title: Doris Miller

text: Miller served aboard the battleship , which was sunk by Japanese torpedo bombers during the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. During the attack, he helped several sailors who were wounded, and while manning an anti-aircraft machine gun for which he had no training, he shot down 4-6 Japanese planes. Miller's actions earned him the medal, and the resulting publicity for Miller in the Black press made him an iconic emblem of the fight for civil rights for Black Americans. In November 1943, Miller was killed while serving aboard the escort carrier when it was sunk by a Japanese submarine during the Battle of Makin in the Gilbert Islands.


title: Doris Miller

text: The destroyer escort/"Knox"-class frigate USS "Miller" (reclassified as a frigate in June 1975), in service from 1973 to 1991, was named after him. On January 19, 2020, the Navy announced that a "Gerald R. Ford"-class nuclear powered aircraft carrier, CVN-81, would be named after Miller. The ship is scheduled to be laid down in 2026 and launched in 2029.


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller was born in Waco, Texas, on October 12, 1919, to Connery and Henrietta Miller. He was named Doris, as the midwife who assisted his mother was convinced before his birth that the baby would be a girl. He was the third of four sons and helped around the house, cooked meals and did laundry, as well as working on the family farm. He was a fullback on the football team at Waco's Alexander James Moore High School. He began attending the eighth grade on January 25, 1937, at the age of 17; he repeated the grade the following year due to poor performance, so he decided to drop out of school. He filled his time squirrel hunting with a .22 rifle and completed a correspondence course in taxidermy. He applied to join the Civilian Conservation Corps, but was not accepted. At that time, he was tall and weighed more than . Miller worked on his father's farm until shortly before his 20th birthday.


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller's nickname "Dorie" may have originated from a typographical error. He was nominated for recognition for his actions on December 7, 1941, and the "Pittsburgh Courier" released a story on March 14, 1942, which gave his name as "Dorie Miller". Since then, some writers have suggested that it was a "nickname to shipmates and friends".


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller enlisted in the U.S. Navy as a mess attendant third class at the Naval Recruiting Station in Dallas, Texas, for six years on September 16, 1939. Mess attendant was one of the few ratings open at the time to black sailors. He was transferred to the Naval Training Center, Naval Operating Base, Norfolk, Virginia, arriving on September 19. After training school, he was assigned to the ammunition ship (AE-1) and then transferred on January 2, 1940, to the "Colorado"-class battleship "West Virginia" (BB-48). It was on "West Virginia" where he started competition boxing, becoming the ship's heavyweight champion. In July, he was on temporary duty aboard (BB-36) at Secondary Battery Gunnery School. He returned to "West Virginia" on August 3. He advanced in rating to mess attendant second class on February 16, 1941.


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller woke up at 6 a.m. on December 7, 1941, aboard "West Virginia". He served breakfast mess and was collecting laundry at 7:57 a.m. when planes from the fired the first of seven torpedoes that hit "West Virginia". The "battle stations" alarm went off; Miller headed for his battle station, an anti-aircraft battery magazine amidships, only to discover that a torpedo had destroyed it.


title: Doris Miller

text: He went then to "Times Square" on deck, a central spot aboard the ship where the fore-to-aft and port-to-starboard passageways crossed, reporting himself available for other duty and was assigned to help carry wounded sailors to places of greater safety. Lieutenant Commander Doir C. Johnson, the ship's communications officer, spotted Miller and saw his physical prowess, so he ordered him to accompany him to the conning tower on the flag bridge to assist in moving the ship's captain, Mervyn Bennion, who had a gaping wound in his abdomen where he had apparently been hit by shrapnel after the first Japanese attack. Miller and another sailor lifted the skipper, but were unable to remove him from the bridge, so they carried him on a cot from his exposed position on the damaged bridge to a sheltered spot on the deck behind the conning tower where he remained during the second Japanese attack. Captain Bennion refused to leave his post, questioned his officers and men about the condition of the ship, and gave orders and instructions to crew members to defend the ship and fight. Unable to go to the deck below because of smoke and flames, he was carried up a ladder to the navigation bridge, where he died from blood loss despite the aid from a pharmacist mate. He was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.


title: Doris Miller

text: Lieutenant Frederic H. White had ordered Miller to help him and Ensign Victor Delano load the unmanned number 1 and number 2 Browning .50 caliber anti-aircraft machine guns aft of the conning tower. Miller was not familiar with the weapon, but White and Delano instructed him on how to operate it. Delano expected Miller to feed ammunition to one gun, but his attention was diverted and, when he looked again, Miller was firing one of the guns. White then loaded ammunition into both guns and assigned Miller the starboard gun.


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller fired the gun until he ran out of ammunition, whereupon he was ordered by Lieutenant Claude V. Ricketts to help carry the captain up to the navigation bridge out of the thick oily smoke generated by the many fires on and around the ship; Miller was officially credited with downing at least two hostile planes. "I think I got one of those Jap planes. They were diving pretty close to us," he said later. Japanese aircraft eventually dropped two armor-piercing bombs through the deck of the battleship and launched five 18-inch (460 mm) aircraft torpedoes into her port side. When the attack finally lessened, Miller helped move injured sailors through oil and water to the quarterdeck, thereby "unquestionably saving the lives of a number of people who might otherwise have been lost".


title: Doris Miller

text: The ship was heavily damaged by bombs, torpedoes, and resulting explosions & fires, but the crew prevented her from capsizing by counter-flooding a number of compartments. Instead, "West Virginia" sank to the harbor bottom in shallow water as her surviving crew abandoned ship, including Miller; the ship was later raised and restored for continued service in the war. On "West Virginia", 132 men were killed and 52 were wounded from the Japanese attack. On December 13, Miller reported to the heavy cruiser (CA-35).


title: Doris Miller

text: On January 1, 1942, the Navy released a list of commendations for actions on December 7. Among them was a single commendation for an unnamed black man. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had asked President Franklin D. Roosevelt to award the Distinguished Service Cross to the unknown black sailor. The Navy Board of Awards received a recommendation that the sailor be considered for recognition. On March 12, an Associated Press story named Miller as the sailor, citing the African-American newspaper "Pittsburgh Courier"; additional news reports credited Lawrence D. Reddick with learning the name through correspondence with the Navy Department. In the following days, Senator James M. Mead (D-NY) introduced a Senate bill [] to award Miller the Medal of Honor, and Representative John D. Dingell, Sr. (D-MI) introduced a matching House bill [].


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller was recognized as one of the "first US heroes of World War II". He was commended in a letter signed by Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox on April 1, and the next day, CBS Radio broadcast an episode of the series "They Live Forever," which dramatized Miller's actions.


title: Doris Miller

text: Black organizations began a campaign to honor Miller with additional recognition. On April 4, the "Pittsburgh Courier" urged readers to write to members of the congressional Naval Affairs Committee in support of awarding the Medal of Honor to Miller. The All-Southern Negro Youth Conference launched a signature campaign on April 17–19. On May 10, the National Negro Congress denounced Knox's recommendation against awarding Miller the Medal of Honor. On May 11, President Roosevelt approved the Navy Cross for Miller.


title: Doris Miller

text: On May 27, Miller was personally recognized by Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet, aboard the aircraft carrier (CV-6) at anchor in Pearl Harbor. Nimitz presented Miller with the Navy Cross, at the time the third-highest Navy award for gallantry during combat, after the Medal of Honor and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal; on August 7, 1942, Congress revised the order of precedence, placing the Navy Cross above the Distinguished Service Medal in precedence.


title: Doris Miller

text: Nimitz said of Miller's commendation, "This marks the first time in this conflict that such high tribute has been made in the Pacific Fleet to a member of his race and I'm sure that the future will see others similarly honored for brave acts."


title: Doris Miller

text: Miller advanced in rating to mess attendant first class on June 1, 1942. On June 27, the "Pittsburgh Courier" called for him to be allowed to return home for a war bond tour along with white war heroes. On July 25, the "Pittsburgh Courier" ran a photo of Miller with the caption "He Fought... Keeps Mop" next to a photo of a white survivor of the Pearl Harbor attack receiving an officer's commission. The photo caption stated that the Navy felt that Miller was "too important waiting tables in the Pacific" for him to return to the United States.


title: Doris Miller

text: On November 23, Miller returned to Pearl Harbor and was ordered on a war bond tour while still attached to "Indianapolis". In December, and January 1943, he gave presentations in Oakland, California, in his hometown of Waco, in Dallas, and to the first graduating class of black sailors from Great Lakes Naval Training Station. He was featured on the 1943 Navy recruiting poster "Above and beyond the call of duty", designed by David Stone Martin.


title: Doris Miller

text: In February 1943, "mess attendant" was changed to the "steward's mate" rate title by the Navy. On May 15, Miller reported to Puget Sound Navy Yard at Bremerton, Washington, assigned to the newly constructed escort carrier (CVE-56). He was advanced in rating to cook third class on June 1. The ship had a crew of 960 men, and its primary functions were to serve as a convoy escort, to provide aircraft for close air support during amphibious landing operations, and to ferry aircraft to naval bases and fleet carriers at sea. The "Liscome Bay" was the flagship for Carrier Division 24 which was under the command of Rear Admiral Henry M. Mullinnix. On October 22, "Liscome Bay" set sail for Pearl Harbor.


title: Doris Miller

text: After training in Hawaii waters, "Liscome Bay" left Pearl Harbor on November 10, 1943, to join the Northern Task Force, Task Group 52. Miller's carrier took part in the Battle of Makin (invasion of Makin by units of the Army's 165th Regimental Combat Team, 27th Infantry Division) which had begun on November 20. On November 24, the day after Makin was captured by American soldiers and the eve of Thanksgiving that year (the cooks had broken out the frozen turkeys from Pearl Harbor), "Liscome Bay" was cruising near Butaritari (Makin Atoll's main island) when it was struck just before dawn in the stern by a torpedo from the (which fired four torpedoes at Task Group 5312). The carrier's own torpedoes and aircraft bombs, including 2,000-pounders, detonated a few moments later, causing the ship to sink in 23 minutes. There were 272 survivors from the crew of over 900, but Miller was among the two-thirds of the crew listed as "presumed dead". His parents were informed that he was missing in action on December 7, 1943. "Liscome Bay" was the only ship lost in the Gilbert Islands operation.


