title: WWE Raw Tag Team Championship

text: As of 28, 2022, there have been 88 reigns between 67 teams composed of 98 individual champions, and one vacancy. The team of Cesaro and Sheamus and The New Day (Kofi Kingston and Xavier Woods) have the most reigns as a team at four, while individually, Kingston and Seth Rollins have the most with six. The New Day's second reign is also the longest reign at 483 days and they are the only team to hold the championship for over one consecutive year—Big E is also credited for this reign as during New Day's first two reigns, Big E, Kingston, and Woods were all recognized as champion under the Freebird Rule (Big E was split from the team in the 2020 WWE Draft). John Cena and The Miz's sole reign is the shortest reign at 9 minutes, due to The Corre invoking their rematch clause immediately after losing the title. As a team, The New Day (across its two different variants of team members) also have the longest combined reign at 627 days, while Kingston individually has the longest combined reign at 912 days (910 days as recognized by WWE). Nicholas is the youngest champion at 10 years old (also making him the youngest champion in WWE history), while Billy Gunn is the oldest champion at age 50.


title: WWE Raw Tag Team Championship

text: The Usos (Jey Uso and Jimmy Uso) are the current champions in their third reign. They defeated RK-Bro (Randy Orton and Riddle) in a Winners Take All match on the May 20, 2022, episode of "SmackDown" in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The Usos had also defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship in the match, and with both titles, they are recognized as the Undisputed WWE Tag Team Champions.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Forbidden fruit is a name given to the fruit growing in the Garden of Eden which God commands mankind not to eat. In the biblical story, Adam and Eve eat the fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and are exiled from Eden.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: As a metaphor outside of the Abrahamic religions the phrase typically refers to any indulgence or pleasure that is considered illegal or immoral.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: The story of the Book of Genesis places the first man and woman, Adam and Eve, in the Garden of Eden where they may eat the fruit of many trees, but are forbidden by God to eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Desiring this knowledge, the woman eats the forbidden fruit and gives some to the man who also eats it. They become aware of their "nakedness" and make fig-leaf clothes, and hide themselves when God approaches. When confronted, Adam tells God that Eve gave him the fruit to eat, and Eve tells God the serpent deceived her into eating it. God then curses the serpent, the woman then the man, and expels the man and woman from the Garden before they ate of the tree of eternal life.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: According to the Quran, Surah Al-A'raf 7:19 describes Adam and his wife in Paradise where they may eat what is provided, except for one Tree they must not eat from, lest they be considered "Ẓālimūn" (; wrongdoers).


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Surah Al-A'raf 7:20–22 describes () who whispers to Adam and his wife and deceives them. When they taste of the tree, their shame becomes manifest to them and they begin to cover themselves with leaves.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: A Gnostic interpretation of the story proposes that it was the archons who created Adam and attempted to prevent him from eating the forbidden fruit in order to keep him in a state of ignorance, after the spiritual form of Eve entered the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil while leaving a physical version of herself with Adam once she awakened him. But the forces of the heavenly realm (Pleroma) send the serpent as a representative of the divine sphere to reveal to Adam and Eve the evil intentions of their creators. The serpent succeeds in convincing them to eat the fruit and become like gods, capable of distinguishing between good and evil.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: The word "fruit" appears in Hebrew as פֶּ֫רִי ("pərî" ). As to which fruit may have been the forbidden fruit of the Garden of Eden, possibilities include apple, grape, pomegranate, fig, carob, etrog or citron, pear, quince, and mushrooms. The pseudepigraphic Book of Enoch describes the tree of knowledge: "It was like a species of the Tamarind tree, bearing fruit which resembled grapes extremely fine; and its fragrance extended to a considerable distance. I exclaimed, How beautiful is this tree, and how delightful is its appearance!" (1 Enoch 31:4).


