known simply as exclusive dating) has been elevated instead. Desiring an open relationship in these days often claimed to be a phase that a person is passing through before being ready to "settle down". The logistics of an open relationship may be difficult to cope with, especially if the partners reside together, split finances, own property, or parent children.


title: Open relationship

text: Any sexual contact outside of a strictly monogamous or polyfidelitous relationship increases the possibility that one member of the group will contract a sexually transmitted infection and pass it into the group.


title: Open relationship

text: Neither barrier device use (such as condoms) nor more vigilant STI testing and vaccination can fully eliminate such risk, but can reduce the statistical increase attributable to nonmonogamy. Nevertheless, using data from the 2012 National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior, Levine et al. (2018) found that individuals in open relationships reported more condom use in both vaginal and anal intercourse compared to monogamous couples.


title: Open relationship

text: The development of PrEP has led to a decrease in risk for HIV infection by as much as 92%. If both partners are on PrEP, risk of HIV infection is diminished, even if there are multiple partners.


title: Open relationship

text: One of the most significant factors that aids a relationship in being successful is that it is about making the relationship fit the needs of all parties involved. No two open relationships will be the same, and the relationship will change due to the current circumstances at each specific moment. The style of the open relationship will mirror the parties' involved values, goals, desires, needs and philosophies.


title: Open relationship

text: The most successful relationships have been those that take longer to establish. By taking the time to develop a clear idea of what both partners want out of the openness of a relationship, it allows the parties involved to self-reflect, process their emotions, deal with possible conflicts, and (for those transitioning from monogamy to nonmonogamy) find ways to cope with the change.


title: Open relationship

text: Negotiating the details of the open relationship is important throughout the communication process. Topics that are commonly found in negotiations between couples include honesty, the level of maintenance, trust, boundaries and time management.


title: Open relationship

text: Other tools that couples utilize in the negotiation process include allowing partners to veto new relationships, prior permission, and interaction between partners. This helps to reassure each partner in the relationship that their opinion is important and matters. However, although ability to veto can be a useful tool in negotiation, a successful negotiation and open relationship can still occur without it. Some reject veto power because they believe it limits their partner from experiencing a new relationship and limits their freedom.


title: Open relationship

text: Types of boundaries include physical, which is along the lines of not touching someone without permission being given; sexual boundaries; and emotional boundaries, which is avoiding the discussion of specific emotions. Boundaries help to set out rules for what is and is not acceptable to the members of the relationship. They also help people to feel safe and that they are just as important in the open relationship as their partners.


title: Open relationship

text: Some couples create a physical relationship contract. These can be useful in not only negotiating, but also clearly articulating the needs, wants, limits, expectations, and commitments that are expected of the parties involved.


title: Open relationship

text: Adequate time management can contribute to the success of an open relationship. Even though having a serious commitment with one partner is common, negotiating the time spent among all partners is still important. Although the desire to give an unlimited amount of love, energy, and emotion to others is common, the limited amount of time in a day limits the actual time spent with each partner. Some find that if they cannot evenly distribute their time, they forego a partner. Time management can also be related to equity theory, which stresses the importance of fairness in relationships.


title: Open relationship

text: Published 1974, a national study of sexuality conducted by Hunt found that relatively few people engage in swinging. Hunt attributed the low number of people in these open marriages to various social, psychological, and practical problems. Yet, some of these people "confirmed what the advocates and enthusiasts have claimed—namely, that marital swinging can provide physically intense experiences, that it can be immensely ego-gratifying and that it is a temporary release from confinement and responsibility and a brief chance to live out one's wildest fantasies" (pages 273–274).


title: Open relationship

text: Some studies show that couples in open marriages can maintain satisfying relationships. Rubin observed no differences in marital adjustment between couples in open marriages and couples in sexually monogamous marriages. Rubin and Adams reported no differences in marital satisfaction between couples in open marriages and couples in sexually monogamous relationships. Gilmartin likewise found no differences in marital satisfaction between sexually open and sexually monogamous couples. A study by Bergstrand and Willams found couples in open marriages had higher levels of satisfaction than couples in the general population.


title: Open relationship

text: Some couples in open marriages report high levels of satisfaction with their relationships. A study conducted by Wolf found that 76 percent of couples in open marriages described the quality of their relationships as "better than average" or "outstanding". Dixon found similarly high levels of marital satisfaction in a study of 100 bisexual and heterosexual husbands in open marriages. In another study, Dixon observed that 80 percent of wives in open marriages rated their marital compatibility as "excellent" or "good", and 76 percent of the wives rated their sexual satisfaction as "excellent" or "good". Buunk has also reported high levels of satisfaction in couples in open marriages.


