title: Athenian democracy

text: The boule also served as an executive committee for the assembly, and oversaw the activities of certain other magistrates. The boule coordinated the activities of the various boards and magistrates that carried out the administrative functions of Athens and provided from its own membership randomly selected boards of ten responsible for areas ranging from naval affairs to religious observances. Altogether, the boule was responsible for a great portion of the administration of the state, but was granted relatively little latitude for initiative; the boule's control over policy was executed in its probouleutic, rather than its executive function; in the former, it prepared measures for deliberation by the assembly, in the latter, it merely executed the wishes of the assembly.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Athens had an elaborate legal system centered on full citizen rights (see "atimia"). The age limit of 30 or older, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly. Jurors were required to be under oath, which was not required for attendance at the assembly. The authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates), who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least acclaimed by defendants, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Essentially there were two grades of a suit, a smaller kind known as "dike" (δίκη) or private suit, and a larger kind known as "graphe" or public suit. For private suits, the minimum jury size was 200 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1,000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. Under Cleisthenes's reforms, juries were selected by lot from a panel of 600 jurors, there being 600 jurors from each of the ten tribes of Athens, making a jury pool of 6,000 in total. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. 1,000 and 1,500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see "graphē paranómōn"), all 6,000 members of the jury pool may have attended to one case.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by a water clock or "clepsydra", first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Jurors did talk informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy, shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a "yes" or "no" vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone ("ho boulomenos", "whoever wants to" i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Justice was rapid: a case could last no longer than one day and had to be completed by the time the sun set. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litigants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to Pericles, a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy ("Politics" 1294a37). Pay was raised from two to three obols by Cleon early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably, this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The system showed a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts, nor did anyone give legal direction to the jurors. Magistrates had only an administrative function and were laymen. Most of the annual magistracies in Athens could only be held once in a lifetime. There were no lawyers as such; litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself; it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter or logographer ("logographos"), but this may not have been advertised in court. Jurors would likely be more impressed if it seemed as though litigants were speaking for themselves.


title: Athenian democracy

text: As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. Starting in 355 BC, political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC, the "graphē paranómōn" ('indictment against measures contrary to the laws') was introduced. Under this, anything passed or proposed by the assembly could be put on hold for review before a jury – which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Remarkably, it seems that blocking and then successfully reviewing a measure was enough to validate it without needing the assembly to vote on it. For example, two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passes, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous. The courts became in effect a kind of upper house.


title: Athenian democracy

text: In the 5th century, there were no procedural differences between an executive decree and a law. They were both simply passed by the assembly. However, beginning in 403 BC, they were set sharply apart. Henceforth, laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6,000. These were known as the "nomothetai" (νομοθέται, 'the lawmakers').


title: Athenian democracy

text: The institutions sketched above – assembly, officeholders, council, courts – are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, "Ho boulomenos" ('he who wishes', or 'anyone who wishes'). This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public lawsuit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers, or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not voted on before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down; these institutions had, after all, no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. However, any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky. If another citizen initiator chose, a public figure could be called to account for their actions and punished. In situations involving a public figure, the initiator was referred to as a "kategoros" ('accuser'), a term also used in cases involving homicide, rather than "ho diokon" ('the one who pursues').


title: Athenian democracy

text: Pericles, according to Thucydides, characterized the Athenians as being very well-informed on politics:


title: Athenian democracy

text: We do not say that a man who takes no interest in politics is a man who minds his own business; we say that he has no business here at all.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The word "idiot" originally simply meant "private citizen"; in combination with its more recent meaning of "foolish person", this is sometimes used by modern commentators to demonstrate that the ancient Athenians considered those who did not participate in politics as foolish. But the sense history of the word does not support this interpretation.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Although, voters under Athenian democracy were allowed the same opportunity to voice their opinion and to sway the discussion, they were not always successful, and, often, the minority was forced to vote in favor of a motion that they did not agree with.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Just before the reforms of Solon in the 7th century BC, Athens was governed by a few archons (three, then later nine) and the council of the Areopagus, which was composed of members of powerful noble families. While there seems to have also been a type of citizen assembly (presumably of the hoplite class), the archons and the body of the Areopagus ran the state and the mass of people had no say in government at all before these reforms.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Solon's reforms allowed the archons to come from some of the higher propertied classes and not only from the aristocratic families. Since the Areopagus was made up of ex-archons, this would eventually mean the weakening of the hold of the nobles there as well. However, even with Solon's creation of the citizen's assembly, the Archons and Areopagus still wielded a great deal of power.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The reforms of Cleisthenes meant that the archons were elected by the Assembly, but were still selected from the upper classes. The Areopagus kept its power as "Guardian of the Laws", which meant that it could veto actions it deemed unconstitutional, however, this worked in practice.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Ephialtes, and later Pericles, stripped the Areopagus of its role in supervising and controlling the other institutions, dramatically reducing its power. In the play "The Eumenides", performed in 458, Aeschylus, himself a noble, portrays the Areopagus as a court established by Athena herself, an apparent attempt to preserve the dignity of the Areopagus in the face of its disempowerment.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Approximately 1,100 citizens (including the members of the council of 500) held office each year. They were mostly chosen by lot, with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group of about 100 elected. Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals (strategoi), each office had restrictive term limits. For example, a citizen could only be a member of the Boule in two non-consecutive years in their life. In addition, there were some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty years as a minimum, rendering about a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement (atimia), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office ("dokimasia") at which time they might be disqualified.


title: Athenian democracy

text: While citizens voting in the assembly were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office "served" the people and could be punished very severely. In addition to being subject to review prior to holding office, officeholders were also subject to an examination after leaving office ("euthunai", "straightenings" or 'submission of accounts') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up the possibility of a contest before a jury court if some citizen wanted to take a matter up. In the case of scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten "main meetings" ("kuriai ekklesiai") a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly?


title: Athenian democracy

text: Citizens active as officeholders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. By and large, the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. These officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives, so their role was that of administration, rather than governing. The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for initiative limited. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas. Anything higher had to go before a court. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. Part of the ethos of democracy, rather, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century setup, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship, rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment, therefore, was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens political equality, as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office. This also acted as a check against demagoguery, though this check was imperfect and did not prevent elections from involving pandering to voters.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to mitigate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group, one person is more likely to know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular office, everyone on the team would be observing everybody else as a sort of check. However, there were officials, such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other.


title: Athenian democracy

text: No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians, it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use the office as a way of accumulating ongoing power.


title: Athenian democracy

text: The representativeness of the Athenian offices (councils, magistrates and juries) selected by lot was mathematically examined by Andranik Tangian, who confirmed the validity of this method of appointment, as well as the ineffectiveness of democracy during times of political instability.


title: Athenian democracy

text: During an Athenian election, approximately one hundred officials out of a thousand were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the "strategoi". One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money embezzled could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case, wealth was virtually a prerequisite.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge, but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the 5th century BC, principally as seen through the figure of Pericles, the generals could be among the most powerful people in the polis. Yet in the case of Pericles, it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His officeholding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the 4th century version of democracy, the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part, this was a consequence of the increasingly specialized forms of warfare practiced in the later period.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Elected officials, too, were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they could also be removed from office at any time that the assembly met. There was even a death penalty for "inadequate performance" while in office.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Athenian democracy has had many critics, both ancient and modern. Ancient Greek critics of Athenian democracy include Thucydides the general and historian, Aristophanes the playwright, Plato the pupil of Socrates, Aristotle the pupil of Plato, and a writer known as the Old Oligarch. While modern critics are more likely to find fault with the restrictive qualifications for political involvement, these ancients viewed democracy as being too inclusive. For them, the common people were not necessarily the right people to rule and were likely to make huge mistakes. According to Samons:The modern desire to look to Athens for lessons or encouragement for modern thought, government, or society must confront this strange paradox: the people that gave rise to and practiced ancient democracy left us almost nothing but criticism of this form of regime (on a philosophical or theoretical level). And what is more, the actual history of Athens in the period of its democratic government is marked by numerous failures, mistakes, and misdeeds—most infamously, the execution of Socrates—that would seem to discredit the ubiquitous modern idea that democracy leads to good government.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Thucydides, from his aristocratic and historical viewpoint, reasoned that a serious flaw in democratic government was that the common people were often much too credulous about even contemporary facts to rule justly, in contrast to his own critical-historical approach to history. For example, he points to errors regarding Sparta; Athenians erroneously believed that Sparta's kings each had two votes in their ruling council and that there existed a Spartan battalion called Pitanate "lochos". To Thucydides, this carelessness was due to common peoples' "preference for ready-made accounts".