title: Doris Miller

text: A memorial service was held for Miller on April 30, 1944, at the Second Baptist Church in Waco, Texas, sponsored by the Victory Club. On May 28, a granite marker was dedicated at Moore High School in Waco to honor him. Miller was officially declared dead by the Navy on November 25, 1944, a year and a day after the loss of "Liscome Bay". One of his brothers also served during World War II.


title: Doris Miller

text: For distinguished devotion to duty, extraordinary courage and disregard for his own personal safety during the attack on the Fleet in Pearl Harbor, Territory of Hawaii, by Japanese forces on December 7, 1941. While at the side of his Captain on the bridge, Miller, despite enemy strafing and bombing and in the face of a serious fire, assisted in moving his Captain, who had been mortally wounded, to a place of greater safety, and later manned and operated a machine gun directed at enemy Japanese attacking aircraft until ordered to leave the bridge.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa () is an Italian luxury brand of scooters and mopeds manufactured by Piaggio. The name means wasp in Italian. The Vespa has evolved from a single model motor scooter manufactured in 1946 by Piaggio & Co. S.p.A. of Pontedera, Italy to a full line of scooters and one of seven companies today owned by Piaggio.


title: Vespa

text: From their inception, Vespa scooters have been known for their painted, pressed steel unibody which combines, in a unified structural unit, a complete cowling for the engine (enclosing the engine mechanism and concealing dirt or grease), a flat floorboard (providing foot protection), and a prominent front fairing (providing wind protection).


title: Vespa

text: After World War II, in light of its agreement to cease war activities with the Allies, Italy had its aircraft industry severely restricted in both capability and capacity.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio emerged from the conflict with its Pontedera bomber plane plant demolished by bombing. Italy's crippled economy, and the disastrous state of its roads, were not immediately conducive to the re-development of the automobile market. Enrico Piaggio, the son of Piaggio's founder Rinaldo Piaggio, decided to leave the aeronautical field in order to address Italy's urgent need for a modern and affordable mode of transportation for the masses.


title: Vespa

text: In 1944, Piaggio engineers Renzo Spolti and Vittorio Casini designed a motorcycle with bodywork fully enclosing the drivetrain and forming a tall splash guard at the front. In addition to the bodywork, the design included handlebar-mounted controls, forced air cooling, wheels of small diameter, and a tall central section that had to be straddled. Officially known as the MP5 ("Moto Piaggio no. 5"), the prototype was nicknamed "Paperino" (meaning "Donald Duck" in Italian).


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio was displeased with the MP5, especially the tall central section. He contracted aeronautical engineer Corradino D'Ascanio, to redesign the scooter. D'Ascanio, who had earlier been consulted by Ferdinando Innocenti about scooter design and manufacture, made it immediately known that he hated motorcycles, believing them to be bulky, dirty, and unreliable.


title: Vespa

text: D'Ascanio's MP6 prototype had its engine mounted beside the rear wheel. The wheel was driven directly from the transmission, eliminating the drive chain and the oil and dirt associated with it. The prototype had a unit spar frame with stress-bearing steel outer panels. These changes allowed the MP6 to have a step-through design instead of a tall centre section like that of the MP5 Paperino. The MP6 design also included a single-sided front suspension, interchangeable front and rear wheels mounted on stub axles, and a spare wheel. Other features of the MP6 were similar to those on the Paperino, including the handlebar-mounted controls and the enclosed bodywork with the tall front splash guard.


title: Vespa

text: Upon seeing the MP6 for the first time, Enrico Piaggio exclaimed: "Sembra una vespa!" ("It looks like a wasp!") Piaggio effectively named his new scooter on the spot. "Vespa" is both Latin and Italian for wasp—derived from the vehicle's body shape: the thicker rear part connected to the front part by a narrow waist, and the steering rod resembled antennae.


title: Vespa

text: On 23 April 1946, at 12 o'clock in the central office for inventions, models and makes of the Ministry of Industry and Commerce in Florence, Piaggio e C. S.p.A. took out a patent for a "motorcycle of a rational complexity of organs and elements combined with a frame with mudguards and a casing covering the whole mechanical part".


title: Vespa

text: The basic patented design allowed a series of features to be deployed on the spar-frame that would later allow quick development of new models. The original Vespa featured a rear pillion seat for a passenger, or optionally a storage compartment. The original front protection "shield" was a flat piece of aero metal; later, this developed into a twin skin to allow additional storage behind the front shield, similar to the glove compartment in a car. The fuel cap was located underneath the (hinged) seat, which saved the cost of an additional lock on the fuel cap or need for additional metal work on the smooth skin.


title: Vespa

text: The scooter had rigid rear suspension and small wheels that allowed a compact design and plenty of room for the rider's legs. The Vespa's enclosed, horizontally mounted 98 cc two-stroke engine acted directly on the rear drive wheel through a three-speed transmission. The twistgrip-controlled gear change involved a system of rods. The early engine had no forced-air cooling, but fan blades were soon attached to the magneto-flywheel (which houses the points and generates electricity for accessories and for the engine's spark) to push air over the cylinder's cooling fins. The modern Vespa engine is still cooled this way.


title: Vespa

text: The MP6 prototype had large grilles on the front and rear of the rear fender covering the engine. This was done to allow air in to cool the engine, as the prototype did not have fan cooling. A cooling fan similar to that used on the MP5 "Paperino" prototype was included in the design of the production Vespa, and the grilles were removed from the fender.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio filed a patent for the Vespa scooter design in April 1946. The application documents referred to a "model of a practical nature" for a "motorcycle with rationally placed parts and elements with a frame combining with mudguards and engine-cowling covering all working parts", of which "the whole constitutes a rational, comfortable motorcycle offering protection from mud and dust without jeopardizing requirements of appearance and elegance". The patent was approved the following December.


title: Vespa

text: The first 13 examples appeared in spring 1946, and revealed their aeronautical background. In the first examples, one can recognize the typical aircraft technology. Attention to aerodynamics is evident in all the design, in particular on the tail. It was also one of the first vehicles to use monocoque construction (where the body is an integral part of the chassis).


title: Vespa

text: The company was aiming to manufacture the new Vespa in large numbers, and their longstanding industrial experience led to an efficient Ford-style volume production line. The scooter was presented to the press at Rome Golf Club, where journalists were apparently mystified by the strange, pastel coloured, toy-like object on display. However, the road tests were encouraging, and even with no rear suspension the machine was more manoeuvrable and comfortable to ride than a traditional motorcycle.


title: Vespa

text: Following its public debut at the 1946 Milan Fair, the first fifty sold slowly. With the introduction of payment by installments, sales took off.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio sold some 2,500 Vespas in 1947, over 10,000 in 1948, 20,000 in 1949, and over 60,000 in 1950.


title: Vespa

text: The biggest sales promo ever was Hollywood. In 1952, Audrey Hepburn side-saddled Gregory Peck's Vespa in the feature film "Roman Holiday" for a ride through Rome, resulting in over 100,000 sales. In 1956, John Wayne dismounted his horse in favor of the two-wheeler to originally get between takes on sets. as well as Marlon Brando, Dean Martin, and the entertainer Abbe Lane had become Vespa owners. William Wyler filmed "Ben Hur" in Rome in 1959, allowing Charlton Heston to abandon horse and chariot between takes to take a spin on the Vespa.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa clubs popped up throughout Europe, and by 1952, worldwide Vespa Club membership had surpassed 50,000. By the mid-1950s, Vespas were being manufactured under licence in Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Belgium and Spain; in the 1960s, production was started in India, Brazil and Indonesia. By 1956, one million had been sold, then two million by 1960. By the 1960s, the Vespa—originally conceived as a utility vehicle—had come to symbolize freedom and imagination, and resulted in further sales boosts: four million by 1970, and ten million by the late 1980s.


title: Vespa

text: Improvements were made to the original design and new models were introduced. The 1948 Vespa 125 had rear suspension and a bigger engine. The headlamp was moved up to the handlebars in 1953 and had more engine power and a restyled rear fairing. A cheaper spartan version was also available. One of the best-loved models was the Vespa 150 GS introduced in 1955 with a 150 cc engine, a long saddle, and the faired handlebar-headlamp unit. Then came the 50 cc of 1963, and in 1968 Vespa 125 Primavera became one of the most durable of all.


title: Vespa

text: Vespas came in two sizes, referred to as "largeframe" and "smallframe". The smallframe scooters came in 50 cc, 90 cc, 100 cc, and 125 cc versions, all using an engine derived from the 50 cc model of 1963, and the largeframe scooters in 125 cc, 150 cc, 160 cc, 180 cc, and 200 cc displacements using engines derived from the redesigned 125 cc VNA engine from 1957.


title: Vespa

text: The largeframe Vespa evolved into the PX range in the late 1970s and was produced in 125, 150 and 200 cc versions until July 2007. Starting in 1981, an 80cc version was available as well. Piaggio reintroduced the PX 125 and 150 models in 2011, with a revised EURO3 compliant engine.


title: Vespa

text: The smallframe evolved into the PK range in the early 1980s, although some vintage-styled smallframes were produced for the Japanese market as late as the mid-1990s.


title: Vespa

text: The ET model range stuck true to the wasp/aero design principles. It was lighter, more aerodynamic, had an automatic gearbox and could take a series of engines from a 50 cc in either two-stroke or four-stroke, up to a 150 cc four stroke.


title: Vespa

text: In 1959 Piaggio came under the control of the Agnelli family, the owners of car maker Fiat S.p.A. Vespa thrived until 1992 when Giovanni Alberto Agnelli became CEO, but Agnelli was already suffering from cancer and died in 1997. In 1999 Morgan Grenfell Private Equity acquired Piaggio, but a quickly hoped-for sale was dashed by a failed joint venture in China.


title: Vespa

text: By 2003, the company found itself close to bankruptcy. Continual management changes and great sums spent on many different plans and products had saddled Piaggio with debt and left it vulnerable to competition from cheaper Asian rivals. Despite this, the brand was still well-known and products like the Vespa ET4 were gaining positive publicity. In October 2003 Roberto Colaninno made an initial investment of €100 million through his holding company Immsi S.p.A. in exchange for just under a third of Piaggio and the mandate to run it. Chief executive Rocco Sabelli redesigned the factory to Japanese principles so that every Piaggio scooter could be made on any assembly line.