title: Forbidden fruit

text: In Western Europe, the fruit was often depicted as an apple. This was possibly because of a misunderstanding of – or a pun on – two unrelated words "mălum", a native Latin noun which means evil (from the adjective "malus"), and "mālum", another Latin noun, borrowed from Greek μῆλον, which means apple. In the Vulgate, Genesis 2:17 describes the tree as "de ligno autem scientiae boni et mali" : "but of the tree [literally "wood" ] of knowledge of good and evil" ("mali" here is the genitive of "malum").


title: Forbidden fruit

text: The larynx, specifically the laryngeal prominence that joins the thyroid cartilage, in the human throat is noticeably more prominent in males and was consequently called an Adam's apple, from a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit getting stuck in Adam's throat as he swallowed it.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Rabbi Meir says that the fruit was a grape, made into wine. The Zohar explains similarly that Noah attempted (but failed) to rectify the sin of Adam by using grape wine for holy purposes. The midrash of Bereishit Rabah states that the fruit was grape, or squeezed grapes (perhaps alluding to wine). Chapter 4 of 3 Baruch, also known as the Greek Apocalypse of Baruch, designates the fruit as the grape. 3 Baruch is a first to third century text that is either Christian or Jewish with Christian interpolations.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: The Bible states in the book of Genesis that Adam and Eve had made their own fig leaf clothing: "And the eyes of them both were opened, and they knew that they were naked; and they sewed fig-leaves together, and made themselves girdles". Rabbi Nehemiah Hayyun supports the idea that the fruit was a fig, as it was from fig leaves that God made garments for Adam and Eve upon expelling them from the Garden. "By that with which they were made low were they rectified." Since the fig is a long-standing symbol of female sexuality, it enjoyed a run as a favorite understudy to the apple as the forbidden fruit during the Italian Renaissance, Michelangelo Buonarroti depicting it as such in his masterpiece fresco on the Sistine Chapel ceiling.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Proponents of the theory that the Garden of Eden was located somewhere in what is now known as the Middle East suggest that the fruit was actually a pomegranate, a plant indigenous from Iran to the Himalayas and cultivated since ancient times. The association of the pomegranate with knowledge of the underworld as provided in the Ancient Greek legend of Persephone may also have given rise to an association with knowledge of the otherworld, tying-in with knowledge that is forbidden to mortals. Also, it is believed Hades offered Persephone a pomegranate to force her to stay with him in the underworld. Hades is the Greek god of the underworld and the Bible states that whoever eats the forbidden fruit shall die.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Rabbi Yehuda proposes that the fruit was wheat, because "a baby does not know to call its mother and father until it tastes the taste of grain."


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Although commonly confused with a seed, in the study of botany a wheat berry is technically a simple fruit known as a caryopsis, which has the same structure as an apple. Just as an apple is a fleshy fruit that contains seeds, a grain is a dry fruit that absorbs water and contains a seed. The confusion comes from the fact that the fruit of a grass happens to have a form similar to some seeds.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: A fresco in the 13th-century Plaincourault Abbey in France depicts Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, flanking a Tree of Knowledge that has the appearance of a gigantic "Amanita muscaria", a psychoactive mushroom.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: Terence McKenna proposed that the forbidden fruit was a reference to psychotropic plants and fungi, specifically psilocybin mushrooms, which he theorized played a central role in the evolution of the human brain. Earlier, in a well-documented but heavily criticized study, John M. Allegro proposed the mushroom as the forbidden fruit.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: In Nathan HaMe’ati's 13th century translation of Maimonides's work "The Medical Aphorisms of Moses", the banana is called the "apple of eden". In the sixteenth century, Menahem Lonzano considered it common knowledge in Syria and Egypt that the banana was the apple of Eden.


title: Forbidden fruit

text: The similarities of the story to the story of Pandora's box were identified by early Christians such as Tertullian, Origen, and Gregory of Nazianzus.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Ruth Gordon Jones (October 30, 1896 – August 28, 1985) was an American actress, screenwriter, and playwright. She began her career performing on Broadway at age 19. Known for her nasal voice and distinctive personality, Gordon gained international recognition and critical acclaim for film roles that continued into her 70s and 80s. Her later work included performances in "Rosemary's Baby" (1968), "What Ever Happened to Aunt Alice" (1969), "Where's Poppa?" (1970), "Harold and Maude" (1971), "Every Which Way but Loose" (1978), and "Any Which Way You Can" (1980).


