title: Elephant bird

text: Two whole eggs have been found in dune deposits in southern Western Australia, one in the 1930s (the Scott River egg) and one in 1992 (the Cervantes egg); both have been identified as "Aepyornis maximus" rather than "Genyornis". It is hypothesized that the eggs floated from Madagascar to Australia on the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Evidence supporting this is the finding of two fresh penguin eggs that washed ashore on Western Australia but originated in the Kerguelen Islands, and an ostrich egg found floating in the Timor Sea in the early 1990s.


title: Elephant bird

text: Examination of brain endocasts has shown that both "A. maximus" and "A. hildebrandi" had greatly reduced optic lobes, similar to those of their closest living relatives, the kiwis, and consistent with a similar nocturnal lifestyle. The optic lobes of "Mullerornis" were also reduced, but to a lesser degree, suggestive of a nocturnal or crepuscular lifestyle. "A. maximus" had relatively larger olfactory bulbs than "A. hildebrandi", suggesting that the former occupied forested habitats where the sense of smell is more useful while the latter occupied open habitats.


title: Elephant bird

text: Because there is no rainforest fossil record in Madagascar, it is not known for certain if there were species adapted to dense forest dwelling, like the cassowary in Australia and New Guinea today. However, some rainforest fruits with thick, highly sculptured endocarps, such as that of the currently undispersed and highly threatened forest coconut palm "Voanioala gerardii", may have been adapted for passage through ratite guts, and the fruit of some palm species are indeed dark bluish purple (e.g. "Ravenea louvelii" and "Satranala decussilvae"), just like many cassowary-dispersed fruits.


title: Elephant bird

text: Occasionally subfossil eggs are found intact. The National Geographic Society in Washington, D.C. holds a specimen of an "Aepyornis" egg which was given to Luis Marden in 1967. The specimen is intact and contains the skeleton of the unhatched bird. The Denver Museum of Nature and Science in Colorado holds two intact eggs, one of which is currently on display. Another giant "Aepyornis" egg is on display at the Harvard Museum of Natural History in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and a complete, unbroken egg is held at Leeds Discovery Centre in the UK. A cast of the egg is preserved at the Grant Museum of Zoology at London University.


title: Elephant bird

text: David Attenborough owned an almost complete eggshell, dating from 600 to 700 AD, which he pieced together from fragments that were given to him while making his 1961 BBC series "Zoo Quest to Madagascar". In March 2011, the BBC broadcast the 60-minute documentary "Attenborough and the Giant Egg", presented by Attenborough, about his personal scientific quest to discover the secrets of the elephant bird and its egg.


title: Elephant bird

text: A complete eggshell is also available in the collection of the University of Wrocław Museum of Natural History.


title: Elephant bird

text: There is also an intact specimen of an elephant bird's egg (contrasted with the eggs from other bird species, including a hummingbird's) on display at the Delaware Museum of Natural History, just outside Wilmington, Delaware, US, and another in the Natural History Museum, London.


title: Elephant bird

text: The Melbourne Museum has two "Aepyornis" eggs. The first was acquired for £100 by Professor Frederick McCoy in June 1862, and is an intact example. In 1950 it was subjected to radiological examination, which revealed no traces of embryonic material. A second, side-blown "Aepyornis" egg was acquired at a later date.


title: Elephant bird

text: The Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology, with one of the world's largest collections of avian eggs, has seven "Aepyornis" egg specimens.


title: Elephant bird

text: In the collections of the department of geology at the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago there is a complete, side-blown egg collected, in about 1917, by Rev. Peter A. Bjelde.


title: Elephant bird

text: A specimen of egg is also held at Regional Museum of Natural History, Bhubaneswar which was donated by former Indian Ambassador Abasar Beuria and his wife Tripti Beuria from their collection.


title: Elephant bird

text: In April 2013 a specimen was sold at Christie's in London for £66,675 The pre-sale estimate had been "more than $45,000".


title: Elephant bird

text: In April 2018, staff at the Buffalo Museum of Science radiographed what had long been thought to be a model of an elephant bird egg. The cream-colored object, measuring in length and in circumference and weighing over , was found to be a mislabeled real egg (the museum does also have such a model in its collections).


title: Elephant bird

text: Two eggs have been discovered on the Western Australia coast, one discovered in the 1930s and another in 1992. A study concluded that the egg found at Cervantes was 2000 years old and had likely drifted across the Indian Ocean.


title: Elephant bird

text: It is widely believed that the extinction of "Aepyornis" was a result of human activity. The birds were initially widespread, occurring from the northern to the southern tip of Madagascar. One theory states that humans hunted the elephant birds to extinction in a very short time for such a large landmass (the blitzkrieg hypothesis). There is indeed evidence that they were hunted and their preferred habitats destroyed. Eggs may have been particularly vulnerable. 19th-century travelers saw eggshells used as bowls, and a recent archaeological study found remains of eggshells among the remains of human fires, suggesting that the eggs regularly provided meals for entire families.


title: Elephant bird

text: The exact period when they died out is also not certain; tales of these giant birds may have persisted for centuries in folk memory. There is archaeological evidence of "Aepyornis" from a radiocarbon-dated bone at 1880 ± 70 BP (approximately 120 CE) with signs of butchering, and on the basis of radiocarbon dating of shells, about 1000 BP (approximately 1000 AD).


title: Elephant bird

text: An alternative theory is that the extinction was a secondary effect of human impact resulting from transfer of hyperdiseases from human commensals such as chickens and guineafowl. The bones of these domesticated fowl have been found in subfossil sites in the island (MacPhee and Marx, 1997: 188), such as Ambolisatra (Madagascar), where "Mullerornis" sp. and "Aepyornis maximus" have been reported. Also reported by these authors, ratite remains have been found in west and south west Madagascar, at Belo-sur-Mer ("A. medius", "Mullerornis rudis"), Bemafandry ("M. agilis") and Lamboharana ("Mullerornis" sp.).


title: Elephant bird

text: Several elephant bird bones with tool marks have been dated to approximately 10,000 BC and interpreted as evidence of a long history of coexistence between elephant birds and humans; however, these conclusions conflict with more commonly accepted evidence of a much shorter history of human presence on the island and remain controversial.


title: Eos

text: In ancient Greek mythology and religion, Eos (; Ionic and Homeric Greek "Ēṓs", Attic "Héōs", "dawn", or ; Aeolic "Aúōs", Doric "Āṓs") is the goddess and personification of the dawn, who rose each morning from her home at the edge of the river Oceanus to deliver light and disperse the night. In Greek tradition and poetry she is characterized as a goddess with a great sexual appetite, who took numerous lovers for her own satisfaction and bore them several children. Like her Roman counterpart Aurora and Rigvedic Ushas, Eos continues the name of an earlier Indo-European dawn goddess, Hausos. Eos, or her earlier Proto-Indo-European (PIE) ancestor, also shares several elements with the love goddess Aphrodite, perhaps signifying Eos's influence on her or otherwise a common origin for the two goddesses. In surviving tradition, Aphrodite is the culprit behind Eos' numerous love affairs, having cursed the goddess with insatiable lust for mortal men.


title: Eos

text: In Greek literature, Eos is presented as a daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia, the sister of the sun god Helios and the moon goddess Selene. In rarer traditions, she is the daughter of the Titan Pallas. Each day she drives her two-horse chariot, heralding the breaking of the new day and her brother's arrival. Thus, her most common epithet of the goddess in the Homeric epics is Rhododactylos, or "rosy-fingered", a reference to the sky's colours at dawn, and Erigeneia, "early-born". Although primarily associated with the dawn and early morning, sometimes Eos would accompany Helios for the entire duration of his journey, and thus she is even seen during dusk.


title: Eos

text: Eos fell in love with mortal men several times, and would abduct them in similar manner to how male gods did mortal women. Her most notable mortal lover is the Trojan prince Tithonus, for whom she ensured the gift of immortality, but not eternal youth, leading to him aging without dying for an eternity. In another story, she carried off the Athenian Cephalus against his will, but eventually let him go for he ardently wished to be returned to his wife, though not before she denigrated her to him, leading to the couple parting ways. Several other lovers and romances with both mortal men and gods were attributed to the goddess by various poets throughout the centuries.


title: Eos

text: Eos figures in many works of ancient literature and poetry, but despite her Proto-Indo-European origins, there is little evidence of Eos having received any cult or being the centre of worship during classical times.


title: Eos

text: The Proto-Greek form of "Ἠώς" / "Ēṓs" has been reconstructed as "*ἀυhώς / auhṓs". It is cognate to the Vedic goddess "Ushas", Lithuanian goddess "Aušrinė", and Roman goddess "Aurora" (Old Latin "Ausosa"), all three of whom are also goddesses of the dawn. Beekes notes that the Proto-Greek form "*ἇϝος" ("hãwos") is identical with the Sanskrit relative "yāvat", meaning 'as long as'. Meissner (2006) suggested an "áwwɔ̄s" > /aṷwɔ̄s/ > lengthening for Aeolic and */aṷwɔ̄s/ > "*āwɔ̄s" > "*ǣwɔ̄s" > /ǣɔ̄s/ for Attic-Ionic Greek.


title: Eos

text: In Mycenaean Greek her name is also attested in the form in Linear B, "a-wo-i-jo" ("Āw(ʰ)oʰios"; Ἀϝohιος), found in a tablet from Pylos; it has been interpreted as a shepherd's personal name related to "dawn", or dative form "Āwōiōi".


title: Eos

text: Heinrich Wilhelm Stoll offered a different etymology for "", linking it to the verb , meaning "to blow", "to breathe."


title: Eos

text: Lycophron calls her by an archaic name, "Tito", meaning "day" and perhaps etymologically linked to "Titan". Karl Kerenyi observes that Tito shares a linguistic origin with Eos's lover Tithonus, which belonged to an older, pre-Greek language.


title: Eos

text: All four of the aforementioned goddesses sharing a linguistic connection with Eos are considered derivatives of the Proto-Indo-European stem "*h₂ewsṓs" (later "*Ausṓs"), "dawn". The root also gave rise to Proto-Germanic "*Austrō", Old High German "*Ōstara" and Old English "Ēostre / Ēastre". These and other cognates led to the reconstruction of a Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess, "*h₂éwsōs".