title: Vespa

text: In 2004, the company introduced a gas-electric hybrid scooter and a scooter with two wheels at the front and one at the back.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio acquired scooter and motorcycle maker Aprilia in 2006 and in that same year Piaggio shares were launched onto the Borsa Italiana with the listing symbol PIAGF.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio first came back into the market in 2001 with the ET2 (two stroke 50 cc) and ET4 (four stroke 150 cc). In 2004, the PX (model year 2005) was re-introduced to North America to meet market demand for the classic Vespa design. Growth in the US market and worldwide environmental concerns meant a need for larger and cleaner engines, so Vespa developed the LEADER (Low Emissions ADvanced Engine Range) series of four-stroke engines. The larger Granturismo frame, with larger wheels, was introduced to handle the additional power. The bike in 2006 spawned the iconic GTS-250ie version, with an upgraded suspension and the new QUASAR (QUArter-liter Smooth Augmented Range) 250 cc fuel-injected engine, capable of 80+ mph. As of the end of 2010 the GTS 250 has been replaced by the GTS 300 which has a 278cc fuel - injected engine. In 2005, the ET was withdrawn from Europe and North America and replaced by a new small-frame scooter, the LX range. These were available in the US in 50 cc and 150 cc versions, while Europeans could choose a 50 cc, 125 cc and 150 cc.


title: Vespa

text: In recent years, many urban commuters have purchased new or restored Vespas. A shortage of available parking for automobiles in large urban areas and the Vespa's low running costs are two reasons for the increase in Vespa (and other scooter) popularity. The cultural use of the scooter as a recreational vehicle with a sub-cultural following in the US, Canada and parts of Europe and Japan has also contributed to the rise in Vespa ownership. In contrast, the Vespa is considered a utilitarian vehicle for hauling products and sometimes up to 5 family members in much of Asia and Mexico.


title: Vespa

text: This resurgence in interest in vintage motor scooters has also spawned a scooter restoration industry, with many restored Vespas being exported from Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia to the rest of the world.


title: Vespa

text: There is a Piaggio Museum & Gift Shop adjacent to the plant in central Pontedera, near Pisa, Tuscany. The permanent exhibition includes those items which toured venues such as the Guggenheim in New York and the Centre Pompidou in Paris. Also on display is a model personally customised by Salvador Dalí in 1962.


title: Vespa

text: The Miami Auto Museum in North Miami, Florida, claims to have largest collection of Vespa scooters with over 400 items.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa's largest market by all measures globally is still Italy, but as a result of the Mod subculture that developed in the 1960s, the United Kingdom is still Vespa's second largest global market—and at one point in the 1960s, its largest. The appeal of the Vespa to the style-conscious mods was the weather protection. Their counterparts, the rockers rode classic British motorcycles such as Triumph Bonneville and BSAs, and needed to wear leathers against the elements. Mods would modify their Vespas, adding lights, mascots, accessories, various racks and crash bars. A new lifestyle evolved in the UK, with thousands attending scooter rallies.


title: Vespa

text: The dominance of the Vespa declined through the 1970s, as small car ownership increased and cheap and reliable commuter bikes like the Honda Super Cub hit sales. Despite the introduction of the more modern 'P' range in the 1970s, the lack of development cost Vespa, and like other markets, the sales fell off drastically in the economic boom of the 1980s. Then Vespa introduced the trendy automatic ET2, the city of London introduced the congestion charge and—partly with celebrity chef Jamie Oliver's indirect help from his BBC2 TV series—sales suddenly leapt.


title: Vespa

text: Much as Vespa had used the Cushman Army scooter as inspiration for its original design, Vespa in turn made scooters for Sears, Roebuck & Company (labeled and marketed as "Allstate" scooters) and Cushman after World War II.


title: Vespa

text: Imported by Morton Colby of Colby General Tire Company, 662 East Fordham Road, Bronx, New York, the Sears models were 3- and 4-speed 125 cc Vespas rebadged as Sears Allstate Cruiseaires. Innocenti also distributed their Lambretta brand via Montgomery Ward's catalogue during this post-World War II period. These were the premier brands of scooters, bringing premium pricing to many, including farmers, whose link to the outside world was via purchases made in these catalogues. Cushman sold rebadged Vespa scooters as Cushmans, but many Cushman dealers refused to market a "foreign" machine. However, collectors prize the Cushman Vespa because it is relatively rare.


title: Vespa

text: Two expensive product-liability lawsuits, increased competition from Japanese scooters, and certain states' passing so-called "green laws" led to the bankruptcy of Vespa's American importer and the withdrawal of Vespa from the US market in late 1981.


title: Vespa

text: During 1981–2001, despite an absence of United States domestic sales, Vespas continued to have a core group of enthusiasts who kept vintage scooters on the road by rebuilding, restoring, and adding performance-enhancing engine parts as the stock parts would wear out.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa returned to the American market in 2001 with a new, more modern style ET series, in 50 cc two and four stroke, and 150 cc four-stroke. "These adjustments in engine power and the production of high-end “touring” Vespas make it apt for long-distance driving." According to the Motorcycle Industry Council, U.S. scooter sales increased fivefold over six years, swelling from 12,000 units in 1997 to 69,000 units in 2002. Vespa sales in the U.S. increased 27 percent between 2001 and 2002. The 65 "Vespa Boutiques" scattered throughout the U.S. gave scooterists a place to buy, service, and customize Vespa scooters, and outfit themselves in everything from Vespa watches and helmets to Vespa jackets, T-shirts, and sunglasses. Vespa restarted its American sales effort, opening its first boutique on Ventura Boulevard in Sherman Oaks, California.


title: Vespa

text: In light of vastly-increasing US sales, Vespa developed the GT, offered as a 200 cc four-stroke and a 125 cc variant in Europe. In 2004, Vespa reintroduced a modernized PX 150 to the United States. In the fall of 2005, Piaggio offered their largest-selling Vespa scooter ever, the 250 cc-engined GTS250, available in Europe with ABS. In 2009, Vespa released the GTS 300 which can cruise at .


title: Vespa

text: Vespa have exported Scooters to Australia since the 1960s. They have recently started exporting to India for the first time (traditionally, that market was served by licensed Indian versions of the Vespa made by LML and Bajaj). Vespa produces some of its scooters in Vietnam, and has also sold its Italian ones there.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa scooters were sold beyond Europe and North America. When expanding into these markets it was common for Vespa to partner with, or license certain models to, existing manufacturers.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio first licensed the production of Vespa scooters in India to Bajaj Auto in the 1960s. In 1971, Piaggio's license was not renewed as a part of then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's privatization programs. After the collaboration ended, Bajaj continued to produce scooters based on the Vespa design, namely the Chetak.


title: Vespa

text: Another Vespa partner in India was that of LML Motors. Beginning as a joint-venture with Piaggio in 1983, LML, in addition to being a large parts supplier for Piaggio, produced the P-Series scooters for the Indian market. In 1999, after protracted dispute with Piaggio, LML bought back Piaggio's stake in the company and the partnership ceased. LML continued to produce (and also exported) the P-Series variant known as the Stella in the U.S. market and by other names in different markets. LML Factory which produced these P-Series variants issued a notice of insolvency on 2 June 2017 and closed down permanently in 2018.


title: Vespa

text: In the 2012 Auto Expo held in New Delhi, the iconic Vespa re-entered the Indian market. Piaggio unveiled its range of scooters at the Expo. This became the first such venture of Piaggio in India without a local partner.


title: Vespa

text: Danmotor Vespa Indonesia (DMVI) was a joint venture between Indonesian interests and the East Asiatic Company, which was based in Denmark. Between 1972 and 2001, it produced Vespas under licence for the Indonesian market.


title: Vespa

text: In 1976 approximately 40,000 units were produced giving DMVI the third biggest share of the Indonesian scooter market. Government tax incentives allowed these scooters to be exported to Thailand at less than the domestic market price, so that they would be economically competitive.


title: Vespa

text: DMVI only built 90 and 150cc models. From 1972 onwards the company was located at a purpose-built factory in Pulo Gadung. This was greatly expanded in 1977 to also manufacture sub-components, following a government decree that a higher domestically-built proportion of these should be used. Sub-components were also bought from other Indonesian manufacturers after their quality had been approved by Piaggio.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa has had various partnerships and presence in Taiwan. In 1965, Taiwan Vespa Co. Ltd was licensed for Vespa scooter production. From 1972 to 1982, Vespa entered into a collaboration with scooter manufacturer PGO. In 1978, Vespa entered into a collaboration with TGB, which to some extent, continues to this day (namely with CVT transmission production).


title: Vespa

text: In 1951, the financially troubled motorcycle manufacturer Douglas started production of Piaggio licensed Vespa scooters in Bristol, with a market to include some Commonwealth countries as well as the UK. It was a year which also saw the first meeting of the newly-formed Vespa scooter clubs with nearly 20,000 riders showing up for the event. Westinghouse took over Douglas in 1955, and while motorcycle production was stopped in 1957, Vespa production in Britain continued until 1965.


title: Vespa

text: Douglas was more than a simple assembly plant for parts imported from Piaggio; many of the models made by Douglas had a high percentage of content manufactured by Douglas ("eg cylinder heads, gear clusters, brake drums and other mechanical parts") or by UK supply companies ("eg seats, carburetors, tyres, and some electrical components were made in the UK"). Models made by Douglas were primarily the Vespa 125 and 150 (VBB).


title: Vespa

text: Douglas produced Vespas which were often outdated compared to current Italian models. Douglas failed to meet the production numbers hoped for by Piaggio, though after production ceased in 1965, Douglas remained the UK importer for Vespa scooters until its demise in 1982.


title: Vespa

text: In 1953 a factory in Madrid began production of Motovespas, production continued until 2000. The factory was demolished in 2001.


title: Vespa

text: Between 1956 and 1966 an unauthorised, reverse-engineered version of the Vespa was built and sold in the USSR by Vyatka. This was withdrawn after protests by Piaggio.