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In addition to her acting career, Gordon wrote numerous plays, film scripts, and books, most notably co-writing the screenplay for the 1949 film "Adam's Rib". Gordon won an Academy Award, a Primetime Emmy, and two Golden Globe Awards for her acting, as well as three Academy Award nominations for her writing.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Ruth Gordon Jones was born in Quincy, Massachusetts, at 41 Winthrop Avenue. She later resided at 41 Marion Street (1901–1903) and 14 Elmwood Avenue (1903–1914). All three homes are in the Wollaston section of town.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: She was the child of Annie Tapley (née Ziegler) and Clinton Jones. Her only sibling was an older half-sister Claire, from her father's first marriage. She was baptized an Episcopalian. Her first appearance in the public eye came as an infant when her photograph was used in advertising for her father's employer, Mellin's Food for Infants and Invalids. Prior to graduating from Quincy High School, she wrote to several of her favorite actresses requesting autographed pictures. A personal reply from Hazel Dawn (whom she had seen in a stage production of "The Pink Lady") inspired her to go into acting. Although her father was skeptical of her chances of success in a difficult profession, in 1914, he took his daughter to New York, where he enrolled her in the American Academy of Dramatic Arts.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In 1915, Gordon appeared as an extra in silent films that were shot in Fort Lee, New Jersey, including as a dancer in "The Whirl of Life", a film based on the lives of Vernon and Irene Castle. That same year, she made her Broadway debut in a revival of "Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up", in the role of Nibs (one of the Lost Boys), appearing onstage with Maude Adams and earning a favorable mention from powerful critic Alexander Woollcott. He described her favorably as "ever so gay", and became her friend and mentor.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In 1918, Gordon played opposite actor Gregory Kelly in the Broadway adaptation of Booth Tarkington's "Seventeen". The pair continued to perform together in North American tours of Frank Craven's "The First Year" and Tarkington's "Clarence" and "Tweedles". Then in 1921, Gordon and Kelly were wed.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In December 1920, Gordon checked into a Chicago hospital to have her legs broken and straightened to treat her lifelong bow-leggedness. After a three-month recovery, Kelly and she relocated to Indianapolis, where they started a repertory company.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Kelly died of heart disease in 1927, at the age of 36. Gordon at the time had been enjoying a comeback, appearing on Broadway as Bobby in Maxwell Anderson's "Saturday's Children", performing in a serious role after being typecast for years as a "beautiful, but dumb" character.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In 1929, Gordon was starring in the hit play "Serena Blandish" when she became pregnant by the show's producer, Jed Harris. Their son, Jones Harris, was born in Paris that year and Gordon brought him back to New York. Although they never married, Gordon and Harris provided their son with a normal upbringing and his parentage became public knowledge as social conventions changed. In 1932, the family was living discreetly in a small, elegant New York City brownstone.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon continued to act on the stage throughout the 1930s, including notable runs as Mattie in "Ethan Frome", Margery Pinchwife in William Wycherley's Restoration comedy "The Country Wife" at London's Old Vic and on Broadway, and Nora Helmer in Henrik Ibsen's "A Doll's House" at Central City, Colorado, and on Broadway.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon was signed to a Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film contract for a brief period in the early 1930s, but did not make a movie for the company until her supporting role in Greta Garbo's final film, "Two-Faced Woman" (1941). Gordon had better luck at other studios in Hollywood, appearing in supporting roles in a string of films, including "Abe Lincoln in Illinois" (as Mary Todd Lincoln), "Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet" (as Mrs. Ehrlich) and "Action in the North Atlantic", in the early 1940s. Gordon's Broadway acting appearances in the 1940s included Iris in Paul Vincent Carroll's "The Strings, My Lord, Are False", Natasha in Katharine Cornell and Guthrie McClintic's revival of Anton Chekhov's "Three Sisters", and leading roles in her own plays, "Over Twenty-One" and "The Leading Lady".