title: Athenian democracy

text: Similarly, Plato and Aristotle criticized democratic rule as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannizing the rich. Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which everyone has equal rights, they regarded it as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle's works, this is categorized as the difference between "arithmetic" and "geometric" (i.e. proportional) equality.


title: Athenian democracy

text: To its ancient detractors, rule by the "demos" was also reckless and arbitrary. Two examples demonstrate this:


title: Athenian democracy

text: While Plato blamed democracy for killing Socrates, his criticisms of the rule of the "demos" were much more extensive. Much of his writings were about his alternatives to democracy. His "The Republic", "The Statesman", and "Laws" contained many arguments against democratic rule and in favour of a much narrower form of government: "The organization of the city must be confided to those who possess knowledge, who alone can enable their fellow-citizens to attain virtue, and therefore excellence, by means of education."


title: Athenian democracy

text: Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systemic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established in 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms (graphē paranómōn 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For instance, the system of "nomothesia" was introduced. In this:


title: Athenian democracy

text: Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citizens lost some ground to gatherings of a thousand or so which were under oath, and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside to this change was that the new democracy was less capable of responding quickly in times where quick, decisive action was needed.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although democracy predated Athenian imperialism by over thirty years, they are sometimes associated with each other. For much of the 5th century at least, democracy fed off an empire of subject states. Thucydides the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC.


title: Athenian democracy

text: At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of Melos and sell off its women and children simply for refusing to become subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Furthermore, they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the Old Oligarch. This writer (also called pseudo-Xenophon) produced several comments critical of democracy, such as:


title: Athenian democracy

text: Aristotle also wrote about what he considered to be a better form of government than democracy. Rather than any citizen partaking with an equal share in the rule, he thought that those who were more virtuous should have greater power in governance.


title: Athenian democracy

text: A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to women and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Since the 19th century, the Athenian version of democracy has been seen by one group as a goal yet to be achieved by modern societies. They want representative democracy to be added to or even replaced by direct democracy in the Athenian way, perhaps by utilizing electronic democracy. Another group, on the other hand, considers that, since many Athenians were not allowed to participate in its government, Athenian democracy was not a democracy at all. "[C]omparisons with Athens will continue to be made as long as societies keep striving to realize democracy under modern conditions and their successes and failures are discussed."


title: Athenian democracy

text: Greek philosopher and activist Takis Fotopoulos has argued that "the final failure, of Athenian democracy was not due, as it is usually asserted by its critics, to the innate contradictions of democracy itself but, on the contrary, to the fact that the Athenian democracy never matured to become an inclusive democracy. This cannot be adequately explained by simply referring to the immature "objective" conditions, the low development of productive forces and so on—important as may be—because the same objective conditions prevailed at that time in many other places all over the Mediterranean, let alone the rest of Greece, but democracy flourished only in Athens" .


title: Athenian democracy

text: Since the middle of the 20th century, most countries have claimed to be democratic, regardless of the actual composition of their governments. Yet after the demise of Athenian democracy few looked upon it as a good form of government. No legitimation of that rule was formulated to counter the negative accounts of Plato and Aristotle, who saw it as the rule of the poor, who plundered the rich. Democracy came to be viewed as a "collective tyranny". "Well into the 18th century democracy was consistently condemned." Sometimes, mixed constitutions evolved with democratic elements, but "it definitely did not mean self-rule by citizens".


title: Athenian democracy

text: It would be misleading to say that the tradition of Athenian democracy was an important part of the 18th-century revolutionaries' intellectual background. The classical example that inspired the American and French revolutionaries, as well as English radicals, was Rome rather than Greece, and, in the age of Cicero and Caesar, Rome was a republic but not a democracy. Thus, the Founding Fathers of the United States who met in Philadelphia in 1787 did not set up a Council of the Areopagos, but a Senate, that, eventually, met on the Capitol. Following Rousseau (1712–1778), "democracy came to be associated with popular sovereignty instead of popular participation in the exercise of power".


title: Athenian democracy

text: Several German philosophers and poets took delight in what they saw as the fullness of life in ancient Athens, and not long afterwards "English liberals put forward a new argument in favor of the Athenians". In opposition, thinkers such as Samuel Johnson were worried about the ignorance of democratic decision-making bodies, but "Macaulay and John Stuart Mill and George Grote saw the great strength of the Athenian democracy in the high level of cultivation that citizens enjoyed, and called for improvements in the educational system of Britain that would make possible a shared civic consciousness parallel to that achieved by the ancient Athenians".


title: Athenian democracy

text: George Grote claimed in his "History of Greece" (1846–1856) that "Athenian democracy was neither the tyranny of the poor, nor the rule of the mob". He argued that only by giving every citizen the vote would people ensure that the state would be run in the general interest.


title: Athenian democracy

text: Later, and until the end of World War Il, democracy became dissociated from its ancient frame of reference. After that, it was not just one of the many possible ways in which political rule could be organised. Instead, it became the only possible political system in an egalitarian society.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot is a persistent high-pressure region in the atmosphere of Jupiter, producing an anticyclonic storm that is the largest in the Solar System. Located 22 degrees south of Jupiter's equator, it produces wind-speeds up to 432 km/h (268 mph). Observations from 1665 to 1713 are believed to be of the same storm; if this is correct, it has existed for at least 357 years. It was next observed in September 1831, with 60 recorded observations between then and 1878, when continuous observations began.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot may have existed since before 1665, but it could also be the case that the present spot was first seen only in 1830, and well-studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879. The storm that was seen in the 17th century may have been different than the storm that exists today. A long gap separates its period of current study after 1830 from its 17th century discovery. Whether the original spot dissipated and reformed, whether it faded, or if the observational record was simply poor is unknown.


title: Great Red Spot

text: For example, the first sighting of the Great Red Spot is often credited to Robert Hooke, who described a spot on the planet in May 1664. However, it is likely that Hooke's spot was not only in another belt altogether (the North Equatorial Belt, as opposed to the current Great Red Spot's location in the South Equatorial Belt), but also that it was the shadow of a transiting moon, most likely that of Callisto. Far more convincing is Giovanni Cassini's description of a "permanent spot" the following year. With fluctuations in visibility, Cassini's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713, but the 118-year observational gap makes the identity of the two spots inconclusive. The older spot's shorter observational history and slower motion than the modern spot makes it difficult to conclude that they are the same.


title: Great Red Spot

text: A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted in a 1711 canvas by Donato Creti, which is exhibited in the Vatican. Part of a series of panels in which different (magnified) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes, and all overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy, Creti's painting is the first known to depict the Great Red Spot as red (albeit raised to the Jovian Northern hemisphere due to an optical inversion inherent to the era's telescopes). No Jovian feature was explicitly described in writing as red before the late 19th century.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot has been observed since 5 September 1831. By 1879 over 60 observations were recorded. After it came into prominence in 1879, it has been under continuous observation.


title: Great Red Spot

text: In the 21st century, the Great Red Spot has been observed to be shrinking in size. At the start of 2004, its longitudinal extent was approximately half that of a century earlier, when it reached a size of , about three times the diameter of Earth. At the present rate of reduction, it would become circular by 2040. It is not known how long the spot will last, or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations. In 2019, the Great Red Spot began "flaking" at its edge, with fragments of the storm breaking off and dissipating. The shrinking and "flaking" fueled concern from some astronomers that the Great Red Spot could dissipate within 20 years. However, other astronomers believe that the apparent size of the Great Red Spot reflects its cloud coverage and not the size of the actual, underlying vortex, and they also believe that the flaking events can be explained by interactions with other cyclones or anticyclones, including incomplete absorptions of smaller systems; if this is the case, this would mean that the Great Red Spot is not in danger of dissipating.


title: Great Red Spot

text: A smaller spot, designated Oval BA, formed in March 2000 from the merging of three white ovals, has turned reddish in color. Astronomers have named it the "Little Red Spot" or "Red Jr." As of 5 June 2006, the Great Red Spot and Oval BA appeared to be approaching convergence. The storms pass each other about every two years but the passings of 2002 and 2004 were of little significance. Amy Simon-Miller, of the Goddard Space Flight Center, predicted the storms would have their closest passing on 4 July 2006. She worked with Imke de Pater and Phil Marcus of UC Berkeley and a team of professional astronomers since April 2006 to study the storms using the Hubble Space Telescope; on 20 July 2006, the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging. In May 2008, a third storm turned red.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot, a feature observed near the northern pole of Jupiter in 2000 with the "Cassini–Huygens" spacecraft. There is also a feature in the atmosphere of Neptune also called the Great Dark Spot. The latter feature was imaged by "Voyager 2" in 1989 and may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm. It was no longer present as of 1994, although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north.


