title: Josh Dun

text: Dun and Twenty One Pilots bandmate Tyler Joseph both have an "X" tattoo on their body symbolizing their dedication to their hometown fans in Columbus, Ohio. They received it onstage during their hometown show at the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion on April 26, 2013. Dun also sports the name "Tyler" above his left knee. They are both fans of the Ohio State Buckeyes.


title: Josh Dun

text: Dun dated actress and singer Debby Ryan from May 2013 to September 2014. They resumed their relationship sometime after. They were married in Austin, Texas, on December 31, 2019.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: After the anime adaptation airing in 2006, publishing company Kadokawa Shoten received offers for licensing the novels and their adaptations. The novels are licensed for English language release in the United States by Little, Brown and Company, for young readers by Yen Press and the anime adaptation was licensed for North American distribution by Kadokawa Pictures USA division which then sub-licensed production and distribution to Bandai Entertainment. The anime is currently licensed by Crunchyroll.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Kyon is a student at North High School in Nishinomiya. He is dragged along by his classmate, Haruhi Suzumiya, an eccentric schoolgirl who seeks supernatural phenomena and figures, such as aliens, time travelers, and espers. With Kyon's reluctant help, Haruhi establishes a club called the , short for (In the school's official paperwork Kyon renamed it "Support the Student Body by Overworking to Make the World a Better Place Student Service Brigade") to investigate mysterious events.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Haruhi soon recruits three additional members: the laconic bibliophile Yuki Nagato, the shy and timid Mikuru Asahina, and the unflappable transfer student Itsuki Koizumi. These members soon reveal themselves to Kyon to be the types of extraordinary characters that Haruhi seeks. They have been sent by their respective secret organizations to observe Haruhi—who is unaware that she possesses reality warping powers—and to prevent these powers from being unleashed. Each of the three believe that it would be dangerous were Haruhi to discover she had such powers. Together with Kyon, they work to keep life interesting for Haruhi and to prevent her from becoming bored enough to imagine a new world, as they and their organizations fear that this would destroy the current world.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Written by Nagaru Tanigawa and illustrated by Noizi Ito, the light novels alternate between full-length novels and collections of short stories and novellas that initially appeared in "The Sneaker", a seinen novel magazine published by the Japanese publishing company Kadokawa Shoten. Kadokawa Shoten published 11 volumes from June 6, 2003, to May 25, 2011. In an official guidebook titled "The Observation of Haruhi Suzumiya" published in June 2011, Tanigawa mentioned in an interview that he had finalized the plot for at least one more volume in the series. A short story was published in a special one-time revival issue of "The Sneaker" on October 31, 2018. A 12th novel, "The Intuition of Haruhi Suzumiya", was announced in August 2020 for release in Japan on November 25, after a 9-year break from publishing.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The novels are licensed for release in North America by Little, Brown Books for Young Readers and Yen Press. The novels will reprinted under Yen Press's Yen On imprint. They are also available in Taiwan, Hong Kong and mainland China by Kadokawa Media; in South Korea by Daiwon CI; in Spain and Argentina by Editorial Ivrea; in Italy by Edizioni BD; in Thailand by Bongkoch Books; and in Vietnam by IPM.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Kadokawa Shoten published two manga adaptations of the "Haruhi Suzumiya" light novel series in "Shōnen Ace". The first one, by Makoto Mizuno, ran from May to December 2004 issues and was partially compiled in one volume published in August 2004. It was considerably different from the light novels, having little input from the original author. The second series, illustrated by Gaku Tsugano, ran from November 2005 and to November 2013 issues, having been published in 20 volumes, with a younger target audience than the original novels. Though mostly consisting of straight adaptations of the light novels, the manga also included 13 new stories scattered throughout, each one chapter long, and most of them spinning off of one of the light novel stories. On April 17, 2008 Yen Press announced that they had acquired the license for the North American release of the first four volumes of the second manga series, promising the manga would not be censored.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: An official parody four-panel comic strip titled "The Melancholy of Suzumiya Haruhi-chan" by Puyo started serialization in "Shōnen Ace" on July 26, 2007, and in "The Sneaker" on August 30, 2007. It ended on December 26, 2018, and was compiled in twelve volumes. The first bound volume was released on May 26, 2008, and the last on May 1, 2019. Yen Press licensed the "Haruhi-chan" manga series for an English release in North America and released the first volume on October 26, 2010 and the last on May 26, 2020. Another four-panel parody manga, "Nyorōn Churuya-san" by Eretto (Utsura Uraraka), was originally a dōjinshi starring a smoked cheese-loving, super deformed version of Tsuruya, published in three volumes (released in August 2006, February 2007, and October 2007) before being serialized in the magazine "Comp Ace" between November 2008 and October 2009 issues and being released in one bound volume.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Another manga, , also by Puyo, was serialized in Kadokawa Shoten's "Young Ace" between the July 2009 and September 2016 issues and was compiled into ten tankōbon volumes. It is set in an alternate universe of the altered timeline established in the fourth light novel, "The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya", where Yuki Nagato is an accident-prone video game addict as opposed to the shy bookworm of the altered timeline and the laconic alien of the original timeline. "Yuki-chan" has also been licensed in North America by Yen Press. Another spin-off manga by Puyo, titled , launched in the May 2012 issue of Kadokawa Shoten's "Altima Ace" magazine on April 18, 2012 and the fourth and last chapter was released in the November 2012 issue on October 18, 2012, the final issue of "Altima Ace". The chapters were compiled in the ninth volume of "The Melancholy of Suzumiya Haruhi-chan".


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The anime adaptation of , produced by the Japanese animation studio Kyoto Animation and directed by Tatsuya Ishihara, contained 14 episodes which aired in Japan between April 2 and July 2, 2006. It was originally aired in a nonlinear order, with the prologue and first seven chapters of the first novel intermixed with chapters from some of the later novels. The "next episode" previews feature two different episode numberings: one number from Haruhi, who numbers the episodes in chronological order, and one number from Kyon, who numbered them in broadcast order. The DVD releases start with "Episode 00" and are then shown in chronological order.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The anime was licensed and distributed by Bandai Entertainment over four DVDs released between May and November 2007. A complete box set was released on July 29, 2008. It was broadcast in Italy on Rai 4 between October 24, 2010, and February 6, 2011. Each of the North American releases offered a limited edition collector's set featuring the English dub DVD in chronological order, a subbed-only disc containing the episodes in broadcast order, and an official CD release of the opening, ending, and insert songs appearing in the show.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The second season of the anime series was announced in a full-page advertisement of "Asahi Shimbun" on July 7, 2007, in Japan. Promotional videos included a live action sequence, inspired by the "Bamboo Leaf Rhapsody" chapter from the third novel "The Boredom of Haruhi Suzumiya", depicting Haruhi and Kyon breaking into a school shown by footage taken from surveillance cameras. On December 18, 2007, the anime's official website, haruhi.tv, was replaced by a fake 404 error with five form-input fields, a reference to the pivotal date in "The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya", the fourth volume in the light novel series.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: A re-broadcast of the first series began in April 2009. Following a comment by Teletama, one of the broadcasting stations, that the 2009 broadcast would be 28 episodes long, there was speculation that the re-broadcast would be followed by the second season, though this was not confirmed by Kadokawa at the time. The first new episode, , was aired on May 21, 2009, as the eighth episode of the re-broadcast. Unlike the original run, the re-broadcast was shown in chronological order, with new episodes intermixed with the old ones. Episodes were later shown on Kadokawa's YouTube channel after the broadcast and started showing English-subtitled episodes. The second season features the controversial "Endless Eight" story arc, in which the members of the SOS Brigade are stuck in a time loop which lasts for eight episodes, each of which is practically identical. Bandai Entertainment licensed the re-broadcast in 2010 and released a complete collection in North America on September 14, 2010. Manga Entertainment released the season in a 4-disc DVD box set, including the "Haruhi-chan" mini-episodes, in the UK on July 4, 2011. Following the 2012 closure of Bandai Entertainment, Funimation announced at Otakon 2014 that they had licensed the anime television series. Following Sony's acquisition of Crunchyroll, the series was moved to Crunchyroll.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Two spinoff original net animation series based on the parody manga by Puyo and by Eretto were announced in the October 2008 issue of the "Shōnen Ace" magazine. The two series were streamed in Japanese and with English subtitles on Kadokawa's YouTube channel between February 13 and May 15, 2009. All the voice actors of the original anime reprised their roles in both series. The first DVD of the series was released in Japan on May 29, 2009, with a release on Blu-ray Disc on August 27, 2010. The series has been licensed by Bandai Entertainment and has been dubbed by Bang Zoom! Entertainment for DVD release. The first volume was released on October 5, 2010. As with the original TV anime, the two series have been re-licensed by Funimation. An anime adaptation of "The Disappearance of Nagato Yuki-chan" by Satelight began airing in April 2015 and is licensed by Funimation, who began streaming a broadcast dub version in May 2015.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: An animated film by Kyoto Animation titled was adapted from the "Haruhi Suzumiya" light novel of the same name and released in Japanese theaters on February 6, 2010. It was announced via a teaser shown at the end of the 2009 re-airing of the anime. This film has also been licensed by Bandai Entertainment, who released it for the North American market on September 20, 2011.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: A series of radio dramas have been released. The first volume, titled "SOS Dan Radio Shibu Bangai Hen CD Vol.1", is based on the anime version of the series and was released on July 5, 2006, by Lantis. The second volume was released on September 21, 2006, while a third was released on December 21, 2006. A drama CD titled "Sound Around", based on the anime adaptation, was released on January 24, 2007, by Lantis.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Six video games have been produced based on the series. Namco Bandai Games released an adventure game, , for the PlayStation Portable (PSP) on December 20, 2007. Banpresto released another adventure game available for the PlayStation 2 on January 31, 2008, called . It was the 95th best-selling game in Japan in 2008, selling 139,425 copies.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The third game was developed by Kadokawa Shoten for the Wii, . It was released on January 22, 2009. The fourth game, published by Sega for the Wii, was . It was released on March 26, 2009, with the fifth game (), also by Sega, released for the Nintendo DS on May 28, 2009. In February 2010 Kadokawa Shoten released "The Day of Sagittarius III" in Japanese and English in Apple's App Store.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Namco Bandai Games released a video game for the PlayStation 3 (PS3) and PSP titled on May 12, 2011. The game is a sequel to "The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya", taking place shortly afterward. The PS3 and PSP versions sold a combined 33,784 copies in their first four days of sales. Characters from the "Haruhi Suzumiya" series also appear in the crossover PSP video game, "Nendoroid Generation", by Namco Bandai Games, Good Smile Company and Banpresto.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: In December 2006, Bandai Entertainment registered the website "asosbrigade.com". On December 22, 2006, the website opened with a live action presentation video resembling a fan-made production featuring Haruka Inoue and Akiyo Yamamoto in the roles of Mikuru Asahina and Yuki Nagato, with Haruhi Suzumiya being played by Patricia Ja Lee. The video (in Japanese) confirmed the specifics of the licensing arrangement. After a few days a subtitled version of the video replaced the original on the site, translating the Japanese licensing announcement into English. The website linked to a blog on the social networking website MySpace, which entered the list of the top 50 most viewed MySpace pages within 24 hours.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: On May 30, 2007, the SOS Brigade Invasion Tour was announced for Anime Expo 2007 on June 30. Aya Hirano, Yuko Goto, and Minori Chihara were part of this event "being flown in directly from Japan". Anime Expo attendees were able to participate in the ASOS Dance Contest held on Friday and the winner would have the chance to dance on stage with the guests of honor. Ever since the event was announced, advance ticket sales for pre-registered attendees have caused AX officials to cut down on the number of tickets sold due to the overwhelming number of advance tickets sold (despite the event being free of charge to attend).


