title: Permian

text: The Russian Tatarian Stage includes the Lopingian, Capitanian and part of the Wordian, while the underlying Kazanian includes the rest of the Wordian as well at the Roadian. In North America, the Permian is divided into the Wolfcampian (which includes the Nealian and the Lenoxian stages) corresponding to the Asselian through lower Kungurian; the Leonardian (Hessian and Cathedralian stages) corresponding to the upper Kungurian; the Guadalupian; and the Ochoan, corresponding to the Lopingian.


title: Permian

text: During the Permian, all the Earth's major landmasses were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea, with the microcontinental terranes of Cathaysia to the east. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean ("Panthalassa", the "universal sea"), and the Paleo-Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that existed between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo-Tethys Ocean to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Neotethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. The Central Pangean Mountains, which began forming due to the collision of Laurasia and Gondwana during the Carboniferous, reached their maximum height during the early Permian around 295 million years ago, comparable to the present Himalayas, but became heavily eroded as the Permian progressed. The Kazakhstania block collided with Baltica during the Cisuralian, while the North China Craton, the South China Block and Indochina fused to each other and Pangea by the end of the Permian.


title: Permian

text: Large continental landmass interiors experience climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate") and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea. Such dry conditions favored gymnosperms, plants with seeds enclosed in a protective cover, over plants such as ferns that disperse spores in a wetter environment. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.


title: Permian

text: Three general areas are especially noted for their extensive Permian deposits—the Ural Mountains (where Perm itself is located), China, and the southwest of North America, including the Texas red beds. The Permian Basin in the U.S. states of Texas and New Mexico is so named because it has one of the thickest deposits of Permian rocks in the world.


title: Permian

text: Sea levels dropped slightly during the earliest Permian (Asselian). The sea level was stable at several tens of metres above present during the Early Permian, but there was a sharp drop beginning during the Roadian, culminating in the lowest sea level of the entire Palaeozoic at around present sea level during the Wuchiapingian, followed by a slight rise during the Changhsingian.


title: Permian

text: At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still in the Late Paleozoic icehouse, which began in the latest Devonian. At the beginning of the Pennsylvanian around 323 million years ago, glaciers began to form around the South Pole, which would grow to cover a vast area. This area extended from the southern reaches of the Amazon basin and covered large areas of southern Africa, as well as most of Australia and Antarctica. Cyclothems indicate that the size of the glaciers were controlled by Milankovitch cycles akin to recent ice ages, with glacial periods and interglacials. The oldest cyclotherms are around 313 million years old while the youngest are around 293 million years old, corresponding to the coldest part of the Late Paleozoic icehouse. Deep ocean temperatures during this time were cold due to the influx of cold bottom waters generated by seasonal melting of the ice cap. By 287 million years ago, temperatures warmed and the South Pole ice cap retreated in what was known as the Artinskian Warming Event (AWE), though glaciers would remain present in the upland regions of eastern Australia, the Transantarctic Mountains, and the mountainous regions of far northern Siberia until the end of the Permian. The Permian was cool in comparison to most other geologic time periods, with modest Pole to Equator temperature gradients. This was interrupted by the Emeishan Thermal Excursion in the late part of the Capitanian, around 260 million years ago, corresponding to the eruption of the Emeishan Traps. The end of the Permian is marked by the much larger temperature excursion at the Permian-Triassic boundary, corresponding to the eruption of the Siberian Traps, which released more than 5 teratonnes of CO , more than doubling atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations.


title: Permian

text: In addition to becoming warmer, the climate became notably more arid at the end of the Carboniferous and beginning of the Permian, with a significant trend of increasing aridification being observed over the course of the Cisuralian, particularly during the AWE.


title: Permian

text: Permian marine deposits are rich in fossil mollusks, echinoderms, and brachiopods. Brachiopods were highly diverse during the Permian. The extinct order Productida was the predominant group of Permian brachiopods, accounting for up to about half of all Permian brachiopod genera. Conodonts experienced their lowest diversity of their entire evolutionary history during the Permian. Amongst ammonoids, Goniatitida were a major group during the Early-Mid Permian, but declined during the Late Permian. Members of the order Prolecanitida were less diverse. The Ceratitida originated from the family Daraelitidae within Prolecanitida during the mid-Permian, and extensively diversified during the Late Permian. Only three families of trilobite are known from the Permian, Proetidae, Brachymetopidae and Phillipsiidae. Diversity, origination and extinction rates during the Early Permian were low. Trilobites underwent a diversification during the Kungurian-Wordian, the last in their evolutionary history, before declining during the Late Permian. By the Changhsingian, only a handful (4-6) genera remained.


title: Permian

text: Terrestrial life in the Permian included diverse plants, fungi, arthropods, and various types of tetrapods. The period saw a massive desert covering the interior of Pangaea. The warm zone spread in the northern hemisphere, where extensive dry desert appeared. The rocks formed at that time were stained red by iron oxides, the result of intense heating by the sun of a surface devoid of vegetation cover. A number of older types of plants and animals died out or became marginal elements.


title: Permian

text: The Permian began with the Carboniferous flora still flourishing. About the middle of the Permian a major transition in vegetation began. The swamp-loving lycopod trees of the Carboniferous, such as "Lepidodendron" and "Sigillaria", were progressively replaced in the continental interior by the more advanced seed ferns and early conifers as a result of the Carboniferous rainforest collapse. At the close of the Permian, lycopod and equisete swamps reminiscent of Carboniferous flora survived only on a series of equatorial islands in the Paleo-Tethys Ocean that later would become South China.


title: Permian

text: The Permian saw the radiation of many important conifer groups, including the ancestors of many present-day families. Rich forests were present in many areas, with a diverse mix of plant groups. The southern continent saw extensive seed fern forests of the "Glossopteris" flora. Oxygen levels were probably high there. The ginkgos and cycads also appeared during this period.


title: Permian

text: Insects, which had first appeared and become abundant during the preceding Carboniferous, experienced a dramatic increase in diversification during the Early Permian. Towards the end of the Permian, there was a substantial drop in both origination and extinction rates. The dominant insects during the Permian Period were early representatives of Paleoptera, Polyneoptera, and Paraneoptera. Palaeodictyopteroidea, which had represented the dominant group of insects during the Carboniferous, declined during the Permian. This is likely due to competition by Hemiptera, due to their similar mouthparts and therefore ecology. Primitive relatives of damselflies and dragonflies (Meganisoptera), which include the largest flying insects of all time, also declined during the Permian. Holometabola, the largest group of modern insects, also diversified during this time. The earliest known beetles, appear at the beginning of the Permian. Early beetles such as members of Permocupedidae likely xylophagous feeding on decaying wood. Several lineages, such as Schizophoridae expanded into aquatic habitats by the Late Permian. Members of the modern orders Archostemata and Adephaga are known from the Late Permian. Complex wood boring traces found in the Late Permian of China suggest that members of Polyphaga, the most diverse group of modern beetles, were also present in the Permian.


title: Permian

text: The terrestrial fossil record of the Permian is patchy and temporally discontinuous. Early Permian records are dominated by equatorial Europe and North America, while those of the Middle and Late Permian are dominated by temperate Karoo Supergroup sediments of South Africa and the Ural region of European Russia. Early Permian terrestrial faunas of North America and Europe were dominated by primitive pelycosaur synapsids including the herbivorous edaphosaurids, and carnivorous sphenacodontids, diadectids and amphibians.


title: Permian

text: A faunal turnover occurred at the transition between the Cisuralian and Guadalupian, with the decline of amphibians and the replacement of pelycosaurs with more advanced therapsids. If terrestrial deposition ended around the end of the Cisuralian in North America and began in Russia during the early Guadalupian, a continuous record of the transition is not preserved. Uncertain dating has led to suggestions that there is a global hiatus in the terrestrial fossil record during the late Kungurian and early Roadian, referred to as "Olson's Gap" that obscures the nature of the transition. Other proposals have suggested that the North American and Russian records overlap, with the latest terrestrial North American deposition occurring during the Roadian, suggesting that there was an extinction event, dubbed "Olson's Extinction". The Middle Permian faunas of South Africa and Russia are dominated by therapsids, most abundantly by the diverse Dinocephalia. Dinocephalians become extinct at the end of the Middle Permian, during the Capitanian mass extinction event. Late Permian faunas are dominated by advanced therapsids such as the predatory sabertoothed gorgonopsians and herbivorous beaked dicynodonts, alongside large herbivorous pareiasaur parareptiles. The Archosauromorpha, the group of reptiles that would give rise to the pseudosuchians, dinosaurs, and pterosaurs in the following Triassic, first appeared and diversified during the Late Permian, including the first appearance of the Archosauriformes during the latest Permian. Cynodonts, the group of therapsids ancestral to modern mammals, first appeared and gained a worldwide distribution during the Late Permian. Another group of therapsids, the therocephalians (such as "Lycosuchus"), arose in the Middle Permian. There were no flying vertebrates, though the extinct lizard like reptile family Weigeltisauridae from the Late Permian had extendable wings like modern gliding lizards, and are the oldest known gliding vertebrates.


title: Permian

text: Synapsids (the group that would later include mammals) thrived and diversified greatly at this time. Permian synapsids included some large members such as "Dimetrodon". The special adaptations of synapsids enabled them to flourish in the drier climate of the Permian and they grew to dominate the vertebrates.


title: Permian

text: Permian stem-amniotes consisted of temnospondyli, lepospondyli and batrachosaurs. Temnospondyls reached a peak of diversity in the Cisuralian, with a substantial decline during the Guadalupian-Lopingian following Olson's extinction, with the family diversity dropping below Carboniferous levels.