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon married her second husband, writer Garson Kanin, in 1942. Gordon and Kanin collaborated on the screenplays for the Katharine Hepburn – Spencer Tracy films "Adam's Rib" (1949) and "Pat and Mike" (1952). Both films were directed by George Cukor. They were close friends of Hepburn and Tracy, and incorporated elements of the actors' real personalities in the films. Gordon and Kanin received Academy Award nominations for both of those screenplays, as well as for that of a prior film, "A Double Life" (1947), which was also directed by Cukor.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: "The Actress" (1953) was Gordon's film adaptation of her own autobiographical play, "Years Ago", filmed by MGM with Jean Simmons portraying the girl from Quincy, Massachusetts, who convinced her sea captain father to let her go to New York to become an actress. Gordon would go on to write three volumes of memoirs in the 1970s: "My Side", "Myself Among Others", and "An Open Book".


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon continued her stage-acting career in the 1950s, and was nominated for a 1956 Tony, for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play, for her portrayal of Dolly Levi in Thornton Wilder's "The Matchmaker", a role she also played in London, Edinburgh, and Berlin.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In 1966, Gordon was nominated for an Academy Award and won a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress for "Inside Daisy Clover" opposite Natalie Wood. It was her first nomination for acting. Three years later, in 1969, she won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for "Rosemary's Baby", a film adaptation of Ira Levin's bestselling horror novel about a satanic cult residing in an Upper West Side apartment building in Manhattan. In accepting the award onstage, Gordon thanked the academy by saying, "I can't tell you how encouraging a thing like this is ..." (rousing laughter from the audience). At the time she had been in the business for 50 years and was 72 years old. "And thank all of you who voted for me, and to everyone who didn't: please, excuse me", she added, prompting more laughter and applause.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon won another Golden Globe for "Rosemary's Baby", and was nominated again, in 1971, for her role as Maude in "Harold and Maude" (with Bud Cort as her love interest).


title: Ruth Gordon

text: She went on to appear in 22 more films and at least that many television appearances through her 70s and 80s, including successful sitcoms such as "Rhoda" (as the mother of the unseen doorman Carlton, which earned her an Emmy nomination) and "Newhart". She portrayed a murderous author on the 1977 episode "Columbo: Try and Catch Me". She made countless talk-show appearances, in addition to hosting "Saturday Night Live" in 1977.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Gordon won an Emmy Award for a guest appearance on the sitcom "Taxi", for a 1979 episode called "Sugar Mama", in which her character tries to solicit the services of a taxi driver, played by series star Judd Hirsch, as a male escort.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: Her last Broadway appearance was as Mrs. Warren in George Bernard Shaw's "Mrs. Warren's Profession", produced by Joseph Papp at the Vivian Beaumont Theater in 1976. In the summer of 1976, Gordon starred in the leading role of her own play, "Ho! Ho! Ho!" at the Cape Playhouse in Dennis, Massachusetts. She had a minor role as Ma Boggs, the mother of Orville Boggs (Geoffrey Lewis), in the Clint Eastwood films "Every Which Way but Loose" and "Any Which Way You Can".