title: Open relationship

text: Some couples feel open marriage has increased their marital satisfaction. Bergstrand and Williams collected online questionnaires from 1092 people involved in swinging style open marriages.


title: Open relationship

text: Among those people who said they were "somewhat unhappy" or "unhappy" with their marriages before swinging, around 80–90 percent said they were happier with their marriages after they started swinging. Nearly half of people who said they were "very happy" with their marriages before swinging claimed to be even happier with their marriages after swinging. Open marriage can in some cases increase marital satisfaction.


title: Open relationship

text: Couples sometimes drop out of the open marriage lifestyle and return to sexual monogamy. In a five-year study of bisexuals, 80 percent of whom initially had open relationships, Martin Weinberg, Colin J. Williams, and Douglas Pryor observed a definite shift towards sexual monogamy over time. When first interviewed, a majority of these bisexuals preferred sexual non-monogamy as their ideal form of romantic relationships. Five years later, around 60 percent had changed their views, and most of those who changed their views said sexual monogamy was their new ideal. Some of these changes were motivated by the emergence of the AIDS epidemic. Monogamy was seen as a way to avoid getting HIV/AIDS. But, for many, the shift to monogamy was due to a genuine change in what they sought in relationships. Their desire to be sexually monogamous had nothing to do with the AIDS epidemic.


title: Open relationship

text: Couples who try open marriages and decide to return to sexually monogamous marriages may be left with different feelings about open marriage. Some may have negative feelings about their open marriage experiences. Others may continue to "see nonmonogamy as possibly good for others but not for themselves". Overall, open marriage has a relatively neutral impact on these couples.


title: Open relationship

text: Couples in open marriages expose themselves to the potential for conflicts caused by jealousy. Couples in open marriages appear to experience jealousy more frequently than people in sexually monogamous marriages. Studies have shown that 80 percent or more of couples in open marriages experience jealousy over their extramarital relationships. Jealousy with its roots in open marriage can lead to serious conflicts. For example, attempting to interfere with a rival relationship may make a partner angry. Insulting or berating a partner may provoke retaliatory responses. Demanding greater commitment may ignite arguments. Indeed, many studies have reported that conflict occurs during episodes of jealousy. The conflicts caused by jealousy can seem overwhelming and damage relationships.


title: Open relationship

text: Even when jealousy is not an overwhelming problem, open marriage may cause other complications. For example, a five-year study of bisexuals observed a shift from open relationships to sexually monogamous relationships in many participants because they "felt that nonmonogamy was too time consuming, took too much energy, or was too complicated. They also thought that it got in the way of developing love, trust, and more intimate relationships with a partner". Numerous authors have argued that open marriages disrupt relationships by interfering with intimacy and provoking insecurities.


title: Open relationship

text: Some couples report that open marriage contributed to their divorces. Janus and Janus asked divorced people to list the one primary reason for their divorces. Approximately 1 percent of men and 2 percent of women listed open marriage as the primary reason for their divorce. This seems like a small percentage, but keep in mind that only 1 to 6 percent of the population have open marriages. Open marriage is perceived as a primary cause of divorce in a substantial minority of the 1 to 6 percent of people who have open marriages.