title: Permian

text: Embolomeres, a group of aquatic crocodile-like reptilliomorphs that previously had its last records in the Cisuralian, are now known to have persisted into the Lopingian in China.


title: Permian

text: Modern amphibians (lissamphibians) are suggested to have originated during Permian, descending from a lineage of dissorophoid temnospondyls.


title: Permian

text: The diversity of fish during the Permian is relatively low compared to the following Triassic. The dominant group of bony fishes during the Permian were the "Paleopterygii" a paraphyletic grouping of Actinopterygii that lie outside of Neopterygii. The earliest unequivocal members of Neopterygii appear during the Early Triassic, but a Permian origin is suspected. The diversity of coelacanths is relatively low throughout the Permian in comparison to other marine fishes, though there is an increase in diversity during the terminal Permian (Changhsingian), corresponding with the highest diversity in their evolutionary history during the Early Triassic. Diversity of freshwater fish faunas was generally low and dominated by lungfish and "Paleopterygians". The last common ancestor of all living lungfish is thought to have existed during the Early Permian. Though the fossil record is fragmentary, lungfish appear to have undergone an evolutionary diversification and size increase in freshwater habitats during the Early Permian, but subsequently declined during the middle and late Permian. Permian chondrichthyan faunas are poorly known. Members of the chondrichthyan clade Holocephali, which contains living chimaeras, reached their apex of diversity during the Carboniferous-Permian, the most famous Permian representative being the "buzz-saw shark" "Helicoprion," known for its unusual spiral shaped spiral tooth whorl in the lower jaw. Hybodonts, a group of shark-like chondrichtyans, were widespread and abundant members of marine and freshwater faunas throughout the Permian. Xenacanthiformes, another extinct group of shark-like chondrichtyans, were common in freshwater habitats, and represented the apex predators of freshwater ecosystems.


title: Permian

text: Four floristic provinces in the Permian are recognised, the Angaran, Euramerican, Gondwanan, and Cathaysian realms. The Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse would result in the replacement of lycopsid-dominated forests with tree-fern dominated ones during the late Carboniferous in Euramerica, and result in the differentiation of the Cathaysian floras from those of Euramerica. The Gondwanan floristic region was dominated by Glossopteridales, a group of woody gymnosperm plants, for most of the Permian, extending to high southern latitudes. The ecology of the most prominent glossopterid, "Glossopteris", has been compared to that of bald cypress, living in mires with waterlogged soils. The tree-like calamites, distant relatives of modern horsetails, lived in coal swamps and grew in bamboo-like vertical thickets. A mostly complete specimen of "Arthropitys" from the Early Permian Chemnitz petrified forest of Germany demonstrates that they had complex branching patterns similar to modern angiosperm trees.


title: Permian

text: The oldest likely record of Ginkgoales (the group containing "Ginkgo" and its close relatives) is "Trichopitys heteromorpha" from the earliest Permian of France. The oldest known fossils definitively assignable to modern cycads are known from the Late Permian. In Cathaysia, where a wet tropical frost free climate prevailed, the Noeggerathiales, an extinct group of tree fern-like progymnosperms were a common component of the flora The earliest Permian (~ 298 million years ago) Cathyasian Wuda Tuff flora, representing a coal swamp community, has an upper canopy consisting of lycopsid tree "Sigillaria," with a lower canopy consisting of Marattialean tree ferns, and Noeggerathiales. Early conifers appeared in the Late Carboniferous, represented by primitive walchian conifers, but were replaced with more derived voltzialeans during the Permian. Permian conifers were very similar morphologically to their modern counterparts, and were adapted to stressed dry or seasonally dry climatic conditions. Bennettitales, which would go on to become in widespread the Mesozoic, first appeared during the Cisuralian in China. Lyginopterids, which had declined in the late Pennsylvanian and subsequently have a patchy fossil record, survived into the Late Permian in Cathaysia and equatorial east Gondwana.


title: Permian

text: The Permian ended with the most extensive extinction event recorded in paleontology: the Permian–Triassic extinction event. 90 to 95% of marine species became extinct, as well as 70% of all land organisms. It is also the only known mass extinction of insects. Recovery from the Permian–Triassic extinction event was protracted; on land, ecosystems took 30 million years to recover. Trilobites, which had thrived since Cambrian times, finally became extinct before the end of the Permian. Nautiloids, a subclass of cephalopods, surprisingly survived this occurrence.


title: Permian

text: There is evidence that magma, in the form of flood basalt, poured onto the Earth's surface in what is now called the Siberian Traps, for thousands of years, contributing to the environmental stress that led to mass extinction. The reduced coastal habitat and highly increased aridity probably also contributed. Based on the amount of lava estimated to have been produced during this period, the worst-case scenario is the release of enough carbon dioxide from the eruptions to raise world temperatures five degrees Celsius.


title: Permian

text: Another hypothesis involves ocean venting of hydrogen sulfide gas. Portions of the deep ocean will periodically lose all of its dissolved oxygen allowing bacteria that live without oxygen to flourish and produce hydrogen sulfide gas. If enough hydrogen sulfide accumulates in an anoxic zone, the gas can rise into the atmosphere. Oxidizing gases in the atmosphere would destroy the toxic gas, but the hydrogen sulfide would soon consume all of the atmospheric gas available. Hydrogen sulfide levels might have increased dramatically over a few hundred years. Models of such an event indicate that the gas would destroy ozone in the upper atmosphere allowing ultraviolet radiation to kill off species that had survived the toxic gas. There are species that can metabolize hydrogen sulfide.


title: Permian

text: Another hypothesis builds on the flood basalt eruption theory. An increase in temperature of five degrees Celsius would not be enough to explain the death of 95% of life. But such warming could slowly raise ocean temperatures until frozen methane reservoirs below the ocean floor near coastlines melted, expelling enough methane (among the most potent greenhouse gases) into the atmosphere to raise world temperatures an additional five degrees Celsius. The frozen methane hypothesis helps explain the increase in carbon-12 levels found midway in the Permian–Triassic boundary layer. It also helps explain why the first phase of the layer's extinctions was land-based, the second was marine-based (and starting right after the increase in C-12 levels), and the third land-based again.


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Julianne Phillips (born May 6, 1960) is an American model and actress. She began her career as a model in the early 1980s before moving on to acting. She first attracted attention for becoming the first wife of Bruce Springsteen and later for her role as Francesca "Frankie" Reed on the television drama series "Sisters" (1991–1996).


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Phillips was born in Evanston, Illinois and raised in Lake Oswego, Oregon. Her parents are William Phillips, an insurance broker and executive, and Ann, who raised their children in the Catholic faith. Phillips is a graduate of Lake Oswego High School and Brooks College in Long Beach. She has five siblings: four older brothers and one older sister. She credits her father with getting her into acting and giving her encouragement.


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Phillips began work as a model in Manhattan in the early 1980s. By 1982, she was represented by the Elite Modeling Agency, which characterized her as a "perfect-ten package," earning as much as $2,000 a day. She then moved to Los Angeles, where she appeared in the .38 Special music video for the song "If I'd Been the One." This led to Phillips' acting roles in 1984's made-for-TV movies "His Mistress", in which she co-starred with Robert Urich, and "Summer Fantasy." She also appeared at the end of then-husband Bruce Springsteen's music video "Glory Days."


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Phillips garnered publicity as the girlfriend, and later the first wife, of musician Bruce Springsteen. The two met in October 1984 and were subsequently married in her native Lake Oswego shortly after midnight on Monday, May 13, 1985, surrounded by intense media Citing irreconcilable differences, she filed for divorce in August 1988, which was finalized the following


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Phillips continued her acting career during and after the marriage. She appeared in "Odd Jobs" (1986), "Sweet Lies" (1988), and "Seven Hours to Judgment" (1988), and starred opposite Chevy Chase in "Fletch Lives" and John Ritter in "Skin Deep" both in 1989.


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Two years later, she accepted the role of Frankie Reed, the business-oriented character on "Sisters"; it became her best-known role. She left the show at the end of its fifth season in 1995, returning for its final episode in 1996. She then briefly returned to movies, appearing in "Big Bully" (1996), "Colin Fitz Lives!" (1997), "Allie & Me" (1997), and the made-for-TV disaster film "" (1997).


title: Julianne Phillips

text: Phillips stopped acting in 1997 and has rarely been in the public eye since. In 2001 she was interviewed on an episode of the biographical documentary series "Intimate Portrait" that profiled her "Sisters" co-star Sela Ward. In 2014, she reunited with Ward and her other "Sisters" co-stars, Swoosie Kurtz, and Patricia Kalember, for "Entertainment Weekly". The reunion was documented on "Today".


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Tajiri has also worked for other Game Freak projects. He was also an executive producer on the live-action film "Detective Pikachu".