title: Great Red Spot

text: On 25 February 1979, when the "Voyager 1" spacecraft was from Jupiter, it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot. Cloud details as small as across were visible. The colorful, wavy cloud pattern seen to the left (west) of the Red Spot is a region of extraordinarily complex and variable wave motion.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The "Juno" spacecraft, which entered into a polar orbit around Jupiter in 2016, flew over the Great Red Spot upon its close approach to Jupiter on 11 July 2017, taking several images of the storm from a distance of about above the surface. Over the duration of the "Juno" mission, the spacecraft continued to study the composition and evolution of Jupiter's atmosphere, especially its Great Red Spot.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Jupiter's Great Red Spot rotates counterclockwise, with a period of about 4.5 Earth days or 11 Jovian days in 2008. Measuring in width as of 3 April 2017, Jupiter's Great Red Spot is 1.3 times the diameter of Earth. The cloud-tops of this storm are about above the surrounding cloud-tops.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Infrared data has long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder (and thus higher in altitude) than most of the other clouds on the planet. The upper atmosphere above the storm, however, has substantially higher temperatures than the rest of the planet. Acoustic (sound) waves rising from the turbulence of the storm below have been proposed as an explanation for the heating of this region.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the Great Red Spot's counter-clockwise circulation as far back as 1966, observations dramatically confirmed by the first time-lapse movies from the "Voyager" fly-bys. The spot is confined by a modest eastward jet stream to its south and a very strong westward one to its north. Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about , currents inside it seem stagnant, with little inflow or outflow. The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time, perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records, typically varying by about a degree. Its longitude, however, is subject to constant variation, including a 90-day longitudinal oscillation with an amplitude of ~1°. Because Jupiter does not rotate uniformly at all latitudes, astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude. System II is used for latitudes of more than 10 degrees and was originally based on the average rotational period of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s. Despite this, however, the spot has "lapped" the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early nineteenth century. Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Jupiter's Great Red Spot (GRS) is an elliptical shaped anticyclone, occurring at 22 degrees below the equator, in Jupiter's southern hemisphere. The largest anticyclonic storm (~16,000 km) in our solar system, little is known about its internal depth and structure. Visible imaging and cloud-tracking from in-situ observation determined the velocity and vorticity of the GRS which is located in a thin anticyclonic ring at 70–85% of the radius and is located along Jupiter's fastest westward moving jet stream. During NASA's 2016 Juno mission, gravity signature and thermal infrareddata was obtained that offered insight into the structural dynamics and depth of the GRS. During July 2017, the Juno spacecraft conducted a second pass of the GRS to collect Microwave Radiometer (MWR) scans of the GRS to determine how far the GRS extended toward the surface of the condensed HO layer. These MWR scans suggested that the GRS vertical depth extended to about 240 km below the cloud level, with an estimated drop in atmospheric pressure to 100 bar. Two methods of analysis that constrain the data collected were the Mascon approach which found a depth of ~290 km, and the Slepian approach showing wind extending to ~310 km. These methods, along with gravity signature MWR data suggest that the GRS zonal winds still increase at a rate of 50% the velocity of the viable cloud level, before the wind decay starts at lower levels, this rate of wind decay and Gravity data suggest the depth of the GRS is between 200 and 500 km.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Galileo and Cassini's thermal infrared imaging and spectroscopy were conducted of the GRS during 1995–2008, in order to find evidence of thermal inhomogeneities with in the internal structure vortex of the GRS. Previous thermal infrared temperature maps from the Voyager, Galileo, and Cassini missions; suggested the GRS is a cold-core within a upwelling warmer annulus structure of an anticyclonic vortex, this data shows a gradient in the temperature of the GRS. To gain better understanding of Jupiter's atmospheric temperature, aerosol particle opacity, and ammonia gas composition from thermal-IR imaging, a direct correlation of the visible-cloud layers reactions, thermal gradient and compositional mapping to observational data collected over decades. During December 2000, high spatial resolution images from Galileo, of an atmospheric turbulent area to the northwest of the GRS, shows a thermal contrast between the warmest region of the anticyclone with regions to the east and west of the GRS. The vertical temperature of the structure of the GRS is constrained between the 100–600 mbar range, with the vertical temperature of the GRS core is approximately 400 mbar of pressure, being 1.0–1.5 K, much warmer than regions of the GRS to the east–west, and 3.0–3.5 K warmer than regions to the north–south of the structures edge. This structure is consistent with the data collected by the VISIR (VLT Mid-Infrared Imager Spectrometer on the ESO Very Large Telescope) imaging obtain in 2006, this data revealed that the GRS was physically present in a wide range of altitudes that occur within the 80 - 600 mbar pressure of the atmosphere and confirmers the thermal infrared mapping result. To develop a model of the internal structure of the GRS the Cassini mission Composite Infrared Spectrometer (CIRS) and ground based spatial imaging mapped the composition of the phosphine and ammonia aerosols (PH, NH and para-hydroxybenzoic acid) within the anticyclonic circulation of the GRS. The imaging that was collected form the CIRS and ground-based imaging trace the vertical motion in the Jovian atmosphere by PH and NH spectra. The highest concentrations of PH and NH are found to the north of the GRS peripheral rotation and aided in determine the southward jet movement and shows data of an increase in altitude of the column of aerosols with ranging pressures of 200–500 mbar. However, the NH composition data shows that there is a major depletion of NH below the visible cloud layer at the southern peripheral ring of the GRS, this lower opacity is relative to a narrow band of atmospheric subsidence. The low mid-IR aerosol opacity along with; the temperature gradients, the altitude difference, and the vertical movement of the zonal winds are involved with the development and sustainability of the vorticity. The stronger atmospheric subsidence and compositional asymmetries of the GRS suggest that the structure exhibits a degree of tilt form the northern edge to the southern edge of the structure. The GRS depth and internal structure has been constant with changes over decades however there is still no logical reason why it is 200–500 km in depth, but the jet streams that supply the force that powers the GRS vortex are well below the structure base.


title: Great Red Spot

text: It is not known what causes the Great Red Spot's reddish color. Hypotheses supported by laboratory experiments suppose that it may be caused by chemical products created from the solar ultraviolet irradiation of ammonium hydrosulfide and the organic compound acetylene, which produces a reddish material—likely complex organic compounds called tholins. The high altitude of the compounds may also contribute to the coloring.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The Great Red Spot varies greatly in hue, from almost brick-red to pale salmon or even white. The spot occasionally disappears, becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow, which is its location in the South Equatorial Belt (SEB). Its visibility is apparently coupled to the SEB; when the belt is bright white, the spot tends to be dark, and when it is dark, the spot is usually light. These periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals; from 1947 to 1997, the spot was darkest in the periods 1961–1966, 1968–1975, 1989–1990, and 1992–1993.


title: Great Red Spot

text: The reason the storm has continued to exist for centuries is that there is no planetary surface (only a mantle of hydrogen) to provide friction; circulating gas eddies persist for a very long time in the atmosphere because there is nothing to oppose their angular momentum.


title: Great Red Spot

text: Research suggests that the storm produces extreme amounts of acoustic waves, owing to the turbulence of the storm. The acoustic waves travel vertically upwards to a height of above the storm where they break in the upper atmosphere, converting wave energy into heat. This creates a region of upper atmosphere that is —several hundred Kelvin warmer than the rest of the planet at this altitude. The effect is described as being like "crashing [...] ocean waves on a beach".


title: Warframe

text: Warframe is a free-to-play action role-playing third-person shooter multiplayer online game developed and published by Digital Extremes. First released for Windows personal computers in March 2013, it was later ported to PlayStation 4 in November 2013, Xbox One in September 2014, Nintendo Switch in November 2018, PlayStation 5 in November 2020, and Xbox Series X/S in April 2021. Support for cross-platform play was released in 2022. Cross-save, as well as ports to mobile devices, is planned for 2023. The game is in a perpetual open beta.


title: Warframe

text: In "Warframe", players control members of the Tenno, a race of ancient warriors who have awoken from centuries of suspended animation far into Earth's future to find themselves at war in the planetary system with different factions. The Tenno use their powered Warframes along with a variety of weapons and abilities to complete missions. While many of the game's missions use procedurally-generated levels, it also includes large open world areas similar to other massively multiplayer online games, as well as some story-specific missions with fixed level design. The game includes elements of shooting and melee games, parkour, and role-playing to allow players to advance their Tenno with improved gear. The game includes both player versus environment and player versus player elements. It is supported by microtransactions, which lets players purchase in-game items using real money, but also offers the option to earn them at no cost through grinding.