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: In 2010, a new set of videos were introduced to announce the second season of English dubbed episodes. These featured Cristina Vee in the role of Haruhi, Karrie Shirou in the role of Mikuru, and Gina Lee (episode 1) / Alice in the role of Yuki.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The 2006 anime has two opening themes: , performed by Yuko Goto and used as the opening of episode one (sometimes called episode zero), and performed by Aya Hirano and used in episodes two through fourteen. The main ending theme of the series was performed by Aya Hirano, Minori Chihara and Goto which spanned the first thirteen episodes, with the fourteenth episode ending with an extended version of "It's an Adventure, Right? Right?". For the new episodes of the 2009 re-airing, the opening theme is "Super Driver" by Hirano, and the ending theme is performed by Hirano, Chihara and Goto. The single for "Super Driver" was released on July 22, 2009, while the single for "Stop!" was released on August 26, 2009. "It's an Adventure, Right? Right?" was used as the opening theme of the film "The Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya". The film's theme song is by Chihara.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: Among the insert songs used were "God Knows..." and "Lost My Music" performed by Aya Hirano in Japanese and Wendee Lee in English in episode twelve. Segments of "Symphony No. 4 in F Minor" composed by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, "Symphony No. 7 in C Major, "Leningrad"" composed by Dmitri Shostakovich, and "Daphnis et Chloé" composed by Maurice Ravel were used in episode eleven, while "Symphony No. 8 in E♭ Major, "Symphony of a Thousand"", composed by Gustav Mahler, was used in episode fourteen.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The main theme song for the spin-off ONA series, "The Melancholy of Haruhi-chan Suzumiya" is while the ending theme is , both performed by Aya Hirano, Minori Chihara, Yuko Goto, Tomokazu Sugita and Daisuke Ono. A single of the two songs was released on April 20, 2009. Three singles accompanying the other spin-off ONA series, "Nyoro-n Churuya-san", were released, featuring songs sung by Yuki Matsuoka.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The first novel of the series, "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya" was awarded the Grand Prize in the eighth annual Sneaker Awards—only the third Grand Prize given out in the Award's history. The series has become a huge success for light novels in Japan, selling over 4,300,000 copies in September 2007 and surpassed 8,000,000 copies when the tenth and eleventh volumes were released in May 2011 after the limited editions set a record 513,000 first pressing for light novels. As of 2017, 20 million copies of all versions of the light novels and manga volumes internationally are in print.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: In December 2006 "The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya" anime adaptation was the most popular anime series in Japan at that time according to "Newtype USA" magazine. The first two volumes had sold 70,000 and 90,000 units respectively as of August 2006. It was fifth in IGN's "Top Ten Anime of 2007" feature. A 2006 online poll of Japan's top 100 favorite animated television series of all time, conducted by TV Asahi, placed the series in fourth place. By the end of 2007 the seventh installment of the series sold 45,000 units. The anime adaptation won the Animation Kobe Award for TV Feature in 2006. At the Sixth Annual Tokyo Anime Awards, the series won the category "Best TV Anime Series" and Aya Hirano won the "Voice Acting Award." Its spin-offs, "The Melancholy of Haruhi-chan Suzumiya" and "Nyorōn Churuya-san", won the Network award at the 14th Animation Kobe Awards.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: At Anime Expo 2008, the series received several awards by the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation. Sugita won an award for Best Voice Actor (Japanese), Hirano for Best Voice Actress (Japanese), Kaeko Sakamoto for Best Casting Director, Shoko Ikeda for Best Character Design, Haruhi Suzumiya for Best Character Design, and "Hare Hare Yukai" for Best Original Song.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The anime series became an Internet phenomenon in Japan, Asia, and English-speaking countries. Over 2,000 clips of the series and user-created parodies and homages were posted to video sharing websites such as YouTube and Nico Nico Douga. The popularity of these clips (and those of other popular Japanese series) led the Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers (JASRAC) to request that YouTube remove clips claimed to be under the copyright of their members.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The popularity of the series made Aya Hirano one of the earliest examples of the "idol voice actor" crossover in the late 2000s. Haruhi, Yuki, and Mikuru (voiced by Aya Hirano, Minori Chihara, and Yūko Gotō), along with Japanese drama actor Toma Ikuta, made their first Japanese ad appearance in promoting Lotte Acuo Gum in March 2010.


title: Haruhi Suzumiya

text: The non-chronological broadcast order of the anime inspired a math problem: "What is the fewest number of "Haruhi" episodes that one would have to watch in order to see the original 14 episodes in every order possible?" In 2011, efforts to solve "The Haruhi Problem" on 4chan led to a proof of the lower bound for the minimal length of superpermutations, solving what had been an open math problem since 1993.


title: Roger Binny

text: Roger Michael Humphrey Binny (born 19 July 1955) is an Indian former international cricketer who is the 36th and incumbent president of Board of Control for Cricket in India. He was the president of Karnataka State Cricket Association from 2019 to 2022. Binny won the 1983 Cricket World Cup and the 1985 World Championship of Cricket, being India's highest wicket taker in both tournaments. He was also the head coach of the Indian U-19 team that won the 2000 Under-19 Cricket World Cup and has served as a national selector. He has also worked as a developmental officer in the Asian Cricket Council (ACC).


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny is the first Anglo-Indian of Scottish origin who played cricket for team India. His son, Stuart Binny, followed his footsteps, having played state cricket for Karnataka cricket team, and international cricket for the India national cricket team.


title: Roger Binny

text: Roger Binny is best known for his impressive bowling performance in the 1983 Cricket World Cup, in which he was the highest wicket-taker (18 wickets), and in the 1985 World Series Cricket Championship in Australia where he repeated this feat (17 wickets).


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny made his test cricket debut at the M. Chinnaswamy Stadium in Bangalore against Pakistan, in the first test of 1979 series. Against the bowling line-up of Imran Khan and Sarfraz Nawaz, Binny proved to be a versatile allrounder, scoring 46 runs in a drawn match. Binny would turn into a useful test match bowler, taking India to victory with his seven wickets in a match against England at Headingley in 1986, and with a spell of 4 for 9 in 30 balls, as a part of his best Test figures of 6 for 56, against Pakistan in Calcutta in 1987. His Test career was not stellar, but he and fellow Pace bowler Karsan Ghavri were helpful in getting the shine off the new ball before India's spinner could take over.


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny, Ghavri (along with wicket-keeper Syed Kirmani) and Madan Lal were also credited with saving many test matches with his aggressive rear-guard actions, helping avert innings defeats. Binny would rescue India with an unbeaten 83 in an record seventh-wicket partnership of 155 with Madan Lal against Pakistan in Bangalore in 1983. Tall and athletically built, Binny was also an excellent fielder.


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny was generally in and out of the Indian team but proved his value in the English conditions of the 1983 Cricket World Cup, where along with Madan Lal, and under the leadership of Kapil Dev, he helped India to its first World Cup title with a record 18 wickets.