title: Eos

text: In the Greek pantheon, Eos, Helios and Zeus are the three gods that are of impeccable Indo-European lineage in both etymology and status, although the former two were sidelined in the pantheon by non-PIE newcomers. A common epithet associated with this dawn goddess is *"Diwós Duǵhtḗr", the 'Daughter of Dyēus', the sky god. In Homeric tradition however, Eos is never stated to be the daughter of Zeus (, ), as she is instead the daughter of the Titan Hyperion, who plays little role in mythology or religion. Rather, a commonly occurring epithet of hers is , "dîa", meaning "divine", from earlier "*díw-ya", which would have translated into "belonging to Zeus" or "heavenly".


title: Eos

text: Eos's characterization as a lovestruck, sexual being who took many lovers is directly inherited from her PIE precursor. A common and widespread theme among Hausos's descendants is their reluctance to bring the light of the new day. Eos (and Aurora) is sometimes seen as unwilling to leave her bed in the morning, while Uṣas is punished by Indra for attempting to forestall the day, and the Latvian Auseklis was said to be locked up in a golden chamber so she could not always rise in the morning.


title: Eos

text: This probably of Proto-Indo-European origin goddess of the dawn was often conflated and equated with Hemera, the goddess of the day and daylight. Eos might have also played a role in Proto-Indo-European poetry.


title: Eos

text: Eos also shares some characteristics with the love goddess Aphrodite connoting perhaps a semi-shared origin or influence of Eos/"*Héusōs" on Aphrodite, who otherwise has a Near Eastern origin; both goddesses were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality, both had relationships with mortal lovers and both were associated with the colors red, white, and gold. Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning "she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]" and points to Hesiod's "Theogony" account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. On the other hand however, it is generally accepted that Aphrodite's name etymology is Semitic in origin, and its exact meaning and derivation cannot be determined. Evidence is also provided by an Italic red-figure krater in which Aphrodite is shown holding a mirror beneath a solar disc while the Theban hero Cadmus slays the dragon, with a female figure nearly identical to Aphrodite being depicted on another krater labelled "", or "Aṓs", the dawn; this shows that although Aphrodite is assimilated to Astarte/Inanna, in Greek artistic tradition she is sometimes presented in a similar matter to Eos.


title: Eos

text: Aphrodite, like Eos, is predator and not prey, as no tales of men assaulting Aphrodite exist, but there are many where she abducts mortal men reversing the traditional theme of gods and men pursuing maidens, in the same fashion as Eos. Not only does Aphrodite abduct or seduce mortal men as Eos does, but even cites Eos' own adventures with Tithonus when she seduces Anchises. The two goddesses are presented as both maleficent and beneficent abductors, as they confer both death (maleficent) and preservation (beneficent) to their mortal lovers. The two goddesses exist almost side by side in the myth of Phaethon of Syria, with Eos as his mother and Aphrodite as his lover and abductor. Moreover, another telling point is how the name “Aoos” is recorded as both a name for Adonis, Aphrodite’s East-originating lover, and a son of Eos by Cephalus (like Phaethon) who became king of Cyprus, an island that was regarded as Aphrodite’s birthplace. This suggest a mixture of Mycenaean and Phoenician religions on the island; it is possible that Aoos was originally a generic name used for Eos’ son or lover, which was then attached to Aphrodite in the form of a consort of the same name as she developed from Eos.


title: Eos

text: The rapacious goddess of the dawn Eos was almost always described with rosy fingers or rosy forearms as she opened the gates of heaven for the Sun to rise. In Homer, her saffron-colored robe is embroidered or woven with flowers; while the singer in the "Homeric Hymn to Helios" calls her (), "rosy-armed" as does Sappho, who also describes her as having golden arms and golden sandals; rosy-fingered and with golden arms, she is pictured on Attic vases as a beautiful woman, crowned with a tiara or diadem and with the large white-feathered wings of a bird. Mesomedes of Crete used for her, "she who has snow-white eyelids", while Ovid described her as "golden". The delicate and fragile beauty of her appearance seems to be in total contrast with the carnal nature that was often attributed to her in myth and literature.


title: Eos

text: According to Greek cosmogony, Eos is the daughter of the Titans Hyperion and Theia: Hyperion, a bringer of light, the "One Above, Who Travels High Above the Earth" and Theia, "The Divine," also called Euryphaessa, "wide-shining" and Aethra, "bright sky". Eos is the sister of Helios, the god of the sun, and Selene, the goddess of the moon, ""who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless gods who live in the wide heaven"". Out of the four authors that give her and her siblings a birth order, two make her the oldest child, the other two the youngest. In some accounts, Eos's father was called Pallas, who is also confirmed to the be father of Eos' sister Selene in some rare traditions; even though the two goddesses are still connected as sisters in the traditions going with lineage from Pallas, their brother Helios is never included with them in those versions, being consistently the son of Hyperion. Mesomedes made her the daughter of Helios, who is usually her brother, by an unnamed mother. Some authors made her the child of Nyx, the primordial goddess of the night, who is the mother of Hemera.


title: Eos

text: Eos married the Titan Astraeus ("of the Stars") and became the mother of the Anemoi ("winds") namely Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus and Eurus; of the Morning Star, Eosphoros (Venus); the Astra ("stars") and of the virgin goddess of justice, Astraea ("starry one"). Her other notable offspring were Memnon and Emathion by the Trojan prince, Tithonus. Sometimes, Hesperus, Phaethon and Tithonus (different from her lover) were called the children of Eos by the Athenian prince, Cephalus.


title: Eos

text: Each morning, the dawn goddess Eos would get up and open the gates so that her brother the Sun would pass and rise, bringing the new day. Although often her job seems to be done once she announces Helios' coming, in the Homeric epics she accompanies him throughout the whole day, and does not leave him until the sunset; hence "Eos" might be used in texts where one would have expected to see "Helios" instead. In Musaeus's rendition of the story of Hero and Leander in the sixth century AD, Eos is mentioned during both sunrise and sunset.


title: Eos

text: She is most often associated with her Homeric epithet "rosy-fingered" Eos Rhododactylos (), but Homer also calls her Eos Erigeneia:


title: Eos

text: That brightest of stars appeared, Eosphoros, that most often heralds the light of early-rising Dawn (Eos Erigeneia).


title: Eos

text: Near the end of the "Odyssey", Athena, wanting to buy Odysseus some time with his wife Penelope after they have reunited with each other, orders Eos not to yoke her two horses, thus delaying the coming of the new day:


title: Eos

text: And rose-fingered Dawn would have shone for the weepers had not bright-eyed goddess Athena thought of other things. She checked the long night in its passage, and further, held golden-throned Dawn over Ocean and didn't let her yoke her swift-footed horses, that bring daylight to men, Lampus and Phaethon, the colts that carry Dawn.


title: Eos

text: In the "Theogony", Hesiod wrote "[a]nd after these Erigeneia ["Early-born"] bore the star Eosphoros ("Dawn-bringer"), and the gleaming stars with which heaven is crowned". Thus Eos is preceded by the Morning Star, and is thus seen as the genetrix of all the stars and planets; her tears are considered to have created the morning dew, personified as Ersa or Herse, who is otherwise the daughter of her sister Selene by Zeus.


title: Eos

text: The position of the hymn in the collection at number 78 is odd, far from the Hymns to the Night (3), the Sun (8) and the Moon (9), where it would be expected to be grouped. While many of the Orphic hymns describe the divinities in terms on light, the hymn to Eos is the only one that calls upon the divinity to provide light to the initiates.


title: Eos

text: Eos's team of horses pull her chariot across the sky and are named in the "Odyssey" as "Firebright" and "Daybright". Quintus described her exulting in her heart over the radiant horses (Lampus and Phaëton) that drew her chariot, amidst the bright-haired Horae, the feminine Hours, the daughters of Zeus and Themis who are responsible for the changing of the seasons, climbing the arc of heaven and scattering sparks of fire.


title: Eos

text: In spite of the goddess already having a husband in the face of her first cousin Astraeus, Eos is presented as a goddess who fell in love several times. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, it was the jealous Aphrodite who cursed her to be perpetually in love and have an insatiable sexual desire because Eos had once lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares, the god of war. The curse caused her to abduct a number of handsome young men. This explanatory myth was the reason offered for Eos' ravenous sexual desires, as this pattern of behavior was noticed by the ancient Greeks.


title: Eos

text: In the Odyssey, Calypso complains to Hermes about the male gods taking many mortal women as lovers, but not allowing goddesses to do the same. She brings up as example Eos’s love for the hunter Orion, who was killed by Artemis on the island of Ortygia. Apollodorus also mentions Eos’s love for Orion, and adds that she brought him to Delos, where he met Artemis and was subsequently slain by her. The good-looking Cleitus was snatched and made immortal by her.


title: Eos

text: Eos fell in love and abducted Cephalus, a son of Hermes, who is sometimes the same as or distinct from the Cephalus that was the husband of Procris, whom she also abducted.


title: Eos

text: The myth of Eos and Tithonus is very old, known as early as Homer, who in the "Odyssey" described the coming of the new morning as Eos rising from the bed she shares with Tithonus to bring her light to the world. The earliest (and fullest) account survives in the "Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite". Additionally, the myth is also the subject of one of the very few substantially complete works of Sappho, pieced together from different fragments discovered over a period of more than a hundred years, known as the Tithonus poem or the Old Age poem:


title: Eos

text: The myth goes that Eos fell in love with and abducted Tithonus, a handsome prince from Troy, brother or son of King Laomedon (the father of Priam). She went with a request to Zeus, asking him to make Tithonus immortal for her sake. Zeus agreed and granted her wish, but Eos forgot to ask for eternal youth as well for her beloved. For a while, the two lived happily in her palace, but their happiness eventually came to an end when Tithonus’ hair started turning grey as he aged, and Eos ceased to visit him in their bed. Despite that, the goddess kept him around and nourished him with food and ambrosia; Tithonus never died as he had gained immortality, but he kept aging and shrivelling, and was soon unable to even move. In the end, Eos locked him up in a chamber, where he withered away, forever a helpless old man. Out of pity, she turned him into a small bug, a cicada (Greek , "tettix").