title: Warframe

text: The concept for "Warframe" originated in 2000, when Digital Extremes began work on a new game titled "Dark Sector". At the time, the company had been successful in supporting other developers and publishers, and wanted to develop their own game in-house. "Dark Sector" suffered several delays and was eventually released in 2008, having used some of the initial framework but far different from the original plan. By 2012, in the wake of the success of free-to-play games, the developers took their earlier "Dark Sector" ideas and art assets and incorporated them into a new project, their self-published "Warframe".


title: Warframe

text: Initially, the growth of "Warframe" was slow, hindered by moderate critical reviews and low player counts. Since its release, the game has experienced positive growth. The game is one of Digital Extremes' most successful titles, seeing nearly 50 million registered players by 2019.


title: Warframe

text: Set in the future, players control members of the Tenno, a race of ancient warriors who have awoken from a millennia-long cryosleep as they awake again on Earth, with their memories about the Old War lost for the moment. In the Origin System (in-game term for the Solar System), they find themselves at war with the Grineer, a matriarchal race of militarized and deteriorated human clones built upon metal, blood, and war; the Corpus, a mega-corporation with advanced robotics and laser technology built upon profit; the Infested, disfigured victims of the Technocyte virus; the Corrupted, brainwashed Grineer, Corpus, and Infested units defending ancient towers; and the Sentients, a race of self-replicating machines made by a long-dead transhuman race known as the Orokin. The Lotus, the Tenno's mysterious guide, helps the player through difficult situations, as well as gives hints which help them defeat enemies. To fight back, the Tenno use bio-mechanical suits, the eponymous Warframes, to channel their unique abilities.


title: Warframe

text: All of the factions encountered in the game, including the Tenno, were created by or are splinter groups of the old Orokin Empire, which the Tenno learns was an ancient fallen civilization and former reigning power in the Origin System. Although most of them are long dead by the time of the Tenno's awakening, their lingering presence can be still be felt throughout the Origin System. Before their fall, the Orokin had realized the Origin System was becoming dangerously depleted of resources, and their solution to keep their empire alive, was to colonize new star systems. The Orokin sent out colony ships through the Void, a trans-dimensional space that enabled fast travel between stellar systems. They had also sent out the Sentients beforehand, to arrive in these systems first, and terraform them, so the colonists would arrive to garden worlds, capable of supporting human life. None of these residential ships returned, and those they had loaded with Sentients returned with the Sentients now deciding to wipe out the Orokin, leading to the Old War, the creation of the Tenno, and finally, the collapse of the Empire.


title: Warframe

text: In the game's "The Second Dream" quest, which was introduced in December 2015, the player discovers that the Lotus is a Sentient being known as Natah ( Known by the player later on in the natah quest) rebelling against the others to protect the Tenno knowing of their importance. The Lotus' father, Hunhow, sends a vengeful assassin called the Stalker to Lua (the remains of Earth's Moon), which the Lotus had hidden from normal space, to find its secret. The Lotus dispatches the Tenno there to stop the Stalker, arriving too late as the Stalker unveils the entity that the Lotus had protected: a human child known as the Operator, who is the real Tenno controlling the Warframes through the course of the game. The Operator is one of several human children that survived the passage of the Zariman Ten Zero colony ship through the Void, the adults having all gone mad from its travel. When the ship returned to the Orokin Empire, the children had all been put to sleep for thousands of years, outlasting the fall of the Empire, to be found by the Lotus and becoming the Tenno (Tenno short for the "Ten Zero" of the ship's name). The power of the Void gave these children the power of Transference to be able to control the Warframes, making them the powerful weapons in battling the ongoing forces in the Origin System. From this point forward, the player can then engage in missions both as the Warframe and the Operator.


title: Warframe

text: The player starts out with a silent pseudo-protagonist in the form of an anthropomorphous biomechanical combat unit called 'Warframe' possessing supernatural agility and special abilities, a selection of basic weapons (primary, secondary and melee) and a space ship called 'Orbiter'. The player's primary goal from this point is to explore the Origin System. Later in the course of the game, the player unlocks the ability to gain direct control of the 'Operator', which is the true Tenno protagonist in physical form (and no longer silent). The Operator is able to physically manifest themselves in the environment by projecting out of the Warframe, and disappear by resuming control of it (a process called 'Transference'), and possesses abilities of their own. Subsequent to that, the Operator is able to Transference into a larger, purely mechanical combat unit called 'Necramech', which is the technological precursor to the Warframes. Players can engage in space-bound combat using an auxiliary combat platform called 'Archwing', mounted on a Warframe, which comes with a unique set of abilities. Necramechs and Archwings (in space combat) don't use Warframe weapons, but heavy ranged weapons called 'Archguns'. However, the player can make an Archgun wieldable even by Warframes. Late in 2019, an update named Empyrean was introduced to the game letting players pilot and manage a distinct space ship called 'Railjack', which is a combat vessel unlike the Orbiter. This was designed as a co-op experience with up to four people working together, doing different jobs to keep the ship operational while destroying enemy ships. A Railjack-focused update was released in 2021, which brought expanded content and a new skill tree aimed at making solo play more accessible.


title: Warframe

text: Through the Orbiter's console, the player can select any of the available missions to them. The main set of missions requires players to complete certain missions across planets in the Solar System, to be able to access junctions that they can use to progress to other planets or locations, and complete storyline quests. Other missions rotate over time as part of the game's living universe; these can include missions with special rewards and community challenges to allow all players to reap benefits if they are successfully met. Aboard the ship, the player can also manage all other functions for their Tenno, including managing their arsenal of equipment, customizing their Warframe and weapons, crafting new equipment, and accessing the in-game store. Missions can be played alone or with up to four players in a player versus environment cooperative manner. Each mission is given a level that indicates how strong the enemies will be. Missions are generally played on randomly generated maps composed of "tiles" of map sections. Missions have various objectives, such as defeating a certain number of enemies (Exterminate), stealing data from terminals without raising enemy alarms (Spy), rescuing and escorting prisoners (Rescue), or defending points on the map for set periods of time (Defense). Later updates have added three large open-field environments where numerous bounties can be completed.


title: Warframe

text: Players can use their weapons, abilities, and a number of parkour style moves to navigate through and overpower forces within the mission. Downed players may choose to revive themselves up to a maximum of four times, or can be revived by other players an infinite number of times. Once complete, players are rewarded with in-game items, as well as in-game currency and items picked up while exploring the map; failure to complete a mission causes these rewards to be lost. In addition to cooperative missions, the game includes player versus player (PvP) content through the multiplayer 'Conclave', which also rewards the player for placing high in such matches.


title: Warframe

text: Players and their equipment also gain experience and level up from missions; equipment with higher levels support more 'Mods', abstracted upgrades (presented as cards in the game's UI) that can be slotted into the equipment to change its attributes or provide beneficial, or sometimes negative, bonuses and abilities. Mods are dropped by enemies during missions and may be part of the rewards, and are generally given out following a rarity distribution, with more powerful mods being more elusive to acquire. The most advanced weapon Mods called 'Rivens' have randomized stats, based on a prefix/suffix system characteristic of ARPGs. Alongside mods, players have other means of improving their equipment, including conditional upgrades called Arcane Enhancements and, for a few weapons, fusing an item with another of its kind to get a superior version. Another type of reward is equipment blueprints, which can be used to construct new Warframe parts or weapons; blueprints and their resulting equipment may also be purchased directly using Platinum, the game's premium currency that can be traded for with other players for rare items in-game, or be purchased via microtransactions. Players need to have specific quantities of construction resources (found from missions and their rewards) to build these items.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe" is designed to be free-to-play, and has avoided using pay to win elements; all Warframes, weapons, and other non-cosmetic equipment can be acquired in-game over time through normal gameplay, which may involve grinding. Spending the in-game currency can simplify and quicken the process. New weapons, Warframes, equipment, blueprints to construct such equipment, and cosmetics like skins and capes (called 'Syandanas') can be purchased in the market, using either Credits, which are earned in-game, or Platinum. Some cosmetic items can only be obtained through in-game payments. However, some indirect upgrades can only be bought with Platinum, such as arsenal slots for Warframes, weapons, and certain other equipment.


title: Warframe

text: The origins of "Warframe" came out of Canadian studio Digital Extremes' original vision for their previous game "Dark Sector". Prior to that point, Digital Extremes was known as a work-for-hire studio, working alongside other studios to help complete development; this included working with Epic Games for "Unreal Tournament" (1999) and its sequels "Unreal Tournament 2003" and "Unreal Tournament 2004". Epic had looked to bring Digital Extremes into their studio, but found there would be issues with the Canadian government that interfered with the merger, and the studios agreed to go their separate ways.