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny coached the Indian U-19 team to victory at the 2000 Under-19 Cricket World Cup held in Sri Lanka in January 2000. Mohammed Kaif and Yuvraj Singh from this team would go on to have distinguished careers with the senior cricket team. He was coach of the Bengal cricket team in 2007, however they would win only won one game and finish bottom of Group B in the Ranji Trophy Super League. He worked as a pundit for NewsX, during the 2011 Cricket World Cup.


title: Roger Binny

text: Binny served in the management of the Karnataka State Cricket Association management until he was appointed national selector in September 2012. Binny would recuse himself from selection matters involving his son Stuart Binny but nonetheless resigned from his position in 2015 during the Lodha Committee inquiry because of "perception than propriety" according to Sunil Gavaskar.


title: Roger Binny

text: Bollywood Director Kabir Khan has made a sports drama film named "83" about India's first world cup win in 1983 at Lord's, in which, Nishant Dahiya plays the role of Roger Binny.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: I Am Number Four is a 2011 American teen science fiction action film directed by D. J. Caruso and starring Alex Pettyfer, Timothy Olyphant, Teresa Palmer, Dianna Agron, and Callan McAuliffe. The screenplay, by Alfred Gough, Miles Millar, and Marti Noxon, is based on the 2010 novel of the same name, one of the "Lorien Legacies" young adult science fiction novels. The film follows a teenage alien on Earth fleeing other aliens who are hunting him down.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Produced by Michael Bay, "I Am Number Four" was the first film production from DreamWorks Pictures to be released by Touchstone Pictures, as part of the studio's 2009 distribution deal with Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. "The Hollywood Reporter" estimated the budget to be between $50 million and $60 million. The film was released in both conventional and IMAX theatres on February 18, 2011, received generally negative reviews, and grossed $150 million.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: John Smith is an alien from the planet Lorien. He was sent to Earth as a child with eight others, collectively called the Garde, to escape the invading Mogadorians, who destroyed Lorien. John is protected by a guardian (who are known as Cêpan), Henri, and has developed powers, including enhanced strength, speed and agility.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The Mogadorians, led by Commander Setrakus Ra, learn about the nine children and travel to Earth. The Garde can only be killed in sequence; Number One through Number Nine. Three of them are already dead, with John being Number Four. Knowing this, he and Henri move from a beachside bungalow in Florida to an old farm in Paradise, Ohio, where John befriends conspiracy theorist Sam Goode and a Beagle which he names Bernie Kosar. He also falls for an amateur photographer, Sarah Hart. Her ex-boyfriend, football player Mark James, is a bully who torments both John and Sam.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: During the Spring Scream Festival, Mark and his friends chase Sarah and John into the woods. When they attack, John uses his powers to fend them off and rescue Sarah. Sam witnesses this, which leads John to reveal his true origins. The next day, Mark's father, the local sheriff, interrogates Henri on John's whereabouts when his son and his friends were attacked. Henri tells John that too many people are suspicious and they have to leave. John refuses because of Sarah.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The Mogadorians continue searching for John, while being trailed by Number Six, who is also trying to locate Number Four. Number Six's guardian was killed, and she realizes that the remaining six Garde will have to team up and fight against the Mogadorians.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The Mogadorians locate John and manipulate two conspiracy theorists into capturing Henri. When John and Sam go to rescue Henri, they have to fend off an attack by the Mogadorians. Henri dies, while John and Sam escape with some Lorien artefacts, including a blue rock that acts as a tracking device for other Garde. Sam's father, a conspiracy theorist who disappeared while hunting aliens in Mexico, had another of the rocks. While Sam searches for it, John tries to say goodbye to Sarah at a party, only to discover that the Mogadorians have framed him and Henri for the murders of the conspiracy theorists. Mark sees John and calls his father, who corners John and Sarah. John saves Sarah from a fall, revealing his powers, and they escape to their school.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Setrakus Ra arrives in Paradise, with a convoy of trucks. He is confronted by Mark and his father, and after injuring the sheriff, he forces Mark to show him where John is hiding, which Mark has deduced is the school.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: John, Sarah, and Sam are attacked by the Mogadorians, who brought two Piken to hunt the trio. They are saved by Number Six and Bernie, who is actually a shapeshifting Chimera sent by John's biological parents to protect him. John and Number Six, who can turn invisible and can block energy attacks, continue to fight the Mogadorians. They eventually defeat them all, including Setrakus Ra.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The following day, John and Number Six unite their blue rocks and discover the location of the other four surviving Garde. John lets Sam come with them in hopes of finding Sam's father. They set off to find the others so they can protect Earth from the Mogadorians, leaving Sarah and a repentant Mark, who lies to his father about John's whereabouts. Mark also returns a magic box left to John by his Dad, that was in police evidence. John thanks Mark and promises Sarah that he will come back to her. While they share a goodbye kiss, Mark is visibly resigned to their relationship. John, Sam, Bernie and Number Six drive off, vowing to protect Earth.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The film was produced by DreamWorks and Reliance Entertainment. Film producer and director Michael Bay brought the manuscript of the young adult novel "I Am Number Four" to Stacey Snider and Steven Spielberg at DreamWorks. A bidding war developed for the film rights between DreamWorks and J. J. Abrams, with DreamWorks winning the rights in June 2009, with the intention of having Bay produce and possibly direct the project. The rights were purchased with the hope of attracting teenage fans of "The Twilight Saga" films, and the potential of establishing a film franchise, with at least six more installments planned by the book's publisher.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Al Gough and Miles Millar, the creators of the television series "Smallville", were hired to write the screenplay in August 2009. Marti Noxon, writer and producer for the television series "Buffy the Vampire Slayer", also contributed to the screenplay. D. J. Caruso was brought on to direct in early 2010, after Bay opted to focus on directing the of the "Transformers" series. Caruso had been selected by Spielberg to direct "Disturbia" and "Eagle Eye" for DreamWorks, and had success with both films. Caruso had less than a year to prepare, shoot and edit the film, due to a worldwide release date set for Presidents Day weekend.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Chris Bender, J.C. Spink, and David Valdes executive produced the film. Steven Spielberg contributed to the film's characters, but did not take a credit on the film. It was the first DreamWorks film to be released by Disney's Touchstone Pictures label, as part of the 30-picture distribution deal between DreamWorks and Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The film was also the first release for DreamWorks after the studio's financial restructuring in 2008.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: In March 2010, Alex Pettyfer was in talks to play the title character in the film, Number Four. It was later confirmed that the 21-year-old British actor would play the lead. Sharlto Copley was going to star as Henri, Number Four's guardian and mentor, but had to drop out due to press obligations with his film "The A-Team". Copley was replaced by Timothy Olyphant. Kevin Durand plays the villain of the film, Commander, the Mogadorian who leads the hunt for the Loriens on Earth.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: DreamWorks went through multiple rounds of tests to find the right actress for the female romantic lead. Dianna Agron, a star in the Fox television series "Glee", won the role. She plays Sarah Hart, a girl who used to date a high school football player, but falls for Number Four and keeps his secret. Jake Abel plays the football player, Mark James, an antagonist in the film. Teresa Palmer plays the other Loric, Number Six, and 16-year-old Australian actor Callan McAuliffe plays Sam Goode, Number Four's best friend.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Principal photography began on May 17, 2010, using 20 locations all within the Pittsburgh metropolitan area. DreamWorks selected the area primarily due to tax incentives from the Pennsylvania Film Production Tax Credit. The film studio also had a positive experience shooting "She's Out of My League" in Pittsburgh in 2008. The production was scheduled to last 12 to 13 weeks.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Cinematographer Guillermo Navarro shot the film on 35 mm, using a format known as Super 1:85. Beaver, the former Conley Inn in Homewood, and nearby Buttermilk Falls were used as locations in the film; interior and exterior scenes were shot near a boat launch in Monaca. A spring fair scene was filmed in Deer Lakes Park in West Deer; Port Vue, North Park, New Kensington and Hyde Park were also used as locations. The setting of the film's fictional town of Paradise, Ohio is Vandergrift, Pennsylvania, where filming took place from June to July 2010. Producers chose Vandergrift as the "hero town" of the film because of its unique look and curved streets, laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York City's Central Park.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Franklin Regional High School in Murrysville was chosen over 50 other schools in the area, due to its proximity to nearby woods, a part of the film's plot, and its surrounding hills. The school was also selected for its one floor layout, wide hallways, and its football stadium in front. Teachers and recent graduates appear in the film, and a set that replicates the school was built in a studio in Monroeville for filming explosion scenes. In the last few weeks of production, scenes were filmed at the 200-year-old St. John's Lutheran Stone Church in Lancaster Township. Additional filming took place in the Florida Keys in the beginning of the film in Big Pine Key, Florida as well as the spanning of the drive over the bridge showcases the keys 7 mile bridge.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: "I Am Number Four" was edited by Jim Page, with Industrial Light & Magic developing the visual effects for the alien Pikens. The film was scored by former Yes guitarist Trevor Rabin.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: A teaser trailer for the film was released in late September 2010, and a full-length trailer premiered on December 8. Advertisements ran in "Seventeen" and "Teen Vogue" magazines, Disney released a promotional iPhone app in January 2011. Disney also developed Internet content to target a teen audience with their marketing campaign. A cast tour, in association with American retailer Hot Topic, and cast media appearances were scheduled to lead up to the release of the film.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: "I Am Number Four" premiered at the Village Theatre in Los Angeles on February 9, 2011. The film was released in theaters on February 18, 2011, and was also released in the IMAX format.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The film was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu-ray, DVD, and digital download on May 24, 2011. The release was produced in three different packages: a three-disc Blu-ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy" combo pack, a single-disc Blu-ray, and a single-disc DVD. The "Digital Copy" included with the 3-disc version is a stand-alone disc that allows users to play the film from any location via iTunes or Windows Media Player. All releases include bloopers and the ""Becoming Number 6"" featurette, while the single-disc Blu-ray and three-disc Blu-ray, DVD, and "Digital Copy" combo pack versions additionally include six deleted scenes with an introduction from the director. In its first three weeks of release, 316,081 Blu-ray units were sold in the US, bringing in $7,693,808. As of October 2, 2011, the standard DVD of 'I am Number Four' has sold 767,692 copies in the United States, generating $12,571,326, and thus bringing the total gross to $166,247,931.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 33% approval rating and an average rating of 4.70/10 based on 169 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "It's positioned as the start of a franchise, but "I Am Number Four" familiar plot and unconvincing performances add up to one noisy, derivative, and ultimately forgettable sci-fi thriller." Metacritic gives the film an average score of 36 out of 100 based on reviews from 30 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". "Empire Magazine" gave the film three out of a possible five stars and said, "If you can make it through the bland schmaltz of the first half you'll be rewarded with a spectacular blast of sustained action and the promise of even better to come. This could be the start of something great."