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In 1983, Gordon was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: "Harold and Maude", "Adam's Rib", and "Rosemary's Baby" have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the United States Library of Congress.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: On August 28, 1985, Gordon died at her summer home in Edgartown, Massachusetts, following a stroke at age 88. Her husband for 43 years, Garson Kanin, was at her side and said that even her last day of life was typically full, with walks, talks, errands, and a morning of work on a new play. She had made her last public appearance two weeks before, at a benefit showing of the film "Harold and Maude", and had recently finished acting in four films.


title: Ruth Gordon

text: In August 1979, a small movie theater in Westboro, Massachusetts, was named the Ruth Gordon Flick. She attended the opening ceremony, standing on a bench in the lobby so she could be seen. The theater no longer exists. In November 1984, the outdoor amphitheater in Merrymount Park in Quincy, Massachusetts, was named Ruth Gordon Amphitheater in her honor.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: The Younger Dryas impact hypothesis (YDIH) or Clovis comet hypothesis is a speculative attempt to explain the onset of the Younger Dryas (YD) as an alternative to the long standing and widely accepted cause due to a significant reduction or shutdown of the North Atlantic "Conveyor" in response to a sudden influx of fresh water from Lake Agassiz and deglaciation in North America. The YDIH posits that fragments of a large (more than 4 kilometers in diameter), disintegrating asteroid or comet struck North America, South America, Europe, and western Asia around 12,850 years ago, coinciding with the beginning of the Younger Dryas cooling event. Multiple meteor air bursts and/or impacts are said to have produced the Younger Dryas boundary layer (YDB), depositing peak concentrations of platinum, high-temperature spherules, meltglass, and nanodiamonds, forming an isochronous datum at more than 50 sites across about 50 million km of Earth's surface. Some scientists have proposed that this event triggered extensive biomass burning, a brief impact winter and the Younger Dryas abrupt climate change, contributed to extinctions of late Pleistocene megafauna, and resulted in the end of the Clovis culture. A group known as the Comet Research Group are the primary advocates for the impact hypothesis, though other groups have published supporting evidence. The YDIH remains a minority and disputed view and has failed to gain acceptance by the mainstream planetary impact and paleoclimate communities.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: A number of theories have been put forward about the cause of the Younger Dryas climate event. The most widely accepted is that it began because of a significant reduction or shutdown of the North Atlantic "Conveyor" – which circulates warm tropical waters northward – as the consequence of deglaciation in North America. Geological evidence for such an event is not fully secure, but recent work has identified a pathway along the Mackenzie River that would have spilled fresh water from Lake Agassiz into the Arctic and thence into the Atlantic. The global climate would then have become locked into the new state until freezing removed the fresh water "lid" from the North Atlantic.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: An alternative theory suggests instead that the jet stream shifted northward in response to the melting of the North American ice sheet, which brought more rain to the North Atlantic, which freshened the ocean surface enough to slow the thermohaline circulation. Another proposed cause has been volcanic activity. However, this has been challenged recently due to improved dating of the most likely suspect, the Laacher See volcano. In 2021, research by Frederick Reinig et al. precisely dated the eruption to 200 ± 21 years before the onset of the Younger Dryas, therefore ruling it out as a culprit. The same study also concluded that the onset took place synchronously over the entire North Atlantic and Central European region. A press release from the University of Mainz stated, "Due to the new dating, the European archives now have to be temporally adapted. At the same time, a previously existing temporal difference to the data from the Greenland ice cores was closed."