title: Vespa

text: In the 1950s and early 1960s, Vespa and Lambretta scooters were raced competitively against motorcycles, often winning the races. In the mid-1960s, motorcycle engines became larger and faster, and a gap was created—along with varying cc classifications. Since the 1980s, Vespa and Lambretta racing has grown into a serious sport in the United States. There are various classes in the United States, depending on the racing association. They are generally:


title: Vespa

text: There have been 34 different versions of the Vespa. Today five series are in production: the classic manual transmission PX and the modern CVT transmission S, LX, GT, and GTS.


title: Vespa

text: The Vespa 946 is a scooter announced by Piaggio, to be sold under their Vespa brand starting in July 2013. Piaggio presented the retro-futurist Vespa Quarantasei concept, based on the 1945 Vespa MP6 prototype, at the 2011 EICMA motorcycle show. The final production version, renamed the Vespa 946, appeared the following year, at EICMA 2012. The 946 will be fitted with Piaggio's new air-cooled, three-valve, single-cylinder engine, with a claimed output of for the displacement version, and for the version.


title: Vespa

text: Vespa Elettrica with a 2 kW battery and a range of . There will be an hybrid option as well with a range of 200 km. Piaggio started production in September 2018 and it was released at the beginning of 2019.


title: Vespa

text: Piaggio/Vespa is developing a range of hybrid scooters. Two models are being developed at present, based on the Vespa LX 50 and the Piaggio X8 125.


title: Simon Pegg filmography

text: Simon Pegg is an English actor, comedian, screenwriter, and producer. He came to public prominence in the UK as the co-creator of the sitcom "Spaced", directed by Edgar Wright. He went on to co-write and star in the "Three Flavours Cornetto" film trilogy: "Shaun of the Dead" (2004), "Hot Fuzz" (2007), and "The World's End" (2013). He and frequent collaborator Nick Frost wrote and starred in the sci-fi film "Paul" (2011). He is also known for the role of Montgomery "Scotty" Scott in the "Star Trek" reboot film series "Star Trek" (2009), "Star Trek Into Darkness" (2013), "Star Trek Beyond" (2016).


title: Simon Pegg filmography

text: He first appeared as Benji Dunn in the third installment film "" (2006), and went on to reprise the role in "" (2011), "" (2015), "" (2018), and the upcoming films "" (2023) and "" (2024). He has lent his voice to the animated character Buck in the ""Ice Age" film series", namely "" (2009), "Scrat's Continental Crack-up" (2011), "" (2016), and "The Ice Age Adventures of Buck Wild" (2022), the latter of which made him the only cast member to reprise a role from previous films.


title: Simon Pegg filmography

text: As a director he has only one credit, directing the parody music video "Au Revoir Chris Hemsworth", which is a parody of the song "Chick Habit". The song was sung by Pom Klementieff and it was written for the Russo Brother's AGBO Superhero League Week.


title: Head cheese

text: Head cheese (Dutch: "hoofdkaas") or brawn is a cold cut terrine or meat jelly that originated in Europe. It is made with flesh from the head of a calf or pig (less commonly a sheep or cow), typically set in aspic, and usually eaten cold, at room temperature, or in a sandwich. Despite its name the dish is not a cheese and contains no dairy products. The parts of the head used vary, and may include the tongue and sometimes the feet and heart but do not commonly include the brain, eyes or ears. Trimmings from more commonly eaten cuts of pork and veal are often used, with gelatin added as a binder.


title: Head cheese

text: Variations of head cheese exist throughout Europe and the rest of the world, with differences in construction and ingredients. A version pickled with vinegar is known as "souse". Historically, meat jellies were made of the head of an animal, less its organs, which would be simmered to produce a naturally gelatinous stock that would congeal as the dish cooled. Meat jellies made this way were commonly a peasant food and have been made since the Middle Ages. Modern head cheese recipes may require additional gelatin, or more often need to be reduced to set properly.


title: Head cheese

text: The English term "head cheese" is a calque derived from the Dutch word "hoofdkaas", which literally translates to "head cheese". The term "hoofdkaas" can be divided into "hoofd" (head) originating from the animal heads commonly used to prepare the dish, and "kaas" (cheese) describing the texture, which resembles that of cheese.


title: Head cheese

text: The term "head cheese" is used in North America, "potted heid" in Scotland, "brawn" elsewhere in Britain and Australia. The term "souse", a corruption of the German "Sülze", is used for the pickled variety in North America and the West Indies.


title: Head cheese

text: South Africa: Known as "sult" in Afrikaans and "brawn" in South African English. It is often flavoured with curry.


title: Head cheese

text: Iran: a common dish for breakfast known as "ckallepache" Or according to common culture kallapch serves in special restaurant: kallepazi. Cooked head of sheep marinated in its oil and cinnamon. Iranians eat it as a heavy dish from about 5:00am


title: Head cheese

text: China: In certain parts of Northern China, such as Beijing, 'pig head meat' is cooked and thinly sliced and served at room temperature. In the Southern parts of China, "Xiao Rou" (肴肉) is made by boning and pickling pig trotters with brine and alum. The meat is then rolled, pressed and eaten cold. In northeastern China, a jellied pork skin dish is often made and served with a spicy soy sauce and vinegar mixture with crushed garlic and red chili powder.


title: Head cheese

text: Korea: In Korean cuisine, a similar dish, "pyeonyuk" (편육), is made by pressing meat, usually from the head of the pig. It is eaten as "anju" (dishes associated with alcoholic beverages) or used for "janchi" (잔치, for feast or banquet).


title: Head cheese

text: Vietnam: In Vietnam around "Tết", "giò thủ" is made for New Year celebrations. It is a traditional snack made of fresh pork belly, pig's ears, garlic, scallions, onions, black fungus (mushrooms), fish sauce, and cracked black pepper. Traditionally, "giò thủ" (pork head meat pie) is wrapped in banana leaves and compressed in a wooden mold until the gelatin in the pig's ears makes it stick together.


title: Head cheese

text: In Australia, it is known as "brawn" or "Presswurst". It is usually seen as something of an old-fashioned dish, although various large firms, such as D'Orsogna, Don Smallgoods and KR Castlemaine produce it.


title: Head cheese

text: Souse is pickled meat and trimmings usually made from pig's feet, chicken feet or cow's tongue, to name a few parts. The cooked meat or trimmings are cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, salt and specially prepared seasonings. Usually it is eaten on Saturday mornings, especially in St. Vincent and Barbados. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is served or sold at most social gatherings, such as parties, all-inclusive fetes and sporting competitions.


title: Head cheese

text: Head cheese is popular and is usually referred to as "queso de cabeza" in Chile and Colombia. In Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Costa Rica, it is also known as "queso de chancho". It is known as "queso de Cerdo" in Uruguay and Argentina. In Panama, it is known as "sous" (from Caribbean English souse), made with pig's feet and prepared the same way as in the Caribbean; it is a dish from the Caribbean coast, where most of Panama's West Indian community resides.


title: Head cheese

text: In Brazil, head cheese is popular among the "gaucho" population and is commonly known as "queijo de porco" (pig cheese). In the German-colonized cities, such as Pomerode and Blumenau, it follows the German recipe and is known as "Sülze".


title: Head cheese

text: In Mexico, it is known as "queso de puerco" and is usually spiced with oregano, vinegar, garlic, and black pepper.


title: Head cheese

text: Alberta, Canada: the typical jellied meat available in stores is labelled "head cheese", whether or not it is actually made from the head. The large Eastern European community in the province also has a (declining) tradition of making jellied meat at home, usually from pigs' feet, and this is called "studenetz" in the local dialect of the Ukrainian language.


title: Head cheese

text: Pennsylvania, United States: In the Pennsylvania Dutch dialect, head cheese is called souse. Pennsylvania Germans usually prepare it from the meat of pig's feet or tongue and it is pickled with sausage.


title: Head cheese

text: Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan, and other portions of the Upper Midwest, United States: Head cheese and sulze are both made from pork snouts and tongues, but head cheese often uses larger chunks of smoked meat, while sulze generally uses unsmoked, chopped meat and has added vinegar and pickles.


title: Head cheese

text: Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and other portions of the Deep South, United States: The highly seasoned hog's head cheese is very popular as a cold cut or appetizer. A pig's foot provides the gelatin that sets the cheese, and vinegar is typically added to give a sour taste. It is a popular Cajun food and is often encountered seasoned with green onions. It is called in Louisiana French; "fromage de cochon". In Mississippi, Alabama, and other Southern states, it is encountered in a spicy form known as souse or less spicy hog's head cheese.


title: Head cheese

text: Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada: Throughout Newfoundland, brawn is typically made from wild game such as moose and caribou.


title: Head cheese

text: Ontario, Canada: Commercial, processed versions made with pork are sold in the deli section in some grocery stores in Ontario, such as in the German 'heimat' of Waterloo Region.


title: Head cheese

text: Quebec, Canada: Called "tête fromagée", it is commonly available in grocery stores and butcher shops along with "cretons" and "terrines".


title: Head cheese

text: Prince Edward Island, Canada: Now uncommon and seen as old fashioned. It was common before 1970 and often referred to as Potted head or Potted meat.


title: Head cheese

text: New Brunswick, Canada: A spread similar to cretons made from pork head and Boston Butt and seasoned primarily with onion, salt, and summer savory, is often referred to as head cheese.


title: Head cheese

text: The term "head cheese" was mentioned in the first installment of the Texas Chain Saw Massacre franchise.


title: Eroge

text: An eroge ( or , "erogē"; ; a portmanteau of "erotic game" , "erochikku gēmu") is a Japanese genre of erotic video game. In 1982, Japan's Koei, founded by husband-and-wife team Yoichi and Keiko Erikawa (and later known for strategy video games), released the first erotic computer game with sexually explicit graphics, "Night Life", an early graphic adventure game for the NEC PC-8801. That same year, Koei released another erotic title, "Danchi Tsuma no Yuwaku" ("Seduction of the Condominium Wife"), which was an early role-playing adventure game with colour graphics, owing to the eight-color palette of the NEC PC-8001 computer. It became a hit, helping Koei become a major software company. On the other hand, some writers, like Naoki Miyamoto, considered the "" (1981) produced for Sharp MZ computers by Hudson Soft to be the first Japanese adult game.