title: Open relationship

text: The extent to which open marriage actually contributes to divorce remains uncertain. Blumstein and Schwartz note a slightly higher risk of divorce among couples who engage in extramarital sex, even if the couples agree to allow extramarital sex. However, Rubin and Adams did not observe any difference in the risk of divorce for couples in open marriages and couples in sexually monogamous marriages.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Mahalakshmi (born 13 December 1952), known professionally as Lakshmi, is an Indian actress known for her works primarily in the southern film industry (distributing her acting career in almost each Dravidian language equally), along with some Hindi films. She made her film debut through a Tamil film "Sri Valli" in 1961. Her debut as an actress happened with the Tamil film "Jeevanaamsam" in 1968. In the same year, she also debuted in Kannada and Telugu films with "Goa Dalli CID 999" and "Bandhavyalu", respectively.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: In 1974, her debut Malayalam film, "Chattakari" went on to become a blockbuster throughout India. Her performance in "Mithunam" (2012) is regarded as one of the "100 Greatest Performances of the Decade" by "Film Companion." Lakshmi then went on to appear in a number of commercially successful films in various languages without a hesitation or diction. She dubs her voice for all of her movies, irrespective of the language and remains one of the very few critically acclaimed stars to achieve this stage.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: She has won one National Film Award for Best Actress, nine Filmfare Awards South, three Nandi Awards, Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress, Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actress for the movie Hoovu Hannu, the Bengal Film Journalists Association Awards and various other state awards.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Lakshmi made her Bollywood debut in 1975, with the woman-centric "Julie", the remake of Malayalam film "Chattakkari". After appearing as a lead actress for more than a decade, she switched over to character roles. She is the only actress who has won the Filmfare Awards South in all four south languages as Filmfare Award Best Actress for eight times in various Indian languages. Till now she is the only actress who has won Filmfare award for best actress in all the 5 major film industries namely Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam. Till now no South actress has won state award in all the 4 south states except Lakshmi. She is also the only Actress who has won Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala State Film Awards for best Actress and the National Award. This makes her the most versatile and popular actress across South India and also in the Hindi Belt which is now referred as Pan India, so she was one among the early pan Indian star.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Lakshmi was born and raised in Chennai, Tamil Nadu. Her mother Kumari Rukmini was a Tamil actress. Her father, Yaragudipati Varada Rao, was a Telugu producer, director, thespian, screenwriter, editor and actor known for his works predominantly in Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil cinema.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: She established herself as a successful and popular actress in South India in the 1970s, acting in all four South Indian languages: Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada. Lakshmi rose to fame with her first Malayalam movie "Chattakari" (1974), which won her the Kerala State Film Award for Best Actress. This has the distinction of being the first Malayalam film to run continuously for 40 weeks in a Bangalore theatre. "Chattakari" (1974) was remade in Hindi as "Julie" (1975) and in Telugu as "Miss Julie Prema Katha" (1975). In addition to a Filmfare Best Actress Award, she also won the Bengal Film Journalists' Association Awards for the "most outstanding work of the year", for her work in "Julie". She is known for her versatility as an actress and for the glamorous outlook she embodied. Her acting in the Telugu film "Panthulamma" is often credited as one of her best performances.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: After the success of her debut Malayalam film "Chattakari", she starred in many other films in Malayalam. She won Filmfare Awards for Best Actress for her performances in "Chalanum" and "Mohiniyaattam".


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: She has acted with almost all the leading actors and stars of South India, but it was her combination with the famous Kannada star Anant Nag in the 70s and 80s that struck a chord with the audience. Nag and Lakshmi are considered one of the all-time greatest pairs in South Indian cinema. They acted together in more than 25 films. Their pair was considered the right recipe for success. Most of the films based on TaRaSu novels were based on the life of young middle class couples.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: After her success in "Julie", however, Lakshmi didn't star in many Hindi films and instead concentrated on doing more South Indian films. She won the National Film Award for Best Actress for "Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal" (1977), becoming one of the first South Indian actresses to win that category for a Tamil film. When her career as a leading lady ended in the 1980s, she started playing supporting roles as a mother and later as grandmother. She played Aishwarya Rai's grandmother in the Tamil musical blockbuster film, "Jeans" (1998) and Kareena Kapoor's grandmother in the hit film, "Hulchul" (2004).


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Under K. Balachander's supervision, she made her directorial debut with a remake of "Yours, Mine and Ours": the Kannada film "Makkala Sainya" (1980 Tamil version "Mazhalai Pattalam").


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Lakshmi is fluent in all four South Indian languages. She took a break from acting to host two talk shows, including the Tamil talk show "Achamillai, Achamillai".She hosted a talk show in Kannada for Suvarna channel called "Idu Kathe Alla Jeevana". She also hosts a talk show in Tamil for Vijay TV called "Kadhai Alla Nijam". She has hosted a talk show in Kannada for Suvarna channel called "Neena? Naana?"


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Currently she is on the judges' panel for the Malayalam reality show "Champions" on Surya TV. She is also a judge for a Kannada reality show called "Drama Juniors" on Zee Kannada. She has overall appeared in precisely 333 films- 128 in Tamil, 76 in Telugu, 65 in Malayalam, 58 in Kannada and just 6 in Hindi.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Her first marriage was to Bhaskar in 1969, who worked with an insurance organization. The couple have only one biological daughter, actress Aishwarya, born in 1971. However, Lakshmi divorced Bhaskar in 1974.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: Her second marriage was with her co-star Mohan Sharma on the sets of "Chattakari" and married him in 1975, but it ended in divorce in 1980.


title: Lakshmi (actress)

text: While she was shooting "En Uyir Kannamma" (1988), she and actor-director M. Sivachandran fell in love and got married in 1987. The couple adopted a girl named Samyuktha in 2000.