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: "I Am Number Four" grossed $55,100,437 at the North American box office and $90,778,000 overseas, for a worldwide total of $149,878,437. It topped the worldwide box office on its second weekend (February 25–27, 2011) with $28,086,805.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: The film opened at number two in the United States and Canada with a gross of $19,449,893. In its second weekend, it dropped 43.4%, earning $11,016,126. The only other market where it has grossed over $10 million is China. It began in third place with $3.4 million, but had an increase of 91% in its second week, topping the box office with $6.4 million. In its third week, it decreased by 21% to $5.0 million. As of March 27, 2011, it has grossed $17,328,244.


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: In 2011, screenwriter Noxon told "Collider.com" that plans for an imminent sequel were shelved due to the disappointing performance of the first installment at the box office. In 2013, director Caruso was asked if there are any possibilities that "The Power of Six" will get a movie adaption, he replied: "There's been some talk in the past couple of months about trying to do something because there is this audience appetite out there [...]. Most of the people on Twitter that contact me from all over the world ask, "Where's the next movie?" I think DreamWorks is getting those too so it'll be interesting. I don't know if I'd be involved, but I know they're talking about it."


title: I Am Number Four (film)

text: Asked about a sequel for the 10th anniversary of the film in 2021, Alex Pettyfer told "Screen Rant" that DreamWorks scrapped their whole slate of films at the time for funding reasons, suggesting that DreamWorks' blockbusters released during that period had collectively underperformed.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two main categories: reconstructive surgery and cosmetic surgery. Reconstructive surgery includes craniofacial surgery, hand surgery, microsurgery, and the treatment of burns. While reconstructive surgery aims to reconstruct a part of the body or improve its functioning, cosmetic (or aesthetic) surgery aims at improving the appearance of it.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The word "plastic" in "plastic surgery" means "reshaping" and comes from the Greek πλαστική (τέχνη), "plastikē" ("tekhnē"), "the art of modelling" of malleable flesh. This meaning in English is seen as early as 1598. The surgical definition of "plastic" first appeared in 1839, preceding the modern "engineering material made from petroleum" sense by 70 years.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Egyptian medical text called the Edwin Smith papyrus. The early trauma surgery textbook was named after the American Egyptologist, Edwin Smith.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The Romans also performed plastic cosmetic surgery, using simple techniques, such as repairing damaged ears, from around the 1st century BC. For religious reasons, they did not dissect either human beings or animals, thus, their knowledge was based in its entirety on the texts of their Greek predecessors. Notwithstanding, Aulus Cornelius Celsus left some surprisingly accurate anatomical descriptions, some of which — for instance, his studies on the genitalia and the skeleton — are of special interest to plastic surgery.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The Indian medical works of both Sushruta and Charaka, originally in Sanskrit, were translated into the Arabic language during the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 AD. The Arabic translations made their way into Europe via intermediaries. In Italy, the Branca family of Sicily and Gaspare Tagliacozzi (Bologna) became familiar with the techniques of Sushruta.


title: Plastic surgery

text: British physicians travelled to India to see rhinoplasties being performed by Indian methods. Reports on Indian rhinoplasty performed by a Kumhar vaidya were published in the "Gentleman's Magazine" by 1794. Joseph Constantine Carpue spent 20 years in India studying local plastic surgery methods. Carpue was able to perform the first major surgery in the Western world in the year 1815. Instruments described in the "Sushruta Samhita" were further modified in the Western world.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 1465, Sabuncu's book, description, and classification of hypospadias were more informative and up to date. Localization of the urethral meatus was described in detail. Sabuncuoglu also detailed the description and classification of ambiguous genitalia. In mid-15th-century Europe, Heinrich von Pfolspeundt described a process "to make a new nose for one who lacks it entirely, and the dogs have devoured it" by removing skin from the back of the arm and suturing it in place. However, because of the dangers associated with surgery in any form, especially that involving the head or face, it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries that such surgery became common.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 1814, Joseph Carpue successfully performed an operative procedure on a British military officer who had lost his nose to the toxic effects of mercury treatments. In 1818, German surgeon Carl Ferdinand von Graefe published his major work entitled "Rhinoplastik". Von Graefe modified the Italian method using a free skin graft from the arm instead of the original delayed pedicle flap.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The first American plastic surgeon was John Peter Mettauer, who, in 1827, performed the first cleft palate operation with instruments that he designed himself. In 1845, Johann Friedrich Dieffenbach wrote a comprehensive text on rhinoplasty, titled "Operative Chirurgie", and introduced the concept of reoperation to improve the cosmetic appearance of the reconstructed nose. Another case of plastic surgery for nose reconstruction from 1884 at Bellevue Hospital was described in Scientific American.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 1891, American otorhinolaryngologist John Roe presented an example of his work: a young woman on whom he reduced a dorsal nasal hump for cosmetic indications. In 1892, Robert Weir experimented unsuccessfully with xenografts (duck sternum) in the reconstruction of sunken noses. In 1896, James Israel, a urological surgeon from Germany, and in 1889 George Monks of the United States each described the successful use of heterogeneous free-bone grafting to reconstruct saddle nose defects. In 1898, Jacques Joseph, the German orthopaedic-trained surgeon, published his first account of reduction rhinoplasty. In 1928, Jacques Joseph published "Nasenplastik und Sonstige Gesichtsplastik".


title: Plastic surgery

text: It is with the development of new weapons, such as machine guns and explosive shells that the war began in the trenches, which led to an incalculable number of mutilations to the faces and the head because the trenches only made it possible to protect the body of the soldier during the World War I. The surgeons, who were not prepared for these injuries, were even less prepared for a large number of injuries and had to react quickly and intelligently to treat the greatest number.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Facial injuries were hard to treat on the front line because of the sanitary conditions many infections could occur. Sometimes, some stitches were made on a jagged wound without thinking about the amount of flesh that has been lost, so scars after were hideous and disfigured soldiers. Some injured had important injuries and the stitches were not sufficient so some became blind, or were left with gaping holes instead of their nose.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Harold Gillies, scared by the number of new facial injuries and the lack of good surgery decides to dedicate an entire hospital to the reconstruction of facial injuries as fully as possible. He took into account the psychological dimension. Harold Gillies introduce skin grafts to the treatments of soldiers, so they would be less horrified by looking themselves in the mirror.


title: Plastic surgery

text: It is the multidisciplinary approach to the treatment of facial lesions, bringing together plastic surgeons, dental surgeons, technicians, and specialized nurses, which has made it possible to develop techniques leading to the reconstruction of injured faces.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Harold Gillies identified the need to advance the specialty of maxillofacial surgery which would be directly dedicated to the management of war wounds at this time. He has developed a new technique using rotational and transposition flaps but also bone grafts from the ribs and tibia to reconstruct facial defects caused by the weapons during the war


title: Plastic surgery

text: Harold Gillies experimented with this technique so he knew that he have to start by moving back healthy tissue to its normal position and then he will be able to fill with tissue from another place on the body of the soldier. One of the most successful techniques in skin grafting had the aim of not completely severing the connection to the body. It was possible by releasing and lifting a flap of skin from the wound. The flap of skin, still connected to the donor site would then be swung over the site of the wound, this technique allows the maintenance of physical connection and ensured that blood was supplied to the skin and increase the chances of the skin graft being accepted by the body.


title: Plastic surgery

text: At this time, we assist also to improving in treating infections also meant that important injuries had become survivable mostly thanks to the new technique of Harold Gillies. Some soldiers arrived at the hospital of Harold Gillies without noses, chins, cheekbones, or even eyes. But for them, the most important trauma was psychological.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The father of modern plastic surgery is generally considered to have been Sir Harold Gillies. A New Zealand otolaryngologist working in London, he developed many of the techniques of modern facial surgery in caring for soldiers with disfiguring facial injuries during the First World War.