title: Eroge

text: Like with Koei, several other now-famous Japanese companies such as Enix, Square and Nihon Falcom also released erotic adult games for the PC-8801 computer in the early 1980s before they became mainstream. Early eroge usually had simplistic stories and extreme sexual content, such as rape and lolicon. In some of the early erotic games, the erotic content is meaningfully integrated into a thoughtful and mature storyline, though others often used it as simply an excuse for pornography.


title: Eroge

text: In 1999, Key released "Kanon". It contains about 7 brief erotic scenes in a sentimental story the size of a long novel (an all-ages version was also released afterward). "Kanon" sold over 300,000 copies.


title: Eroge

text: In response to increasing pressure from Japanese lobby groups, in mid-1996 Sega of Japan announced that they would no longer permit Sega Saturn games to include nudity.


title: Eroge

text: "Eroge", also known as erotic games, have their origins in the early 1980s, when Japanese companies introduced their own brands of microcomputer to compete with those of the United States. Competing systems included the X1, FM-7, MSX, and PC-8801.


title: Eroge

text: The earliest known commercial erotic computer game is PSK's "Lolita Yakyūken", released in 1982. That same year, Koei released the erotic title, , which was an early role-playing adventure game with color graphics, owing to the eight-color palette of the PC-8001 computer. It became a hit, helping Koei become a major software company.


title: Eroge

text: In another opinion, Yuji Horii recalled in 1986 that he saw a demonstration of a Yakyūken-like game running on the FM-8 in the end of 1981, and he considered Yakyūken was the origin of adult games. Some writers say that "" produced for Sharp MZ computers by Hudson Soft is the first Japanese adult game.


title: Eroge

text: Other now-famous Japanese companies such as Enix, Square and Nihon Falcom also released erotic adult games for the PC-8801 computer in the early 1980s before they became mainstream. Early "eroge" usually had simple stories, some even involving anal sex, which often led to widespread condemnation from the Japanese media. In some of the early erotic games, the erotic content is meaningfully integrated into a thoughtful and mature storytelling, though others often used it as a flimsy excuse for pornography. Erotic games made the PC-8801 popular, but customers quickly became tired of paying 8800 yen ($85) for such simple games. Soon, new genres were invented: ASCII's "Chaos Angels", a role-playing-based "eroge", inspired "Dragon Knight" by Elf and "Rance" by AliceSoft.


title: Eroge

text: In the early 1990s "eroge" games became much more common. Most "eroge" games, a fairly large library, found its way on the PC-9801 platform. FM Towns also received many games, more so than the X68000 or MS-DOS, whilst the MSX platform (which had many "eroge" games in the 1980s) was nearing the end of its lifetime. "Eroge" was much less common on consoles – only NEC's PC Engine series had officially licensed adult games, and from the mid-90s, Sega's Saturn. Both Nintendo and Sony disallowed adult video games on their consoles. Games also started to appear on Windows as it grew in popularity.


title: Eroge

text: In 1992, Elf released "Dōkyūsei". In it, before any eroticism, the user has to first win the affection of one of a number of female characters, making the story into an interactive romance novel. Thus, the love simulation genre was invented. Soon afterwards, the video game "Otogirisou" on the Super Famicom attracted the attention of many Japanese gamers. "Otogirisou" was a standard adventure game but had multiple endings. This concept was called a "sound novel".


title: Eroge

text: In 1996, the new software developer and publisher Leaf expanded on this idea, calling it a visual novel and releasing their first successful game, "Shizuku", a horror story starring a rapist high school student, with very highly reviewed writing and music. Their next game, "Kizuato", was almost as dark. However, in 1997, they released "To Heart", a sweetly sentimental story of high school love that became one of the most famous and trendsetting "eroge" ever. "To Heart" music was so popular it was added to karaoke machines throughout Japan—a first for "eroge".


title: Eroge

text: After a similar game by Tactics, "", became a hit in 1998, Visual Arts scouted main creative staff of "One" to form a new brand under them, which became Key. In 1999, Key released "Kanon". It contains only about seven brief erotic scenes in a sentimental story the size of a long novel (an all-ages version was also released afterward), but the enthusiasm of the response was unprecedented, and "Kanon" sold over 300,000 copies. In 2002 a 13-episode anime series was produced, as well as another 24-episode anime series in 2006. According to Satoshi Todome's "A History of Eroge", "Kanon" is still the standard for modern "eroge" and is referred to as a "baptism" for young otaku in Japan. Although many "eroge" still market themselves primarily on sex, "eroge" that focus on story are now a major established part of Japanese otaku culture. Oftentimes, voice actors who have voiced for "eroge" have been credited under a pseudonym.


title: Eroge

text: As the visual novel standard was adopted, the erotic parts in "eroge" began to become less and less apparent. Many "eroge" become more story-oriented than sex-oriented, making story the main focus for many modern "eroge". More and more people who used to reject such type of games began to become more open-minded, realizing that "eroge" are not just about sex anymore. A lot of story-focused "eroge" tend to have only a few erotic scenes.


title: Eroge

text: Another subgenre is called , in which sexual gratification of the player is the main focus of the game.


title: Eroge

text: There is no set definition for the gameplay of "eroge", except that they all include explicit erotic or sexual content depending on the game. Like other pornographic media in Japan, erotic scenes feature censorship of genitalia, only becoming uncensored if the game is licensed and released outside Japan, unless produced illegally by "dōjin" (usually with a construction kit like NScripter or RPG Maker). Additionally, some games may receive an "all-ages" version, such as a port to consoles or handheld devices where pornographic content isn't allowed, which either remove or censor the sex scenes entirely.


title: Eroge

text: "Eroge" is most often a visual novel or dating sim. However, there are also many other gameplay genres represented within "eroge", such as role-playing games, mahjong games, or puzzle games. Some "eroge", such as those made by Illusion Soft, are just simulations of sex, with no "conventional" gameplay included.


title: Griffin Gluck

text: Griffin Gluck (born August 24, 2000) is an American actor. In television, he is known for his roles as Charlie in "Red Band Society", Mason Warner in "Private Practice", and Danny Gannon in "Back in the Game". He also starred as a main character in the Hulu movie "Big Time Adolescence". He acted as Sam Ecklund in both seasons of the Netflix mockumentary series "American Vandal" and played Gabe in the Netflix series "Locke & Key". In film, he portrayed Rafe Khatchadorian in the film "" and Jack Dunkleman in the Netflix original movie "Tall Girl".


title: Griffin Gluck

text: Gluck was born in Los Angeles. His father, Cellin Gluck, is a film director and producer, and his mother, Karin Beck, was a production assistant and line producer. Griffin's father was born in Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, to American parents, and was raised partly in Kobe, Japan. Griffin's paternal grandparents were Sumi (Hiramoto), a Japanese American, and Jay Gluck, a Jewish American archaeologist, historian, and Japanophile.


title: Griffin Gluck

text: Gluck started acting when he went with his older sister, Caroline, to a summer children's showcase of "Guys and Dolls" at the Palisades Playhouse. His first major role was as a three-year-old in a short film, "Time Out", co-produced by his father and directed by Robbie Chafitz.


title: Griffin Gluck

text: His big break came in 2011, when he played Michael in the film "Just Go with It", for which he received a Young Artist Award nomination. He was later cast as Mason Warner on "Private Practice", and was then upped to series regular on the show. After the series was cancelled, he joined a TV pilot called "Back in the Game" from 20th Century Fox TV. It was picked to series. The show was canceled in November 2013


title: Griffin Gluck

text: In 2014, Gluck co-starred as Charlie on the Fox series "Red Band Society", in which his character, who is in a coma, is the narrator of the show. In March 2015, he was cast in an NBC pilot, "Cuckoo", which was not picked for series.


title: Griffin Gluck

text: Gluck had his first film lead role playing Rafe Khatchadorian in the 2016 movie "", based on the hit novel by James Patterson.


title: Griffin Gluck

text: Gluck was nominated in the "Best Performance in a Feature Film – Supporting Young Actor" category for his work in "Just Go with It" at the 33rd Young Artist Awards.<ref name="http://www.youngartistawards.org"></ref>


title: Sh**ting Stars

text: Sh**ting Stars () is a 2022 South Korean television series starring Lee Sung-kyung, Kim Young-dae, Yoon Jong-hoon, Kim Yoon-hye, Lee Jung-shin, and Park So-jin. It premiered on tvN on April 22, 2022, and aired every Friday and Saturday at 22:40 (KST) with 16 episodes. It is also available for streaming on iQIYI in selected regions.


title: Sh**ting Stars

text: The series is about the romantic and comedy love story of top star Gong Tae-sung sharing a love-hate relationship with Oh Han-byul, the PR team leader of his management agency Starforce Entertainment.


title: Sh**ting Stars

text: On March 11, 2022, it was confirmed that actor Ha Do-kwon contracted COVID-19 and all filming schedules have been cancelled.


title: Sh**ting Stars

text: Previously, Kim Young-dae worked together with both Yoon Jong-hoon and Ha Do-kwon in ""; this will be their first reunion project after the end of the three-season "Penthouse".


title: Recreational drug use

text: Recreational drug use indicates the use of one or more psychoactive drugs to induce an altered state of consciousness either for pleasure or for some other casual purpose or pastime by modifying the perceptions and emotions of the user. When a psychoactive drug enters the user's body, it induces an intoxicating effect. Generally, recreational drugs are divided into three categories: depressants (drugs that induce a feeling of relaxation and calmness); stimulants (drugs that induce a sense of energy and alertness); and hallucinogens (drugs that induce perceptual distortions such as hallucination).


title: Recreational drug use

text: In popular practice, recreational drug use generally is a tolerated social behaviour, rather than perceived as the medical condition of self-medication. However, heavy use of some drugs is socially stigmatized. Many people also use prescribed and controlled depressants such as opioids, as well as opiates and benzodiazepines.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Common recreational drugs include caffeine, commonly found in coffee, tea, soft drinks, chocolate; alcohol, commonly found in beer, wine, and distilled spirits; nicotine, commonly found in tobacco and electronic cigarettes; cannabis and hashish (with legality of possession varying inter/intra-nationally); and the controlled substances listed as controlled drugs in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances (1971) of the United Nations.