title: Dalida

text: Iolanda Cristina Gigliotti (; 17 January 1933 – 3 May 1987), professionally known as Dalida, was an Italian-French singer and actress born in Egypt. She sang in eleven languages and sold millions of records internationally. Her best known songs are "Bambino", "Les enfants du Pirée", "Le temps des fleurs", "Darla dirladada", "J'attendrai", and "Paroles, paroles" featuring spoken word by Alain Delon.


title: Dalida

text: First an actress, she made her debut in the film "A Glass and a Cigarette" by Niazi Mustapha in 1955. One year later, having signed with the Barclay record company, Dalida achieved her first success as a singer with "Bambino". Following this, she became the most important seller of records in France between 1957 and 1961. Her music charted in many countries in Europe, Latin America, North America, and Asia. Among her greatest sales successes were "Le jour où la pluie viendra", "Gigi l'amoroso", "J'attendrai", and "Salama ya salama". She sang with singers such as Julio Iglesias, Charles Aznavour, Johnny Mathis and Petula Clark.


title: Dalida

text: Although she shot a few films alongside her career as a singer, she effectively reconnected with cinema with "The Sixth Day", a film by Youssef Chahine released in 1986. The film was successful in Egypt where three million people gathered in Shubra to see Dalida at the preview. In France, although the film was hailed by critics, it became a commercial failure.


title: Dalida

text: Dalida was deeply disturbed by the suicide of her partner Luigi Tenco in 1967. Despite this, she moved ahead with her career, forming the record label International Show with her brother Orlando, recording more music and performing at concerts and music competitions, but she continued to suffer bouts of depression. She took her own life on 3 May 1987.


title: Dalida

text: Dalida was born Iolanda Cristina Gigliotti in Cairo, Kingdom of Egypt, on 17 January 1933. Her father Pietro Gigliotti (1904–1945) and mother Filomena Giuseppina ("née" d’Alba; 1904–1971) were born in Serrastretta, Calabria in Italy. Pietro studied music in school and played violin in taverns; Giuseppina was a seamstress. By birth, Dalida automatically gained Italian nationality through "jus sanguinis" of both Italian parents.


title: Dalida

text: Unable to make a living in their hometown, the young couple moved to the Shubra district of Cairo the year they were married, where, between the births of Iolanda's older brother Orlando (1930–1992) and younger brother Bruno (1936), the Gigliotti family became well established in the community. In addition to earnings from Giuseppina's work, their social status benefited when Pietro became primo violino at Cairo's Khedivial Opera House, and the family bought a two-storey house.


title: Dalida

text: At 10 months old, Iolanda caught an eye infection and had to wear bandages for 40 days. Her father would play lullabies on the violin to soothe her. She underwent eye operations between the ages of three and five. Having to wear glasses throughout elementary school, for which she was bullied, she later recalled: "I was enough of it, I would rather see the world in a blur than wear glasses, so I threw them through the window." Iolanda attended the Scuola Tecnica Commerciale Maria Ausiliatrice, an Italian Catholic school located in northern Shubra.


title: Dalida

text: In 1940, Allied forces took her father and other Italian men from their quarter to the Fayed prison camp in the desert near Cairo. When Pietro was released in 1944, he returned home as a completely different person, so violent that Iolanda and other children in the neighbourhood were scared of him. She later recalled, "I hated him when he beat me, I hated him especially when he beat my mom and brothers. I wanted him to die, and he did." Iolanda was twelve when Pietro died of a brain abscess in 1945. That trauma influenced her search for a male partner the rest of her life.


title: Dalida

text: In her teen years, Iolanda developed an interest in acting due to her uncle's job as a projectionist for a local cinema, and often participated in school performances at the end of the semester. She graduated in 1951, and began working as a copy typist in a pharmaceutical company the same year. While required to work to financially help her family, Iolanda still had acting ambitions.


title: Dalida

text: Shortly thereafter, her best friend Miranda encouraged her to compete in Miss Ondine, a minor Cairo beauty pageant which she entered on the assurance that it was just for fun and that her mother would not find out. When Iolanda unexpectedly won second prize and Miranda won second runner-up, they were photographed and published in newspapers "Le journal d'Égypte" and "Le progrès égyptien". The next day when her mother found out, she forcibly cut Iolanda's hair short. Eventually, her mother relented and Iolanda left her job to start modelling for Donna, a Cairo-based fashion house.


title: Dalida

text: Three Egyptian film directors placed Iolanda in their productions; Marco de Gastyne cast her in "The Mask of Tutankhamun" (1954) and Niazi Mostafa cast her for a supporting role in "A Glass and a Cigarette" (1954), on which posters she appears with her newly adopted stage name Dalila because, as she explained in 1968, "it was a very frequent name in Egypt and I liked it a lot." The third offer was a longer period contract by an Egyptian film producer that she turned down after Gastyne advised her to try her luck in Paris.