title: Plastic surgery

text: During World War I, he worked as a medical minder with the Royal Army Medical Corps. After working with the renowned French oral and maxillofacial surgeon Hippolyte Morestin on skin graft, he persuaded the army's chief surgeon, Arbuthnot-Lane, to establish a facial injury ward at the Cambridge Military Hospital, Aldershot, later upgraded to a new hospital for facial repairs at Sidcup in 1917. There Gillies and his colleagues developed many techniques of plastic surgery; more than 11,000 operations were performed on more than 5,000 men (mostly soldiers with facial injuries, usually from gunshot wounds). After the war, Gillies developed a private practice with Rainsford Mowlem, including many famous patients, and travelled extensively to promote his advanced techniques worldwide.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 1930, Gillies' cousin, Archibald McIndoe, joined the practice and became committed to plastic surgery. When World War II broke out, plastic surgery provision was largely divided between the different services of the armed forces, and Gillies and his team were split up. Gillies himself was sent to Rooksdown House near Basingstoke, which became the principal army plastic surgery unit; Tommy Kilner (who had worked with Gillies during the First World War, and who now has a surgical instrument named after him, the kilner cheek retractor) went to Queen Mary's Hospital, Roehampton; and Mowlem went to St Albans. McIndoe, consultant to the RAF, moved to the recently rebuilt Queen Victoria Hospital in East Grinstead, Sussex, and founded a Centre for Plastic and Jaw Surgery. There, he treated very deep burn, and serious facial disfigurement, such as loss of eyelids, typical of those caused to aircrew by burning fuel.


title: Plastic surgery

text: McIndoe is often recognized for not only developing new techniques for treating badly burned faces and hands but also for recognising the importance of the rehabilitation of the casualties and particularly of social reintegration back into normal life. He disposed of the "convalescent uniforms" and let the patients use their service uniforms instead. With the help of two friends, Neville and Elaine Blond, he also convinced the locals to support the patients and invite them to their homes. McIndoe kept referring to them as "his boys" and the staff called him "The Boss" or "The Maestro."


title: Plastic surgery

text: His other important work included development of the walking-stalk skin graft, and the discovery that immersion in saline promoted healing as well as improving survival rates for patients with extensive burns — this was a serendipitous discovery drawn from observation of differential healing rates in pilots who had come down on land and in the sea. His radical, experimental treatments led to the formation of the Guinea Pig Club at Queen Victoria Hospital, Sussex. Among the better-known members of his "club" were Richard Hillary, Bill Foxley and Jimmy Edwards.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Plastic surgery is a broad field, and may be subdivided further. In the United States, plastic surgeons are board certified by American Board of Plastic Surgery. Subdisciplines of plastic surgery may include:


title: Plastic surgery

text: Aesthetic surgery is a central component of plastic surgery and includes facial and body aesthetic surgery. Plastic surgeons use cosmetic surgical principles in all reconstructive surgical procedures as well as isolated operations to improve overall appearance.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Burn surgery generally takes place in two phases. Acute burn surgery is the treatment immediately after a burn. Reconstructive burn surgery takes place after the burn wounds have healed.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Craniofacial surgery is divided into pediatric and adult craniofacial surgery. Pediatric craniofacial surgery mostly revolves around the treatment of congenital anomalies of the craniofacial skeleton and soft tissues, such as cleft lip and palate, microtia, craniosynostosis, and pediatric fractures. Adult craniofacial surgery deals mostly with reconstructive surgeries after trauma or cancer and revision surgeries along with orthognathic surgery and facial feminization surgery. Craniofacial surgery is an important part of all plastic surgery training programs. Further training and subspecialisation is obtained via a craniofacial fellowship. Craniofacial surgery is also practiced by maxillofacial surgeons.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Ethnic plastic surgery is plastic surgery performed to change ethnic attributes, often considered used as a way of "passing".


title: Plastic surgery

text: Hand surgery is concerned with acute injuries and chronic diseases of the hand and wrist, correction of congenital malformations of the upper extremities, and peripheral nerve problems (such as brachial plexus injuries or carpal tunnel syndrome). Hand surgery is an important part of training in plastic surgery, as well as microsurgery, which is necessary to replant an amputated extremity. The hand surgery field is also practiced by orthopedic surgeons and general surgeons. Scar tissue formation after surgery can be problematic on the delicate hand, causing loss of dexterity and digit function if severe enough. There have been cases of surgery to women's hands in order to correct perceived flaws to create the perfect engagement ring photo.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Microsurgery is generally concerned with the reconstruction of missing tissues by transferring a piece of tissue to the reconstruction site and reconnecting blood vessels. Popular subspecialty areas are breast reconstruction, head and neck reconstruction, hand surgery/replantation, and brachial plexus surgery.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Children often face medical issues very different from the experiences of an adult patient. Many birth defects or syndromes present at birth are best treated in childhood, and pediatric plastic surgeons specialize in treating these conditions in children. Conditions commonly treated by pediatric plastic surgeons include craniofacial anomalies, Syndactyly (webbing of the fingers and toes), Polydactyly (excess fingers and toes at birth), cleft lip and palate, and congenital hand deformities.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Plastic surgery performed on an incarcerated population in order to affect their recidivism rate, a practice instituted in the early 20th century that lasted until the mid-1990s. Separate from surgery performed for medical need.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In plastic surgery, the transfer of skin tissue (skin grafting) is a very common procedure. Skin grafts can be derived from the recipient or donors:


title: Plastic surgery

text: Usually, good results would be expected from plastic surgery that emphasize careful planning of incisions so that they fall within the line of natural skin folds or lines, appropriate choice of wound closure, use of best available suture materials, and early removal of exposed sutures so that the wound is held closed by buried sutures.,


title: Plastic surgery

text: Reconstructive plastic surgery is performed to correct functional impairments caused by burns; traumatic injuries, such as facial bone fractures and breaks; congenital abnormalities, such as cleft palates or cleft lips; developmental abnormalities; infection and disease; and cancer or tumors. The goal of reconstructive plastic surgery is to restore both form and function.


title: Plastic surgery

text: The most common reconstructive procedures are tumor removal, laceration repair, maxillofacial surgery, scar revision, hand surgery and breast reduction plasty. According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the number of reconstructive breast reductions for women decreased in 2018 by 4 percent from the year before. Breast reduction in men decreased in 2018 by 8 percent. In 2018, there were 57,535 performed.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Some other common reconstructive surgical procedures include breast reconstruction after a mastectomy for the treatment of cancer, cleft lip and palate surgery, contracture surgery for burn survivors, and creating a new outer ear when one is congenitally absent.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Plastic surgeons use microsurgery to transfer tissue for coverage of a defect when no local tissue is available. Free flaps of skin, muscle, bone, fat, or a combination may be removed from the body, moved to another site on the body, and reconnected to a blood supply by suturing arteries and veins as small as 1 to 2 millimeters in diameter.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Cosmetic surgery is a voluntary or elective surgery that is performed on normal parts of the body with the only purpose of improving a person's appearance and/or removing signs of aging. Some cosmetic surgeries such as breast reduction are also functional and can help to relieve symptoms of discomfort such as back ache or neck ache. Cosmetic surgeries are also undertaken following breast cancer and mastectomy to recreate the natural breast shape which has been lost during the process of removing the cancer. In 2014, nearly 16 million cosmetic procedures were performed in the United States alone. The number of cosmetic procedures performed in the United States has almost doubled since the start of the century. 92% of cosmetic procedures were performed on women in 2014, up from 88% in 2001. 15.6 million cosmetic procedures were performed in 2020, with the five most common surgeries being Nose Reshaping, Eyelid surgery, Facelift, Liposuction, and breast augmentation. Breast augmentation continues to be one of the top 5 cosmetic surgical procedures and has been since 2006. Silicone implants were used in 84% and saline implants in 16% of all breast augmentations in 2020. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery looks at the statistics for 34 different cosmetic procedures. Nineteen of the procedures are surgical, such as rhinoplasty or facelift. The nonsurgical procedures include Botox and laser hair removal. In 2010, their survey revealed that there were 9,336,814 total procedures in the United States. Of those, 1,622,290 procedures were surgical (p. 5). They also found that a large majority, 81%, of the procedures were done on Caucasian people (p. 12).