title: Warframe

text: Wanting to establish themselves as a lead studio, Digital Extremes came up with the idea of "Dark Sector", which they first announced in February 2000, describing the game as combining "the intense action elements of "Unreal Tournament" with the scope and character evolution of a persistent online universe". In early interviews, Digital Extremes said that the gameplay for "Dark Sector" would have had players as bounty hunters and assassins in a dark science fiction setting, with each character having a bounty on their head, making them targets for other players.


title: Warframe

text: The studio used their vision of "Dark Sector" to try to secure a publisher, but this only led to more offers for work-for-hire. The company remained quiet on "Dark Sector" for about four years, re-announcing in early 2004 a revised "Dark Sector", now to be a stylish, science-fiction single player experience with stealth elements inspired by the "Metal Gear Solid" series, and a story they considered a mix of "Metal Gear Solid" and "The Dark Crystal" set in space, within a larger setting like that of Frank Herbert's "Dune" universe. Much of the game's art style was informed by the French artist Jean Giraud, aka Moebius. The player-character, belonging to a race called the Tenno, and enemies would wear high-tech suits that would give them unique abilities. This re-announcement included a scripted demo to show their vision of the game's gameplay and graphics. The game was announced just as both the first consoles of the seventh generation, the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, had been teased, and Digital Extremes started to look for a publisher to release the games on these platforms. The game received a good deal of attention from its video, including coverage by CNN on the upcoming console generation.


title: Warframe

text: Digital Extremes' creative director Steve Sinclair spent about a year on the road following the re-announcement of "Dark Sector" to find a publisher, but most rejected the idea; Sinclair said most publishers were not impressed with the science fiction setting, and instead encouraged them to change the setting to modern-day, within World War II (which was popular at the time due to the "Call of Duty" series), and even the American Civil War. When Sinclair returned to the studio, they tried to rework the setting, even trying a superhero genre, without luck. Matters were complicated as they were also attempting to develop their own engine, the Evolution engine, to support the game and the new consoles, switching away from the familiar Unreal Engine. Ultimately, Digital Extremes dropped most of the science fiction elements, and moved the gameplay towards a more "Resident Evil" survivor-horror approach. Digital Extremes did keep one element of the original concept for the released game, that being the protagonist named "Tenno". The "Dark Sector" released in 2008 was far different from their original vision. "Dark Sector" received average reviews, and was not a major financial windfall for the studio, leading them back to doing work for hire over the next four years, including "BioShock", "BioShock 2", "Homefront", and "The Darkness 2".


title: Warframe

text: Around 2011, Digital Extremes were finding themselves struggling for work-for-hire contracts. While the studio had been forced to issue some layoffs, they were still at about 250 people at this time. Looking again to develop their own IP and to try to take advantage of the growth in free-to-play games, Digital Extremes looked back to the original "Dark Sector" concept from 2004 and looked to develop it as a free-to-play game. This decision was made in early 2012 and required the team to create a prototype within one to two months, as Sinclair and Digital Extremes' CEO James Schmalz were going to shop the game around to publishers at that year's Game Developers Conference in March 2012. They took several assets from the abandoned 2004 concept, and developed this as "Warframe". At GDC, Sinclair and Schmalz found publishers still cold on the idea: Western publishers were not keen on the science fiction setting, while a large unnamed Korean publisher warned him that they would "fail" as Western developers did not know how to properly support free-to-play games with quality content. Another concern raised by these publishers was that "Warframe" was based on player-versus-environmental gameplay, which differed significantly with other free-to-play titles at the time that were mostly player-versus-player. Disheartened, they returned to the studio and decided that they would publish "Warframe" on their own. They built out a playable version of the game, at the time known as "Lotus" in about nine months. Alongside this, the studio developed the necessary server architecture to support the game and the microtransaction system they had envisioned for it.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe" was publicly announced in June 2012 with its closed beta launched in October 2012. Player feedback helped to refine the game's structure. An early change in the beta in early 2013 was their monetization scheme to avoid pay to win scenarios. For example, initially, each Warframe had a skill tree that the player could unlock completely through missions and gaining experience. An extended version of the tree was available if the player augmented the Warframe with an in-game item, then only purchasable through microtransactions. When players complained about this feature, they stripped the pay to win elements and adopted the mantra of keeping the game as free to play, requiring that players did not have to spend any money to get an item within the game. To support the game, they borrowed the idea of offering for sale "Founder's Packs" that would grant in-game items and currency, an idea that had been successfully used on Kickstarter projects.


title: Warframe

text: Digital Extremes found it difficult to get attention from the press as around 2012–2013, free to play games were typically shunned by game journalists. Unfavorable comparisons had been made to "Destiny", a highly anticipated title due out in 2014, that also tarnished "Warframe"s presence. Coupled with low player counts, Digital Extremes were not sure how long they could continue supporting the game. However, Digital Extremes found they had a small but dedicated group of players that latched onto the title, buying into the game through Founder's Packs, telling their friends about the game, and interacting with the developers to provide feedback which was integrated into the game's design. Further, they discovered that when popular streamers like TotalBiscuit covered the beta, they drew more players to the game.


title: Warframe

text: The open beta for "Warframe" launched in March 2013 for the Windows platform, with the game available from their own server systems. "Warframe" was released at the same time that the studio was also completing development for the April 2013 "Star Trek" game to tie into the release of the film "Star Trek Into Darkness". The "Star Trek" game was critically panned, leading to financial hardships at the studio and forcing them to lay off developers. "Warframe" itself was not a critical hit with gaming publications, receiving average reviews; as "IGN" reviewed in 2013, the game was "fun, but a little bland".


title: Warframe

text: Digital Extremes was planning to release "Warframe" for the PlayStation 4 as well, but that console was not available until November 2013, so to try to get more players, they decided to offer the game on Steam, which further grew the player base. Some days after the Steam launch, Digital Extremes had been able to start drawing in enough funding to maintain the viability of the studio. The PlayStation 4 version was released at the console's launch in November 2013, The Xbox One version of the game launched on September 2, 2014. The PS4 version was ported to Japan on February 22, 2014, followed by the Xbox One version on September 2, 2014.


title: Warframe

text: Once the game turned profitable, Digital Extremes found themselves in the position of needing to generate content for the game to maintain its audience. Because they retained their 250-person staff throughout this process, they were able to expand upon content quickly, and soon hired in another 250 developers for "Warframe". Community input was critical for Digital Extremes for new content and improvements. One major change after release was an update to the game's movement system, titled "Parkour 2.0", that was released in 2015. They had found before this, players discover ways to rapidly traverse levels by a trick known as "coptering" using specific weapons, Warframes, and upgrades. Though Digital Extremes had considered these movements to be game-breaking and considered removing the abilities altogether, they realized players liked to have exotic moves like this available to them, and thus created the Parkour 2.0 system that, while reining in how extensive these moves could be, fully supported the type of ninja-like movements that players wanted. Another example was a short-lived feature that allowed players to spend a small amount of the premium in-game currency Platinum to get a random color that they could use for customization. Players reacted negatively to this, as some found it would take a large amount of Platinum to get the color they wanted. Digital Extremes removed this random factor and instead added means to purchase such customization options directly.


title: Warframe

text: The studio had found it important to release new content regularly to keep a stream of income from the game. They were also faced with the problem that to understand all of "Warframe"s systems required some commitment by the player, and players that felt it was too much would wash out after a few hours. After many tries to make the game more appealing to new players, they still fail to do so.


title: Warframe

text: In 2014, Digital Extremes was acquired by the Chinese investment company Leyou. Leyou since provides necessary funding for Digital Extremes to grow, but has little influence on the direction that the developers take "Warframe".


title: Warframe

text: A Nintendo Switch version was announced in July 2018 and was ported by Panic Button, and was released on November 20, 2018. The various versions of "Warframe" currently support feature-limited cross-platform play, without the ability to transfer accounts. However, with each console release, Digital Extremes provides a temporary window to allow players on Windows to copy and transfer their accounts to the console version; these become separate accounts that progress separately on Windows and on the console.


title: Warframe

text: As of December 2020, Leyou has been bought by the Chinese company Tencent for a $1.5 billion deal meaning that Digital Extremes is now owned by the Chinese company which also has stakes in Epic Games, Activision Blizzard and Ubisoft. Within the community of Warframe, voices of concern were outed by the acquisition and the possible meddling of Tencent in the continuation of the game. Digital Extremes published a statement explaining about the deal and the consequences and reassuring that the new ownership will not impact the game whatsoever.