title: Eos

text: In the account of Hieronymus of Rhodes from the third century BC, the blame is shifted from Eos and onto Tithonus, who asked for immortality but not agelessness from his lover, who was then unable to help him otherwise and turned him into a cicada. Propertius wrote that Eos did not forsake Tithonus, old and aged as he was, and would still embrace him and hold him in her arms rather than leaving him deserted in his cold chamber, while cursing the gods for his cruel fate.


title: Eos

text: This myth might have been used to explain why cicadas were particularly noisy during the early hours of the morning, when the dawn appears in the sky. Sir James George Frazer notes that there was a widespread notion among the ancient Greeks and other ancient peoples that the creatures that shed their skin renew their youth and get to live forever. It could also be a reference to the fact that the high-pitched talk of old men was compared to a cicada's singing, as evidenced in a passage from the "Iliad". Cicadas were also believed to be able to survive off of dew alone, a substance closely associated with Eos.


title: Eos

text: The abduction of Cephalus had special appeal for an Athenian audience because Cephalus was a local boy, and so this myth element appeared frequently in Attic vase-paintings and was exported with them. In the literary myths, Eos snatched Cephalus against his will when he was hunting and took him to Syria. Although Cephalus was already married to Procris, Eos bore him three sons, including Phaethon and Hesperus, and in some versions the little-attested Aoos who went on to become king of Cyprus, but he then began pining for Procris, causing a disgruntled Eos to return him to Procris, but not before sowing the seeds of doubt in his mind, telling him that it was highly unlikely that Procris had stayed faithful to him this entire time.


title: Eos

text: Cephalus, troubled by her words, asked Eos to change his form into that of a stranger's, in order to secretly put Procris’s love for him to the test. Cephalus, now disguised, propositioned Procris, who at first declined but eventually gave in when he offered her money. He was hurt by her betrayal, and she left him in shame, but eventually they got back together. This time however it was Procris’s turn to doubt her husband’s fidelity; while hunting, he would often call upon the breeze ('Aura' in Latin, sounding similar to Eos’s Roman equivalent Aurora) to refresh his body. Upon hearing that, Procris followed and spied on him. Cephalus, mistaking her for some wild animal, threw his spear at her, killing his wife. The second-century CE traveller Pausanias knew of the story of Cephalus’s abduction too, though he calls Eos by the name of Hemera, goddess of day.


title: Eos

text: Hyginus omits the kidnapping from the story, and has Cephalus reject Eos out of fidelity to Procris when she begs him to have sex with her. Eos then says to Cephalus that she would not want him to break his vows if Procris herself has not either, and alters his appearance and gives him gifts to trick Procris. Cephalus then goes to Procris as a stranger, and she agrees to lay with him, thereupon Eos removes the enchantment from Cephalus, revealing his identity. Procris, knowing she has been deceived by Eos, flees; she is eventually reunited with Cephalus, but still fearful of Eos, follows him when he goes out hunting, and ends up being accidentally killed by him.


title: Eos

text: Antoninus Liberalis also largely follows the same tradition in his rendition of the myth, though his text contains a lacuna, jumping from Eos' abduction of Cephalus to him having doubts over Procris. The oldest extant account of the myth is attributed to Pherecydes, and the elements it contains were all kept by later poets; in his account however Eos plays no role in the myth.


title: Eos

text: Eos played a small role in the battle of the earthborn Giants against the gods, known as the Gigantomachy, who rose in rebellion. When their mother, the earth goddess Gaia learned of a prophecy that the giants would perish at the hand of a mortal, Gaia sought to find a herb that would protect them from all harm; thus Zeus ordered Eos, as well as her siblings Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) not to shine so that she would not be able to seek for it, and harvested all of the plant for himself, denying Gaia the chance to make the Giants indestructible. Moreover, Eos is seen fighting against the Giants in the south frieze of the Pergamon Altar, which depicts the Gigantomachy, where she rides hither on either a horse or a mule right ahead of Helios, swinging herself on the back of her mount while a Giant already lies on the ground underneath her; a robe wound around her hips serves as her saddle-cloth. She is joined in fight against the Giants by her siblings, her mother Theia, and possibly, conjectured due to the disembodied wing to the right of Eos's shoulder, the goddess Hemera.


title: Eos

text: According to Hesiod, by her lover Tithonus, Eos had two sons, Memnon and Emathion. Memnon, king of Aethiopia, joined the Trojans in the Trojan War and fought against Achilles in battle. Much like Thetis, the mother of Achilles, did before her, Eos asked the smithing god Hephaestus with tears in her eyes to forge an armor for Memnon, and he, moved, did as told. Pausanias mentions images of Thetis and Eos both begging Zeus on behalf of their sons. In the end, it was Achilles who triumphed and slew Memnon in battle. Mourning greatly over the death of her son, Eos made the light of her brother, Helios the god of the sun, to fade, and begged Nyx, the goddess of the night, to come out earlier, so she could be able to freely steal her son's body undetected by the armies. After his death, Eos, perhaps with the help of Hypnos (Sleep) and Thanatos (Death), transported Memnon's dead body back to Aethiopia; she also asked Zeus to make her son immortal, and he granted her wish. Eos' role in the Trojan War saga mirrors that of Thetis herself; both are goddesses married to aging old men, both see their mortal sons die on the battlefield, and both arrange an afterlife/immortality of sorts for said sons.


title: Eos

text: Eos was imagined as a woman wearing a saffron mantle as she spread dew from an upturned urn, or with a torch in hand, riding a chariot. Greek and Italian vases show Eos/Aurora on a chariot preceding Helios, as the morning star Eosphorus flies with her; she is winged, wearing a fine pleated tunic and mantle. Eos is not an uncommon figure, especially on red-figure vases; as a single figure she appears rising from the sea in, or driving, a four-horse chariot like her brother Helios, sometimes carrying two hydriae from which she pours morning dew. Because Hermes' rod had the power to both induce sleep to mortals and wake them up, some times he is seen preceding the chariot of Eos (and that of Helios) as the new day breaks.


title: Eos

text: Although the romantic adventures of Eos is a common subject in pottery, so far as it is known, no vase depicts her with Orion or Cleitus, known lovers of hers, instead those vases fall into groups; those that depict Eos with a young hunter identified as Cephalus, and those that depict Eos with a youth holding a lyre, identified as Tithonus. Sometimes those vases bear inscriptions, and on a few the hunter is identified as Tithonus, while the lyre-player is Cephalus. Perhaps the earliest representation of this theme is found on a red-figure "rhyton", a statuette-vase, from circa 480-470 BC in which Eos is depicted carrying of a naked boy, perhaps Cephalus, her wings spread and her feet barely touching the ground. The image of Eos pursuing Tithonus was eerily repetitive in ancient art, as was that of erotic pursuit in general; Tithonus was drawn running off to the right in terror, or trying to clobber with a lyre or a spear the pursuing Eos, indicating the terrifying aspect of a mortal man being taken by a goddess. The image of Zeus, the active "erastes", pursuing Ganymede, the passive "eromenos", was also common, but in the case of Eos, the female figure was put in the dominant position.


title: Eos

text: Other depictions of mythological scenes that include Eos are Memnon's battle with Achilles and Eos' pleading of Zeus for his safety, her seizing of Memnon's dead body, and the "apotheosis" of Alcmene (the mother of Heracles). Among Theia and Hyperion's children, she is the only one depicted with wings, as neither her brother nor her sister ever sport some in art.


title: Eos

text: Eos, along with her brother and sister, is a Proto-Indo-European deity, that was side-lined by the non-PIE newcomers to the pantheon; James Davidson argues that apparently persisting on the sidelines was a primary function for them, to be the minor gods that the major gods were juxtaposed to, thus helping to keep the Greek religion Greek. However, whereas her brother and sister did receive minor cults, and in Helios' case even major ones, Eos does not seem to have been the focus of any worship at all. Thus there are no known temples, shrines, or altars to Eos. However, Ovid seems to allude to the existence of at least two shrines of Eos, as he describes them in plural, albeit few, in the lines:


title: Eos

text: Although this could simply be an understated way for Eos to say that she has no temples or shrines whatsoever, nevertheless Ovid may therefore have known of at least two such shrines. However if Eos did indeed have a handful of shrines and altars in ancient Greece or Rome, no knowledge of them remains.


title: Eos

text: The only traces of the goddess's worship can be found at Athens, where wineless offerings (or "nephalia") were made to Eos, along with other celestial gods and goddesses, including Eos's siblings Helios and Selene, as well as Aphrodite Urania, Mnemosyne, the Muses, and the nymphs. It is possible that the goddess addressed as Orthria and Aotis in a fragment by Alcman is Eos; this is highly debated, but if true, it could mean that Eos was worshipped in some capacity in Sparta during the Archaic period.


title: Eos

text: Among the Etruscans, the generative dawn-goddess was Thesan. Depictions of the dawn-goddess with a young lover became popular in Etruria in the fifth century, probably inspired by imported Greek vase-painting. Though Etruscans preferred to show the goddess as a nurturer ("Kourotrophos") rather than an abductor of young men, the late Archaic sculptural acroterion from Etruscan Cære, now in Berlin, showing the goddess in archaic running pose adapted from the Greeks, and bearing a boy in her arms, has commonly been identified as Eos and Cephalus. On an Etruscan mirror Thesan is shown carrying off a young man, whose name is inscribed as Tinthu.


title: Eos

text: The Roman equivalent of Eos is Aurora, also a cognate showing the characteristic Latin rhotacism. Dawn became associated in Roman cult with Matuta, later known as Mater Matuta. She was also associated with the sea harbors and ports, and had a temple on the Forum Boarium. On June 11, the Matralia was celebrated at that temple in honor of Mater Matuta; this festival was only for women during their first marriage.