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In contrast, proponents of the impact hypothesis posit that fragments of a large disintegrating asteroid or comet struck the earth around 12,850 years ago, causing the Younger Dryas cooling event. They also hypothesize that the impact event triggered extensive biomass burning, a brief impact winter, and an abrupt climate change which, they contend, directly brought about the extinction of many species of North American Pleistocene megafauna including camels, mammoths, and the giant short-faced bear. They also say the event contributed to the transition from Clovis culture to subsequent traditions.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Proponents have offered what they say is evidence for the impact event that includes microscopic structures (spherules), "black mats" of sediment they contend are evidence of widespread fires, their proposed dates for the Hiawatha crater in Greenland in the range of 12,800 years ago (though later dates indicated an event from 55 million years ago), and the synchronous extinction of megafauna and associated impacts on prehistoric human societies. Proponents of the hypothesis say that these data cannot be adequately explained by volcanic, anthropogenic, or other natural processes. They argue that the Younger Dryas boundary layer should be used as a local, or even global stratigraphic marker.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Proponents, most of whom are scientists, have reported materials including nanodiamonds, metallic microspherules, carbon spherules, magnetic spherules, iridium, platinum, platinum/palladium ratios, charcoal, soot, and fullerenes enriched with helium-3 that they interpret as evidence for an impact event that marks the beginning of the Younger Dryas. One of the most widely publicized discoveries (nanodiamonds in Greenland) has never been verified and is disputed.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Some scientists have asserted that the carbon spherules originated as fungal structures and/or insect fecal pellets, and contained modern contaminants and that the claimed nanodiamonds are actually misidentified graphene and graphene/graphane oxide aggregates. Iridium, magnetic minerals, microspherules, carbon, and nanodiamonds are all subject to differing interpretations as to their nature and origin, and may be explained in many cases by purely terrestrial or non-catastrophic factors. An analysis of a similar Younger Dryas boundary layer in Belgium yielded carbon crystalline structures such as nanodiamonds, but the authors concluded that they also did not show unique evidence for a bolide impact. One group of researchers also reported they were unable to replicate platinum group metals in the boundary layer, despite reporting enhanced Iridium concentrations up to >300% of background in 2 of their samples. Another group was unable to confirm prior claims of magnetic particles and microspherules in 2009, though all subsequent studies successfully replicated them, including multiple independent teams.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: The evidence given by proponents of a bolide or meteorite impact event includes "black mats", or strata of organic-rich soil that have been identified at about 50 archaeological sites across North America. Using statistical analysis and modeling, James P. Kennett and others concluded that widely separated organic-rich layers, including "black mats", were deposited synchronously across multiple continents as an identifiable "Younger Dryas boundary layer". In 2019, Jorgeson and others tested this conclusion with the simulation of radiocarbon ages. They accounted for measurement error, calibration uncertainty, "old wood" effects, and laboratory measurement biases, and compared against the dataset of radiocarbon ages for the Laacher See eruption. They found the Laacher See 14C dataset to be consistent with expectations of synchroneity. They found the Younger Dryas boundary layer 14C dataset to be inconsistent with the expectations for its synchroneity, and the synchronous global deposition of the hypothesized Younger Dryas boundary layer to be extremely unlikely.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Marlon et al. suggest that wildfires were a consequence of rapid climate change. Radiocarbon dating, microscopy of paleobotanical samples, and analytical pyrolysis of fluvial sediments in Arlington Canyon on Santa Rosa Island by another group found no evidence of lonsdaleite or impact-induced fires. Research published in 2012 has shown that the so-called "black mats" are easily explained by typical earth processes in wetland environments. The study of black mats, that are common in prehistorical wetland deposits which represent shallow marshlands, that were from 6000 to 40,000 years ago in the southwestern USA and Atacama Desert in Chile, showed elevated concentrations of iridium and magnetic sediments, magnetic spherules and titanomagnetite grains. It was suggested that because these markers are found within or at the base of black mats, irrespective of age or location, they probably arise from processes common to wetland systems and not as a result of catastrophic bolide impacts.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Researchers have also criticized the conclusions of various studies for incorrect age-dating of the sediments, contamination by modern carbon, inconsistent hypothesis that made it difficult to predict the type and size of bolide, lack of proper identification of lonsdaleite, confusing an extraterrestrial impact with other causes such as fire, and for inconsistent use of the carbon spherule "proxy". Naturally occurring lonsdaleite has also been identified in non-bolide diamond placer deposits in the Sakha Republic.