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 1949, 15,000 Americans underwent cosmetic surgery procedures and by 1969 this number rose to almost half a million people. The American Society of Plastic Surgeons (ASPS) estimates that more than 333,000 cosmetic procedures were performed on patients 18 years of age or younger in the US in 2005 compared to approx. 14,000 in 1996. In 2018, more than 226,994 patients between the ages of 13 and 19 underwent plastic surgery compared to just over 218,900 patients in the same age group in 2010. Concerns about young people undergoing plastic surgery include the financial burden of additional surgical procedures needed to correct problems after the initial cosmetic surgery, long-term health complications from plastic surgery, and unaddressed mental health issues that may have led to surgery. The increased use of cosmetic procedures crosses racial and ethnic lines in the U.S., with increases seen among African-Americans, Asian Americans and Hispanic Americans as well as Caucasian Americans. In Asia, cosmetic surgery has become more popular, and countries such as China and India have become Asia's biggest cosmetic surgery markets. South Korea is also rising in popularity due to their expertise in facial bone surgeries (see cosmetic surgery in South Korea).


title: Plastic surgery

text: Plastic surgery is increasing slowly, rising 115% from 2000 to 2015. "According to the annual plastic surgery procedural statistics, there were 15.9 million surgical and minimally-invasive cosmetic procedures performed in the United States in 2015, a 2 percent increase over 2014." A study from 2021 found that requests for cosmetic procedures had increased significantly since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly due to the increase in videoconferencing; cited estimates include a 10% increase in the United States and a 20% increase in France.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In 2015, the most popular surgeries were Botox, liposuction, eyelid surgery, breast implants, nose jobs, and facelifts. According to the 2020 Plastic Surgery Statistics Report, which is published by the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the most surgical procedure performed in the U.S. was Rhinoplasty (Nose reshaping)accounting for 15.2% of all cosmetic surgical procedures that year, followed by Blepharoplasty (Eyelid surgery), which accounted for 14% of all procedures. The third most populous procedure was Rhytidectomy (Facelift) (10% of all procedures), then Liposuction (9.1% of all procedures).


title: Plastic surgery

text: All surgery has risks. Common complications of cosmetic surgery includes hematoma, nerve damage, infection, scarring, implant failure and organ damage. Breast implants can have many complications, including rupture. In a study of his 4761 augmentation mammaplasty patients, Eisenberg reported that overfilling saline breast implants 10-13% significantly reduced the rupture-deflation rate to 1.83% at 8-years post-implantation. In 2011 FDA stated that one in five patients who received implants for breast augmentation will need them removed within 10 years of implantation.


title: Plastic surgery

text: Though media and advertising do play a large role in influencing many people's lives, such as by making people believe plastic surgery to be an acceptable course to change our identities to our liking, researchers believe that plastic surgery obsession is linked to psychological disorders like body dysmorphic disorder. There exists a correlation between those with BDD and the predilection toward cosmetic plastic surgery in order to correct a perceived defect in their appearance.


title: Plastic surgery

text: BDD is a disorder resulting in the individual becoming "preoccupied with what they regard as defects in their bodies or faces." Alternatively, where there is a slight physical anomaly, then the person's concern is markedly excessive. While 2% of people have body dysmorphic disorder in the United States, 15% of patients seeing a dermatologist and cosmetic surgeons have the disorder. Half of the patients with the disorder who have cosmetic surgery performed are not pleased with the aesthetic outcome. BDD can lead to suicide in some people with the condition. While many with BDD seek cosmetic surgery, the procedures do not treat BDD, and can ultimately worsen the problem. The psychological root of the problem is usually unidentified; therefore causing the treatment to be even more difficult. Some say that the fixation or obsession with correction of the area could be a sub-disorder such as anorexia or muscle dysmorphia. The increased use of body and facial reshaping applications such as Snapchat and Facetune have been identified as a potential triggers of BDD. Recently, a phenomenon referred to as 'Snapchat dysmorphia' has appeared to describe people who request surgery to resemble the edited version of themselves as they appear through Snapchat Filters. As a protest to the detrimental trend, Instagram banned all augmented reality (AR) filters that depict or promote cosmetic surgery.


title: Plastic surgery

text: In some cases, people whose physicians refuse to perform any further surgeries, have turned to "do it yourself" plastic surgery, injecting themselves and running extreme safety risks.


title: Plastic surgery

text: With the growing popularity of plastic surgery, has also come a wide-spread increase in minimally invasive alternatives involving intradermal and intramusclular injectables, including various neurotoxins such as Botox, Dysport, Xeomin, and Jeuveau, amongst others, alongside hyaluronic acid based dermal fillers.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Grizzly Man (2005) is an American documentary film by German director Werner Herzog. It chronicles the life and death of bear enthusiast Timothy Treadwell and the death of his girlfriend Amie Huguenard at Katmai National Park, Alaska. The film includes some of Treadwell's own footage of his interactions with brown bears before 2003, and of interviews with people who knew or were involved with Treadwell, in addition to those of professionals who deal with wild bears.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Treadwell and his girlfriend, Amie Huguenard were both from New York. He had been studying bears for several summers at the park. They were attacked and killed by a bear there on October 5, 2003. Treadwell's footage was found after his death. The couple's remains were discovered by a pilot.


title: Grizzly Man

text: The bear that killed Treadwell and Huguenard was later encountered and killed by the group who retrieved the pair’s partially consumed remains. An audio recording of the attack was captured by Treadwell's camera, but has never been released. The final film was co-produced by Discovery Docs, the Discovery Channel's theatrical documentary unit, and Lions Gate Entertainment. The film's soundtrack is by British singer-songwriter and guitarist Richard Thompson.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Herzog used sequences extracted from more than 100 hours of video footage shot by Treadwell during the last five years of his life. He also conducted and filmed interviews with Treadwell's family and friends, and bear and nature experts. Park rangers and bear experts commented on statements and actions by Treadwell, such as his repeated claims that he was defending the bears from poachers. Park rangers noted that there had never been a recorded incident of poaching at Katmai National Park.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Treadwell also claimed that he had "gained the trust" of certain bears, sufficient to approach and pet them. Park rangers pointed out that bears are wild and potentially dangerous animals; given that, Treadwell was lucky to have survived as long as he had without being mauled. One park ranger suggested that the bears were so confused by Treadwell's direct, casual contact that they were not sure how to react to him. Other park rangers note that the bears were not threatened by poachers, but that Treadwell's actions put them at real risk of harm and death. By familiarizing them with human contact, he increased the likelihood that they would approach human habitation seeking food, and cause a confrontation in which humans would kill them.


title: Grizzly Man

text: In 2003, Treadwell was camping in Katmai National Park with his girlfriend, Amie Huguenard. Treadwell usually left the park at the end of summer but that year stayed into early October. This put him and Huguenard at greater risk, as in this period, bears are aggressive about searching for food to store up calories for hibernation during the winter. Herzog speculates that their staying later in the season ultimately resulted in the couple's being attacked and killed.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Willy Fulton was the pilot who discovered the few remains of the couple and reported to the National Park Service. He notes that he saw a lone man's arm with a wristwatch, and could not keep the image out of his mind. After an investigation, the coroner and park police gave the wristwatch to Jewel Palovak, an ex-girlfriend of Treadwell. He had bequeathed her his belongings. These included his video camera, which captured an audio record of the attack.


title: Grizzly Man

text: In addition to presenting views from friends and professionals, Herzog narrates and offers his own interpretation of events. He concluded that Treadwell had a sentimental view of nature, thinking he could tame the wild bears. Herzog notes that nature is cold and harsh; Treadwell's view clouded his thinking and led him to underestimate danger, resulting in his death and that of Huguenard.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Palovak gave permission to Herzog to listen to the audio record of the attack. He refrained from making this a part of the film, but was filmed while listening, and showed how this distressed him. Herzog initially advised Palovak to destroy the audio recording rather than listen to it or keep it.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Stupid ... silly advice born out of the immediate shock of hearing—I mean, it's the most terrifying thing I've ever heard in my life. Being shocked like that, I told her, 'You should never listen to it, and you should rather destroy it. It should not be sitting on your shelf in your living room all the time.' [But] she slept over it and decided to do something much wiser. She did not destroy it but separated herself from the tape, and she put it in a bank vault.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Treadwell spent thirteen summers in Katmai National Park and Preserve, Alaska. Over time, he believed the bears grew to trust him; they allowed him to approach them and he had touched them. He gained some national notoriety for his work with the bears and founded Grizzly People with his friend Jewel Palovak. They worked to protect bears in national parks by raising awareness.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Park officials repeatedly warned him that his interaction with the bears was unsafe to both him and to the bears. "At best, he's misguided," Deb Liggett, superintendent at Katmai and Lake Clark national parks, told the "Anchorage Daily News" in 2001. "At worst, he's dangerous. If Timothy models unsafe behavior, that ultimately puts bears and other visitors at risk."


title: Grizzly Man

text: Treadwell filmed his exploits, and used the films to raise public awareness of the problems faced by bears in North America. In October 2003, at the end of his thirteenth visit, he and his girlfriend Amie Huguenard were attacked, killed, and partially eaten by a bear. The events that led to the attack are unknown.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Producer Erik Nelson had begun work on developing a narrative television special based on Treadwell's life and career. However, during a chance encounter with German director Werner Herzog at the Jackson Hole Wildlife Festival, Nelson was persuaded to turn the project into a feature-length documentary and to give Herzog directing duties. With the project being developed as a documentary, they contacted Jewel Palovak in order to use Treadwell's archival footage.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Palovak, co-founder of Grizzly People and a close friend of Treadwell's, had to give her approval for the film to be produced, as she controlled his video archives. The filmmakers had to deal with logistical as well as sentimental factors related to Treadwell's footage of his bear interactions. Grizzly People is a "grassroots organization" concerned with the treatment of bears in the United States. After her friend's death, Palovak was left with control of Grizzly People and Treadwell's 100 hours of archival footage. As his close friend, former girlfriend, and confidante, she had a large emotional stake in the production. She had known Treadwell since 1985 and felt a deep sense of responsibility to her late friend and his legacy.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Palovak said that Treadwell had often discussed his video archives with her. "Timothy was very dramatic," she once said. She quoted Treadwell as saying, "'If I die, if something happens to me, make that movie. You make it. You show 'em.' I thought that Werner Herzog could definitely do that."


title: Grizzly Man

text: "Grizzly Man" premiered at the 2005 Sundance Film Festival and its limited US theatrical release began on August 12, 2005. It was later released on DVD in the United States on December 26, 2005. The Discovery Channel aired "Grizzly Man" on television on February 3, 2006; its three-hour presentation of the film included a 30-minute companion special that delved deeper into Treadwell's relationship with the bears and addressed controversies related to the film.