title: Eos

text: Although distinct deities in early works such as Hesiod's "Theogony", later the tragic poets completely identified Eos with Hemera, the primordial goddess of the day; each of the three tragedians, Euripides, Aeschylus and Sophocles, used "Hemera" for the goddess who abducts Tithonus or drives a chariot drawn by white horses at daybreak in some work. Both goddesses were said to be daughters of Nyx (Night), albeit Eos was much more commonly the daughter of Hyperion by his wife. Pausanias, when describing depictions of Eos's myths at Athens and Amyclae, he calls Eos by the name of Hemera. A scholion on the "Odyssey" mentions the abduction of the hunter Orion by "Hemera" (Eos in Homer). Eos, in contrast to Helios and Selene and more similarly to Hemera and Hemera's mother Nyx, embodies a part of the day and night cycle, instead of a celestial body. The Greek word "eos", meaning dawn, was some times used by writers to refer to the entire duration of the day, not just the morning.


title: Reid Flair

text: Richard Reid Fliehr (February 26, 1988 March 29, 2013), better known by his ring name Reid Flair, was an American professional wrestler. He was the younger son of retired professional wrestler Ric Flair, the younger half-brother of wrestler David Flair and the younger brother of wrestler Charlotte Flair. He was best known for his appearances alongside his father in World Championship Wrestling and for his appearances with All Japan Pro Wrestling.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr attended Providence High School in Charlotte, North Carolina and Blair Academy in New Jersey, and was an accomplished amateur wrestler achieving numerous awards. During a tournament, Fliehr attacked another competitor after he taunted Fliehr by mocking his father. In April 1998, Fliehr won the AAU National Wrestling Tournament.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr wrestled two matches in the now defunct World Championship Wrestling (WCW). In the first, on October 4, 1998, he was ten years old when he defeated Eric Bischoff and on June 12, 2000, he teamed with his father Ric in a loss to David Flair and Vince Russo in a tag team match.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr made an appearance on March 29, 2008 during the WWE Hall of Fame. The next night, he made his first WrestleMania appearance with his family representing Ric Flair in the Hall of Fame. He also sat at ringside during the WrestleMania XXIV event. He appeared on "Raw" the following night with his family to honor his father's career. Throughout 2008, Flair was trained by Harley Race. Flair made his debut on December 6, 2008, under the name "Reid Flair", teaming with his elder brother David to defeat The Nasty Boys in Charlotte, North Carolina, with Hulk Hogan as the special guest referee. He wrestled for many independent promotions such as Big Time Wrestling and Northeast Wrestling.


title: Reid Flair

text: On April 11, 2009, Flair, his brother David, and Brad Anderson beat Jeff Lewis, C. W. Anderson and Masked Superstar at an NWA Charlotte show. The match ended controversially with a double pin, when Flair pinned Lewis while CW Anderson pinned Brad Anderson. At the end of the match, Flair was awarded the NWA Mid-Atlantic Heritage Championship belt. At NWA Charlotte's next show on May 25, however, Lewis was announced as the NWA Mid-Atlantic Heritage Champion, with no explanation given. On May 2, he and David took on Buff Bagwell and Rikki Nelson and would lose. In June 2010, Reid teamed up with George South Jr. to take part in The Anderson Brothers Classic 4 Tournament where they defeated Caleb Konley and Cedric Alexander in the semi finals and Charlie Dreamer and Jake Manning in the final. In August he made his debut for Lucha Libre USA.


title: Reid Flair

text: In the same month next year he participated in NWA Future Legends Tournament and lost to John Skyler in the semi-final.


title: Reid Flair

text: In late 2012, it was reported that Flair had started training with All Japan Pro Wrestling. Flair made his in-ring debut for All Japan on January 26, 2013, when he replaced his sick father in a tag team match, where he and Keiji Mutoh were defeated by Seiya Sanada and Tatsumi Fujinami, with Sanada submitting him for the win. During February, Flair worked All Japan's "Excite Series" tour, wrestling undercard tag team matches. On March 15, Flair wrestled his first singles match in All Japan, submitting Yasufumi Nakanoue with the figure-four leglock. Flair returned to the United States following All Japan's March 17 event, which was 12 days before his death.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, to professional wrestler Ric Flair and Elizabeth Fliehr. He was the youngest of two siblings; he has a half-sister, Megan, a half-brother, David, and sister, Ashley.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr attended and graduated from Providence High School in 2006. His favorite band was Guns N' Roses.


title: Reid Flair

text: Fliehr was arrested on June 23, 2007, for assault and battery, and was released after posting bail. On March 4, 2009, Fliehr was arrested for driving while impaired in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, and was released after posting $1000 in bail. Fliehr was arrested again on April 26, 2009. After crashing his car, police found black tar heroin inside it, and he faced felony charges. He was also charged with driving while impaired, driving with a revoked license, and possession of drug paraphernalia, and was released after posting $15,000 in bail. He later overdosed twice in 2011.


title: Reid Flair

text: During the Ric Flair "30 for 30" special, Triple H revealed that Fliehr wanted to sign a developmental contract with WWE but failed two drug tests, the second one being announced and actually worse than the first test. Ric, in denial of his son's problems, told Triple H that he thought that Fliehr had gotten a "supplement from GNC" instead of being honest with himself of Fliehr's real problems. Ric later admitted during the "30 for 30" special that he felt that he may have been a best friend to Reid at times when Reid would have been better served with Ric acting as his father.


title: Reid Flair

text: On March 29, 2013, Flair was found dead in bed at a Residence Inn in the SouthPark neighborhood of Charlotte, North Carolina. He was 25 years old. On June 14, 2013, Flair's autopsy revealed that it was drug overdose of heroin and traces of two prescription tranquilizers, clonazepam, and alprazolam, which contributed to his death.


title: Reid Flair

text: On November 16, 2015, six days before Survivor Series, Reid's sister WWE Divas Champion Charlotte signed a contract to face Paige at the event. Charlotte proclaimed she was doing this for Reid as a tribute to him. Paige then mocked her by saying that "Your little baby brother, he didn't have much fight in him, did he?" It was later rumoured that WWE had not asked for permission from the Flair family to reference Reid's death, and had given no prior warning to his parents, although this has been disputed by several people within WWE. The angle was voted by "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" readers as the Most Disgusting Promotional Tactic of 2015.


title: Reid Flair

text: At the conclusion of a match on April 11, 2009, Flair was handed the championship. At the following show, the former champion Jeff Lewis was announced as the current champion, with no explanation given.


title: Particle accelerator

text: A particle accelerator is a machine that uses electromagnetic fields to propel charged particles to very high speeds and energies, and to contain them in well-defined beams.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Large accelerators are used for fundamental research in particle physics. The largest accelerator currently active is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, operated by the CERN. It is a collider accelerator, which can accelerate two beams of protons to an energy of 6.5 TeV and cause them to collide head-on, creating center-of-mass energies of 13 TeV. Other powerful accelerators are, RHIC at Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York and, formerly, the Tevatron at Fermilab, Batavia, Illinois. Accelerators are also used as synchrotron light sources for the study of condensed matter physics. Smaller particle accelerators are used in a wide variety of applications, including particle therapy for oncological purposes, radioisotope production for medical diagnostics, ion implanters for the manufacture of semiconductors, and accelerator mass spectrometers for measurements of rare isotopes such as radiocarbon. There are currently more than 30,000 accelerators in operation around the world.


title: Particle accelerator

text: There are two basic classes of accelerators: electrostatic and electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) accelerators. "Electrostatic particle accelerators" use static electric fields to accelerate particles. The most common types are the Cockcroft–Walton generator and the Van de Graaff generator. A small-scale example of this class is the cathode ray tube in an ordinary old television set. The achievable kinetic energy for particles in these devices is determined by the accelerating voltage, which is limited by electrical breakdown. "Electrodynamic" or "electromagnetic" accelerators, on the other hand, use changing electromagnetic fields (either magnetic induction or oscillating radio frequency fields) to accelerate particles. Since in these types the particles can pass through the same accelerating field multiple times, the output energy is not limited by the strength of the accelerating field. This class, which was first developed in the 1920s, is the basis for most modern large-scale accelerators.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Rolf Widerøe, Gustav Ising, Leó Szilárd, Max Steenbeck, and Ernest Lawrence are considered pioneers of this field, having conceived and built the first operational linear particle accelerator, the betatron, and the cyclotron.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Because the target of the particle beams of early accelerators was usually the atoms of a piece of matter, with the goal being to create collisions with their nuclei in order to investigate nuclear structure, accelerators were commonly referred to as atom smashers in the 20th century. The term persists despite the fact that many modern accelerators create collisions between two subatomic particles, rather than a particle and an atomic nucleus.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Beams of high-energy particles are useful for fundamental and applied research in the sciences, and also in many technical and industrial fields unrelated to fundamental research. It has been estimated that there are approximately 30,000 accelerators worldwide. Of these, only about 1% are research machines with energies above 1 GeV, while about 44% are for radiotherapy, 41% for ion implantation, 9% for industrial processing and research, and 4% for biomedical and other low-energy research.