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Satoshi Tajiri was born on August 28, 1965, in Setagaya, Tokyo. Tajiri grew up in Machida, Tokyo, which at the time still maintained a rural atmosphere and was rapidly growing. As a child, Tajiri enjoyed insect collecting as a hobby, which would be an inspiration for his later video game work. Other children called him "Dr. Bug", and he wanted to become an entomologist. As urban areas of Japan spread and more land was paved over, habitats for hunting bugs were lost. Tajiri wanted his games to allow children to have the feeling of catching and collecting creatures as he had.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: He became fascinated with arcade games as a teenager, though his parents thought he was a delinquent for this pastime. He particularly enjoyed playing Taito's "Space Invaders" (1978), which drew him into other video games. "Space Invaders" got him interested in video games; after playing "Space Invaders" and its video game clones, he wanted to make his own sequel to "Space Invaders". He was also inspired by Namco games designed around a single specific action, notably "Dig Dug" (1982). His interest eventually evolved into attempting to plan his own games. He took his Famicom apart to see how it worked, and won a contest for a video game idea sponsored by Sega.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Because of his fascination with video games, Tajiri frequently cut classes. He took make-up classes and eventually earned his high school diploma. Tajiri did not attend university, but instead attended a two-year technical degree program at the Tokyo National College of Technology, where he majored in electronics and computer science.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Tajiri wrote and edited a fanzine called "Game Freak" from 1981 to 1986, focusing on the arcade game scene. It was handwritten and stapled together. Satoshi created the "Game Freak" fanzine to help gamers with winning strategies and lists of easter eggs. The highest selling issue, at more than 10,000 copies, details how to get a high score in "Xevious". Ken Sugimori, who later illustrated the first 151 Pokémon, saw the magazine at a dōjinshi shop, and became its illustrator. As more contributors came to "Game Freak", Tajiri began to realize that most games were lacking in quality, and he and Sugimori decided the solution was to make their own games. Tajiri studied the "Family BASIC" game programming package, to better grasp the concepts of Famicom game design. He then purchased the requisite hardware for game development. Tajiri and Sugimori evolved the magazine into the video game development company Game Freak in 1989. Soon after, the two pitched their first game, an arcade-style game called "Quinty", to Namco, who published the game. Tajiri also wrote as a freelance writer for the magazine "Famicom Hisshōbon", later called "Hippon", and reviewed arcade games for "Family Computer Magazine" and "Famicom Tsūshin".


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Tajiri first conceived the idea of "Pokémon" in 1990. The idea came together after he saw a Game Boy and the ability to communicate between Game Boys, and Tajiri decided "Pokémon" made the most sense on the handheld console. When he thought about the link cable being able to interact with two Game Boys, he envisioned bugs crawling back and forth, recalling his childhood love of bug collecting. Tajiri advanced the connectivity between handheld game consoles beyond "Tetris" style competition, by suggesting that Game Boys could use their link cables to trade collectibles.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: When he first pitched the idea of "Pokémon" to Nintendo staff, they could not quite grasp the concept, but were impressed enough with Tajiri's game design reputation that they decided to explore it. Shigeru Miyamoto began to mentor Tajiri, guiding him during the creation process. "Pokémon Red" and "Green" took six years to produce, and nearly bankrupted Game Freak in the process; often, there was barely enough money to pay the employees. Five employees quit, and Tajiri did not take a salary, instead living off of his father's income. Investment from Creatures Inc. allowed Game Freak to complete the games, and in return, Creatures received one-third of the franchise rights.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Between the approval and completion stages of the project, Tajiri assisted in the design of two "Mario" spin-off games for Nintendo: "Yoshi" and the Japanese-only release "Mario & Wario". He also worked on 1994's "Pulseman" for Sega.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Once the games were completed, very few media outlets gave it attention, believing the Game Boy was a dead console; a general lack of interest of merchandising convinced Tajiri that Nintendo would reject the games. The "Pokémon" games were not expected to do well, but sales steadily increased until the series found itself among Nintendo's top franchises. Rumors of a hidden Pokémon creature named Mew, which could only be obtained by exploiting programming errors, increased interest in the game. Tajiri had included Mew in the game in order to promote trading and interaction between players, but Nintendo was not aware of the creature upon release. The franchise helped Nintendo's waning sales. Tajiri deliberately toned down violence in his games. In this vein, he designed Pokémon creatures to faint rather than die upon their defeat, as he believed it was unhealthy for children to equate the concept of death with losing a game. After the completion and release of "Red" and "Green" in Japan, Tajiri later worked on 1997's "Bushi Seiryūden: Futari no Yūsha." Tajiri continues to be involved in the more modern "Pokémon" games as well. For "Pokémon FireRed" and "LeafGreen", he supervised the process from start to finish and approved all the text. While developing games, Tajiri works irregular hours, often laboring 24 hours at a time and resting 12 hours.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Tajiri cites Shigeru Miyamoto as a major influence, thinking of him as a sort of mentor. For this reason, his developmental style closely matches that of Miyamoto. In the Japanese version of the "Pokémon" anime, the main character is named Satoshi (Ash Ketchum in the English version), and his rival is Shigeru (Gary Oak in the English version).


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: Tajiri drew much of his inspiration from old Japanese shows and anime, including Godzilla and Ultraman. He has stated that if he did not design video games, he would most likely be in the anime field.


title: Satoshi Tajiri

text: IGN named Tajiri one of the top 100 game creators of all time, mainly for his ability to have built "Pokémon" into a "worldwide phenomenon". Electronic Gaming Monthly credited Tajiri as one of the 10 most influential people who made the modern video game market. Video game magazine "Edge" placed Tajiri on their list of the "Hot 100 Game Developers of 2008". Tajiri, alongside Tsunekazu Ishihara, received the Special Award from the Computer Entertainment Developers Conference in 2011. "The Economist" has described "Pokémon" as "Japan’s most successful export."


title: Four Loko

text: Four Loko is a line of alcoholic beverages sold by Phusion Projects of Chicago, Illinois, United States. Four Loko's recipe formerly included caffeine. Phusion operates as Drink Four Brewing Company. Four Loko, the company's most popular beverage, debuted in the United States market in 2005 and is available in 49 states, and in 21 countries including Ecuador, Guatemala, Paraguay, The Bahamas, Peru, Mexico, Colombia, Bolivia, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, China, Canada and some countries in Europe. The name "Four" is derived from the original drink having four "key ingredients".


title: Four Loko

text: Four branded products have been the object of legal, ethical, and health concerns related to the company allegedly marketing them to underage drinkers and the danger of combining alcohol and caffeine. After the beverage was banned in several states, a product reintroduction in December 2010 removed caffeine, taurine, and guarana as ingredients, and the malt beverage is no longer marketed as an energy drink.


title: Four Loko

text: Phusion Projects was founded in 2005 by Chris Hunter, Jaisen Freeman and Jeff Wright after graduating from Ohio State University. As students they were active members of the Kappa Sigma fraternity, and many of their original drink blends were created in the fraternity mansion's basement and party room. They had enjoyed caffeine mixed with alcohol, and recalled buying Thai energy drinks from a nearby Asian market to sell to other students at a markup, claiming that they were "importing the stuff from abroad". They would later describe themselves as "our own target market".


title: Four Loko

text: In 2005, the entrepreneurial team designed a prototype "energy beer" now known as Four Loko. Marketed as a "premium malt beverage" in cherry and berry flavors, the drink contained taurine, guarana, caffeine and wormwood—the supposed psychoactive ingredient of absinthe. After a year, the company was running low on investment and decided to drop the wormwood, focusing instead on improving the flavor and increasing the alcohol content.


title: Four Loko

text: By 2008 the product had become popular and a variety of flavors were introduced into the US market. At the start of 2009, the beverage was becoming successful and began to be marketed internationally. In October 2010 a new flavor called Lemon Lime was first produced.


title: Four Loko

text: Four Loko contains carbonated water, sugar, and natural and artificial flavoring including FD&C Red 40. The drink is sold at 6%, 7%, 8%, 10%,12%, or 14% alcohol by volume (ABV), depending on state regulations, and is packaged in 23.5 oz (695 mL) cans.


title: Four Loko

text: In early 2011, Phusion Projects introduced its Four Loko XXX Limited Edition line, which featured a new flavor of Four Loko every few months, including:


title: Four Loko

text: In the summer of 2011, Phusion introduced 12 oz (350 mL) glass bottles of Four Loko, that came in packs of six and had 8% ABV as opposed to 12%. Flavors included:


title: Four Loko

text: Bottles came in packs of six and in September 2011, Phusion introduced 16 oz (475 mL) cans of their drink in hi-cone four packs known as Four Poco Loko, with 8% ABV and included flavors:


title: Four Loko

text: Original formulations of both beverages were a malt liquor based, caffeinated alcoholic energy drink with added guarana and taurine.


title: Four Loko

text: In 2008, Phusion Projects began selling their products in Canada and Europe. The European version of Four MaXed is sold in 8.3 oz (250 mL) glass bottles and aluminum cans and is spirit-based; the United States version has a malt liquor base.


title: Four Loko

text: In 2009, Four Loko ranked fourth in sales growth among alcoholic beverages at 7-Eleven stores in the United States.


title: Four Loko

text: On November 16, 2010, Phusion Projects issued a press release announcing that the company would be reformulating all Four brand beverages to remove caffeine, guarana, and taurine from the products. The new product was reintroduced in January 2011.


title: Four Loko

text: On October 25, 2013, Four Loko was distributed for the first time in Puerto Rico. Four Loko kept the standard 12% alcohol but in a reduced can size of 16 oz (475 mL), and with only three flavors:


title: Four Loko

text: In August 2016, Four Loko began selling in China. Secondary marketer Taobao claimed to still have for purchase the caffeinated version of the beverage. Four Loko has since seen market growth in Vietnam, Malaysia, Mongolia and Singapore.


title: Four Loko

text: In February 2017, Four Loko announced the release of two new product lines—the Bold Series and the Bartender Series.


title: Four Loko

text: In April 2017, Four Loko announced a line of hard liquor called "Four Loko Shots" that come in 750 ml bottles and are 70 proof (35% ABV). Flavors include:


title: Four Loko

text: In October 2020 Four Loko announced a line of bottled 13.9% ABV shots called Four Loko Pregame. Flavors include:


title: Four Loko

text: In 2009, a group of U.S. state attorneys general began investigations of companies that produced and sold caffeinated alcohol beverages on the grounds that they were being inappropriately marketed to a teenage audience and that they had possible health risks (blackouts). The attorneys general were also concerned that these drinks could pose health risks by masking feelings of intoxication. In December 2008, Anheuser-Busch, manufacturer of Tilt and Bud Extra, as well as MillerCoors, manufacturer of Sparks, agreed to reformulate their drinks. In 2009, smaller companies such as Phusion fell under investigation because of their rise in market share.