title: Grizzly Man

text: The DVD release lacks an interview with Treadwell by David Letterman, which was shown in the original theatrical release. Letterman had joked that Treadwell would be eaten by a bear. The versions televised on the Discovery Channel and Animal Planet both retain this scene.


title: Grizzly Man

text: "Grizzly Man" opened on August 12, 2005 in 29 North America venues. It grossed US$269,131 ($9,280 per screen) in its opening weekend, ranking number 26 in the box office. At its widest point, it played at 105 theaters, and made US$3,178,403 in North America during its run, with $882,902 overseas for a worldwide total of $4,061,305.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Upon its North American theatrical release, "Grizzly Man" was acclaimed by critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 92% "Certified Fresh" score based on 136 reviews, with an average rating of 8/10. The site's consensus states: "Whatever opinion you come to have of the obsessive Treadwell, Herzog has once again found a fascinating subject." Metacritic reports an 87 out of 100 rating based on 35 critics, indicating "universal acclaim".


title: Grizzly Man

text: Narrating in his extraordinary German-accented English, Herzog is fair-minded and properly respectful of Treadwell's manic self-invention. He even praises Treadwell as a good filmmaker: as Treadwell stands talking in the foreground of the frame, the bears play behind him or scoop up salmon in sparkling water; in other shots, a couple of foxes leap across the grass in the middle of a Treadwell monologue. The footage is full of stunning incidental beauties.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Film critic Roger Ebert, a longtime supporter of Herzog's work, awarded the film four out of four stars.


title: Grizzly Man

text: 'I will protect these bears with my last breath', Treadwell says. After he and Amie become the first and only people to be killed by bears in the park, the bear that is guilty is shot dead. Treadwell's watch, still ticking, is found on his severed arm. I have a certain admiration for his courage, recklessness, idealism, whatever you want to call it, but here is a man who managed to get himself and his girlfriend eaten, and you know what? He deserves Werner Herzog.


title: Grizzly Man

text: Charlie Russell, a naturalist who studied bears for many years, lived near them and raised them for a decade in Kamchatka, corresponded with Treadwell and wrote about the film:


title: Grizzly Man

text: Herzog is a skillful filmmaker so a large percentage of those who watch the movie "Grizzly Man", overlook Timothy's amazing way with animals even though to me this stands out very strongly. The fact that Timothy spent an incredible 35,000 hours, spanning 13 years, living with the bears in Katmai National Park, without any previous mishap, escapes people completely. Even with his city-kid background, I found myself mesmerized by what he could do with animals.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Athenian democracy developed around the 6th century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica. Although Athens is the most famous ancient Greek democratic city-state, it was not the only one, nor was it the first; multiple other city-states adopted similar democratic constitutions before Athens. By the late 4th century BC as many as half of the over one thousand existing Greek city-states might have been democracies.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Athens practiced a political system of legislation and executive bills. Participation was open to adult, male citizens (i.e., not a foreign resident, regardless of how many generations of the family had lived in the city, nor a slave, nor a woman), who "were probably no more than 30 percent of the total adult population".


title: Athenian democracy

text: Solon (in 594 BC), Cleisthenes (in 508–07 BC), and Ephialtes (in 462 BC) contributed to the development of Athenian democracy. Cleisthenes broke up the unlimited power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived, rather than on their wealth. The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles. After his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides; the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification, rather than the Periclean system. Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but how close they were to a real democracy is debatable.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The word in "democracy" (Greek: , ) combines the elements (, traditionally interpreted "people") and (, which means "force" or "power"), and thus means literally "people power". In the words "monarchy" and "oligarchy", the second element comes from (), meaning "beginning (that which comes first)", and hence also "first place or power", "sovereignty". One might expect, by analogy, that the term "demarchy" would have been adopted for the new form of government introduced by Athenian democrats. However, the word "demarchy" () had already been taken and meant "mayoralty", the office or rank of a high municipal magistrate. (In present-day use, the term "demarchy" has acquired a new meaning.)


title: Athenian democracy

text: It is unknown whether the word "democracy" was in existence when systems that came to be called democratic were first instituted. The first conceptual articulation of the term is generally accepted to be c. 470 BC with Aeschylus' "The Suppliants" (l. 604) with the line sung by the Chorus: (). This approximately translates as the "people's hand of power", and in the context of the play it acts as a counterpoint to the inclination of the votes cast by the people, i.e. that authority as implemented by the people in the Assembly has power. The word is then completely attested in the works of Herodotus ("Histories" 6.43.3) in both a verbal passive and nominal sense with the terms () and (). Herodotus wrote some of the earliest surviving Greek prose, but this might not have been before 440 or 430 BC. Around 460 BC an individual is known with the name of Democrates, a name possibly coined as a gesture of democratic loyalty; the name can also be found in Aeolian Temnus.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Athens was never the only polis in Ancient Greece that instituted a democratic regime. Aristotle points to other cities that adopted governments in the democratic style. However, accounts of the rise of democratic institutions are in reference to Athens, since only this city-state had sufficient historical records to speculate on the rise and nature of Greek democracy.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Before the first attempt at democratic government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons or chief magistrates, and the Areopagus, made up of ex-archons. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats. In 621 BC, Draco replaced the prevailing system of oral law by a written code to be enforced only by a court of law. While the laws, later come to be known as the Draconian Constitution, were largely harsh and restrictive, with nearly all of them later being repealed, the written legal code was one of the first of its kind and considered to be one of the earliest developments of Athenian democracy. In 594 BC, Solon was appointed premier archon and began issuing economic and constitutional reforms in an attempt to alleviate some of the conflict that was beginning to arise from the inequities that permeated throughout Athenian society. His reforms ultimately redefined citizenship in a way that gave each free resident of Attica a political function: Athenian citizens had the right to participate in assembly meetings. Solon sought to break away at the strong influence noble families had on the government by broadening the government's structure to include a wider range of property classes rather than just the aristocracy. His constitutional reforms included establishing four property classes: the "pentakosiomedimnoi", the "hippeis", the "zeugitai", and the "thetes". The classifications were based on how many "medimnoi" a man's estate made per year with the "pentakosiomedimnoi" making at least 500 medimnoi, the "hippeis" making 300-500 medimnoi, the "zeugitai" making 200-300 medimnoi, and the "thetes" making under 200 medimnoi. By granting the formerly aristocratic role to every free citizen of Athens who owned property, Solon reshaped the social framework of the city-state. Under these reforms, the "boule" (a council of 400 members, with 100 citizens from each of Athens's four tribes) ran daily affairs and set the political agenda. The Areopagus, which formerly took on this role, remained but thereafter carried on the role of "guardianship of the laws". Another major contribution to democracy was Solon's setting up of an "Ecclesia" or Assembly, which was open to all the male citizens. Solon also made significant economic reforms including cancelling existing debts, freeing debtors, and no longer allowing borrowing on the security of one's own person as a means of restructuring enslavement and debt in Athenian society.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In 561 BC, the nascent democracy was overthrown by the tyrant Peisistratos but was reinstated after the expulsion of his son, Hippias, in 510. Cleisthenes issued reforms in 508 and 507 BC that undermined the domination of the aristocratic families and connected every Athenian to the city's rule. Cleisthenes formally identified free inhabitants of Attica as citizens of Athens, which gave them power and a role in a sense of civic solidarity. He did this by making the traditional tribes politically irrelevant and instituting ten new tribes, each made up of about three "trittyes" (geographical divisions), each consisting of several "demes" (further subdivisions). Every male citizen over 18 had to be registered in his deme.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The third set of reforms was instigated by Ephialtes in 462/1. While Ephialtes's opponents were away attempting to assist the Spartans, he persuaded the Assembly to reduce the powers of the Areopagus to a criminal court for cases of homicide and sacrilege. At the same time or soon afterward, the membership of the Areopagus was extended to the lower level of the propertied citizenship.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In the wake of Athens's disastrous defeat in the Sicilian campaign in 413 BC, a group of citizens took steps to limit the radical democracy they thought was leading the city to ruin. Their efforts, initially conducted through constitutional channels, culminated in the establishment of an oligarchy, the Council of 400, in the Athenian coup of 411 BC. The oligarchy endured for only four months before it was replaced by a more democratic government. Democratic regimes governed until Athens surrendered to Sparta in 404 BC, when the government was placed in the hands of the so-called Thirty Tyrants, who were pro-Spartan oligarchs. After a year, pro-democracy elements regained control, and democratic forms persisted until the Macedonian army of Phillip II conquered Athens in 338 BC.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Philip II had led a coalition of the Greek states to war with Persia in 336 BC, but his Greek soldiers were hostages for the behavior of their states as much as allies. Alexander The Great's relations with Athens later strained when he returned to Babylon in 324 BC; after his death, Athens and Sparta led several states to war with Macedonia and lost.


title: Athenian democracy

text: This led to the Hellenistic control of Athens, with the Macedonian king appointing a local agent as political governor in Athens. However, the governors, like Demetrius of Phalerum, appointed by Cassander, kept some of the traditional institutions in formal existence, although the Athenian public would consider them to be nothing more than Macedonian puppet dictators. Once Demetrius Poliorcetes ended Cassander's rule over Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum went into exile and the democracy was restored in 307 BC. However, by now Athens had become "politically impotent". An example of this was that, in 307, in order to curry favour with Macedonia and Egypt, three new tribes were created, two in honour of the Macedonian king and his son, and the other in honour of the Egyptian king.