title: Particle accelerator

text: For the most basic inquiries into the dynamics and structure of matter, space, and time, physicists seek the simplest kinds of interactions at the highest possible energies. These typically entail particle energies of many GeV, and interactions of the simplest kinds of particles: leptons (e.g. electrons and positrons) and quarks for the matter, or photons and gluons for the field quanta. Since isolated quarks are experimentally unavailable due to color confinement, the simplest available experiments involve the interactions of, first, leptons with each other, and second, of leptons with nucleons, which are composed of quarks and gluons. To study the collisions of quarks with each other, scientists resort to collisions of nucleons, which at high energy may be usefully considered as essentially 2-body interactions of the quarks and gluons of which they are composed. This elementary particle physicists tend to use machines creating beams of electrons, positrons, protons, and antiprotons, interacting with each other or with the simplest nuclei (e.g., hydrogen or deuterium) at the highest possible energies, generally hundreds of GeV or more.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The largest and highest-energy particle accelerator used for elementary particle physics is the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, operating since 2009.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Nuclear physicists and cosmologists may use beams of bare atomic nuclei, stripped of electrons, to investigate the structure, interactions, and properties of the nuclei themselves, and of condensed matter at extremely high temperatures and densities, such as might have occurred in the first moments of the Big Bang. These investigations often involve collisions of heavy nucleiof atoms like iron or goldat energies of several GeV per nucleon. The largest such particle accelerator is the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Particle accelerators can also produce proton beams, which can produce proton-rich medical or research isotopes as opposed to the neutron-rich ones made in fission reactors; however, recent work has shown how to make Mo, usually made in reactors, by accelerating isotopes of hydrogen, although this method still requires a reactor to produce tritium. An example of this type of machine is LANSCE at Los Alamos.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Electrons propagating through a magnetic field emit very bright and coherent photon beams via synchrotron radiation. It has numerous uses in the study of atomic structure, chemistry, condensed matter physics, biology, and technology. A large number of synchrotron light sources exist worldwide. Examples in the U.S. are SSRL at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, APS at Argonne National Laboratory, ALS at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and NSLS at Brookhaven National Laboratory. In Europe, there are MAX IV in Lund, Sweden, BESSY in Berlin, Germany, Diamond in Oxfordshire, UK, ESRF in Grenoble, France, the latter has been used to extract detailed 3-dimensional images of insects trapped in amber.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Free-electron lasers (FELs) are a special class of light sources based on synchrotron radiation that provides shorter pulses with higher temporal coherence. A specially designed FEL is the most brilliant source of x-rays in the observable universe. The most prominent examples are the LCLS in the U.S. and European XFEL in Germany. More attention is being drawn towards soft x-ray lasers, which together with pulse shortening opens up new methods for attosecond science. Apart from x-rays, FELs are used to emit terahertz light, e.g. FELIX in Nijmegen, Netherlands, TELBE in Dresden, Germany and NovoFEL in Novosibirsk, Russia.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Thus there is a great demand for electron accelerators of moderate (GeV) energy, high intensity and high beam quality to drive light sources.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Everyday examples of particle accelerators are cathode ray tubes found in television sets and X-ray generators. These low-energy accelerators use a single pair of electrodes with a DC voltage of a few thousand volts between them. In an X-ray generator, the target itself is one of the electrodes. A low-energy particle accelerator called an ion implanter is used in the manufacture of integrated circuits.


title: Particle accelerator

text: At lower energies, beams of accelerated nuclei are also used in medicine as particle therapy, for the treatment of cancer.


title: Particle accelerator

text: DC accelerator types capable of accelerating particles to speeds sufficient to cause nuclear reactions are Cockcroft-Walton generators or voltage multipliers, which convert AC to high voltage DC, or Van de Graaff generators that use static electricity carried by belts.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Electron beam processing is commonly used for sterilization. Electron beams are an on-off technology that provide a much higher dose rate than gamma or X-rays emitted by radioisotopes like cobalt-60 (Co) or caesium-137 (Cs). Due to the higher dose rate, less exposure time is required and polymer degradation is reduced. Because electrons carry a charge, electron beams are less penetrating than both gamma and X-rays.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Historically, the first accelerators used simple technology of a single static high voltage to accelerate charged particles. The charged particle was accelerated through an evacuated tube with an electrode at either end, with the static potential across it. Since the particle passed only once through the potential difference, the output energy was limited to the accelerating voltage of the machine. While this method is still extremely popular today, with the electrostatic accelerators greatly out-numbering any other type, they are more suited to lower energy studies owing to the practical voltage limit of about 1 MV for air insulated machines, or 30 MV when the accelerator is operated in a tank of pressurized gas with high dielectric strength, such as sulfur hexafluoride. In a "tandem accelerator" the potential is used twice to accelerate the particles, by reversing the charge of the particles while they are inside the terminal. This is possible with the acceleration of atomic nuclei by using anions (negatively charged ions), and then passing the beam through a thin foil to strip electrons off the anions inside the high voltage terminal, converting them to cations (positively charged ions), which are accelerated again as they leave the terminal.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The two main types of electrostatic accelerator are the Cockcroft-Walton accelerator, which uses a diode-capacitor voltage multiplier to produce high voltage, and the Van de Graaff accelerator, which uses a moving fabric belt to carry charge to the high voltage electrode. Although electrostatic accelerators accelerate particles along a straight line, the term linear accelerator is more often used for accelerators that employ oscillating rather than static electric fields.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Due to the high voltage ceiling imposed by electrical discharge, in order to accelerate particles to higher energies, techniques involving dynamic fields rather than static fields are used. Electrodynamic acceleration can arise from either of two mechanisms: non-resonant magnetic induction, or resonant circuits or cavities excited by oscillating radio frequency (RF) fields.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Electrodynamic accelerators can be "linear", with particles accelerating in a straight line, or "circular", using magnetic fields to bend particles in a roughly circular orbit.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Magnetic induction accelerators accelerate particles by induction from an increasing magnetic field, as if the particles were the secondary winding in a transformer. The increasing magnetic field creates a circulating electric field which can be configured to accelerate the particles. Induction accelerators can be either linear or circular.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Linear induction accelerators utilize ferrite-loaded, non-resonant induction cavities. Each cavity can be thought of as two large washer-shaped disks connected by an outer cylindrical tube. Between the disks is a ferrite toroid. A voltage pulse applied between the two disks causes an increasing magnetic field which inductively couples power into the charged particle beam.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The linear induction accelerator was invented by Christofilos in the 1960s. Linear induction accelerators are capable of accelerating very high beam currents (>1000 A) in a single short pulse. They have been used to generate X-rays for flash radiography (e.g. DARHT at LANL), and have been considered as particle injectors for magnetic confinement fusion and as drivers for free electron lasers.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The Betatron is a circular magnetic induction accelerator, invented by Donald Kerst in 1940 for accelerating electrons. The concept originates ultimately from Norwegian-German scientist Rolf Widerøe. These machines, like synchrotrons, use a donut-shaped ring magnet (see below) with a cyclically increasing B field, but accelerate the particles by induction from the increasing magnetic field, as if they were the secondary winding in a transformer, due to the changing magnetic flux through the orbit.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Achieving constant orbital radius while supplying the proper accelerating electric field requires that the magnetic flux linking the orbit be somewhat independent of the magnetic field on the orbit, bending the particles into a constant radius curve. These machines have in practice been limited by the large radiative losses suffered by the electrons moving at nearly the speed of light in a relatively small radius orbit.


title: Particle accelerator

text: In a linear particle accelerator (linac), particles are accelerated in a straight line with a target of interest at one end. They are often used to provide an initial low-energy kick to particles before they are injected into circular accelerators. The longest linac in the world is the Stanford Linear Accelerator, SLAC, which is long. SLAC was originally an electron-positron collider but is now a X-ray Free-electron laser.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Linear high-energy accelerators use a linear array of plates (or drift tubes) to which an alternating high-energy field is applied. As the particles approach a plate they are accelerated towards it by an opposite polarity charge applied to the plate. As they pass through a hole in the plate, the polarity is switched so that the plate now repels them and they are now accelerated by it towards the next plate. Normally a stream of "bunches" of particles are accelerated, so a carefully controlled AC voltage is applied to each plate to continuously repeat this process for each bunch.


title: Particle accelerator

text: As the particles approach the speed of light the switching rate of the electric fields becomes so high that they operate at radio frequencies, and so microwave cavities are used in higher energy machines instead of simple plates.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Linear accelerators are also widely used in medicine, for radiotherapy and radiosurgery. Medical grade linacs accelerate electrons using a klystron and a complex bending magnet arrangement which produces a beam of 6-30 MeV energy. The electrons can be used directly or they can be collided with a target to produce a beam of X-rays. The reliability, flexibility and accuracy of the radiation beam produced has largely supplanted the older use of cobalt-60 therapy as a treatment tool.


title: Particle accelerator

text: In the circular accelerator, particles move in a circle until they reach sufficient energy. The particle track is typically bent into a circle using electromagnets. The advantage of circular accelerators over linear accelerators ("linacs") is that the ring topology allows continuous acceleration, as the particle can transit indefinitely. Another advantage is that a circular accelerator is smaller than a linear accelerator of comparable power (i.e. a linac would have to be extremely long to have the equivalent power of a circular accelerator).


title: Particle accelerator

text: Depending on the energy and the particle being accelerated, circular accelerators suffer a disadvantage in that the particles emit synchrotron radiation. When any charged particle is accelerated, it emits electromagnetic radiation and secondary emissions. As a particle traveling in a circle is always accelerating towards the center of the circle, it continuously radiates towards the tangent of the circle. This radiation is called synchrotron light and depends highly on the mass of the accelerating particle. For this reason, many high energy electron accelerators are linacs. Certain accelerators (synchrotrons) are however built specially for producing synchrotron light (X-rays).


title: Particle accelerator

text: Since the special theory of relativity requires that matter always travels slower than the speed of light in a vacuum, in high-energy accelerators, as the energy increases the particle speed approaches the speed of light as a limit, but never attains it. Therefore, particle physicists do not generally think in terms of speed, but rather in terms of a particle's energy or momentum, usually measured in electron volts (eV). An important principle for circular accelerators, and particle beams in general, is that the curvature of the particle trajectory is proportional to the particle charge and to the magnetic field, but inversely proportional to the (typically relativistic) momentum.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The earliest operational circular accelerators were cyclotrons, invented in 1929 by Ernest Lawrence at the University of California, Berkeley. Cyclotrons have a single pair of hollow "D"-shaped plates to accelerate the particles and a single large dipole magnet to bend their path into a circular orbit. It is a characteristic property of charged particles in a uniform and constant magnetic field B that they orbit with a constant period, at a frequency called the cyclotron frequency, so long as their speed is small compared to the speed of light "c". This means that the accelerating D's of a cyclotron can be driven at a constant frequency by a RF accelerating power source, as the beam spirals outwards continuously. The particles are injected in the center of the magnet and are extracted at the outer edge at their maximum energy.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Cyclotrons reach an energy limit because of relativistic effects whereby the particles effectively become more massive, so that their cyclotron frequency drops out of sync with the accelerating RF. Therefore, simple cyclotrons can accelerate protons only to an energy of around 15 million electron volts (15 MeV, corresponding to a speed of roughly 10% of "c"), because the protons get out of phase with the driving electric field. If accelerated further, the beam would continue to spiral outward to a larger radius but the particles would no longer gain enough speed to complete the larger circle in step with the accelerating RF. To accommodate relativistic effects the magnetic field needs to be increased to higher radii as is done in isochronous cyclotrons. An example of an isochronous cyclotron is the PSI Ring cyclotron in Switzerland, which provides protons at the energy of 590 MeV which corresponds to roughly 80% of the speed of light. The advantage of such a cyclotron is the maximum achievable extracted proton current which is currently 2.2 mA. The energy and current correspond to 1.3 MW beam power which is the highest of any accelerator currently existing.