title: Four Loko

text: The drink came under major fire in 2010, as colleges and universities across the United States began to see injuries and blackouts related to the drink's misuse. The University of Rhode Island banned the drink from their campus on November 5, 2010. The state of Washington banned Four Loko after nine university students aged 17 to 19 from Central Washington University in Ellensburg, Washington became ill at a house party in Roslyn, Washington. The students were hospitalized with blood alcohol levels ranging from 0.12 to 0.35 percent (0.30 percent being considered potentially lethal), and one student almost died according to CWU President James L. Gaudino.


title: Four Loko

text: In October 2010, following the hospitalization of seventeen students and six visitors, Ramapo College of New Jersey banned the possession and consumption of Four Loko on its campus. As a result, Worcester State University stopped the sale of all energy drinks and they, as well as Boston College, informed their students of the risks involved in consuming Four Loko. By November 2010, dozens of other colleges and universities sent out notices informing their students to avoid the drink, while several more placed outright bans on their campuses.


title: Four Loko

text: "The Daily Collegian", Penn State's student newspaper, reported that on November 1, 2010 the Pennsylvania Liquor Control Board sent letters to all liquor stores urging distributors to discontinue the sale of the drink. The PLCB also sent letters to all colleges and universities warning them of the dangers of the drink. While the board stopped short of a ban, it asked retailers to stop selling the drink until U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) findings prove they are safe. Pennsylvania State Representative Vanessa Lowery Brown, sought to introduce legislation to ban alcoholic energy drinks in the state.


title: Four Loko

text: Several stores, including ShopRite Super Markets, Tops Markets, Price Chopper and Wegmans voluntarily pulled the product from their shelves. Shortly after, former Governor of New York David Paterson announced that Phusion was withdrawing the beverage from the state of New York as of November 19, 2010.


title: Four Loko

text: On November 20, 2010, Oregon Liquor Control Commission's five citizen commissioners held an emergency meeting resulting in a 4-1 vote on the ban. The ban became effective immediately and was in effect until May 18, 2011. The ban required businesses to cease the sale of alcoholic energy drinks and withdraw existing items immediately. The sale of the restricted products during this period carried a penalty of 30-day suspension of liquor license.


title: Four Loko

text: Utah, which has a state-run alcoholic beverage distribution system, did not allow the sale of alcoholic energy drinks. Michigan and Oklahoma voted to ban the sale of alcoholic energy drinks over health and safety concerns. Additionally, the Washington State Liquor Control Board voted to ban the sale of alcoholic energy drinks, which went into effect on November 18, 2010. The vote came as a result of the incident at Central Washington University. The New York State Liquor Authority banned their sale and distribution as of November 19, 2010. New York senator Chuck Schumer and New York City councilman James Sanders Jr. approached the Obama administration to ban Four Loko across the state of New York.


title: Four Loko

text: On November 17, 2010 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued a warning letter to four manufacturers of caffeinated alcoholic beverages citing that the caffeine added to their malt alcoholic beverages is an "unsafe food additive" and said that further action, including seizure of their products, could be taken under federal law. It declared that beverages that combine caffeine with alcohol, such as Four Loko energy drinks, were a "public health concern" and could not stay on the market in their current form. The FDA also stated that concerns had been raised that caffeine can mask some of the sensory cues individuals might normally rely on to determine their level of intoxication. Warning letters were issued to each of the four companies requiring them, within 15 days, to provide to the FDA, in writing, the specific steps the firms will be taking.


title: Four Loko

text: From weeks before the FDA ruling, many drinkers and people seeking financial gain purchased large quantities of the drink, which created a black market, with many sellers charging nearly five times the normal retail price. Four Loko appeared on Craigslist, and "collectible" cans of the drink were being sold on eBay.


title: Four Loko

text: In late December 2010, a reformulated version of the drink was put on shelves. The new product packaging had exactly the same appearance as the original, but the caffeine, guarana, and taurine from the original drink had been replaced by food coloring agent Red 40. Sales of the original drink continued, usually for a price of roughly $3 per 24 ounce can.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The Montgomery bus boycott was a political and social protest campaign against the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system of Montgomery, Alabama. It was a foundational event in the civil rights movement in the United States. The campaign lasted from December 5, 1955—the Monday after Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, was arrested for her refusal to surrender her seat to a white person—to December 20, 1956, when the federal ruling "Browder v. Gayle" took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws that segregated buses were unconstitutional.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Before the bus boycott, Jim Crow laws mandated the racial segregation of the Montgomery Bus Line. As a result of this segregation, African Americans were not hired as drivers, were forced to ride in the back of the bus, and were frequently ordered to surrender their seats to white people even though black passengers made up 75% of the bus system's riders. Many bus drivers treated their black passengers poorly beyond the law: African-Americans were assaulted, shortchanged, and left stranded after paying their fares.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The year before the bus boycott began, the Supreme Court decided unanimously, in the case of "Brown v. Board of Education", that racial segregation in schools was unconstitutional. The reaction by the white population of the Deep South was "noisy and stubborn". Many white bus drivers joined the White Citizens' Council as a result of the decision.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Although it is often framed as the start of the civil rights movement, the boycott occurred at the end of many black communities' struggles in the South to protect black women, such as Recy Taylor, from racial violence. The boycott also took place within a larger statewide and national movement for civil rights, including court cases such as "Morgan v. Virginia", the earlier Baton Rouge bus boycott, and the arrest of Claudette Colvin for refusing to give up her seat on a Montgomery bus.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: In 1841 Frederick Douglass and his friend James N. Buffum entered a train car reserved for white passengers in Lynn, Massachusetts, when the conductor ordered them to leave the car, they refused. Following the action, widespread organizing led congress to approve the Civil Rights Act of 1875 which grant equal rights to Black citizens in public accommodations. In 1883 the Supreme Court overturned this victory declaring it unconstitutional.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: On September 3, 1944, Recy Taylor, a black woman, was raped by six white men in Abbeville, Alabama. After investigating her case, Rosa Parksalong with E. D. Nixon, Rufus A. Lewis, and E. G. Jacksonorganized a defense for Taylor in Montgomery. They mobilized nationwide support from labor unions, African-American organizations, and women's groups to form the Alabama Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor. Although they did not succeed in obtaining justice in court for Taylor, the mobilization of the black community in Alabama set up social and political networks that enabled the success of the Montgomery bus boycott a decade later.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) had accepted and litigated other cases, including that of Irene Morgan in 1946, which resulted in a victory in the Supreme Court on the grounds that segregated interstate bus lines violated the Commerce Clause. That victory, however, overturned state segregation laws only insofar as they applied to travel in interstate commerce, such as interstate bus travel, and Southern bus companies immediately circumvented the "Morgan" ruling by instituting their own Jim Crow regulations. Further incidents continued to take place in Montgomery, including the arrest of Lillie Mae Bradford for disorderly conduct in May 1951 for allegedly refusing to leave the white passengers' section until the bus driver amended an incorrect charge on her transfer ticket.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: On February 25, 1953, the Baton Rouge, Louisiana, city-parish council passed Ordinance 222 after the city saw protesting from African Americans when the council raised the city's bus fares. The ordinance abolished race-based reserved seating requirements and allowed the admission of African Americans in the front sections of city buses if there were no white passengers present, but it still required African Americans to enter from the rear rather than the front of the buses. However, the ordinance was largely unenforced by the city bus drivers. The drivers later went on strike after city authorities refused to arrest Rev. T. J. Jemison for sitting in a front row. Four days after the strike began, Louisiana Attorney General and former Baton Rouge mayor Fred S. LeBlanc declared the ordinance unconstitutional under Louisiana state law. This led Rev. Jemison to organize what historians believe to be the first bus boycott of the civil rights movement. The boycott ended after eight days when an agreement was reached to only retain the first two front and back rows as racially reserved seating.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Black activists had begun to build a case to challenge state bus segregation laws around the arrest of 15-year-old Claudette Colvin, a student at Booker T. Washington High School in Montgomery. On March 2, 1955, Colvin was handcuffed, arrested, and forcibly removed from a public bus when she refused to give up her seat to a white man. At the time, Colvin was an active member in the NAACP Youth Council, where Rosa Parks was an advisor. Colvin's legal case formed the core of "Browder v. Gayle", which ended the Montgomery bus boycott when the Supreme Court ruled on it in December 1956.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: In August 1955, four months before Parks's refusal to give up a seat on the bus that led to the Montgomery bus boycott, a 14-year-old African American from Chicago named Emmett Till was murdered by two white men, John W. Milam and Roy Bryant. The picture of his brutally beaten body in the open-casket funeral that his mother requested was widely publicized, specifically by the weekly newspaper "Jet", which circulated in much of the black community in the North. His accused killers were acquitted the following month. There was massive outrage at this verdict both domestically and internationally. In an interview on January 24, 1956, published in "Look" magazine, the two men admitted to murdering Till.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: In November 1955, three weeks before Parks's defiance of Jim Crow laws in Montgomery, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), in response to a complaint filed by Women's Army Corps Private Sarah Keys, closed the legal loophole left by the "Morgan" ruling in a landmark case known as "Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.". The ICC prohibited individual carriers from imposing their own segregation rules on interstate travelers, declaring that to do so was a violation of the anti-discrimination provision of the Interstate Commerce Act. However, neither the Supreme Court's "Morgan" ruling nor the ICC's "Keys" ruling addressed the matter of Jim Crow travel within the individual states.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Under the system of segregation used on Montgomery buses, the ten front seats were reserved for white people at all times. The ten back seats were supposed to be reserved for black people at all times. The middle section of the bus consisted of sixteen unreserved seats for white and black people on a segregated basis. White people filled the middle seats from the front to back, and black people filled seats from the back to front until the bus was full. If other black people boarded the bus, they were required to stand. If another white person boarded the bus, then everyone in the black row nearest the front had to get up and stand so that a new row for white people could be created; it was illegal for white and black people to sit next to each other. When Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat for a white person, she was sitting in the first row of the middle section.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Often when boarding the buses, black people were required to pay at the front, get off, and reenter the bus through a separate door at the back. Occasionally, bus drivers would drive away before black passengers were able to reboard. National City Lines owned the Montgomery Bus Line at the time of the Montgomery bus boycott. Under the leadership of Walter Reuther, the United Auto Workers donated almost $5,000 () to the boycott's organizing committee.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Rosa Parks (February 4, 1913 – October 24, 2005) was a seamstress by profession; she was also the secretary for the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, who ordered her to board at the rear door and then drove off without her. Parks vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual assault. In 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama, to investigate the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the Taylor case was the first instance of a nationwide civil rights protest, and it laid the groundwork for the Montgomery bus boycott.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: In 1955, Parks completed a course in "Race Relations" at the Highlander Folk School in Tennessee, where nonviolent civil disobedience had been discussed as a tactic. On December 1, 1955, Parks was sitting in the foremost row in which black people could sit (in the middle section). When a white man boarded the bus, the bus driver told everyone in her row to move back. At that moment, Parks realized that she was again on a bus driven by Blake. While all of the other black people in her row complied, Parks refused, and she was arrested for failing to obey the driver's seat assignments, as city ordinances did not explicitly mandate segregation but did give the bus driver authority to assign seats. Found guilty on December 5, Parks was fined $10 plus a court cost of $4"" (combined total ), and she appealed. This movement also sparked riots leading up to the 1956 Sugar Bowl.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Some action against segregation had been in the works for some time before Parks' arrest, under the leadership of E. D. Nixon, president of the local NAACP chapter and a member of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Nixon intended that her arrest be a test case to allow Montgomery's black citizens to challenge segregation on the city's public buses. With this goal, community leaders had been waiting for the right person to be arrested, a person who would anger the black community into action, who would agree to test the segregation laws in court, and who, most importantly, was "above reproach". When Colvin was arrested in March 1955, Nixon thought he had found the perfect person, but the teenager turned out to be pregnant. Nixon later explained, "I had to be sure that I had somebody I could win with." Parks was a good candidate because of her employment and marital status, along with her good standing in the community.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Between Parks' arrest and trial, Nixon organized a meeting of local ministers at Martin Luther King Jr.'s church. Though Nixon could not attend the meeting because of his work schedule, he arranged that no election of a leader for the proposed boycott would take place until his return. When he returned, he caucused with Ralph Abernathy and Rev. E.N. French to name the association to lead the boycott to the city (they selected the "Montgomery Improvement Association", "MIA"), and they selected King (Nixon's choice) to lead the boycott. Nixon wanted King to lead the boycott because the young minister was new to Montgomery and the city fathers had not had time to intimidate him. At a subsequent, larger meeting of ministers, Nixon's agenda was threatened by the clergymen's reluctance to support the campaign. Nixon was indignant, pointing out that their poor congregations worked to put money into the collection plates so these ministers could live well, and when those congregations needed the clergy to stand up for them, those comfortable ministers refused to do so. Nixon threatened to reveal the ministers' cowardice to the black community, and King spoke up, denying he was afraid to support the boycott. King agreed to lead the MIA, and Nixon was elected its treasurer.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: On the night of Parks' arrest, the Women's Political Council, led by Jo Ann Robinson, printed and circulated a flyer throughout Montgomery's black community that read as follows:


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Another woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negro, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to stop these arrests, they will continue. The next time it may be you, or your daughter, or mother. This woman's case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The next morning there was a meeting led by the new Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA) head, King, where a group of 16 to 18 people gathered at the Mt. Zion Church to discuss boycott strategies. At that time Rosa Parks was introduced but not asked to speak, despite a standing ovation and calls from the crowd for her to speak; she asked someone if she should say something, but they replied, "Why, you've said enough." A citywide boycott of public transit was proposed, with three demands: 1) courteous treatment by bus operators, 2) passengers seated on a first-come, first-served basis, with black people seated in the back half and white people seated in the front half, and 3) black people would be employed as bus operators on routes predominately taken by black people.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: This demand was a compromise for the leaders of the boycott, who believed that the city of Montgomery would be more likely to accept it rather than a demand for full integration of the buses. In this respect, the MIA leaders followed the pattern of 1950s boycott campaigns in the Deep South, including the successful boycott a few years earlier of service stations in Mississippi for refusing to provide restrooms for Black people. The organizer of that campaign, T. R. M. Howard of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, had spoken on the lynching of Emmett Till as King's guest at the Dexter Avenue Baptist Church only four days before Parks's arrest. Parks was in the audience and later said that Emmett Till was on her mind when she refused to give up her seat.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The MIA's demand for a fixed dividing line was to be supplemented by a requirement that all bus passengers receive courteous treatment by bus operators, be seated on a first-come, first-served basis, and that Black people be employed as bus drivers. The proposal was passed, and the boycott was to commence the following Monday. To publicize the impending boycott it was advertised at black churches throughout Montgomery the following Sunday.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: On Saturday, December 3, it was evident that the black community would support the boycott, and very few Black people rode the buses that day. On December 5, a mass meeting was held at the Holt Street Baptist Church to determine if the protest would continue. Given twenty minutes notice, King gave a speech asking for a bus boycott and attendees enthusiastically agreed. Starting December 7, J Edgar Hoover's FBI noted the "agitation among negroes" and tried to find "derogatory information" about King.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The boycott proved extremely effective, with enough riders lost to the city transit system to cause serious economic distress. Martin Luther King later wrote, "[a] miracle had taken place." Instead of riding buses, boycotters organized a system of carpools, with car owners volunteering their vehicles or themselves driving people to various destinations. Some white housewives also drove their black domestic servants to work. When the city pressured local insurance companies to stop insuring cars used in the carpools, the boycott leaders arranged policies at Lloyd's of London.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Black taxi drivers charged ten cents per ride, a fare equal to the cost to ride the bus, in support of the boycott. When word of this reached city officials on December 8, the order went out to fine any cab driver who charged a rider less than 45 cents. In addition to using private motor vehicles, some people used non-motorized means to get around, such as cycling, walking, or even riding mules or driving horse-drawn buggies. Some people also hitchhiked. During rush hours, sidewalks were often crowded. As the buses received few, if any, passengers, their officials asked the City Commission to allow stopping service to black communities. Across the nation, black churches raised money to support the boycott and collected new and slightly used shoes to replace the tattered footwear of Montgomery's black citizens, many of whom walked everywhere rather than ride the buses and submit to Jim Crow laws.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: In response, opposing whites swelled the ranks of the White Citizens' Council, the membership of which doubled during the course of the boycott. The councils sometimes resorted to violence: King's and Abernathy's houses were firebombed, as were four black Baptist churches. Boycotters were often physically attacked. After the attack at King's house, he gave a speech to the 300 angry African Americans who had gathered outside. He said:


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: King and 88 other boycott leaders and carpool drivers were indicted for conspiring to interfere with a business under a 1921 ordinance. Rather than wait to be arrested, they turned themselves in as an act of defiance.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: King was ordered to pay a $500 fine or serve 386 days in jail. He ended up spending two weeks in jail. The move backfired by bringing national attention to the protest. King commented on the arrest by saying: "I was proud of my crime. It was the crime of joining my people in a nonviolent protest against injustice."


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Also important during the bus boycott were grassroots activist groups that helped to catalyze both fund-raising and morale. Groups such as the Club from Nowhere helped to sustain the boycott by finding new ways of raising money and offering support to boycott participants. Many members of these organizations were women and their contributions to the effort have been described by some as essential to the success of the bus boycott.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Pressure increased across the country. The related civil suit was heard in federal district court and, on June 5, 1956, the court ruled in "Browder v. Gayle" (1956) that Alabama's racial segregation laws for buses were unconstitutional. As the state appealed the decision, the boycott continued. The case moved on to the United States Supreme Court. On November 13, 1956, the Supreme Court upheld the district court's ruling.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The bus boycott officially ended on December 20, 1956, after 382 days. The Montgomery bus boycott resounded far beyond the desegregation of public buses. It stimulated activism and participation from the South in the national Civil Rights Movement and gave King national attention as a rising leader.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: White backlash against the court victory was quick, brutal, and, in the short term, effective. Two days after the inauguration of desegregated seating, someone fired a shotgun through the front door of Martin Luther King's home. A day later, on Christmas Eve, white men attacked a black teenager as she exited a bus. Four days after that, two buses were fired upon by snipers. In one sniper incident, a pregnant woman was shot in both legs. On January 10, 1957, bombs destroyed five black churches and the home of Reverend Robert S. Graetz, one of the few white Montgomerians who had publicly sided with the MIA.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The City suspended bus service for several weeks on account of the violence. According to legal historian Randall Kennedy, "When the violence subsided and service was restored, many black Montgomerians enjoyed their newly recognized right only abstractly ... In practically every other setting, Montgomery remained overwhelmingly segregated ..." On January 23, a group of Klansmen (who would later be charged for the bombings) lynched a black man, Willie Edwards, on the pretext that he was dating a white woman.


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The city's elite moved to strengthen segregation in other areas, and in March 1957 passed an ordinance making it "unlawful for white and colored persons to play together, or, in company with each other ... in any game of cards, dice, dominoes, checkers, pool, billiards, softball, basketball, baseball, football, golf, track, and at swimming pools, beaches, lakes or ponds or any other game or games or athletic contests, either indoors or outdoors."