title: Dalida

text: On 25 December 1954, Dalila left Egypt for Paris. Her first residence was a room in an apartment of Gastyne's friend, the impresario Vidal. She met with a number of directors, auditioned for movie roles, but failed each time. Vidal relocated her to a smaller apartment where her first neighbour was Alain Delon (then still unknown to the wider public), with whom she had a brief relationship.


title: Dalida

text: Dalila's difficulty in finding acting work throughout 1955, led her to try singing. Vidal introduced her to Roland Berger, a friend and professor who agreed to give her singing lessons seven days per week at a low price. He was strict and used to yell, with Dalila responding even more loudly. Their lessons sometimes ended with her slamming the door, but she always returned the next day. Seeing her progress, Berger arranged for her to perform in the cabaret "Le Drap d'Or" on Champs-Élysées, where she was spotted by Jacques Paoli, the director of another cabaret, "La Villa d'Este". Paoli engaged her for a series of performances that proved popular, and Dalila received her first attention of the public in France among which was Bruno Coquatrix, the director of Olympia, who invited her to perform at his singing contest "Les Numéros 1 de demain". In future years, Coquatrix said: "[H]er voice is full of colour and volume, and has all that men love: gentleness, sensuality and eroticism." Dalila was also spotted by author and screenwriter Alfred Marchand, who advised to change her name to Dalida: "Your pseudonym resembles too much the movie "Samson and Delilah" and it won't help to boost your popularity. Why don't you replace the second 'l' with a 'd', like God the father?" She immediately accepted the change.


title: Dalida

text: On 9 April 1956, Dalida participated in the singing contest "Les Numéros 1 de demain", performing "Etrangère au Paradis". Prior to the competition, Eddie Barclay, owner of the largest recording house in France, Barclay, and Lucien Morisse, artistic director of the newly established radio station Europe n°1, met in Bar Romain (now Petit Olympia) and discussed what to do that evening. Barclay wanted to watch a film, whereas Morisse wanted to attend the singing competition, which was being held at Olympia Hall, then the largest venue in Paris. They settled their disagreement by playing 421, a dice game, which Morisse won. Together with their friend Coquatrix, they were greatly impressed after Dalida won the contest, and arranged a meeting with her. That event was later perpetuated in biopics and books, and became regarded as fateful for Dalida's career. The three men went on to play a large part in launching her career.


title: Dalida

text: After the performance in Les Numéros 1 de demain, Lucien handed Dalida his card to meet in his office as soon as possible, which she accepted without hesitation. A few days later, on the second floor of the building at 26 rue François ler, she performed ""Barco Negro"", a recent hit by Amália Rodrigues, humming the a cappella verses and tapping the fingertips on a corner of Morisse's desk. Visibly satisfied, his interlocutor demanded more work on mini-flaws, for a new audition in front of Eddie Barclay in person. On 2 May 1956 in Barclay's office at 20, Rue de Madrid, Dalida signed a renewable one-year contract, with a modest percentage on record sales, with the promise of increasing it if the expected success was accomplished. While Morisse was responsible for radio promotion, Coquatrix had developed a strategy to grab the headlines. He planned to promote her through a series of concerts, including two concerts at the Olympia, two weeks in Bobino, and a tour of the provinces.


title: Dalida

text: Her first song ""Madona"" was recorded in June and was first released in August on EP with three other songs. ""Madona"" was played on 28 August 1956 on Radio Europe n°1, which was Dalida's first radio appearance. The record achieved sufficient success and was followed by second EP, Le Torrent, a month later, which received an equally encouraging welcome. Dalida continued performing live throughout the latter part of 1956, while her promoters worked on developing a song that would make her a star; Morisse asked lyricist Jacques Larue to write a French language version of ""Guaglione"", the winning song of recent fifth Festival di Napoli, which would become "Bambino".