title: Particle accelerator

text: A classic cyclotron can be modified to increase its energy limit. The historically first approach was the synchrocyclotron, which accelerates the particles in bunches. It uses a constant magnetic field formula_1, but reduces the accelerating field's frequency so as to keep the particles in step as they spiral outward, matching their mass-dependent cyclotron resonance frequency. This approach suffers from low average beam intensity due to the bunching, and again from the need for a huge magnet of large radius and constant field over the larger orbit demanded by high energy.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The second approach to the problem of accelerating relativistic particles is the isochronous cyclotron. In such a structure, the accelerating field's frequency (and the cyclotron resonance frequency) is kept constant for all energies by shaping the magnet poles so to increase magnetic field with radius. Thus, all particles get accelerated in isochronous time intervals. Higher energy particles travel a shorter distance in each orbit than they would in a classical cyclotron, thus remaining in phase with the accelerating field. The advantage of the isochronous cyclotron is that it can deliver continuous beams of higher average intensity, which is useful for some applications. The main disadvantages are the size and cost of the large magnet needed, and the difficulty in achieving the high magnetic field values required at the outer edge of the structure.


title: Particle accelerator

text: To reach still higher energies, with relativistic mass approaching or exceeding the rest mass of the particles (for protons, billions of electron volts or GeV), it is necessary to use a synchrotron. This is an accelerator in which the particles are accelerated in a ring of constant radius. An immediate advantage over cyclotrons is that the magnetic field need only be present over the actual region of the particle orbits, which is much narrower than that of the ring. (The largest cyclotron built in the US had a magnet pole, whereas the diameter of synchrotrons such as the LEP and LHC is nearly 10 km. The aperture of the two beams of the LHC is of the order of a centimeter.) The LHC contains 16 RF cavities, 1232 superconducting dipole magnets for beam steering, and 24 quadrupoles for beam focusing. Even at this size, the LHC is limited by its ability to steer the particles without them going adrift. This limit is theorized to occur at 14TeV.


title: Particle accelerator

text: However, since the particle momentum increases during acceleration, it is necessary to turn up the magnetic field B in proportion to maintain constant curvature of the orbit. In consequence, synchrotrons cannot accelerate particles continuously, as cyclotrons can, but must operate cyclically, supplying particles in bunches, which are delivered to a target or an external beam in beam "spills" typically every few seconds.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Since high energy synchrotrons do most of their work on particles that are already traveling at nearly the speed of light "c", the time to complete one orbit of the ring is nearly constant, as is the frequency of the RF cavity resonators used to drive the acceleration.


title: Particle accelerator

text: In modern synchrotrons, the beam aperture is small and the magnetic field does not cover the entire area of the particle orbit as it does for a cyclotron, so several necessary functions can be separated. Instead of one huge magnet, one has a line of hundreds of bending magnets, enclosing (or enclosed by) vacuum connecting pipes. The design of synchrotrons was revolutionized in the early 1950s with the discovery of the strong focusing concept. The focusing of the beam is handled independently by specialized quadrupole magnets, while the acceleration itself is accomplished in separate RF sections, rather similar to short linear accelerators. Also, there is no necessity that cyclic machines be circular, but rather the beam pipe may have straight sections between magnets where beams may collide, be cooled, etc. This has developed into an entire separate subject, called "beam physics" or "beam optics".


title: Particle accelerator

text: More complex modern synchrotrons such as the Tevatron, LEP, and LHC may deliver the particle bunches into storage rings of magnets with a constant magnetic field, where they can continue to orbit for long periods for experimentation or further acceleration. The highest-energy machines such as the Tevatron and LHC are actually accelerator complexes, with a cascade of specialized elements in series, including linear accelerators for initial beam creation, one or more low energy synchrotrons to reach intermediate energy, storage rings where beams can be accumulated or "cooled" (reducing the magnet aperture required and permitting tighter focusing; see beam cooling), and a last large ring for final acceleration and experimentation.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Circular electron accelerators fell somewhat out of favor for particle physics around the time that SLAC's linear particle accelerator was constructed, because their synchrotron losses were considered economically prohibitive and because their beam intensity was lower than for the unpulsed linear machines. The Cornell Electron Synchrotron, built at low cost in the late 1970s, was the first in a series of high-energy circular electron accelerators built for fundamental particle physics, the last being LEP, built at CERN, which was used from 1989 until 2000.


title: Particle accelerator

text: A large number of electron synchrotrons have been built in the past two decades, as part of synchrotron light sources that emit ultraviolet light and X rays; see below.


title: Particle accelerator

text: For some applications, it is useful to store beams of high energy particles for some time (with modern high vacuum technology, up to many hours) without further acceleration. This is especially true for colliding beam accelerators, in which two beams moving in opposite directions are made to collide with each other, with a large gain in effective collision energy. Because relatively few collisions occur at each pass through the intersection point of the two beams, it is customary to first accelerate the beams to the desired energy, and then store them in storage rings, which are essentially synchrotron rings of magnets, with no significant RF power for acceleration.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Some circular accelerators have been built to deliberately generate radiation (called synchrotron light) as X-rays also called synchrotron radiation, for example the Diamond Light Source which has been built at the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory in England or the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory in Illinois, USA. High-energy X-rays are useful for X-ray spectroscopy of proteins or X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS), for example.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Synchrotron radiation is more powerfully emitted by lighter particles, so these accelerators are invariably electron accelerators. Synchrotron radiation allows for better imaging as researched and developed at SLAC's SPEAR.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Fixed-Field Alternating Gradient accelerators (FFA)s, in which a magnetic field which is fixed in time, but with a radial variation to achieve strong focusing, allows the beam to be accelerated with a high repetition rate but in a much smaller radial spread than in the cyclotron case. Isochronous FFAs, like isochronous cyclotrons, achieve continuous beam operation, but without the need for a huge dipole bending magnet covering the entire radius of the orbits. Some new developments in FFAs are covered in.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Ernest Lawrence's first cyclotron was a mere 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter. Later, in 1939, he built a machine with a 60-inch diameter pole face, and planned one with a 184-inch diameter in 1942, which was, however, taken over for World War II-related work connected with uranium isotope separation; after the war it continued in service for research and medicine over many years.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The first large proton synchrotron was the Cosmotron at Brookhaven National Laboratory, which accelerated protons to about 3 GeV (1953–1968). The Bevatron at Berkeley, completed in 1954, was specifically designed to accelerate protons to sufficient energy to create antiprotons, and verify the particle-antiparticle symmetry of nature, then only theorized. The Alternating Gradient Synchrotron (AGS) at Brookhaven (1960–) was the first large synchrotron with alternating gradient, "strong focusing" magnets, which greatly reduced the required aperture of the beam, and correspondingly the size and cost of the bending magnets. The Proton Synchrotron, built at CERN (1959–), was the first major European particle accelerator and generally similar to the AGS.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The Stanford Linear Accelerator, SLAC, became operational in 1966, accelerating electrons to 30 GeV in a 3 km long waveguide, buried in a tunnel and powered by hundreds of large klystrons. It is still the largest linear accelerator in existence, and has been upgraded with the addition of storage rings and an electron-positron collider facility. It is also an X-ray and UV synchrotron photon source.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The Fermilab Tevatron has a ring with a beam path of . It has received several upgrades, and has functioned as a proton-antiproton collider until it was shut down due to budget cuts on September 30, 2011. The largest circular accelerator ever built was the LEP synchrotron at CERN with a circumference 26.6 kilometers, which was an electron/positron collider. It achieved an energy of 209 GeV before it was dismantled in 2000 so that the tunnel could be used for the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). The LHC is a proton collider, and currently the world's largest and highest-energy accelerator, achieving 6.5 TeV energy per beam (13 TeV in total).


title: Particle accelerator

text: The aborted Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) in Texas would have had a circumference of 87 km. Construction was started in 1991, but abandoned in 1993. Very large circular accelerators are invariably built in tunnels a few metres wide to minimize the disruption and cost of building such a structure on the surface, and to provide shielding against intense secondary radiations that occur, which are extremely penetrating at high energies.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Current accelerators such as the Spallation Neutron Source, incorporate superconducting cryomodules. The Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider, and Large Hadron Collider also make use of superconducting magnets and RF cavity resonators to accelerate particles.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The output of a particle accelerator can generally be directed towards multiple lines of experiments, one at a given time, by means of a deviating electromagnet. This makes it possible to operate multiple experiments without needing to move things around or shutting down the entire accelerator beam. Except for synchrotron radiation sources, the purpose of an accelerator is to generate high-energy particles for interaction with matter.


title: Particle accelerator

text: This is usually a fixed target, such as the phosphor coating on the back of the screen in the case of a television tube; a piece of uranium in an accelerator designed as a neutron source; or a tungsten target for an X-ray generator. In a linac, the target is simply fitted to the end of the accelerator. The particle track in a cyclotron is a spiral outwards from the centre of the circular machine, so the accelerated particles emerge from a fixed point as for a linear accelerator.


title: Particle accelerator

text: For synchrotrons, the situation is more complex. Particles are accelerated to the desired energy. Then, a fast acting dipole magnet is used to switch the particles out of the circular synchrotron tube and towards the target.


title: Particle accelerator

text: A variation commonly used for particle physics research is a collider, also called a "storage ring collider". Two circular synchrotrons are built in close proximityusually on top of each other and using the same magnets (which are then of more complicated design to accommodate both beam tubes). Bunches of particles travel in opposite directions around the two accelerators and collide at intersections between them. This can increase the energy enormously; whereas in a fixed-target experiment the energy available to produce new particles is proportional to the square root of the beam energy, in a collider the available energy is linear.


title: Particle accelerator

text: At present the highest energy accelerators are all circular colliders, but both hadron accelerators and electron accelerators are running into limits. Higher energy hadron and ion cyclic accelerators will require accelerator tunnels of larger physical size due to the increased beam rigidity.