title: Recreational drug use

text: What controlled substances are considered generally unlawful to possess varies by country, but usually includes cannabis, cocaine, opioids, MDMA, amphetamine, methamphetamine, psychedelics, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates. In 2015, it was estimated that about 5% of people worldwide aged 15 to 65 (158 million to 351 million) had used controlled drugs at least once.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Many researchers have explored the etiology of recreational drug use. Some of the most common theories are: genetics, personality type, psychological problems, self-medication, sex, age, instant gratification, basic human need, curiosity, rebelliousness, a sense of belonging to a group, family and attachment issues, history of trauma, failure at school or work, socioeconomic stressors, peer pressure, juvenile delinquency, availability, historical factors, or socio-cultural influences. There has not been agreement around any one single cause. Instead, experts tend to apply the biopsychosocial model. Any number of these factors are likely to influence an individual's drug use as they are not mutually exclusive. Regardless of genetics, mental health, or traumatic experiences, social factors play a large role in exposure to and availability of certain types of drugs and patterns of drug use.


title: Recreational drug use

text: According to addiction researcher Martin A. Plant, many people go through a period of self-redefinition before initiating recreational drug use. They tend to view using drugs as part of a general lifestyle that involves belonging to a subculture that they associate with heightened status and the challenging of social norms. Plant states: "From the user's point of view there are many positive reasons to become part of the milieu of drug taking. The reasons for drug use appear to have as much to do with needs for friendship, pleasure and status as they do with unhappiness or poverty. Becoming a drug taker, to many people, is a positive affirmation rather than a negative experience".


title: Recreational drug use

text: Anthropological research has suggested that humans "may have evolved to counter-exploit plant neurotoxins". The ability to use botanical chemicals to serve the function of endogenous neurotransmitters may have improved survival rates, conferring an evolutionary advantage. A typically restrictive prehistoric diet may have emphasised the apparent benefit of consuming psychoactive drugs, which had themselves evolved to imitate neurotransmitters. Chemical–ecological adaptations, and the genetics of hepatic enzymes, particularly cytochrome P450, have led researchers to propose that "humans have shared a co-evolutionary relationship with psychotropic plant substances that is millions of years old."


title: Recreational drug use

text: Severity and type of risks that come with recreational drug use vary widely with the drug in question and the amount being used. There are many factors in the environment and within the user that interact with each drug differently. Overall, some studies suggest that alcohol is one of the most dangerous of all recreational drugs; only heroin, crack cocaine, and methamphetamine are judged to be more harmful. Alcoholic drinks, tobacco products and other nicotine-based products (e.g., electronic cigarettes), and cannabis are regarded by various medical professionals to be the most common and widespread gateway drugs. In the United States, Australia, and New Zealand, the general onset of drinking alcohol, tobacco smoking, cannabis smoking, and consumption of multiple drugs among young people most frequently occurs during adolescence and within school settings (middle school and secondary school).


title: Recreational drug use

text: Scientific studies which focus on a low–moderate level of alcohol consumption, particularly of red wine, have concluded that there can be substantial health benefits from its use, such as decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases, stroke, and cognitive decline. This claim has been disputed. Researcher David Nutt stated that these studies showing benefits for "moderate" alcohol consumption lacked control for the variable of what the subjects were drinking, beforehand. Experts in the United Kingdom have suggested that some psychoactive drugs that may be causing less harm to fewer users (although they are also used less frequently in the first place) include cannabis, psilocybin mushrooms, LSD, and MDMA. However, these drugs are not without their own particular risks and side effects.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Drug harmfulness is defined as the degree to which a psychoactive drug is harmful to a user and is measured in various ways, such as by addictiveness and the potential for physical harm. More harmful drugs are called "hard drugs", and less harmful drugs are called "soft drugs". The term "soft drug" is considered controversial by its critics as it may imply that soft drugs cause no or insignificant harm.


title: Recreational drug use

text: The concept of "responsible drug use" is that a person can use drugs recreationally or otherwise with reduced or eliminated risk of negatively affecting other aspects of one's life or other people's lives. Advocates of this philosophy point to the many well-known artists and intellectuals who have used drugs, experimentally or otherwise, with few detrimental effects on their lives. Responsible drug use becomes problematic only when the use of the substance significantly interferes with the user's daily life.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Responsible drug use advocates that users should not take drugs at the same time as activities such as driving, swimming, operating machinery, or other activities that are unsafe without a sober state. Responsible drug use is emphasized as a primary prevention technique in harm-reduction drug policies. Harm-reduction policies were popularized in the late 1980s, although they began in the 1970s counter-culture, when cartoons explaining responsible drug use and the consequences of irresponsible drug use were distributed to users. Another issue is that the illegality of drugs in itself also causes social and economic consequences for those using them—the drugs may be "cut" with adulterants and the purity varies wildly, making overdoses more likely—and legalization of drug production and distribution would reduce these and other dangers of illegal drug use. Harm reduction seeks to minimize the harm that can occur through the use of various drugs, whether legal (e.g., alcohol and nicotine), or illegal (e.g., heroin and cocaine). For example, people who take drugs intravenously (cocaine, heroin) can minimize harm to both themselves and members of the community through proper injecting technique, using new needles and syringes each time, and proper disposal of all injecting equipment.


title: Recreational drug use

text: In efforts to curtail recreational drug use, governments worldwide introduced several laws prohibiting the possession of almost all varieties of recreational drugs during the 20th century. The West's "War on Drugs" however, is now facing increasing criticism. Evidence is insufficient to tell if behavioral interventions help prevent recreational drug use in children.


title: Recreational drug use

text: One in four adolescents has used an illegal drug and one in ten of those adolescents who need addiction treatment get some type of care. School-based programs are the most commonly used method for drug use education; however, the success rates of these intervention programs is highly dependent on the commitment of participants, and is limited in general. Studies have also shown that home intervention is also effective in decreasing the appeal of drugs.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Alcohol is the most widely used drug in Australia. 86.2% of Australians aged 12 years and over have consumed alcohol at least once in their lifetime, compared to 34.8% of Australians aged 12 years and over who have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime.


title: Recreational drug use

text: From the mid-19th century to the 1930s, American physicians prescribed "Cannabis sativa" as a prescription drug for various medical conditions. In the 1960s, the counterculture movement introduced the use of psychoactive drugs, including cannabis. Young adults and college students reported the recreational prevalence of cannabis, among other drugs, at 20-25% while the cultural mindset of using was open and curious. In 1969, the FBI reported that between the years 1966 and 1968, the number of arrests for marijuana possession, which had been outlawed throughout the United States under Marijuana Tax Act of 1937, had increased by 98%. Despite acknowledgement that drug use was greatly growing among America's youth during the late 1960s, surveys have suggested that only as much as 4% of the American population had ever smoked marijuana by 1969. By 1972, however, that number would increase to 12%. That number would then double by 1977.


title: Recreational drug use

text: The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified marijuana along with heroin and LSD as a Schedule I drug, i.e., having the relatively highest abuse potential and no accepted medical use. Most marijuana at that time came from Mexico, but in 1975 the Mexican government agreed to eradicate the crop by spraying it with the herbicide paraquat, raising fears of toxic side effects. Colombia then became the main supplier. The "zero tolerance" climate of the Reagan and Bush administrations (1981–93) resulted in passage of strict laws and mandatory sentences for possession of marijuana. The "War on Drugs" thus brought with it a shift from reliance on imported supplies to domestic cultivation (particularly in Hawaii and California). Beginning in 1982, the Drug Enforcement Administration turned increased attention to marijuana farms in the United States, and there was a shift to the indoor growing of plants specially developed for small size and high yield. After over a decade of decreasing use, marijuana smoking began an upward trend once more in the early 1990s, especially among teenagers, but by the end of the decade this upswing had leveled off well below former peaks of use.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Many movements and organizations are advocating for or against the liberalization of the use of recreational drugs, most notably regarding the legalization of marijuana and cannabinoids for medical and/or recreational use. Subcultures have emerged among users of recreational drugs, as well as alternative lifestyles and social movements among those who abstain from them, such as teetotalism and "straight edge".


title: Recreational drug use

text: Since the early 2000s, medical professionals have acknowledged and addressed the problem of the increasing consumption of alcoholic drinks and club drugs (such as MDMA, cocaine, rohypnol, GHB, ketamine, PCP, LSD, and methamphetamine) associated with rave culture among adolescents and young adults in the Western world. Studies have shown that adolescents are more likely than young adults to use multiple drugs, and the consumption of club drugs is highly associated with the presence of criminal behaviors and recent alcohol abuse or dependence.


title: Recreational drug use

text: The prevalence of recreational drugs in human societies is widely reflected in fiction, entertainment, and the arts, subject to prevailing laws and social conventions. For instance, in the music industry, the musical genres hip hop, hardcore rap, and trap, alongside their derivative subgenres and subcultures, are most notorious for having continuously celebrated and promoted drug trafficking, gangster lifestyle, and consumption of drugs and alcohol since their inception in the United States during the late 1980s–early 1990s. In video games, for example, drugs are portrayed in a variety of ways: including power-ups (cocaine gum replenishes stamina in "Red Dead Redemption 2"), obstacles to be avoided (such as the Fuzzies in "" that distort the player's view when accidentally consumed), items to be bought and sold for in-game currency (coke dealing is a big part of ""). In 1997's "Fallout", drugs ("chems" in the game) can fill the role of any above mentioned. Drug trafficking, gang rivalries, and their related criminal underworld also play a big part in the best-selling "Grand Theft Auto" video game franchise.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Drugs are often associated with a particular route of administration. Many drugs can be consumed in more than one way. For example, marijuana can be swallowed like food or smoked, and cocaine can be "sniffed" in the nostrils, injected, or, with various modifications, smoked.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Many drugs are taken through various routes. Intravenous route is the most efficient, but also one of the most dangerous. Nasal, rectal, inhalation and smoking are safer. The oral route is one of the safest and most comfortable, but of little bioavailability.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Depressants are psychoactive drugs that temporarily diminish the function or activity of a specific part of the body or mind. Colloquially, depressants are known as "downers", and users generally take them to feel more relaxed and less tense. Examples of these kinds of effects may include anxiolysis, sedation, and hypotension. Depressants are widely used throughout the world as prescription medicines and as illicit substances. When these are used, effects may include anxiolysis (reduction of anxiety), analgesia (pain relief), sedation, somnolence, cognitive/memory impairment, dissociation, muscle relaxation, lowered blood pressure/heart rate, respiratory depression, anesthesia, and anticonvulsant effects. Depressants exert their effects through a number of different pharmacological mechanisms, the most prominent of which include potentiation of GABA or opioid activity, and inhibition of adrenergic, histamine or acetylcholine activity. Some are also capable of inducing feelings of euphoria. The most widely used depressant by far is alcohol (i.e. ethanol).