title: Warframe

text: Digital Extremes announced that they will bring "Warframe" to the PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X and Series S upon their release in 2020.


title: Warframe

text: Digital Extremes has implemented cross-platform play functionality across all computer and console platforms, planning support for cross-save functionality to allow users to play their same account on any version. In addition, they will also plan to release mobile versions of "Warframe" at the same time.


title: Warframe

text: Since release, Digital Extremes has supported "Warframe" with patches and expanded the game through major updates. These updates have included major gameplay overhauls, such as its "Melee 2.0" combat system to give players a wider array of combat moves, additional planets and missions, story elements, limited-time and seasonal events, and new gameplay modes, alongside regular addition of new Warframes, weapons, and other equipment to procure.


title: Warframe

text: In December 2015, Digital Extremes released "Warframe"s first cinematic story quest, "The Second Dream". This quest features prominent characters from the game and introduces a new faction, the dreaded Sentients. Also, and most importantly, The Second Dream serves as an "Awakening" to the Tenno's true nature, as more than a mere Warframe, "more than human, but once a child, like any other". Completion of this quest grants access to a new game mechanic named Focus and allows the player to enter the battlefield as themselves, temporarily, through Transcendence. During Transcendence, the Warframe is temporarily deactivated, and a spectral form of the Tenno enters the battlefield, channeling one of five Focus Abilities, depending on which of the five Focus Schools the player chose during the quest's events.


title: Warframe

text: In November 2016, "Warframe"s second cinematic quest was released, titled "The War Within". This quest sends the player on the chase for Teshin, the master and overseer of the Conclave, as he is seen suspiciously searching the pods of the newly awakened Tenno. Tracking Teshin across the Origin System leads to the discovery of the Kuva Fortress, a massive asteroid under Grineer control where the (so far only known as a legend) Twin Grineer Queens reside. The Queens are shown to have their origins as far back as the old Orokin Empire, and Teshin is revealed to be a Dax Soldier, meaning he was under their command due to them being of Orokin origin thus gaining the ability to wield the Kuva Scepter. The Queens cause an overload on the connection between Tenno and Warframe, forcing the Tenno to seek them out themselves, slowly discovering their Void powers. On the mission's climax, the Tenno unlocks Transference (which replaces Transcendence), an ability which allows them to roam independently of their Warframe at will, weakens the Elder Grineer Queen and has the option to kill her or "Let her rot", since all Grineer bodies decay over time due to excessive cloning. This quest also introduces a moral alignment system to the game, with possible options being Sun, Neutral and Moon. This alignment has so far not had any consequence in gameplay, leaving its purpose unknown.


title: Warframe

text: An update to the game in November 2017, titled "Plains of Eidolon", added an open-world area to the game. The Plains are a semi-open world, initially accessible through a "hub" named Cetus, a settlement on Earth where a people named the Ostrons reside, then directly through the player's ship. As the game describes them, the Ostrons are "A tight-knit band of hucksters and merchants." This expansion added "Warframe"s first open-world experience to the game, the ability for the player to gain reputation with the Ostrons, side-activities of fishing and mining, a Bounty system, consisting of five missions of ascending difficulty, where the player can choose to play any mission they would like regardless of whether the previous ones have been completed, a new quest named Saya's Vigil which rewarded the blueprint for the Warframe Gara, more customization options for the Tenno's combat pets, Kubrows (dogs) and Kavats (cats/ocelots), and the ability for the Tenno themselves to wield their own modular weapon, called an Amplifier (or Amp, for short) as well as another modular blade called a "Zaw". Finally, the "Plains of Eidolon" offer a new series of boss fights to the game: the titular Eidolons. These Sentient-origin titans require extreme gear and in most cases teamwork to take down for unique rewards.


title: Warframe

text: An update to the game in June 2018, titled "The Sacrifice", added the third cinematic story to the game. Following on the events of "Warframe"s previous cinematic story quests, The Second Dream and The War Within, The Sacrifice sends the Tenno on a hunt across the Origin System for a rogue Warframe known as Excalibur Umbra. This quest provides insight on Umbra's past, the ability to gain Umbra into arsenal after the quest's climactic point, and information on the origins of the Warframes themselves, answering multiple questions, but creating even more. The Sacrifice also features the alignment system introduced in "The War Within".


title: Warframe

text: The expansion "Fortuna" was released on PC on November 8, 2018. The update focuses on the titular Fortuna Solaris Debt Internment Colony, which serves as a hub for the game's second open-world map, Orb Vallis. The people of Fortuna (known as the Solaris) were enslaved by a Corpus known as Nef Anyo who uses ancient Orokin devices that made gallons of coolant for the workstation and trade center on Venus. The area expands upon concepts introduced in Plains of Eidolon, along with new activities, and the ability to obtain a hoverboard-styled vehicle known as a K-Drive. This update also adds more modular items such as a plasma pistol called a "Kitgun", and a robotic companion called a "MOA".


title: Warframe

text: The "Empyrean" update was revealed during TennoCon 2018 in July of that year and released on December 12, 2019. The update allowed players to construct a Railjack, an upgradeable spacecraft inspired by "". Players will be able to gain non-playable characters to populate the ship, customize the ship, and add upgrades. The Railjack can then be used in larger space-based missions, including space battles with enemy forces. Additionally, the game was planned to gain a system similar to the Nemesis system in "", and feature boss characters that the player would fight multiple times, with the boss changing its armaments and tactics based on the past fights with the player. Empyrean update was released in 3 phases, with the first phase released on the PC build of the game on December 12, 2019.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe"s planned nemesis system was launched October 31, 2019 as the second phase of "Empyrean", with the Nintendo Switch launch delayed to November 19, 2019. This update revealed the nemesis as a "Kuva Lich" - A once-ordinary Grineer grunt, turned super-soldier through infusion with a mystical resource named Kuva. This enemy establishes their influence over planets in the Origin System, builds a following of "Thralls" which can be defeated to reveal hints on how to defeat the Lich permanently, steals resources from the player if they finish a mission in Lich territory, and has unique personalities, weapons, appearances, and semi-randomly generated names and weaknesses, resistances, and immunities to different types of damage. A Lich can be generated in missions against the Grineer faction by performing an execution on a special enemy named a "Kuva Larvling". Said executions are performed with a newly introduced special weapon named the Parazon - a small blade attached to a rope equipped on the Warframe's wrist. The Parazon is also used to execute Thralls and specific enemies, for the game's Hacking minigame, and visually in some cutscenes. "The Old Blood" also introduced Grendel, the game's 42nd Warframe, together with his signature weapon. Two earlier Warframes, named Vauban and Ember, were adjusted to better function in the game's current state. Additionally, the game's "Melee 3.0" system had its release completed.


title: Warframe

text: Warframe Revised, a major quality of life update, was released on 20 May 2020. While it didn't add any new content, it served to improve existing gameplay by modifying key aspects of gameplay, such as revising the Kuva Lich system by improving progression speed and allowing players to preview the weapon their Lich would spawn with, allowing them to make a more informed choice as to whether or not to create a Lich, in addition to fixing a lot of bugs and problems associated with Railjack gameplay. It also added a brief invulnerability period for players after their energy shields were depleted, as well as modifying player health so that they no longer had weaknesses to certain damage types. One major part of the update was that it removed "Warframe's" controversial explosive self-damage system and replaced it with a temporary stagger mechanic depending on how close the player is to their own explosions. Self-damage was infamous for its tendency to instantly kill players without warning since it was based off of the damage of the player's own weaponry, which in almost all cases was extremely high, a problem that only intensified when combined with the cramped nature of the game's procedurally generated tilesets.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe"s third open-world update was announced via the game's official YouTube channel on July 20, 2020 and was released on August 25, 2020 for PC, PS4, and Xbox One, and on August 27, 2020 for Nintendo Switch. It is the game's first expansion to receive a simultaneous release across multiple platforms. The update adds Deimos, one of the two moons of Mars, as a new playable location within the game's Solar System. Deimos includes the Cambion Drift, an Infested open-world area that is smaller on the surface than the other two open-world areas but features procedurally generated underground tunnels. Much like the "Fortuna" and "Plains of Eidolon" updates, Deimos also contains a social hub called the Necralisk that houses the Entrati, an Orokin-era family known for creating the first technologies that could harness the power of the Void. Alongside Deimos came the introduction of the Helminth system, which adds the functionality for players to "infuse" new abilities on Warframes, including abilities from other Warframes. Additionally, the Heart of Deimos introduced Necramechs to the game, which are mech suits built and controlled by the player that feature their own unique abilities. Lastly, this expansion brought some improvements to the game's new player experience, mainly consisting of a reworked tutorial that includes a new cinematic intro film directed by Dan Trachtenberg, which first premiered at TennoCon 2019. The film was produced by Digic Pictures using a combination of motion capture and CGI.