title: Particle accelerator

text: For cyclic electron accelerators, a limit on practical bend radius is placed by synchrotron radiation losses and the next generation will probably be linear accelerators 10 times the current length. An example of such a next generation electron accelerator is the proposed 40 km long International Linear Collider.


title: Particle accelerator

text: It is believed that plasma wakefield acceleration in the form of electron-beam "afterburners" and standalone laser pulsers might be able to provide dramatic increases in efficiency over RF accelerators within two to three decades. In plasma wakefield accelerators, the beam cavity is filled with a plasma (rather than vacuum). A short pulse of electrons or laser light either constitutes or immediately precedes the particles that are being accelerated. The pulse disrupts the plasma, causing the charged particles in the plasma to integrate into and move toward the rear of the bunch of particles that are being accelerated. This process transfers energy to the particle bunch, accelerating it further, and continues as long as the pulse is coherent.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Energy gradients as steep as 200 GeV/m have been achieved over millimeter-scale distances using laser pulsers and gradients approaching 1 GeV/m are being produced on the multi-centimeter-scale with electron-beam systems, in contrast to a limit of about 0.1 GeV/m for radio-frequency acceleration alone. Existing electron accelerators such as SLAC could use electron-beam afterburners to greatly increase the energy of their particle beams, at the cost of beam intensity. Electron systems in general can provide tightly collimated, reliable beams; laser systems may offer more power and compactness. Thus, plasma wakefield accelerators could be used – if technical issues can be resolved – to both increase the maximum energy of the largest accelerators and to bring high energies into university laboratories and medical centres.


title: Particle accelerator

text: Higher than 0.25 GeV/m gradients have been achieved by a dielectric laser accelerator, which may present another viable approach to building compact high-energy accelerators. Using femtosecond duration laser pulses, an electron accelerating gradient 0.69 Gev/m was recorded for dielectric laser accelerators. Higher gradients of the order of 1 to 6 GeV/m are anticipated after further optimizations.


title: Particle accelerator

text: In the future, the possibility of a black hole production at the highest energy accelerators may arise if certain predictions of superstring theory are accurate. This and other possibilities have led to public safety concerns that have been widely reported in connection with the LHC, which began operation in 2008. The various possible dangerous scenarios have been assessed as presenting "no conceivable danger" in the latest risk assessment produced by the LHC Safety Assessment Group. If black holes are produced, it is theoretically predicted that such small black holes should evaporate extremely quickly via Bekenstein-Hawking radiation, but which is as yet experimentally unconfirmed. If colliders can produce black holes, cosmic rays (and particularly ultra-high-energy cosmic rays, UHECRs) must have been producing them for eons, but they have yet to harm anybody. It has been argued that to conserve energy and momentum, any black holes created in a collision between an UHECR and local matter would necessarily be produced moving at relativistic speed with respect to the Earth, and should escape into space, as their accretion and growth rate should be very slow, while black holes produced in colliders (with components of equal mass) would have some chance of having a velocity less than Earth escape velocity, 11.2 km per sec, and would be liable to capture and subsequent growth. Yet even on such scenarios the collisions of UHECRs with white dwarfs and neutron stars would lead to their rapid destruction, but these bodies are observed to be common astronomical objects. Thus if stable micro black holes should be produced, they must grow far too slowly to cause any noticeable macroscopic effects within the natural lifetime of the solar system.


title: Particle accelerator

text: The use of advanced technologies such as superconductivity, cryogenics, and high powered radiofrequency amplifiers, as well as the presence of ionizing radiation, pose challenges for the safe operation of accelerator facilities. An accelerator operator controls the operation of a particle accelerator, adjusts operating parameters such as aspect ratio, current intensity, and position on target. They communicate with and assist accelerator maintenance personnel to ensure readiness of support systems, such as vacuum, magnets, magnetic and radiofrequency power supplies and controls, and cooling systems. Additionally, the accelerator operator maintains a record of accelerator related events.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Edwyn Charles Huang (born March 1, 1982) is an American author, chef, restaurateur, food personality, producer, and former attorney. He was a co-owner of BaoHaus, a gua bao restaurant in the East Village of Lower Manhattan. Huang previously hosted "Huang's World" for Viceland. His autobiography, "", was adapted into the ABC sitcom "Fresh Off the Boat", of which he narrated the first season.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang was born in Washington, D.C., to Jessica and Louis Huang, who were immigrants from Taiwan. They were both "waishengren" of Taiwan; the ancestral homes of his father and mother were in the Hunan and Shandong provinces of mainland China, respectively. Huang was raised in Silver Spring, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C., then moved to Orlando, Florida, where his father owned a successful group of steak and seafood restaurants, including Atlantic Bay Seafood and Grill and Cattleman's Ranch Steakhouse. He appreciated African-American culture, especially hip-hop, at a young age. He also frequently got into fights, getting arrested twice on assault charges while growing up.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang attended Dr. Phillips High School in Orlando. He also went on to attend the University of Pittsburgh and Rollins College, graduating with a B.A. in English and Film from Rollins in 2004. At Rollins, he also won the Barbara Lawrence Alfond English Award and the Zora Neale Hurston Award, and was Sports and Humor editor for the school paper, "The Sandspur". In 2008, Huang earned a J.D. from the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University. At Cardozo, Huang worked at the Innocence Project, served as President of the Minority Law Students Association and as Vice President of the Asian Pacific American Law Students Association, and also won a New York City Bar Association Minority Fellowship in 2006.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang's first job as an attorney was working in corporate law at the law firm Chadbourne & Parke in New York City. He worked as a summer associate in 2006 and 2007, then was hired as an associate in the firm's corporate department in 2008. Within a year, due to the financial crisis of 2007–08, Huang was laid off, and began working as a stand-up comic and marijuana dealer.


title: Eddie Huang

text: From 2006 to 2009, Huang ran a streetwear company called "Hoodman Clothing," initially called "Bergdorf Hoodman." At Hoodman, Huang co-created clothing designs with Art Director Ning Juang, a graphic designer whom he had met in Taiwan.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang was also interested in food as he had grown up watching his mother cook at home. He also learned cooking techniques from various chefs of different cultural backgrounds and cuisine styles that worked at his father's restaurants. He learned management and how to be a good expeditor: a restaurant employee who manages the communication of information and orders between the back and front of the restaurant, making sure that the food is prepared in the correct order as efficiently and rapidly as possible, and presented to the customer at its peak of quality. Working as an expeditor was a skill he learned from his father. In 2011 Huang was named to the Chow 13, a list of influential people in food presented annually by Chow.com.


title: Eddie Huang

text: In December 2009, Huang opened BaoHaus, a Taiwanese bun () shop, in the Lower East Side section of Lower Manhattan. In July 2011, he relocated his first shop to 238 East 14th Street in the East Village with an expanded menu. In October 2020, Huang announced the permanent closure of BaoHaus. Prior to shutting down, the restaurant had been praised by TimeOut for cheap pricing and unique menu items.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Another restaurant, Xiao Ye, was less successful and closed after poor reviews and controversy over its sales of Four Loko. Sam Sifton, a reviewer for "The New York Times," awarded the restaurant zero (out of four) stars, and wrote that "if Mr. Huang spent even a third of the time cooking that he does writing funny blog posts and wry Twitter updates, posting hip-hop videos and responding to Internet friends, rivals, critics and customers, Xiao Ye might be one of the more interesting restaurants to open in New York City in the last few months."


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang created the blog called "Fresh Off the Boat" and later published with Random House by the same name. "" was released in early 2013, receiving favorable reviews from "Publishers Weekly" and "The New York Times".


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang hosted "Cheap Bites" on the Cooking Channel at the end of 2011 and also appeared on several episodes of "Unique Eats" before leaving the Cooking Channel for Viceland, where he hosts a recurring segment, also called "Fresh Off the Boat", which was later developed into an hour-long show and renamed "Huang's World". In 2014, Huang was the host of "Snack Off" on MTV. The show featured Huang, mentoring contestants participating in challenges that determine who can whip up the tastiest treats using random ingredients like fish sticks, canned oysters, chocolate and much more.


title: Eddie Huang

text: In 2014, ABC ordered a television series based on his book, also titled "Fresh Off the Boat", starring Randall Park and Constance Wu, with Hudson Yang playing Eddie. The show debuted with two preview episodes on February 4, 2015, and premiered in its prime time slot on February 10, 2015.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang was outspoken in his criticism of the development process of the show, writing a lengthy essay about his concern that his vision for the show was compromised. Huang has said that he does not watch the show, because he thinks that the storyline after the pilot episode is not what he wrote in his memoir.


title: Eddie Huang

text: In August 2019, it was announced Huang would direct and write "Boogie", a coming-of-age movie about a young Chinese-American basketball player's rise to prominence, starring Taylor Takahashi, Pamelyn Chee, Jorge Lendeborg Jr., Mike Moh, Dave East, Pop Smoke, Perry Yung, Alexa Mareka and Taylour Paige, with Focus Features distributing. Huang wrote the screenplay in five days with no plan or outline incorporating the themes that have defined his life such as basketball, feeling adrift in a country where he has always been in a minority, and domestic abuse.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang drew criticism in May 2015 for comments he made about black women during an interview on "Real Time With Bill Maher". He said, "I feel like Asian men have been emasculated so much in America that we're basically treated like black women." Later he engaged in a Twitter exchange on his account @MrEddieHuang with @BlackGirlDanger where he defended his comments, which were called "misogynoir". Huang then tweeted "are we dating cause you wildin. lol" and offered to take her out on a date.


title: Eddie Huang

text: Huang has also drawn criticism for his appropriation of African-American culture. Huang has stated: "I’ve devoted myself to speaking about people owning their own cultures that they’ve created, that they came over with, and educating people about the foundational values in culture." In "The New York Times," Joshua David Stein described Huang as "a walking mixtape of postmodern cultural appropriation." In "New Bloom" magazine, Brian Hioe wrote that Huang exhibits "misogynistic language and attitudes," non-conventional English speech and dress, and experiences with police that indicate an "adoption of a hip hop influenced persona."