title: Recreational drug use

text: Stimulants or "uppers", such as amphetamines or cocaine, which increase mental or physical function, have an opposite effect to depressants.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Depressants, in particular alcohol, can precipitate psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the rate of transition from opioid, alcohol and sedative induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 12%, 10% and 9% respectively.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Antihistamines (or "histamine antagonists") inhibit the release or action of histamine. "Antihistamine" can be used to describe any histamine antagonist, but the term is usually reserved for the classical antihistamines that act upon the H histamine receptor. Antihistamines are used as treatment for allergies. Allergies are caused by an excessive response of the body to allergens, such as the pollen released by grasses and trees. An allergic reaction causes release of histamine by the body. Other uses of antihistamines are to help with normal symptoms of insect stings even if there is no allergic reaction. Their recreational appeal exists mainly due to their anticholinergic properties, that induce anxiolysis and, in some cases such as diphenhydramine, chlorpheniramine, and orphenadrine, a characteristic euphoria at moderate doses. High dosages taken to induce recreational drug effects may lead to overdoses. Antihistamines are also consumed in combination with alcohol, particularly by youth who find it hard to obtain alcohol. The combination of the two drugs can cause intoxication with lower alcohol doses.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Hallucinations and possibly delirium resembling the effects of Datura stramonium can result if the drug is taken in much higher than therapeutic doses. Antihistamines are widely available over the counter at drug stores (without a prescription), in the form of allergy medication and some cough medicines. They are sometimes used in combination with other substances such as alcohol.


title: Recreational drug use

text: The most common unsupervised use of antihistamines in terms of volume and percentage of the total is perhaps in parallel to the medicinal use of some antihistamines to extend and intensify the effects of opioids and depressants. The most commonly used are hydroxyzine, mainly to extend a supply of other drugs, as in medical use, and the above-mentioned ethanolamine and alkylamine-class first-generation antihistamines, which are – once again as in the 1950s – the subject of medical research into their anti-depressant properties.


title: Recreational drug use

text: For all of the above reasons, the use of medicinal scopolamine for recreational uses is also observed.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Analgesics (also known as "painkillers") are used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word "analgesic" derives from Greek "αν-" ("an-", "without") and "άλγος" ("álgos", "pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (also known in the US as acetaminophen), the nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates (e.g. aspirin), and opioid drugs such as hydrocodone, codeine, heroin and oxycodone. Some further examples of the brand name prescription opiates and opioid analgesics that may be used recreationally include Vicodin, Lortab, Norco (hydrocodone), Avinza, Kapanol (morphine), Opana, Paramorphan (oxymorphone), Dilaudid, Palladone (hydromorphone), and OxyContin (oxycodone).


title: Recreational drug use

text: Stimulants, also known as "psychostimulants", induce euphoria with improvements in mental and physical function, such as enhanced alertness, wakefulness, and locomotion. Stimulants are also occasionally called "uppers". Depressants or "downers", which decrease mental or physical function, are in stark contrast to stimulants and are considered to be their functional opposites.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Stimulants enhance the activity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Common effects may include increased alertness, awareness, wakefulness, endurance, productivity, and motivation, arousal, locomotion, heart rate, and blood pressure, and a diminished desire for food and sleep.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Use of stimulants may cause the body to significantly reduce its production of endogenous compounds that fulfill similar functions. Once the effect of the ingested stimulant has worn off the user may feel depressed, lethargic, confused, and dysphoric. This is colloquially termed a "crash" and may promote reuse of the stimulant.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Amphetamines are a significant cause of drug-induced psychosis. Importantly, a 2019 meta-analysis found that 22% of people with amphetamine-induced psychosis transition to a later diagnosis of schizophrenia.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. They can cause subjective changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness. Unlike other psychoactive drugs such as stimulants and opioids, hallucinogens do not merely amplify familiar states of mind but also induce experiences that differ from those of ordinary consciousness, often compared to non-ordinary forms of consciousness such as trance, meditation, conversion experiences, and dreams.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants have a long worldwide history of use within medicinal and religious traditions. They are used in shamanic forms of ritual healing and divination, in initiation rites, and in the religious rituals of syncretistic movements such as União do Vegetal, Santo Daime, Temple of the True Inner Light, and the Native American Church. When used in religious practice, psychedelic drugs, as well as other substances like tobacco, are referred to as entheogens.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Hallucinogen-induced psychosis occurs when psychosis persists despite no longer being intoxicated with the drug. It is estimated that 26% of people with hallucinogen-induced psychosis will transition to a diagnosis of schizophrenia. This percentage is less than the psychosis transition rate for cannabis (34%) but higher than that of amphetamines (22%).


title: Recreational drug use

text: Starting in the mid-20th century, psychedelic drugs have been the object of extensive attention in the Western world. They have been and are being explored as potential therapeutic agents in treating depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, alcoholism, and opioid addiction. Yet the most popular, and at the same time most stigmatized, use of psychedelics in Western culture has been associated with the search for direct religious experience, enhanced creativity, personal development, and "mind expansion". The use of psychedelic drugs was a major element of the 1960s counterculture, where it became associated with various social movements and a general atmosphere of rebellion and strife between generations.


title: Recreational drug use

text: Inhalants are gases, aerosols, or solvents that are breathed in and absorbed through the lungs. While some "inhalant" drugs are used for medical purposes, as in the case of nitrous oxide, a dental anesthetic, inhalants are used as recreational drugs for their intoxicating effect. Most inhalant drugs that are used non-medically are ingredients in household or industrial chemical products that are not intended to be concentrated and inhaled, including organic solvents (found in cleaning products, fast-drying glues, and nail polish removers), fuels (gasoline (petrol) and kerosene), and propellant gases such as Freon and compressed hydrofluorocarbons that are used in aerosol cans such as hairspray, whipped cream, and non-stick cooking spray. A small number of recreational inhalant drugs are pharmaceutical products that are used illicitly, such as anesthetics (ether and nitrous oxide) and volatile anti-angina drugs (alkyl nitrites, more commonly known as "poppers").


title: Recreational drug use

text: The most serious inhalant abuse occurs among children and teens who "[...] live on the streets completely without family ties". Inhalant users inhale vapor or aerosol propellant gases using plastic bags held over the mouth or by breathing from a solvent-soaked rag or an open container. The effects of inhalants range from an alcohol-like intoxication and intense euphoria to vivid hallucinations, depending on the substance and the dosage. Some inhalant users are injured due to the harmful effects of the solvents or gases, or due to other chemicals used in the products inhaled. As with any recreational drug, users can be injured due to dangerous behavior while they are intoxicated, such as driving under the influence. Computer cleaning dusters are dangerous to inhale, because the gases expand and cool rapidly upon being sprayed. In many cases, users have died from hypoxia (lack of oxygen), pneumonia, cardiac failure or arrest, or aspiration of vomit.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: "The Bluest Eye," published in 1970, is the first novel written by Toni Morrison. The novel takes place in Lorain, Ohio (Morrison's hometown), and tells the story of a young African-American girl named Pecola who grew up following the Great Depression. Set in 1941, the story is about how she is consistently regarded as "ugly" due to her mannerisms and dark skin. As a result, she develops an inferiority complex, which fuels her desire for the blue eyes she equates with "whiteness".


title: The Bluest Eye

text: The novel is told from Claudia MacTeer's point of view. She is the daughter of Pecola's foster parents at different stages in her life. In addition, there is an omniscient third-person narrative that includes inset narratives in the first person. The book's controversial topics of racism, incest, and child molestation have led to numerous attempts to ban the novel from schools and libraries in the United States.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: In Lorain, Ohio, nine-year-old Claudia MacTeer and her 10-year-old sister Frieda live with their parents, a tenant named Mr. Henry, and Pecola Breedlove, a temporary foster child whose house was burned down by her unstable, alcoholic, and sexually abusive father. Pecola is a quiet, passive young girl who grows up with little money and whose parents are constantly fighting, both verbally and physically. Pecola is continually reminded of what an "ugly" girl she is by members of her neighborhood and school community. In an attempt to beautify herself, Pecola wishes for blue eyes. Additionally, most chapters' titles are extracts from the "Dick and Jane" paragraph in the novel's prologue, presenting a white family that may be contrasted with Pecola's. The chapter titles contain sudden repetition of words or phrases, many cut-off words, and no interword separations.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: The novel, through flashbacks, explores the younger years of both of Pecola's parents, Cholly and Pauline, and their struggles as African Americans in a largely White Anglo-Saxon Protestant community. Pauline now works as a servant for a wealthier white family. One day in the novel's present time, while Pecola is doing dishes, drunk Cholly rapes her. His motives are largely confusing, seemingly a combination of both love and hate. After raping her a second time, he flees, leaving her pregnant.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Claudia and Frieda are the only two in the community who hope for Pecola's child to survive in the coming months. Consequently, they give up the money they had been saving to buy a bicycle, instead planting marigold seeds with the superstitious belief that if the flowers bloom, Pecola's baby will survive. The marigolds never bloom, and Pecola's child, who is born prematurely, dies. In the aftermath, a dialogue is presented between two sides of Pecola's deluded imagination, in which she indicates conflicting feelings about her rape by her father. In this internal conversation, Pecola speaks as though her wish for blue eyes has been granted, and believes that the changed behavior of those around her is due to her new eyes, rather than the news of her rape or her increasingly strange behavior.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Claudia, as narrator a final time, describes the recent phenomenon of Pecola's insanity and suggests that Cholly (who has since died) may have shown Pecola the only love he could by raping her. Claudia laments her belief that the whole community, herself included, has used Pecola as a scapegoat to make themselves feel prettier and happier.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: When asked about her motivations for writing "The Bluest Eye" in an interview, Morrison stated that she wanted to remind readers "how hurtful racism is" and that people are "apologetic about the fact that their skin [is] so dark." Reminiscing about her own experience, she recalled: "When I was a kid, we called each other names but we didn't think it was serious, that you could take it in." Expanding on this point of self-esteem, Morrison elaborated that she "wanted to speak on behalf of those who didn't catch that [they were beautiful] right away. [She] was deeply concerned about the feelings of ugliness." As seen throughout "The Bluest Eye", this idea of "ugliness" is conveyed through a variety of characters. For example, Pecola, the main character, wishes for blue eyes as a way to escape the oppression that results from her having dark skin. Through Pecola's characterization, Morrison seeks to demonstrate the negative impact racism can have on one's self-confidence and worth. As she concluded in her interview, she "wanted people to understand what it was like to be treated that way."