title: Dalida

text: ""Bambino"" was released in early December only as a promo single, but quickly receiving more public interest than all of her previous recordings, Morisse started to heavily promote it and it was placed as title song to Dalida's debut album "Son nom est Dalida" that was issued by the end of same month. The album was immediately followed with a third EP titled ""Bambino"". After debuting at number seven in January 1957, "Bambino" reached number one and went on to become the biggest-selling and one of the most beloved pop standard hits of the 1950s in France, Belgium, Canada and Switzerland. As the song knocked Doris Day's ""Whatever Will Be, Will Be"" off the top of the French charts, women began to emulate Dalida's makeup, resulting in the explosion of Rimmel sales, while the men saw in her a talent, sensuality and sexiness. Coquatrix then named her "the first sex-symbol of the song". ""Bambino"" was Dalida's first number-one hit, and through 1957 it became the longest-running number-one in the world history, with a total of 39 consecutive weeks, still holding a record. It made Dalida an overnight star and gained her first gold disc, the very first time such an award had been received by a woman, on 19 September 1957 for sales of over 300,000. As the French music industry was then still in the background, ""Bambino"" was described in 2007 by Bertrand Dicale of Le Figaro as; ""a launch that announced what will happen in the coming decades ... a start of really modern times where singer is more important than song"". Promoting it in early 1957, Dalida also made her first TV appearance, and her contract was immediately extended for four years. Then she also received her first criticism from a journalist: ""On stage, Dalida appears in beauty and warmth, highlighted by a presentation of extreme sobriety.""


title: Dalida

text: On the night of 27 February 1957, Dalida held her first concert at the Olympia, as the opening act for Charles Aznavour, and was widely applauded. Then, in April, she performed in a successful two-week series of concerts at Bobino, and in the summer a fan club was established, the first such club to be devoted to a female artist. Among live performances, the prolonged success of Bambino through 1957 was followed with new recordings like "Miguel", and "Tu n'as pas très bon caractère" that eventually replaced "Bambino" as number one in France in October. Dalida came back to Olympia in September as opening act for Gilbert Bécaud, when the newly renovated Olympia appeared for first time with the red neon facade sign. The future iconic symbol of the hall, Bécaud and Dalida became the first two names to appear in it. After her second success there, Dalida released her second album "Miguel" and returned to studio in mid-October to record, what was to become one of her old standards, Histoire d'un amour. Staying in top ten for eight months, it earned Dalida her a second gold disc.


title: Dalida

text: Dalida's experimenting with exotica resulted with ""Gondolier"", released over Christmas in 1957. For the exotica song with accentuated vocals, Dalida delivered a TV appearance where, while sailing the imaginary gondola, her dress' shoulder strap fell down. The reappearances of the video in the 1970s made the moment notable, and public started considering it iconic as Dalida dared to do such thing on television during conventional times of society. Nevertheless, ""Gondolier"" debuted at number one on both French and Canadian charts where it spent four months, remained in top twenty for almost a year and became her biggest hit since ""Bambino"". Its B side "Pardon" also proved popular, reaching number one in Canada. Then Dalida also started to perform more frequently in France, Belgium and Luxembourg.


title: Dalida

text: By the end of April 1958, a radio programmer heard Dalida recording ""Dans le bleu du ciel bleu"" in Barclay's Hoche studios in Paris. Immediately asking for a copy of the tape and passing it on the antenna, the radio station was flocked with phone calls of people asking for the number of the disc and when would it be available. As the song replaced ""Gondolier"" as number one in France, Dalida scored a still-running chart record of France of five songs simultaneously in the top ten. It was followed by her receipt of RMC's singer of the year award, which she went on to win for six consecutive years. In June she embarked upon her first "TDF avec Dalida 58" tour (Tour de France with Dalida); a daily appearance in the stage city of the 1958 Tour de France, which she repeated several time in future decades. Then she also performed in Algiers during summer, supporting the morale of French soldiers fighting the Algerian War, and held a new series of galas in France and Belgium that ended regularly with two hours of autograph signing. During that summer Dalida released her third album "Gondolier", and also recorded several new songs like ""Je pars"", ""Aïe mon cœur"" and ""Les Gitans""; all sales successes each earning Dalida a gold disc. With "Je pars", Dalida started French rock 'n' roll and also paved the way for foreign rock artists to enter the market, like Paul Anka.


title: Dalida

text: In late 1958, Dalida returned to film for her first on-screen role in four years, playing supporting role of singer-spy in the mystery film "Rapt au deuxième bureau". A few months later, she appeared alongside Eddie Barclay in "Brigade des mœurs", both starring as themselves. These two B movies were also used for promotion of her three songs ""Inconnue mon amour"", ""L'amour chante"", and ""Aime-moi"", and were released in September 1958 and March 1959, respectively.