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Dr. Kent Nelson is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character first appeared in "More Fun Comics" #55 (May 1940) during the Golden Age of Comic Books and is the first character to use the name Doctor Fate.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: While in an archaeological expedition with his father, Nelson accidentally awakens Nabu and kills his father in the process. Nabu takes pity on the boy and responds to the tragedy by training him to be an agent of the Lords of Order. Nelson eventually becomes a crime fighter and a chief defender of Earth from supernatural threats. A founding member of the All-Star Squadron and the Justice Society of America, Nelson would struggle with the revelation of Nabu's attempt to usurp control of his body with his spirit and his increasingly strained relationship with his wife. Over time in more recent stories and continuities, after having spent decades of acting as Doctor Fate, the character would also guide several of his successors, the most recent being his grandnephew, Khalid Nassour. He would also serve as an advisor for Wonder Woman's incarnation of the Justice League Dark.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Nelson made his live-action debut in the television series "Smallville", played by Brent Stait, and also appears in the DC Extended Universe film "Black Adam" (2022), played by Pierce Brosnan.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Kent Nelson as Doctor Fate debuted in his own self-titled six page strip in "More Fun Comics" #55 (May 1940) during the Golden Age of Comic Books. The character was created by writer Gardner Fox and artist Howard Sherman, who produced the first three years of monthly Doctor Fate stories. After a year with no background, his alter ego and origins were shown in "More Fun Comics" #67 (May 1941).


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Fate's helmet was modeled after ancient Greek Corinthian helmets. shown by the shape and ear slots unique to the Corinthian helmet. His love interest Inza was known variably throughout the Golden Age as Inza Cramer, Inza Sanders, and Inza Carmer, which was amended to Inza Cramer in the Silver Age.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: When the Justice Society of America was created for "All Star Comics" #3 (Winter 1940), Doctor Fate was one of the characters National Comics used for the joint venture with All-American Publications. He made his last appearance in the book in issue #21 (Summer 1944), virtually simultaneously with the end of his own strip in "More Fun Comics" #98 (July–August 1944).


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Aside from the annual JSA/JLA team-ups in "Justice League of America" that began in 1963, Doctor Fate appeared in other stories through the 1960s and 1970s, including a two-issue run with Hourman in "Showcase" #55–56, two appearances with Superman in "World's Finest Comics" (#201, March 1971 and #208, December 1971); an appearance with Batman in "The Brave and the Bold" (#156, November 1979); and a solo story in "1st Issue Special" #9 (December 1975), written by Martin Pasko and drawn by Walt Simonson.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Doctor Fate and the rest of The Justice Society returned to "All-Star Comics" in 1976 with #58 for a two-year run ending with issue #74 and "Adventure Comics" #461-462 in 1978, and "Adventure Comics" #466 related the untold tale of the Justice Society's 1951 disbanding. Doctor Fate's origin was retold in "DC Special Series" #10, and Doctor Fate again teamed up with Superman in "DC Comics Presents" #23 (July 1980), and featured in a series of back-up stories running in "The Flash" from #306 (February 1982) to 313 (September 1982) written by Martin Pasko (aided by Steve Gerber from #310 to No. 313) and drawn by Keith Giffen.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Beginning in 1981, DC's "All-Star Squadron" elaborated upon the adventures of many World War II-era heroes, including Doctor Fate and the JSA. The series ran for 67 issues and three annuals, concluding in 1987. Doctor Fate made occasional modern-day appearances in "Infinity, Inc." in 1984, the same year which witnessed the 22nd and final annual Justice Society/Justice League team-up. Doctor Fate also made a guest appearance in a 3-issue 1985 crossover in the pages of "Infinity, Inc." #19-20 and "Justice League" #244. Doctor Fate then appeared in the four-part special "America vs. the Justice Society" (1985) which finalized the story of the Justice Society, featuring an elaboration of the events of "Adventure Comics" #466 and a recap of the Justice Society's annual team-ups with the Justice League.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: In 1985, DC collected the Doctor Fate back-up stories from "The Flash", a retelling of Doctor Fate's origin by Paul Levitz, Joe Staton, and Michael Nasser originally published in "Secret Origins of Super-Heroes" (January 1978) ("DC Special Series" #10 in the indicia), the Pasko/Simonson Doctor Fate story from "1st Issue Special" #9, and a Doctor Fate tale from "More Fun Comics" #56 (June 1940), in a three-issue limited series titled "The Immortal Doctor Fate".


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Doctor Fate appeared in several issues of the "Crisis on Infinite Earths", after which Doctor Fate briefly joined the Justice League.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: A "Doctor Fate" limited series was released soon afterwards, which changed the character's secret identity. DC began a "Doctor Fate" ongoing series by J.M. DeMatteis and Shawn McManus in winter of 1988. William Messner-Loebs became the series’ writer with issue #25. The later issues of the series saw Kent's wife Inza take over as the new Doctor Fate. The series ended with issue #41. Following "Zero Hour", DC killed off both Kent and Inza and replaced them with a new character, Jared Stevens.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: In 1999, the revival of the Justice Society in "JSA" allowed the character to be reworked again. In addition to appearing in "JSA", DC published a self-titled, five-issue limited series in 2003. The character was killed in the "Day of Vengeance" limited series in 2005 as part of the lead in to the 2005 company-wide event story, "Infinite Crisis".


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Son of archeologist Sven Nelson, a young Kent Nelson went with his father on an expedition to the Valley of Ur. While exploring a temple discovered by his father, Kent opens the tomb of Nabu the Wise and revives him from suspended animation, accidentally releasing a poisonous gas which kills Sven. Nabu takes pity on Kent and teaches him the skills of a sorcerer over the next twenty years, revealing himself to be a Lord of Order who is the representative of order on Earth in a conflict between the Lords of Chaos and Order. Nelson is later given a mystical helmet, amulet, and cloak to become the hero known as Doctor Fate. Later accounts of his origin would revised certain details, with it explained as Nelson having learned much later in his life (before recounting this revelation to Inza). In these revised details, it was revealed that Sven's death was intentional on Nabu's part and instead of learning magic over the course of years, it was done in an instant from Nabu and was trained in a matter of days to wield the powers granted to him. Nelson also learned that Nabu was an exiled Lord of Order who sought a human host after Nabu's physical human body had deteriorated over the millennia fighting the forces of darkness and evil.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: After arriving back in the United States, Kent begins a career fighting crime and supernatural evil as the sorcerer and superhero Doctor Fate and sets up a base in a tower in Salem, Massachusetts. Kent also helps co-found the Justice Society of America in 1940. Kent would later switch to a half helmet in 1941 due to Nabu occasionally possessing him through the helmet. Kent also becomes a physician in 1942, later enlists in the U.S. Army and serves as a Paratrooper during World War II and resigns from the JSA in 1944 and becomes an archaeologist.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: As a magic-wielding hero, Kent Nelson would first come into conflict with the enemy sorcerers and future nemesis known as Wotan, who would kidnap Inza Cramer as part of a plot to destroy Doctor Fate. Failing to kill Fate, Wotan fakes his death. Wanting to confirm his death, Kent would journey into the Underworld but discover Wotan's soul has not appeared in the realm of the dead, confirming that he still lived. As Doctor Fate, Nelson would later encounter an insane Wotan as he plots to use one of his scientific inventions to destroy the world by disrupting the world's electric field. Kent thwarts him and seals him away in suspended animated in an air pocked deep beneath the Earth.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Nelson would also encounter a powerful enemy in the form of Khalis, a mummy who was once a priest whom worshiped the Egyptian death god Anubis and the former owner of the Amulet of Anubis before Nabu defeated him and appropriated from him thousands of years ago. Khalis succeeds in regaining his lost amulet and beings working to please his master, who tasks him with killing Doctor Fate. With Inza's help in learning the true name of Khalis, Doctor Fate uses this knowledge and his magical powers in order to destroy Khalis and regains his amulet. Kent believed the battle to be a cosmic test by Nabu and is joined by Inza, who seemingly comes to terms with his double life.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: Despite claiming to come to terms with his double life, Inza increasingly grows frustrated within the rift of her marriage with Kent Nelson caused by his missions as Doctor Fate and loneliness being within the Tower of Fate. As Kent fights against a powerful Lord of Chaos known as Totec (whose real name is Malferrazae and is based upon Xipa Totec), who was worshiped as the Aztec God of War. Sensing Inza's jealousy of Nelson's role as Doctor Fate taking prescendence over her marriage with him, Totec using his powers to turn her jealously into a physical manifestation capable of battling Nelson, in which killing the creature also kills Inza. Meanwhile, Totec removes Fate into an alternate dimension and raises an undead army of his former worshipers, begins rebuilding Tenochtitlan, and plans to unleash a "Fifth Sun", a plan in which will exterminate all of humanity on Earth. However, Nelson succeeds in restoring Inza back to normal and defeats the physical manifestation of her jealousy and pushes his magical powers to the limit in order to undo the damage Totec caused and destroy the Lord of Chaos himself.


title: Doctor Fate (Kent Nelson)

text: As Fate, Kent would later sense another looming threat in Iowa and investigates, coming across a red jewel embedded inside the ear of a corn and his approached by a farmer who demands he leave the property. He learns the farmer is deceptively powerful and encounters both Ynar and Vandaemon, the former being a rogue Lord of Order who grew disillusioned of the battle between the Lords of Chaos and Order and the latter being a Lord of Chaos from Gemworld who agrees with Ynar's conclusion. In the guise of the farmer, he sends Fate to another dimension to fight Vandaemon. Unbeknownst to Kent or Fate, Inza meets curator Vern Copeland of the Boston Museum of Natural History who claims to want to know more about Nelson's past excavation but truly wanted to meet Inza, whom he regarded as beautiful and saw in a photo. Vern attempts to seduce Inza and in a moment of weakness, she embraced the passionate kiss but ultimately rejects Vern. After incapacitating the Lord of Chaos, he attempts to reconnect into the Tower of Fate through Inza but learns she is not inside, fearing that her being outside the tower may induce insanity due to the magic of the Tower having actually slowed her aging and kept her sanity intact. As Fate battles Vandaemon and explore options of escaping, he is able to later forge a connection to Inza but senses her guilt and thoughts, with Fate assuming that she engaged in an extramarital affairs on account of their ongoing marital problems. Realizing this development is detrimental to Kent, Fate forges a connection and transports himself to Inza's location, incapacitating Vern in the process.