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Morrison commented on her motivations to write the novel, saying, "I felt compelled to write this mostly because in the 1960s, black male authors published powerful, aggressive, revolutionary fiction or nonfiction, and they had positive racially uplifting rhetoric with them that were stimulating and I thought they would skip over something and thought no one would remember that it wasn't always beautiful."


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Morrison's writing of the book began because she was "interested in talking about black girlhood." Dr. Jan Furman, professor of English at the University of Michigan, notes that the book allows the reader to analyze the "imprinting" factors that shape the identity of the self during the process of maturing in young black girls. She references parts in the book where the main characters are taught to feel less than human, specifically when the shopkeeper avoids touching Pecola's hand when giving her candy.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Susmita Roye, an associate professor of English at Delaware State University, notes that the novel emphasizes that living in a world defined by Euro-centric beauty standards creates a longing for whiteness, such as Pecola's desire for blue eyes, which attacks young black girls' confidence and perceived beauty. References to Shirley Temple and Dick and Jane serve similarly.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Dick and Jane novels were popular in the mid-20th century, and Morrison includes references to their titles in "The Bluest Eye". They promoted the importance of the nuclear family and helped to foster literacy in young children as well. Morrison presents a more critical view of the novel's family standards. Morrison's graphic storytelling within "The Bluest Eye" challenged existing attitudes about keeping children's literature free of sex and violence. The lifestyle standards found in Dick and Jane were not achievable for many children who shared backgrounds similar to Pecola.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Debra Werrlein, professor at George Mason University, contends that the excerpts of "Dick and Jane" throughout the book project an image of an ideal family that contrasts with the family structures of the main characters. She argues that because the novel takes place in a time of post-World War II social sentiments, the "Dick and Jane" primer emphasizes an importance of raising children a certain way to mold the future of the United States. However, as Werrlein points out, the whiteness of these characters stood to represent the ideal American family. In addition, the string of letters describing Dick and Jane's perfect parents as strong and kind are used to contrast Pecola's parents in the novel. Pecola's father is thus emasculated, Werrlein argues, because his behavior deviates from this standard for American family life. Finally, Werrlein claims that the black parents have experienced oppression throughout their lives, and that same oppression has negatively influenced their familial structure. Thus, racism is a prevalent factor in their broken homes.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: In the article "Racism and Appearance in The Bluest Eye: A Template for an Ethical Emotive Criticism", Jerome Bump explains how the novel suggests that physical beauty is a virtue embedded in society. Bump asserts that the novel reveals the belief that the outside of people ultimately reflects their character and personality. This belief compromises people's judgement and they act upon internal bias. These biases are displayed throughout the novel, especially through the mistreatment of Pecola by family, friends and community.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Literary critic Lynn Scott argues that the constant images of whiteness in "The Bluest Eye" serve to represent society's perception of beauty, which ultimately proves to have destructive consequences for many of the characters in the novel. Scott explains that in the novel, superiority, power, and virtue are associated with beauty, which is inherent in whiteness. She further asserts that white beauty standards are perpetuated by visual images in the media as well as the attitude of Pecola's family. When Pauline first arrives in Lorain, she feels pressure to conform and begins to develop a construct of femininity based on the actresses such as Jean Harlow. Pecola is also surrounded by constant images that perpetuate white beauty standards, including references to Shirley Temple and an image of Mary Jane that appears on her candy wrappers. Scott believes that Pecola attempts to seek the power associated with whiteness, and in her attempt to conform, she develops a destructive desire for blue eyes.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Harihar Kulkarni, an author of a book on African-American feminist fiction literature, recognizes that these Euro-centric ideals of family and beauty present in "The Bluest Eye" are shown to be transferred generationally, often between female relationships. In addition to living in a white-dominant society, this intergenerational oppression manifests itself into shame and self-hatred as demonstrated through Pecola's character development.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Critic Allen Alexander argues that religion is an important theme in "The Bluest Eye", since Morrison's work possesses a "fourth face" outside of the Christian Trinity, which represents "the existence of evil, the suffering of the innocent." Alexander claims Pecola's suffering stems from her attempts to rationalize her misfortune with the notion of an omnipotent God. He further argues that much of Pecola's story suggests the insufficiency of Christian beliefs for minorities who exist in a predominantly white society. This ideology damages Pecola and her mother, Pauline, who fully accepts Christianity and spends her time caring for a white family as opposed to her own. Alexander suggests that the image of a more human God represents a traditional African view of deities, better suiting the lives of the African-American characters.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: In the essays "Disconnections from the Motherline: Gender Hegemonies and the Loss of the Ancient Properties; "The Bluest Eye, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby"" and "Maternal Interventions: Resistance and Power; "The Bluest Eye, Sula, Song of Solomon, Tar Baby, Beloved, Paradise"," Andrea O'Reilly, a women's studies professor, proclaims that African-American women pass on cultural knowledge to successive generations through the process of motherline: “the ancestral memory and ancient properties of traditional black culture. O’Reilly claims that "The Bluest Eye" portrays how attempting to assimilate to white American ideologies effectively undermines the motherline process for African-American women.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Kuenz shows that Pecola conforms to what white society expects of her, as her affinity for Shirley Temple and other manifestations of whiteness illustrates the influence of the power of mass media.[49] Kuenz insists that "The Bluest Eye" demonstrates the impact of mass-produced images in a hegemonic society.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: In the article "Treatment of Violence: A Study of Morrison's the "Bluest Eye" and "Beloved,"" Shubhanku Kochar argues that the theme of violence in the "Bluest Eye" is not discussed enough. Kochar, a professor of English in India, asserts that the powerful white characters psychologically abuse people of non-white cultures and races, which results in a dominant theme of violence in the novel. She adds that psychoanalytical study focuses on these race-based tensions that consistently cause emotional harm. The Marxist frame targets class relations, while the feminist lens centers on violence perpetrated against women. Kochar argues that to comprehend the complex violence inflicted on Pecola, one must analyze the novel through the Marxist and Feminist lens in addition to the psychoanalytical lens.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: J. Brooks Bouson, English professor at Loyola University Chicago, claims that "The Bluest Eye" is a "shame drama and trauma narrative," that uses Pecola and its other characters to examine how people respond to shame. Bouson argues that some characters, like Claudia, show how people can respond violently to shame: Claudia does this by rejecting the racist system she lives in and destroying the white dolls she is given. However, most characters in the novel pass on their shame to someone below them on the social and racial ladder. For example, Soaphead Church comes from a family obsessed with lightening their skin tone, and passes on the shame of his African-American heritage by molesting young girls. Bouson suggests that all of the African-American characters in "The Bluest Eye" exhibit shame, and eventually much of this shame is passed onto Pecola, who is at the bottom of the racial and social ladder.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: In the article "Probing Racial Dilemmas in the Bluest Eye with the Spyglass of Psychology", Anna Zebialowicz and Marek Palasinski discuss the racial climate of the society set forth in the novel. Zebialowicz and Palasinski explain how Pecola struggles with her identity as a black girl: "Ethnic identity and gender dilemmas are still both anecdotally and empirically linked to a decrease in self-esteem, adaptiveness and well-being". Pecola's race and gender both work against her to create a complex form of oppression. Morrison's novel confronts self-hatred and destructive behaviors black women participate in to fit into the hegemonic image of beauty and whiteness.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Author Phillip Page focuses on the importance of duality in "The Bluest Eye". He claims that Morrison presents an "inverted world," entirely opposite from the Dick and Jane story that is at the beginning of the novel. The idea of breaks and splitting is common, as seen in the context of the war occurring in the time period of the story, the split nature of Pecola's family, and the watermelon that Cholly observes break open during a flashback. Page argues that breaks symbolize the challenges of African-American life, as seen in the rip in the Breedloves' couch that symbolizes poverty, or the break in Pauline's tooth that ruins her marriage and family. He goes on to identify how each of the characters are broken personally, since Cholly's former and present life is described as chaotic and jumbled, and Pauline both is responsible for her biological family as well as the white family she works for. The epitome of this, Page argues, is seen in Pecola at the end of the novel. The events of her life, having broken parents in a broken family, have resulted in a totally fractured personality which drives Pecola into madness.


title: The Bluest Eye

text: Toni Morrison's work "The Bluest Eye" breaks the long tradition of narratives that discuss the hardships of war and depression in the 1940s, as she brings forth a unique and untold point of view in American historical fiction. Morrison purposefully writes stories that defy the “American mainstream ideology” by focusing in on the realities of African-American life at the time. Thus, "The Bluest Eye" serves as a counter narrative, a method of the telling the accounts of people whose stories are rarely told and deliberately hidden. As Morrison once stated, “my job becomes how to rip that veil drawn over proceedings too terrible to relate. The exercise is also critical for any person who is black, or who belongs to any marginalized category, for, historically, we were seldom invited to participate in the discourse even when we were its topic.” In this novel, Morrison depicts a protagonist, Pecola, a young black girl who is a victim of this perpetual racism and denial that Morrison discusses.