title: Dalida

text: On 9 October, she again performed at Bobino, this time for three weeks as the headline performer, where she promoted her latest releases ""Du moment qu'on s'aime"", that peaked the charts same week, and ""Come prima"". Topping charts in January 1959, where it remained during most of winter, ""Come prima"" proved to be an ultimate holiday hit of France and Belgium, as Dalida could be seen promoting it on a Christmas-themed television set. Record's B side song ""Si je pouvais revivre un jour ma vie"" also achieved success topping Canadian charts. According to her biographer Catherine Rihoit, her live television appearances "got her into the palms of society, keeping her position as a favorite singer of all age groups in the francophonie", and marked an era of late '50s television shows. On 26 December 1958 Dalida was in New York with Morisse where they met Norman Granz, the American impresario of Ella Fitzgerald, who invited her to Hollywood and offered a fifteen-year contract to launch her career in the USA. She quickly rejected the offer, saying that she wanted to focus on her musical career in France where she was already well-known with a secure fan base.


title: Dalida

text: Dalida toured extensively in 1959, playing sold-out dates in France, Egypt, Italy, and Germany. As her fame spread outside France, she started to record songs in other languages to cater for these new audiences. She understood five languages and interpreted her songs in eleven languages: German, Egyptian Arabic, English, Lebanese Arabic, Spanish, French, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese and Dutch. In February, during a TV appearance, she performed her recent version of "Hava Nagila". On 2 March, Minister of informations awarded her, alongside Yves Montand, with the Bravos du music hall, the most prestigious music award in France, for the most popular singer in France. During the summer, she covered her own recordings ""Ne joue pas"" and ""C'est ça l'amore"" in Flemish as ""Speel niet met m'n hart"" and ""Ik zing amore"", respectively, the only time in her career she sang in Flemish.


title: Dalida

text: In late summer, Dalida was back in the studio to record her first major international hit. In the period from 1958 to 1959, ""Le jour ou la pluie viendra"" was recorded in three languages, which led Dalida straight to the top three in six different European countries. The German language version ""Am Tag als der Regen kam"" topped German charts for ten weeks in September and October, earning her another gold disc. It was the best-selling record of the year in Germany, and remained one of the most successful songs in history of the country. During the closing night of the Berlin Film Festival on 28 September 1959, she was presented with a Goldener Löwe award by RTL, for the best-selling musical artist of the year in Germany, and saluted with fanfare playing ""Am Tag als der Regen kam"" verses. The song was her first international recognition, reaching a half-million accumulated copies and eventually remaining one of her biggest success in Germany.


title: Dalida

text: In the course of 1959, Dalida collected five Top 10 hits in French charts, most notably ""Ciao, ciao Bambina"" and ""Guitare et tambourin""; both earning gold discs. In Italy, RAI awarded her with Oscar di popolarità and Lupo d'oro awards for the best-selling musical artist of the year in the country. Those were her first two foreign awards that furthered her international recognition. Dalida also performed in successful sold out concerts in Berlin, Athens and Cairo, delivering a sentimental performance in front of a crowd in Rivoli cinema that she frequented as a child. On 23 September 1959, Dalida sang in a successful three-week run at Parisian Théâtre de l'Étoile, where a jukebox was installed in recognition of her being named Mademoiselle Jukebox, the most listened to artist on jukeboxes in France. By the end of the year, she released her fifth and sixth albums; "Le disque d'or de Dalida" and "Love in Portofino", and had already sold three and a half million records, highest among all European artists.


title: Dalida

text: Dalida debuted 1960 with ""T'aimer follement"", a chart topper in France and Belgium in February. Then she embarked upon her first world tour and reached top of the charts again, with ""Romantica"" in April. The third release of the year ""Les enfants du Pirée"" brought Dalida huge commercial success becoming her second big international hit after ""Am Tag als der Regen kam"". It reached top two in six European countries and Canada, topping charts in three of them. After its debut atop of French charts in June 1960, where it remained for 20 weeks, it became the first song by a French singer to sell over one million copies internationally, and the tube de l'été expression was invented after it. Dalida eventually recorded it in five different languages and made a video for TV emission "Toute la chanson". With a harbor theme, showing Dalida singing and lying on a fishing net and artificial wind blowing, it made journalist Jacques Chancel call it; "the first video in France that really made a shift from the era of outdated videos".


title: Dalida

text: The success was followed with her second win of Italian awards Oscar di Popolarità and a Lupo d'Oro for the best-selling musical artist of the year. Back in France, Dalida was not pleased with emergence of the new musical style yé-yé as the new singers would only occupy the charts and then irretrievably disappear. Also, since the appearance of new radio programs for youth like "Salut les copains", both the music hall songs and singers, like Dalida, started to be regarded completely obsolete. As Dalida realized that she had to make a drastic change to retain her image, in September she covered the US hit ""Itsi bitsi petit bikini"". Today one of her signature songs, it became the first big yé-yé hit in France and received the title of second tube de l'été, displacing ""Les enfants du Pirée"" from top of charts. Securing her position of a lead singer in France, ""Itsi bitsi petit bikini"" introduced Dalida to a whole new generation of young fans. Topping charts across Western Europe and in Canada, the record was also her second one to sell over a million and gained her thirteenth golden disc.