title: Warframe

text: "Warfame's" Deimos expansion was released on November 19, 2020 for PC. It adds new weapons, and a new Necramech "Bonewidow". It was also planned to release with Lavos, an alchemist Warframe but was delayed due to Covid. It also added numerous quality of life changes and new setting options.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe's" second Deimos expansion was released on December 18, 2020 for PC, then was released on January 21, 2021 for Console. This was a one month event following the Tenno's victory and the Sentients' defeat in Operation: Scarlet Spear, Erra and the Sentients have retreated and gone into hiding. The second Sentient invasion in the Origin System thus begins, and the Orphix Sentient Units return, but this time they have been taught to override Warframes by deploying weaponized pulses cleverly designed to disable them, leaving the Necramechs as the Tenno's last option.


title: Warframe

text: During the Operation, Natah transmits messages to the Tenno, revealing that she was the one who taught the Orphix to disable Warframes. Her messages about deploying the Orphix series, containing a letter followed by a number, reveal a code from ordering the numbers, which says: "I AM DYING".


title: Warframe

text: Father in the Necralisk on Deimos will have a shop where players can spend their earned Phasic Cells, including a brand-new Warframe, his helmet, and his weapon, new Necramech mods and cosmetics, and items.


title: Warframe

text: The Corpus Proxima expansion was released on March 19, 2021. It aimed to simplify the Railjack component of the game by making it easier to acquire a ship with fewer components, eliminate the need to have a Clan Dojo, and the ability to buy a complete Railjack from the game's stores. It also included additional Railjack missions through additional sectors/planets. Players could also recruit crewmates for their Railjacks to man the ship's guns or maintain the ship while the player is away, as well as train them for specific tasks and give them their own weapons. Three new Proxima regions were added to the Railjack system: Neptune, Pluto and Venus Proxima.


title: Warframe

text: The Sisters of Parvos expansion was released on July 6, 2021, introducing the eponymous Sisters of Parvos, the Corpus equivalent to the Grineer Kuva Liches, who function in a similar way to them. The Sisters of Parvos are members of Parvos Granum's board of directors, given unusual powers of immortality that must be broken in the same way as a Kuva Lich. The Sisters are armed with upgraded versions of standard Corpus weapons and are accompanied by a robotic Hound which serves as the equivalent of Kuva Thralls. The expansion also introduced some changes to the way the player combats their Lich or Sister, with the enemy fleeing to one of the Proxima regions upon their "Requiem" sequence being completed, requiring the player to take them on in a short Railjack sequence before boarding their ship for the final confrontation. The Expansion also introduced the 47th Warframe Yareli, who has an aquatic theme, as well as special "Galvanised" mods for ranged weapons due to player complaints that they weren't performing as well as their melee counterparts in high-level content.


title: Warframe

text: The New War expansion was released on December 15, 2021. The New War quest follows after The Sacrifice and Prelude to The New War. Ballas, along with Hunhow's son Erra wage war against the entire Origin System, prompting former enemies to become allies against a heavy threat, but all is lost after the Sentients successfully manage to take down the alliance. A new empire is born, named Narmer, and its influence becomes consequential. Ordis, now with an ally must find the Operator and end Ballas for good. This quest will open to more questions regarding the philosophy of time, as well as answer the reason why the Operator owes the 'Man in the Wall'. Acquisition of a Railjack and a Necramech, as well completion of some previous quests, is required to play The New War.


title: Warframe

text: Adding to the ongoing theme of temporal paradoxes, the Zariman returns to the Origin System. The ship, which was previously thought to be destroyed, is now haunted by spectral Void entities, including "Angels", towering, humanoid Void abominations. This update also overhauls several basic enemy classes, notably Eximus enemies, making them much more resistant to damage and overall more dangerous, and deeply changes the Focus system and Operator gameplay to integrate them more with general Warframe gameplay. The Tenno are tasked by the resurrected crew of the Zariman to protect the ship from being overrun by Void entities and external invaders (Corpus and Grineer troops) while helping them piece together their memories of the destruction of the original Zariman ship. This update also introduced the 49th Warframe Gyre, as well as a unique class of transforming weapons known as "Incarnon" weapons, alongside unique "Voidshell" cosmetic skins for Warframes, allowing players to pick out different materials for an added layer of customisation.


title: Warframe

text: The Veilbreaker expansion was released on September 7, 2022. The expansion features the return of Grineer soldier Kahl-175, previously playable during the New War quest. After freeing himself from Narmer control, Kahl, with the help of Daughter Entrati and the Tenno, has emerged as the Origin System's newest hero, intending to 'break Narmer' by freeing its captives, disrupting their operations and destroying their armies. Kahl is playable during weekly "Break Narmer" missions and features a more traditional cover shooter style of gameplay, in contrast to the fast movement and parkour of the Tenno. The expansion also introduces Kahl's Garrison, a camp on Earth founded by Kahl as both a base of operations and a settlement for any captives freed during Kahl's missions. Here, the player is able to customise Kahl with various colors, materials and armor pieces, as well as purchase items in exchange for Stock, a trading currency collected from completing challenges during "Break Narmer" missions. Veilbreaker also introduces Archon Hunts, difficult missions where players must hunt down and defeat the Archons, monstrous Sentient-Warframe hybrids created during the Old War, previously fought as bosses during the New War quest. Veilbreaker also made several quality-of-life changes to certain game functions, introduced the 50th Warframe, the Spartan-inspired Styanax, and distributed him for free for a limited time between 7 and 21 September to celebrate this milestone.


title: Warframe

text: "Warframe" received "mixed or average reviews" on the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and PC, while the Nintendo Switch and PlayStation 5 versions received "generally favorable reviews", according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. GameZone's Mike Splechta said of the PlayStation 4 version, "If you already enjoy games like "Monster Hunter" which require you to farm for items in order to craft better ones, "Warframe" follows that very same formula, except with much more satisfying and faster-paced combat." However, as of 2018 "PC Gamer" said that "Warframe's growth doesn't resemble a well-tended plant—it's more like a mutant science experiment. Game systems are haphazardly stitched onto one other in ways that are sometimes incoherent, but oddly charming all the same."


title: Warframe

text: The game is one of the most-played games available on Steam. Digital Extremes attributes the success of the title by being a F2P game. Digital Extremes describes the game as a "rogue success", as the game is able to secure and sustain a large number of players without gaining significant attention from other people. More than 26 million players had played the game since launch by April 2016, and by March 2018, five years from its open beta, had reached 38 million players. The game had nearly 50 million players by the time of its sixth anniversary. In July 2016, Digital Extremes launched its first "Warframe"-dedicated convention, "TennoCon", in London, Ontario, drawing 1000 players, where they announced news of upcoming features and updates to the game. Digital Extremes have been running the event annually ever since.


title: Warframe

text: The game was nominated for "Best Ongoing Game" at The Game Awards 2017, and won the People's Voice Award for "Action" at the 2018 Webby Awards. It was also nominated for the "Still Playing Award" at the 2018 Golden Joystick Awards, and for "Fan Favorite Shooter Game" and "Fan Favorite Fall Release" with "Fortuna" at the Gamers' Choice Awards. At the 2019 Webby Awards, the game again won the Peoples Voice Awards for "Action Game" and "Best Sound Design". It was nominated for "Best Game Expansion" with "Empyrean" and for the "Still Playing" award at the 2019 Golden Joystick Awards.


title: Roh Jeong-eui

text: Roh Jeong-eui (born July 31, 2001) is a South Korean actress. She is known for her role as Dong-i in 2016 film "Phantom Detective", Hong Si-a in "18 Again" (2020), and NJ in "Our Beloved Summer" (2021-22).