title: Athenian democracy

text: However, when Rome fought Macedonia in 200, the Athenians abolished the first two new tribes and created a twelfth tribe in honour of the Pergamene king. The Athenians declared for Rome, and in 146 BC Athens became an autonomous "civitas foederata", able to manage internal affairs. This allowed Athens to practice the forms of democracy, though Rome ensured that the constitution strengthened the city's aristocracy.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Under Roman rule, the archons ranked as the highest officials. They were elected, and even foreigners such as Domitian and Hadrian held the office as a mark of honour. Four presided over the judicial administration. The council (whose numbers varied at different times from 300 to 750) was appointed by lot. It was superseded in importance by the Areopagus, which, recruited from the elected archons, had an aristocratic character and was entrusted with wide powers. From the time of Hadrian, an imperial curator superintended the finances. The shadow of the old constitution lingered on and Archons and Areopagus survived the fall of the Roman Empire.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In 88 BC, there was a revolution under the philosopher Athenion, who, as tyrant, forced the Assembly to agree to elect whomever he might ask to office. Athenion allied with Mithridates of Pontus and went to war with Rome; he was killed during the war and was replaced by Aristion. The victorious Roman general, Publius Cornelius Sulla, left the Athenians their lives and did not sell them into slavery; he also restored the previous government, in 86 BC.


title: Athenian democracy

text: After Rome became an Empire under Augustus, the nominal independence of Athens dissolved and its government converged to the normal type for a Roman municipality, with a Senate of "decuriones".


title: Athenian democracy

text: Estimates of the population of ancient Athens vary. During the 4th century BC, there might well have been some 250,000–300,000 people in Attica. Citizen families could have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 would have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian War. This slump was permanent, due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures may seem small, but among Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of the thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1,000–1,500 adult male citizens each; and Corinth, a major power, had at most 15,000.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The non-citizen component of the population was made up of resident foreigners (metics) and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator Hyperides (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably no more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as ephebes had the right to vote in Athens. The percentage of the population that actually participated in the government was 10% to 20% of the total number of inhabitants, but this varied from the fifth to the fourth century BC. This excluded a majority of the population: slaves, freed slaves, children, women and metics (foreign residents in Athens). The women had limited rights and privileges, had restricted movement in public, and were very segregated from the men.


title: Athenian democracy

text: For the most part, Athens followed a citizenship through birth criteria. Such criteria could be further divided into three categories: free birth from an Athenian father, free and legitimate birth from an Athenian father, and free and legitimate birth from an Athenian father and an Athenian mother. Athenians considered circumstances of one's birth to be relevant to the type of political identity and positions they could hold as citizens.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Citizenry in ancient Athens is speculated to have not simply been a legal obligation to the state, but also a form of ethnic-nationality. The title of "Athenian" was given to free residents deeming them citizens and granted them special privileges and protections over other residents in the city who were considered "non-citizens". In the timeline of Athenian laws, Solon's laws outlined a clear boundary between the protections that exist between citizens, Athenians, who were considered free and non-citizens, non-Athenians, who legally could be subjected to slavery.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Also excluded from voting were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see atimia); for some Athenians, this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Given the exclusive and ancestral concept of citizenship held by Greek city-states, a relatively large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it, compared to oligarchies and aristocracies.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Some Athenian citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers required for the system to work testify to a breadth of direct participation among those eligible that greatly surpassed any present-day democracy. Athenian citizens had to be descended from citizens; after the reforms of Pericles and Cimon in 450 BC, only those descended from two Athenian parents could claim citizenship. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later, when a free gift of grain had arrived from the Egyptian king to be distributed among all citizens, many "illegitimate" citizens were removed from the registers.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Citizenship applied to both individuals and their descendants. It could also be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (e.g. Plateans in 427 BC and Samians in 405 BC). However, by the 4th century, citizenship was given only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6,000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century, the number of citizenships so granted was in the hundreds rather than thousands.


title: Athenian democracy

text: With participation in Athenian Democracy only being available to adult male Athenian citizens, women were left out of government and public roles. Even in the case of citizenry, the term was rarely used in reference to women. Rather, women were often referred to as an astē which meant "a woman belonging to the city" or Attikē gunē which meant 'an Attic woman/wife'. Even the term Athenian was largely reserved for just male citizens. Before Pericles' law that decreed citizenship to be restricted to children of both Athenian men and women, the polis did not register women as citizens or keep any form of registration for them which resulted in many court cases of witnesses having to prove that women were wives of Athenian men.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In addition to being barred from any form of formal participation in government, women were also largely left out of public discussions and speeches with orators going as far as leaving out the names of wives and daughters of citizens or finding round about ways of referring to them. Pushed out of the public sphere, women's role was confined to the private sphere of working in the home and being cast as a second-rate human, subservient to her male guardian whether that be a father or husband.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In the realm of Athenian men's rationalization, part of the reasons for excluding women from politics came from widely held views that women were more sexual, and intellectually handicapped. Athenian men believed that women had a higher sex drive and consequentially if given free range to engage in society would be more promiscuous. With this in mind, they feared that women may engage in affairs and have sons out of wedlock which would jeopardize the Athenian system of property and inheritance between heirs as well as the citizenry of potential children if their parentage was called into question. In terms of intelligence, Athenian men believed that women were less intelligent than men and therefore, similarly to barbarians and slaves of the time, were considered to be incapable of effectively participating and contributing to public discourse on political issues and affairs. These rationales, as well as the barring women from fighting in battle, another requirement of citizens, meant that in the eyes of Athenian men, by nature, women were not meant to be allowed citizenship.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Despite being barred from the right to vote and citizenship overall, women were granted the right to practice religion.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Throughout its history, Athens had many different constitutions under its different leaders. Some of the history of Athens' reforms as well a collection of constitutions from other Ancient Greek city-states was compiled and synthesized into a large all-encompassing constitution created by either Aristotle or one of his students called the "Constitution of the Athenians." The "Constitution of the Athenians" provides a run-down of the structure of Athens' government and its processes.


title: Athenian democracy

text: There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6,000), the council of 500 ("boule"), and the courts (a minimum of 200 people, on some occasions up to 6,000). Of these three bodies, the assembly and the courts were the true sites of power – although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the "demos" ('the people'), as they were manned by just those citizens over thirty. Crucially, citizens voting in both were not subject to review and prosecution, as were council members and all other officeholders.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In the 5th century BC, there is often a record of the assembly sitting as a court of judgment itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6,000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century, however, the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly (, "ekklesía"). Unlike a parliament, the assembly's members were not elected, but attended by right when they chose. Greek democracy created at Athens was direct, rather than representative: any adult male citizen over the age of 20 could take part, and it was a duty to do so. The officials of the democracy were in part elected by the Assembly and in large part chosen by lottery in a process called sortition.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The assembly had four main functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner), elected some officials, legislated, and tried political crimes. As the system evolved, the last function was shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position, followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on important matters, there were no political parties and likewise no government or opposition (as in the Westminster system). Voting was by simple majority. In the 5th century at least, there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that it would punish those who had made the proposal that it had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from the assembly's viewpoint it could only be because it had been misled.


title: Athenian democracy

text: As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (χειροτονία, "kheirotonia", 'arm stretching') with officials judging the outcome by sight. This could cause problems when it became too dark to see properly. However, any member could demand that officials issue a recount. For a small category of votes, a quorum of 6,000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here small coloured stones were used, white for yes and black for no. At the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. Ostracism required the voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery (ὄστρακα, "ostraka"), though this did not occur within the assembly as such.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten state months, with other meetings called as needed. In the following century, the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. One of these was now called the main meeting, "kyria ekklesia". Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly, rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to avoid clashing with the annual festivals that followed the lunar calendar. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to be aggregated toward the end of each state month.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Attendance at the assembly was not always voluntary. In the 5th century, public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the agora into the assembly meeting place (Pnyx), with a fine being imposed on those who got the red on their clothes. After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced. This promoted a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6,000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In 594 BC, Solon is said to have created a boule of 400 to guide the work of the assembly. After the reforms of Cleisthenes, the Athenian Boule was expanded to 500 and was elected by lot every year. Each of Cleisthenes's 10 tribes provided 50 councilors who were at least 30 years old. The Boule's roles in public affairs included finance, maintaining the military's cavalry and fleet of ships, advising the generals, approving of newly elected magistrates, and receiving ambassadors. Most importantly, the Boule would draft "probouleumata", or deliberations for the Ecclesia to discuss and approve on. During emergencies, the Ecclesia would also grant special temporary powers to the Boule.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Cleisthenes restricted the Boule's membership to those of zeugitai status (and above), presumably because these classes' financial interests gave them an incentive towards effective governance. A member had to be approved by his deme, each of which would have an incentive to select those with experience in local politics and the greatest likelihood at effective participation in government.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The members from each of the ten tribes in the Boule took it in turns to act as a standing committee (the "prytaneis") of the Boule for a period of thirty-six days. All fifty members of the prytaneis on duty were housed and fed in the tholos of the "Prytaneion", a building adjacent to the "bouleuterion", where the boule met. A chairman for each tribe was chosen by lot each day, who was required to stay in the tholos for the next 24 hours, presiding over meetings of the Boule and Assembly.