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: Later in the year, Montgomery police charged seven Klansmen with the bombings, but all of the defendants were acquitted. About the same time, the Alabama Supreme Court ruled against Martin Luther King's appeal of his "illegal boycott" conviction. Rosa Parks left Montgomery due to death threats and employment blacklisting. According to Charles Silberman, "by 1963, most Negroes in Montgomery had returned to the old custom of riding in the back of the bus."


title: Montgomery bus boycott

text: The National Memorial for Peace and Justice contains, among other things, a sculpture "dedicated to the women who sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott", by Dana King, to help illustrate the civil rights period. The memorial opened in downtown Montgomery, Alabama on April 26, 2018.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops (Scott Summers) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics and is a founding member of the X-Men. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-plotter Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in the comic book "The X-Men".


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops is a member of a subspecies of humans known as mutants, who are born with superhuman abilities. Cyclops emits powerful beams of energy from his eyes, and can only control the beams with the aid of special eyewear which he must wear at all times. He is typically considered the first of the X-Men, a team of mutant heroes who fight for peace and equality between mutants and humans, and one of the team's primary leaders.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops is most often portrayed as the archetypal hero of traditional American popular culture—the opposite of the tough, anti-authority antiheroes that emerged in American popular culture after the Vietnam War (e.g., Wolverine, his X-Men teammate).


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: James Marsden initially portrayed Cyclops in the 20th Century Fox "X-Men" films, while a younger version of the character was portrayed by Tim Pocock in the 2009 prequel film "", and he was portrayed by Tye Sheridan in "" (2016) and "Dark Phoenix" (2019) as well as a cameo in "Deadpool 2" (2018).


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops first appeared in "The X-Men" #1 (September 1963). He was created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, and has been a mainstay character of the "X-Men" series. Lee said that Cyclops and Beast were his two favorite X-Men, elaborating that "I love tortured heroes—and he was tortured because he couldn't control his power." Originally dubbed "Slim Summers", by "The X-Men" #3 his name was changed to "Scott", with "Slim" becoming a nickname.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott Summers is the first of the X-Men recruited by Professor X; Xavier hand-picks Scott to lead his X-Men, and to carry on the legacy of his mutant-human-harmony ideals. Xavier views Scott as one of his most prized pupils; their relationship exhibits father/son qualities. From time to time, Scott's extreme loyalty to Xavier has cost him dearly in his relationships with others; but, over the course of the characters' publication history, he eventually emerges from Xavier's shadow as the X-Men's undisputed leader.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Dave Cockrum created the Starjammers, including Corsair, and convinced "" writer Chris Claremont to use the characters for this series. In order to provide a plausible excuse for the Starjammers to make repeat appearances in "X-Men", they decided to make Corsair the father of Cyclops.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Summers remained a member of the team up through "The Uncanny X-Men" #138. After departing the main cast, he was a recurring character in the series until "The Uncanny X-Men" #201, after which he was featured in the launch of a new series by Marvel. This new series, "X-Factor", launched in 1986 and starred the original X-Men team of Cyclops, Marvel Girl, Beast, Iceman, and Angel. Scott stayed with the "X-Factor" title through "X-Factor" #70. In October 1991, Summers returns to the X-Men to launch "X-Men" #1. This series was the second of two "X-Men" titles and featured Cyclops, Wolverine, Gambit, Psylocke, Rogue, and Beast as Blue team. Cyclops has recently been featured in another title launch with the second introduction of a new "X-Men" series "Astonishing X-Men". "Astonishing X-Men" features Cyclops, Wolverine, Shadowcat, Colossus, Emma Frost, and Beast as a team. Throughout this time, Cyclops continued to make appearances in "Uncanny X-Men" Marvel has also used Cyclops to launch variant series of "X-Men" titles most notably "Ultimate X-Men" and "New X-Men".


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops has appeared in limited series including "Adventures of Cyclops & Phoenix", "Further Adventures of Cyclops & Phoenix", "X-Men: The Asgardian Wars", the second series of "Astonishing X-Men", "X-Men: The Search for Cyclops", his own self-titled series "Cyclops", and "X-Men Origins: Cyclops" #1.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In 1991, writer Brian K. Vaughan worked on the self-titled series "Cyclops" #1–4. In 2000, Joseph Harris wrote the four-issue run titled "X-Men: The Search for Cyclops" that dealt with Cyclops's return after merging with Apocalypse in the events of the Twelve from "The Uncanny X-Men" #377.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: During Joss Whedon's run of "Astonishing X-Men", Cyclops adopts a new attitude unfamiliar to most accustomed fans. After Emma Frost's psychic intervention at the mansion, he temporarily loses his powers after owning up to his self-inflicted, traumatic past. This prompted an interview with Whedon in "Wizard" magazine #182. When asked if Cyclops did not have his powers anymore, Whedon replied:


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Now, the X-Men leader has become more confident, outspoken, and audacious. This has had a significant effect on his leadership and his respect among teammates, most notably Wolverine.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: However, since of Hope Summers, Cyclops has become increasingly unstable with his own self. Overprotective of those close to him, amoral in his new, Magneto-like view of humanity, and mentally ambiguous, Cyclops is viewed as an antihero and occasionally even a villain in the minds of his fellow superheroes. Kieron Gillen's run in "Uncanny X-Men" ended with an unrepentant Cyclops, who had become increasingly hardline during Gillen's run, in prison for his actions during "Avengers vs. X-Men", up to and including him killing Xavier while under the influence of the Phoenix Force. Gillen wrote him openly suicidal in a five-part epilogue: "AvX: Consequences".


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: As part of Marvel NOW!, there are two Cyclopes: the original Cyclops is featured in volume 3 of "The Uncanny X-Men", which was launched in February 2013, and a younger time-displaced version as part of the All-New X-Men team, both series are written by Brian Michael Bendis and drawn by Chris Bachalo. Uncanny X-Men features the remnants of Cyclops' Extinction Team, who have taken up a revolutionary, and sometimes violent course to promote mutant rights, and started up a new school for new mutants, the New Charles Xavier School for the Gifted. The younger Cyclops tries to make sense of his future and find a place for himself, while deciding if he even wants to stay an X-Man.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In the new Dawn of X saga Cyclops has been given the role of Great Captain Commander. The X-Men Senior Editor Jordan D. White said regarding Cyclops role in Krakoa in an interview:


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops's history has undergone various revisions, both minor and major. The central fixed element is the character's origin story. As a young boy, Scott Summers is orphaned after watching his parents die in a plane crash. Scott and his brother, Alex, were the only survivors. as their parents placed the two boys in the only available parachute and forced them to jump from the plane just prior to crashing. The boys become wards of the state and are separated. When Scott's powers manifest uncontrollably, he runs away from the orphanage and wanders before being taken in as ward by Charles Xavier.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: When Scott was a young boy, his father, USAF Major Christopher Summers, took the family for a flight in their de Havilland Mosquito from his grandparents' home in Anchorage, Alaska, when it came under attack by an alien Shi'ar spaceship. As the plane went down in flames, Scott's parents fastened him and his younger brother Alex into a parachute and pushed them off the plane, hoping that they would survive.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In Cyclops's first appearance in "The X-Men" #1, he is already leading the X-Men under tutelage of Professor X. Later, Scott's origin is first presented in "The Uncanny X-Men" #38–42 and later refined in "The Uncanny X-Men" #144 and "The Uncanny X-Men" #156. In 2010, Marvel released "X-Men Origins: Cyclops" #1 that describes the character's childhood through his joining the X-Men.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: The early accounts in the X-Men comics use flashbacks to tell the origin story of Scott parachuting from his parents' plane. The flashbacks are often told from various narrative perspectives and place different emphasis on the events of this period. Scott's poor control over his power have been attributed to events in his childhood. In "The Uncanny X-Men" #156, Scott's parachute caught fire and Scott struck his head upon landing. This caused brain damage to Scott which is responsible for his poor control over his optic blasts. Several origin stories do not feature the head injury account with "X-Men Origins: Cyclops" #1 being the most recent. The head injury account has also been retconned in "Astonishing X-Men" vol. 3 as being due to a self-imposed mental block he made as a child to deal with the traumatic events of his life. With the help of Emma Frost, Scott is able to briefly bypass his own mental block and control his powers, though he reveals that his control is waning and temporary.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: For a time, Scott had prolonged amnesia about his childhood. Parts of his memory returned when he was unexpectedly attacked by the demon D'Spayre while on a leave of absence after Jean Grey's perceived first death. Scott spent most of his childhood at the State Home for the Foundlings in Omaha, Nebraska and was subjected to batteries of tests and experiments by the orphanage's owner, Mr. Milbury, an alias for the geneticist Mister Sinister, who also placed mental blocks on Scott.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In The Further Adventures of Cyclops and Phoenix limited series, both Scott and Jean were sent back in time to 19th century England by Madame Sanctity, a surviving member of the Askani sisterhood. In 1860, prior to the epilogue of the story, a young English orphan named Daniel (who was freed, one year ago, from the clutches of Nathaniel Essex by Scott and Jean) is shown arriving in New York Harbor from London. As a form of reverence toward the couple who recently showed him great kindness, when urged by his apparent guardian to adopt a new surname at the immigration station, Daniel chooses Summers. Although Scott does not make the familial connection between Daniel and himself, he suspects that his presence in this time (along with Jean's) did something "else" to affect the course of history, aside from stopping Mister Sinister and Apocalypse.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: When Scott is sixteen, he goes on a trip to New York with his orphanage supervisor. Scott walks near a construction site and his optic beam activates for the first time. The blast damages a metal crane causing it to fall towards an onlooking crowd. Scott thinks quickly unleashing a second blast that destroys the crane. The crowd thinks this is an act of violence, and forms a lynch mob. Scott hops onto a train and runs away. Wandering Scott encounters Jack O' Diamonds who tries to recruit Scott as a thief/villain but eventually battles the villain. Scott is found by Charles Xavier, directly after who erases the crowd's memories. Xavier then asks Scott to join him and the X-Men, he gladly accepts, as the first official member.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In the X-Men's first field mission, he battles Magneto. With the X-Men, he battles the Vanisher, Unus the Untouchable, the Blob, and many others. Xavier would soon choose him to be deputy leader of the team and act as field leader whenever he was absent.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops has a relationship with Jean Grey during their time in the "original" X-Men. For a long time, he refuses to admit, even to himself, that he has feelings for her, afraid he would be hurt again or that his optic blasts would hurt her – or anyone else he cared about for that matter – and also because he feels he is no match for his wealthy teammate Warren Worthington III, a.k.a. Angel, who is at first also romantically interested in Jean. What Scott does not know is that Jean actually has a crush on him, but is too shy to make a move. Finally, on Bobby Drake's 18th birthday, they reveal their passion for each other and become lovers.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: During one of the X-Men's adventures he rediscovers his brother Alex as his powers were manifesting. Alex would join the team with Scott as Havok.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: When the original team of X-Men are defeated by Krakoa, Cyclops is the only member able to escape and return to Xavier. He helps train a new group of X-Men, which includes Storm, Colossus, Nightcrawler, Banshee, Thunderbird, Sunfire and Wolverine to rescue the others. When the other original X-Men (Angel, Beast, Iceman, Jean Grey, and later additions Havok (his own brother Alex) and Polaris) decide to leave in light of the arrival of the new X-Men, Cyclops stays, feeling that he will never be able to lead a normal life because of the uncontrollable nature of his powers.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: As an adult member of the X-Men, Cyclops unknowingly meets his father, now known as Corsair, leader of the Starjammers, a group of aliens opposing what they see as the tyranny of the Shi'ar empire. Jean learns of Corsair's identity but keeps it from Scott and several more years pass before he learns his father's true identity.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops privately questions his relationship with Jean after Jean dies trying to pilot a space shuttle through a solar flare, and then is reborn as Phoenix, feeling that this reborn Jean was not the same Jean he had loved. Yet when he thinks her dead for an extended period of time after a battle in the Savage Land, Scott is not able to mourn her, and believes this meant he did not really love her anymore. He briefly dates Colleen Wing. However, when Scott and Jean are reunited on Muir Island to fight Proteus, he rediscovers his love for her, and they share a passionate kiss on the way home. A few days before Jean dies, Scott psychically proposes, and she accepts. After her death, he quits the X-Men, unsure of what to do anymore. He signs on as crew of a fishing boat, captained by Lee Forrester. After an adventure in which Lee's father is possessed by D'Spayre, Cyclops and the Man-Thing must fight D'Spayre, Scott and Lee find themselves shipwrecked in the Bermuda Triangle, where they stumble upon Magneto's new base of operations.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott soon returns to the X-Men. He then discovers that Corsair the leader of the Space Pirate group the Starjammers is actually his father. Scott originally believed that his parents died in the plane accident and is unaware that they, in fact, had been captured and sold into slavery by the Shi'ar. His mother was murdered by then Emperor D'Ken, leaving a grieving Corsair to escape captivity and form the Starjammers. He also finds out through Corsair that he has living grandparents, who own a shipping company in Alaska. During his first visit to his grandparents he meets Madelyne Pryor, a woman who bears a strong resemblance to Jean. Eventually he marries her, and after she gets pregnant he retires from the X-Men. Scott has a difficult time adjusting to life outside of the X-Men and later, to his wife's dismay, he challenges Storm to a battle in the Danger Room for leadership of the X-Men. Despite Storm no longer possessing her mutant powers, she defeats Cyclops. Madelyne gives birth to their son, Nathan, and Scott returns to retirement from the X-Men.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Shortly after the birth of his son Nathan, Jean Grey is discovered and revived by the Avengers and the Fantastic Four. It is revealed that Jean Grey was alive and had never been The Phoenix. The Phoenix is revealed to have been a cosmic entity who placed a dying Jean Grey in a healing pod at the bottom of Jamaica Bay and replaced her taking on her appearance and memories, to the point of not realizing that "she" herself was not the real Jean Grey. After hearing that Jean is alive, Cyclops leaves his wife and son and rejoins the other original X-Men as X-Factor, who pose as mutant hunters but in reality are trying to help their genetic brethren. Meanwhile, Pryor goes on to be an assisting member of the X-Men, apparently sacrificing her life during the Fall of the Mutants with her teammates, although she was left with feelings of despair over the loss of Scott, who felt bad himself over the way he had handled the situation.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: The demons S'ym and N'astirh corrupt Madelyne's feelings of self-despair, transforming her into the Goblin Queen. Madelyne seeks revenge on Scott for leaving her. When it is revealed that she is a clone created by geneticist Mister Sinister, essentially for the purpose of becoming a brood mare, Madelyne cannot take it anymore and kills herself. Scott seemingly kills Sinister with an optic blast, and pursues a romance with Jean, reclaiming his son. Scott soon learns that Mister Sinister ran the orphanage in which Scott was raised, and battled Sinister over this.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Shortly after the X-Tinction Agenda, Scott reencounters Apocalypse, who infects Nathan with a techno-organic virus. Although Scott saves his son with the help of his teammates and through the combined strength of Nathan, Jean, and himself defeats Apocalypse, he was unable to save his son from the fatal infection. Distraught, Scott sends his son into the future where he can be cured.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Next, Xavier's psionic enemy, Shadow King, returns to combat the X-Men and X-Factor. After his defeat, Cyclops and X-Factor rejoin the X-Men team, and Scott is named leader of a newly created "Blue Team".