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Mohamed Mohamed Morsi Eissa al-Ayyat (; ; 8 August 1951 – 17 June 2019) was an Egyptian politician, engineer and professor who served as the fifth president of Egypt, from 30 June 2012 to 3 July 2013, when General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi removed him from office in a coup d'état after protests in June. An Islamist affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood organisation, Morsi led the Freedom and Justice Party from 2011 to 2012.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi was born in El Adwah, Sharqia Governorate before studying metallurgical engineering at Cairo University and then materials science at the University of Southern California. He became an associate professor at California State University, Northridge from 1982 to 1985 before returning to Egypt to teach at Zagazig University. Associating with the Muslim Brotherhood, which was then barred from office under President Hosni Mubarak, Morsi stood as an independent candidate for the 2000 parliamentary elections. Following the Egyptian Revolution of 2011, which resulted in Mubarak's resignation, Morsi came to the forefront as head of the Freedom and Justice Party. It became the largest party in the 2011–12 parliamentary election and Morsi was elected president in the 2012 presidential election, making him the first and only Egyptian head of state or government chosen in an election by universal suffrage generally considered free and fair.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: As president, Morsi issued a temporary constitutional declaration in November 2012 that in effect granted him unlimited powers and the power to legislate without judicial oversight or review of his acts as a pre-emptive move against the expected dissolution of the second constituent assembly by the Mubarak-era judges. The new constitution that was then hastily finalised by the Islamist-dominated constitutional assembly, presented to the president, and scheduled for a referendum before the Supreme Constitutional Court could rule on the constitutionality of the assembly, was described by independent press agencies not aligned with the regime as an "Islamist coup". These issues, along with complaints of prosecutions of journalists and attacks on nonviolent demonstrators, led to the 2012 protests. As part of a compromise, Morsi rescinded the decrees. A new constitution was approved by approximately two-thirds of voters in the referendum, although turnout was less than a third of the electorate.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: In June 2013, protests calling for Morsi's resignation erupted. The military, backed by the political opposition and leading religious figures, stepped in and deposed Morsi in a coup. It suspended the constitution and appointed Adly Mansour as interim president. Pro-Morsi demonstrations were crushed, resulting in over 800 deaths. Egyptian prosecutors then charged Morsi with various crimes and sought the death penalty, a move denounced by Amnesty International as "a charade based on null and void procedures". His death sentence was overturned in November 2016 and a retrial ordered. Morsi died during trial on 17 June 2019 amid claims that he was being denied appropriate medical care while in custody.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Mohamed Morsi was born in the Sharqia Governorate, in northern Egypt, of modest provincial origin, in the village of El Adwah, north of Cairo, on 8 August 1951 during the final years of the Egyptian monarchy. His father was a farmer and his mother a housewife. He was the eldest of five brothers, and told journalists that he remembered being taken to school on the back of a donkey. In the late 1960s, he moved to Cairo to study at Cairo University, and earned a BSc in engineering with high honors in 1975. He fulfilled his military service in the Egyptian Army from 1975 to 1976, serving in the chemical warfare unit. He then resumed his studies at Cairo University and earned an MS in metallurgical engineering in 1978. After completing his master's degree, Morsi earned a government scholarship that enabled him to study in the United States. He received a PhD in materials science from the University of Southern California in 1982 with his dissertation on aluminium oxide.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: While living in the United States, Morsi became an assistant professor at California State University, Northridge from 1982 to 1985.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: In 1985, Morsi quit his job at CSUN and returned to Egypt, becoming a professor at Zagazig University, where he was appointed head of the engineering department. Morsi was a lecturer at Zagazig University's engineering department until 2010.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi was first elected to parliament in 2000. He served as a Member of Parliament from 2000 to 2005, officially as an independent candidate because the Brotherhood was technically barred from running candidates for office under President Hosni Mubarak. He was a member of the Guidance Office of the Muslim Brotherhood until the founding of the Freedom and Justice Party in 2011, at which point he was elected by the MB's Guidance Office to be the first president of the new party. While serving in this capacity in 2010, Morsi stated of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict that "the two-state solution is nothing but a delusion concocted by the brutal usurper of the Palestinian lands."


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi condemned the September 11 attacks as a "horrific crime against innocent civilians". However, he accused the United States of using the 9/11 attacks as a pretext for invading Afghanistan and Iraq, and claimed that the U.S. had not provided "evidence" that the attackers were Muslims. He also stated that the aircraft collision alone did not bring down the World Trade Center, suggesting something "happened from the inside." Such views are held by most Egyptians, including Egyptian liberals. His comments drew criticism in the United States.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi was arrested along with 24 other Muslim Brotherhood leaders on 28 January 2011. He escaped from prison in Cairo two days later. The break of Wadi el-Natroun Prison received widespread news coverage within hours of its occurrence, with some reports indicating the political prisoners were sprung from detention by "armed gangs" taking advantage of the chaos of the Egyptian Revolution.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Four years later, Morsi faced trial for his role in the prison break. He and 105 others were sentenced to death on 16 May 2015. The court of cassation overturned the death sentence on Morsi and five others and then ordered retrials.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: After Khairat El-Shater was disqualified from the 2012 presidential election, Morsi, who was initially nominated as a backup candidate, emerged as the new Muslim Brotherhood candidate. His campaign was supported by well-known Egyptian cleric Safwat Hegazi at a rally in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, the epicentre of Egyptian worker protests.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Following the first round of Egypt's first post-Mubarak presidential elections where exit polls suggested a 25.5 percent share of the vote for Morsi, he was officially announced as the president on 24 June 2012, following a subsequent run-off vote. Morsi supporters in Cairo's Tahrir Square celebrated, and angry outbursts occurred at the Egypt Election Authorities press conference when the result was announced. He came in slightly ahead of former Mubarak-era prime minister Ahmed Shafik and his campaign was noted for the Islamist character of its events. From the initial round of voting on 23 and 24 May 2012, Morsi had attempted to appeal to political liberals and minorities while portraying his rival Ahmed Shafik as a holdover from the Mubarak-era of secular moderation.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: On 30 May 2012, Morsi filed a lawsuit against Egyptian television presenter Tawfiq Okasha, accusing him of "intentional falsehoods and accusations that amount to defamation and slander." According to online newspaper "Egypt Independent", an English-language subsidiary of Egyptian daily "Al-Masry Al-Youm", Okasha spent three hours on 27 May 2012 criticizing the Muslim Brotherhood and Morsi on air. After Okasha aired a video allegedly depicting Tunisian Islamist extremists executing a Christian while asking "how will such people govern?", some analysts suggested that this was in reference to Morsi's Muslim Brotherhood party. The Tunisian government characterized the video as a farce in a harshly worded statement.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: On 24 June 2012, Morsi was announced as the winner of the election with 51.73 percent of the vote. Almost immediately afterward, he resigned from the presidency of the Freedom and Justice Party.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi said "no entity will be above the constitution" but did not spell out his vision for the army's status. He said the army's budget should be overseen by parliament but there would be a need for secrecy in specific areas. He promised to respect the Constitution of Egypt and said the Freedom & Justice Party would not "impose what we believe on people." He said Egyptians sought to live in a society in which all had equal rights. He also linked the 2011 revolution to an "Islamic awakening" in the Middle East.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi said Coptic Christians "are certainly just as Egyptian as I am, and have as much a right to this homeland as I do." He said freedom of religion is a right granted by Allah and "sharia" commands Muslims to respect the rights of non-Muslim compatriots. However, in real terms the situation of Egyptian religious minorities such as Shia Muslims and Christians steadily deteriorated during the rule of the Sunni Muslim Brotherhood government and affiliated with it president Morsi.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi also compared free markets to the Islamic system, but said Islam requires there to be an ethical component to ensure that the poor share in society's wealth.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi was sworn in on 30 June 2012, as Egypt's first democratically elected president. He succeeded Hosni Mubarak, who left the office of the President of Egypt vacant after being forced to resign on 11 February 2011.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi reconvened Parliament in its original form on 10 July 2012; this was expected to cause friction between him and the military officials who dissolved the legislature.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: Morsi sought to influence the drafting of a new constitution of Egypt, favoring a constitution which protects civil rights and enshrines Islamic law.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: In a speech to supporters in Cairo's Tahrir Square on 30 June 2012, Morsi briefly mentioned that he would work to free Omar Abdel-Rahman, convicted of the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Center in New York City, along with the many Egyptians who were arrested during the revolution. A Brotherhood spokesperson later said that the extradition was for humanitarian reasons and that Morsi did not intend to overturn Abdel-Rahman's criminal convictions.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: On 10 July 2012, Morsi reinstated the Islamist-dominated parliament that was disbanded by the Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt on 14 June 2012. According to Egypt's official news agency, Morsi ordered the immediate return of legislators elected in 2011, a majority of whom are members of Morsi's Freedom and Justice Party and other Islamist groups. A Morsi spokesman announced that the president-elect would appoint a Christian and a woman as vice-presidents, but eventually appointed Mahmoud Mekki, a Muslim man. On 22 December 2012, Mekki resigned.


title: Mohamed Morsi

text: After Kamal Ganzouri's resignation, Morsi tasked Hesham Qandil with forming the new government. On 2 August 2012, Qandil was sworn in as prime minister. Morsi also objected to a constitutional provision limiting presidential power.