title: Dalida

text: Success was followed with ""Milord"", a number one in Austria, Germany and Italy, after which was named her first album issued solely for Italian public. Dalida then completed a year-long world tour, performing in countries across Europe, in Canada and several Arab states. In December, she issued EP ""Joyeux Noël"" collecting four best known holiday carols in French, and with New Year's show Réveillon de Paris breaking the record of TV audience with nearly six million spectators.


title: Dalida

text: In January 1961, Dalida covered The Drifters' ""Save the last dance for me"" as ""Garde Moi la Derniere Danse"" that reached top two. It remained her biggest French hit of the year as she busied herself with another year-long world tour which started in Teheran on 18 February, in front of Iranian royal family in their Sa'dabad Palace. With a total of almost 200 dates, the tour's last leg included Dalida's first own concert residency at Olympia, premiering on 6 December. Due to her recent love affair, divorce from Morisse and new yé-yé wave, several critics announced it as "attestment of an end and downfall of Dalida". Indisputably, Dalida "brought the house down" according to Beuve-Méry of "Le Monde", as the month long show was a sell-out success with the premiere night broadcast live by Radio Europe N°1. Among other musicians who attended, she was congratulated by Édith Piaf, who told her: "You are a winner, like me. After me, it will be you." Dalida also set the record for the biggest public attendance and the longest-running concert residency at the Olympia, with a total of 52,000 spectators in course of 30 days, that would be broken by herself in 1981. At the very end of the year, on 30 December Dalida completed her world tour in Olympia's Belgian equivalent Ancienne Belgique in Bruxelles.


title: Dalida

text: During 1961, Dalida issued a set of new Italian songs on "Canta in Italiano" EP, and also scored several top ten hits internationally such as ""Nuits d'espagne"" and ""Tu ne sais pas"". In April she made ""Pépé"" a number one hit both in Austria and Germany, and ""24 mille baisers"" separately in Austria and France. She also issued two albums "Dalida internationale" and "Loin de moi". During spring in Italy, Dalida signed with film director Giorgio Simonelli and revived her film career with the first film in which she plays the main role. Originally filmed as Italian movie "Che femmina... e che dollari!", it was revoiced and retitled for French audience as ""Parlez moi d'amour"", after one of tracking songs. The movie also features several other recordings by Dalida, including posthumously released ""Ho trovato la felicità"". Contrary to her other previous movies, "Che femmina... e che dollari!" was not a commercial failure as the moderate gross eventually surpassed the low budget. Rihoit described: "sealing her appearance of the early 60's, since it is also her first color film, all the power and acting potential that Dalida carries in herself and transmits to the screen is clearly visible".


title: Dalida

text: After a short break Dalida was back on tour, this time starting in Canada where "Tu peux le prendre" had reached number one. On 5 February, in a popular youth French TV program "Toute la Chanson", Dalida performed her latest yé-yé release ""La Leçon de Twist"". Accompanied on the piano by then leading French teen idol Johnny Hallyday, he also taught Dalida the moves for what she said: "he really showed himself, the most friendly of teachers of this new rhythm". The performance caused a sensation, boosting her track straight to top of French and Belgian charts. ""La Leçon de Twist"" was followed with another success of the same genre ""Achète-moi un Juke-box"". With lyrics; ""Oh dad, buy me a jukebox, to listen to Elvis Presley, Les Chaussettes Noires, and Johnny Halliday. -And Dalida? But what is she doing here, they still listen to her?"", Dalida joked on her own account referring to the current situation in France where the youth was fond of young singers, despite her success during yé-yé. Anyway, the record spent two weeks at number one during spring.


title: Dalida

text: From April to July Dalida toured across Italy and Vietnam. In Saigon, her popularity led to traffic congestion when she performed, but the local authorities interrupted her show during a rendition of ""La Leçon de Twist"" because the song was considered to be a political act. In May Dalida was back on top of international charts with ""Le petit Gonzales"", a cover of ""Speedy Gonzales"", which peaked in France, Belgium, Canda and Spain the following month and remained known as "one of the most memorable and nostalgic recordings of yé-yé era", as said by "Le Parisien" in 1987. The album of the same name was issued by the end of the year.