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: After Cyclops's return as field leader, much of the Blue team is kidnapped by Omega Red and the ninjas of The Hand. After the captured teammates' rescue, Mr. Sinister sends Caliban, a former X-Factor member, to kidnap Cyclops and Jean for Stryfe, a madman and rival to Cable, both time-lost mutants. Stryfe tells the two that he is Nathan, sent to the future and abandoned. In a fight, Cable and Stryfe apparently die. Afterwards, the team battles Omega Red again, and teammate and telepath Psylocke tries to lure Cyclops into an affair behind Jean's back. Ultimately, however, Cyclops remains with Jean. Cable returns as well and reveals to Cyclops that he is the real Nathan Christopher Summers, while Stryfe is a clone of Nathan created in the event of his death who was stolen and raised by Apocalypse.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott Summers and Jean Grey finally marry. During their honeymoon, they are brought into the future where they raise Cable for the first 12 years of his life during "The Adventures of Cyclops and Phoenix" miniseries. After helping Cable defeat the future version of Apocalypse, they are sent back to the past. At the request of Rachel Summers, Jean assumes the Phoenix identity. Mister Sinister, involved with the machinations of Apocalypse and Stryfe and still alive, tells Cyclops that there is another Summers brother, and leaves him wondering.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: As Cyclops deals with the fact that his son is now old enough to be his father, the X-Men are forced to battle their mentor when Professor Xavier is transformed into the evil Onslaught, as a result of his recent attempt to wipe Magneto's mind causing Magneto's darker impulses to merge with Xavier's own subconscious darkness and manifest as a new personality. Although the X-Men defeat the evil entity and free Xavier, most of Earth's heroes are lost for a time. Xavier, who is left powerless after Onslaught's defeat, is arrested for his part, leaving Scott and Jean as leaders and co-headmasters of the school. However, the pair go into retirement following , in which Cyclops is gravely injured when a bomb is placed in his chest.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott and Jean return to the X-Men sometime after at the request of Storm, when she grows concerned about the mental well-being of Professor X (who had returned sometime prior). Their return then leads to the events of , in which Apocalypse plans to use a machine to steal the powers of twelve select mutants and the body of Nate Grey which will make him virtually omnipotent. In order to save Nate, Cyclops willingly merges with the villain Apocalypse. He is believed dead until Jean and Cable track him down to Egypt and separate him from Apocalypse, killing Apocalypse's spirit in the process.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Upon Cyclops' return to the X-Men following his possession, his personality has been altered as a result of being bonded with Apocalypse. This change causes a rift between him and Jean; he claims that Apocalypse made him question not only their relationship, but his life as a whole. He is instrumental in preventing the mutant Xorn's suicide and in recruiting the powerful mutant to the X-Men. The two establish a close friendship; similarly, repeated missions with Wolverine result in the growth of a tentative friendship between the two veteran X-Men.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: When Jean begins to show signs of the Phoenix Force again, the distance between the two grows larger and Scott begins abstaining from sex with Jean for the five months. Jean attempts several times to confront Cyclops, but he continues to push her away, claiming that Apocalypse had changed him too much on the inside. Jean, confused by the change in their relationship, confides in Logan and the two kiss in the woods outside the school, but Logan walks away telling her that she should remain with Scott. Xavier leaves Earth while under the control of Cassandra Nova and Jean is left as Headmistress of the school. Her new responsibilities along with her growing powers, force Jean to put her attention elsewhere leaving Scott feeling ignored and his trauma from being possessed trivialized. Instead of attempting to reconcile with her, Scott turns to Emma Frost for consolation, feeling that he can talk to Emma about his problems. Their relationship ostensibly begins as a series of psychic therapy sessions, but the two soon engage in a full-fledged psychic affair.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: When Phoenix discovers the affair, Cyclops claims he and Emma shared only thoughts and thus had done nothing wrong. Meanwhile, Emma's snide and mocking jeers provoke a hurt and angry Jean to psychically confront her, using the full power of the Phoenix Force to 'burn through lies'. She forces Emma to admit her true feelings for Scott, and to face her many failures, sins, and personal demons. Furious at both himself and Jean, Scott confronts Jean and demands that she read his mind; Jean finally complies, only to discover that Scott and Emma never engaged in any physical contact, though Emma had offered it. After confronting Jean with the truth, Scott leaves the Xavier Institute, and a short time later Emma is found shattered in her diamond form and believed killed.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott soon finds himself at the Hellfire Club which had been turned into a sleazy strip club and tries to get drunk, attempting to escape the responsibilities, expectations, and demands which he feels are unjustly placed on him by the X-Men. He then accompanies Wolverine and Fantomex to the government-created time-pocket called The World and then Asteroid M. During his time with Wolverine, Scott reveals that he feels his relationship with Jean is stagnant and that the two of them had not progressed romantically since their initial teenage romance. He also confesses that he feels that Jean is so concerned with the school and her new powers that the two no longer communicate like before and that he feels left behind due to Jean once again being connected to the Phoenix Force. When Scott finally returns to the X-Men, their new teammate Xorn (who was revealed to be Magneto, but was subsequently retconned as an imposter) attacks the X-Men. Having at last reached full Phoenix power, Jean confronts Xorn-Magneto and is killed in the process. As she is dying, Scott apologizes for hurting her, but Jean instead tells him that she understands and has never seen him more alive and urges him to live on.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott, however, is devastated by Jean's death, and considers leaving the X-Men once more. It was revealed in the "Here Comes Tomorrow" storyline that, had he done so, it would have led to an apocalyptic alternate future. To prevent this, a resurrected, future-version of Jean uses her powers as the White Phoenix of the Crown and telepathically reached back in time to tell Cyclops it was okay to move on, leading him to start a real relationship with Emma. Together, the pair rebuild the Xavier Institute as co-headmasters.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: The new relationship between Emma and Scott leads to problems between them and the rest of the X-Men, all of whom believe that the pair are doing Jean's memory a disservice. Rachel Summers in particular feels hurt and angry by her father's lack of remorse for the psychic affair that hurt Jean before her death and Emma's part in it, and takes on the last name of Grey in place of Summers. The other X-Men eventually come to accept the relationship and both Scott and Emma manage to reconcile with Rachel in their own ways, such as introducing Rachel to Jean's other family members.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Deciding that the X-Men need to play more of a role in emergency rescue and aid, and thus garner attention on mutants in a more positive light where mutant abilities are used for the good of people, Cyclops hand-picks a new team in "Astonishing X-Men" of himself, Emma, Beast, Kitty Pryde, and Wolverine, which is subsequently used by Marvel as the chief representation of the X-Men. The team faces an alien named Ord of the Breakworld, who supplies Earth scientist Dr. Kavita Rao with a "cure" for mutation. The team subdue Ord and rescue the resurrected Colossus, but not before learning that one of their own will be responsible for the destruction of Ord's homeworld in the coming year. Not long after, the X-Men's Danger Room becomes sentient, attacking the X-Men and seeking to ultimately kill Xavier. Calling itself "Danger", "she" reveals that Xavier knew she had been self-aware since Shi'ar technology was installed in the Danger Room years ago, but chose to ignore her, effectively inhumanely using her only to train his teams of X-Men. After her defeat on the island of Genosha, the X-Men abandoned Xavier in disgust, with Cyclops no longer welcoming Xavier's input at the School or with the team.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops also tutored a squad at the institute called The Corsairs, named after Cyclops's father. The team consisted of Dryad, Quill, Specter, and the three remaining Stepford Cuckoos.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: In "Astonishing X-Men" vol. 3 #14, during an impromptu telepathic "therapy session", Emma Frost presented Cyclops with the possibility that his lack of control over his optic blasts actually stems not from physical brain damage, but from a sort of mental block that the young Scott imposed upon himself after the combined traumas of the loss of his parents, separation from his brother, and shocking manifestation of his powers; this is seen as a coping mechanism, giving Scott something to focus on and try to maintain some sort of control over at a time when events completely out of his control had effectively shattered the life he had led up to that point.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Scott admits that this theory is the truth, further admitting that he had blocked making this decision out of his memory, to preserve the fallacy in his own mind and prevent others from discovering his "secret". The issue ends with Scott apparently in a catatonic state, with his eyes uncovered and displaying their natural shade of brown, with no evidence of his powers manifesting. Later he manifests, and has full control over his optical blasts, although it was only temporary.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: After the events of House of M, nearly all mutants were left depowered, and Xavier was missing. A mysterious villain then attacked and easily defeated several members of the team, including Cyclops and his alternate-reality daughter, Rachel. The two were captured and taken to an undisclosed location, which Cyclops vaguely remembered visiting in the past. Eventually managing to free themselves, Cyclops and Rachel attempted to escape, only to run into their captor (revealed to be Vulcan), who informed Cyclops that he was the X-Man's younger brother. A powerless Professor Xavier confirmed this information in the final book of the miniseries. This new information has left Cyclops resentful towards his mentor and has gone so far as to demand that Xavier leave the school as it is no longer 'his'.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops, along with the other living original X-Men, declare neutrality on the subject of Civil War, reasoning that the X-Men sympathized too much with Captain America's side – who, like the X-Men, were persecuted for wanting to do the right thing – but believed that the mutant race had suffered too great a loss recently to take a side either way due to the recent depowerment of so many mutants. Bishop leaves the team to join the Registration supporters and locate the escaped . In "Civil War: X-Men" #2, Cyclops under mind control of Johnny Dee helps the futuristic X-Man in recovering them. Cyclops is then manipulated into attacking Bishop which he does by overloading Bishop's power of energy absorption.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops is listed at IGN as a target on Hulk's "Hit List" of characters. He is seen fighting the Hulk in "World War Hulk: X-Men" #1 and in issue #2, he uses a full beam blast to stop the Hulk, refusing to let the Hulk take Professor Xavier regardless of his own feelings towards his mentor regarding the truth about Krakoa. While it peels off some of the Hulk's skin, he was able to walk towards Cyclops and clench his entire face, effectively containing the blast. After Hulk left when Mercury told him about the mutant race being near-extinct, Cyclops began to forgive Professor X while the wounded were being tended to.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops leads a team to Alaska to find the new mutant detected by Cerebro. When the team arrives, they find nearly every child in the town killed, dead Marauders and Purifiers, and the baby gone. He sends a team consisting of Wolverine, Nightcrawler, Angel, and Colossus to find former Acolytes for information on the Marauders. He argues with Xavier, who complains about not telling him about his team. Scott tells Xavier they are not his X-Men any more and that he can do what he wants. Scott also calls in X-Factor to help with the situation, asks Rictor to infiltrate the Purifiers, and asks Madrox and Layla Miller to go see Forge. Upon discovering that Cable has kidnapped the newborn mutant, Cyclops orders the reforming of X-Force with Wolverine leading the team. Their first mission is to hunt down Cable and retrieve the baby. Cyclops later breaks all ties with Professor X and asks him to leave the mansion, as Xavier continues to question Cyclops's judgement. Later on, Cyclops is seen with his own team and X-Factor, to help out Wolverine against the Reavers and to capture the baby from Cable. Cable eludes the X-Men.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: After finding the Marauders' hideout on Muir Island, Cyclops dispatches X-Force and Bishop to go there and retrieve the baby. During the final battle, Cyclops sends the New X-Men against the Marauders, believing that Sinister's forces will be caught off guard by unfamiliar opponents. The students prove to be effective. Cyclops then confronts Cable demanding the baby. Cable, with a gun pointed at his father, begs Cyclops to let him escape into the future with the baby. However, Cable gives the child to Cyclops, after Xavier points out that the future of all mutantkind is at stake and Cyclops, as leader of the X-Men, speaks for mutantkind. Cyclops holds the baby and, realizing that the child deserves the chance to make its own destiny, gives her back to Cable. Cable teleports to the future just as Bishop fires a round at the child. The shot misses her and hits Xavier in the head. Cyclops strikes Bishop with an optic blast, and Cyclops declares the X-Men disbanded.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: During the interim period, Cyclops goes on a vacation with Emma to the Savage Land after refusing Tony Stark's request to have the X-Men as part of the Fifty State Initiative. There, they are contacted by Warren asking them for assistance in San Francisco. Scott and Emma are successful in rescuing not only Warren and the other X-Men, but also in rescuing San Francisco as a whole. As a result, the Mayor of the city offers to help the X-Men reestablish themselves in the city. After building a new headquarters, Cyclops sends word to all the world's mutants that San Francisco, which has welcomed the X-Men with open-arms, is now a safe haven for mutant-kind and that all are welcomed to join them. The X-Men's presence is widely approved of by San Francisco, including the police, who now hire the team to aid them in cases that might be out of their area.


title: Cyclops (Marvel Comics)

text: Cyclops dispatches Wolverine to track down Mystique and revives X-Force as a clandestine black-ops team whose mission is to take down threats to mutankind that they cannot deal with while under the public eye. Cyclops places Wolverine in charge of the team and resolutely keeps X-Force's existence secret from the other X-Men, including Emma Frost (manifested as a psychic "black box" in his mind that Emma is unable to open), also demanding that X-Force remain unknown to the public. However, Cyclops utilizes other X-Men for parts of the groups mission, including Beast and the Stepford Cuckoos. The team is sometimes less careful, leaving blood-stained clothing around, piquing Emma's suspicions. The controversy of Cyclops's decisions as leader of the X-Men is further highlighted during the Skrull invasion of San Francisco when he readily utilizes biological warfare against the Skrulls by knowingly infecting them with an adapted version of the Mutant Legacy Virus created by Beast without first determining if there was also a cure.