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: A 2018 paper presented evidence for a possible impact crater of unknown age (then thought to be some point during the Pleistocene) under the Hiawatha Glacier in Greenland. Kurt Kjær, the lead author of the paper, mentioned that in early drafts, a possible connection between the Hiawatha impact and the Younger Dryas had been explicitly called out by the team. Other scientists also speculated about such a link in news reports. Skeptics rejected this connection because it would have required an improbably recent impact—an impact of this size should occur only once every few million years—and it would have left evidence such as a young ejecta blanket.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Christian Koeberl, an impact crater expert from the University of Vienna, disagreed entirely with the assessment of the site. He was quoted in "Popular Science" saying: "[Kjær et al.] report on some interesting phenomena, but the 'definitive' interpretation and conclusion that a large impact crater underneath the ice has been discovered is a severe over-interpretation of the existing data." In 2021, Elizabeth Silber et al. modeled the proposed impact and found that it was consistent with the present morphology of the structure. In an interview with Global News, Silber joined others in suggesting that the impact could have occurred as recently as the onset of the Younger Dryas.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2022, Argon–argon dating combined with uranium–lead dating of shocked zircon crystals found in impact melt rocks in outwash downstream of the glacier pushed the estimate back to around 58 million years ago, during the late Paleocene.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: There is evidence that the megafaunal extinctions that occurred across northern Eurasia, North America, and South America at the end of the Pleistocene were not synchronous. The extinctions in South America appear to have occurred at least 400 years after the extinctions in North America. The extinction of woolly mammoths in Siberia also appears to have occurred later than in North America. A greater disparity in extinction timings is apparent in island megafaunal extinctions that lagged nearby continental extinctions by thousands of years; examples include the survival of woolly mammoths on Wrangel Island, Russia, until 3700 BP, and the survival of ground sloths in the Antilles, the Caribbean, until 4700 cal BP. The Australian megafaunal extinctions occurred approximately 30,000 years earlier than the hypothetical Younger Dryas event.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: The megafaunal extinction pattern observed in North America poses a problem for the bolide impact scenario since it raises the question of why large mammals should be preferentially exterminated over small mammals or other vertebrates. Additionally, some extant megafaunal species such as bison and brown bear seem to have been little affected by the extinction event, while the environmental devastation caused by a bolide impact would not be expected to discriminate. Also, it appears that there was a collapse in North American megafaunal population from 14,800 to 13,700 BP, well before the date of the hypothetical extraterrestrial impact, possibly from anthropogenic activities, including hunting.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: A group in the Netherlands examined carbon-14 dates for charcoal particles that showed wildfires occurred well after the proposed impact date, and the glass-like carbon was produced by wildfires and no lonsdaleite was found. Research at the Atacama Desert in Chile showed that silicate surface glasses were formed during at least two distinct periods at the end of the Pleistocene, separated by several hundred years.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: A study of Paleoindian demography found no evidence of a population decline among the Paleoindians at 12,900 ± 100 BP, which was inconsistent with predictions of an impact event. They suggested that the hypothesis would probably need to be revised. A critique of the Buchanan paper concluded that these results were an insensitive, low-fidelity population proxy incapable of detecting demographic change. The authors of a subsequent paper described three approaches to population dynamics in the Younger Dryas in North America, and concluded that there had been a significant decline and/or reorganisation in human population early in this period. The same paper also shows an apparent resurgence in population and/or settlements in the later Younger Dryas. A 2022 study by an independent group presents genomic evidence that a previously unidentified pre-18,000 BP South American population suffered a major disruption at the Younger Dryas onset, resulting in a significant loss of lineages and a Y chromosome bottleneck.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2006, "The Cycle of Cosmic Catastrophes: How a Stone-Age Comet Changed the Course of World Culture", a trade book by Richard Firestone, Allen West and Simon Warwick-Smith, was published by Inner Traditions – Bear & Company and marketed in the category of Earth Changes. It proposed that a large meteor air burst or impact of one or more comets initiated the Younger Dryas cold period about 12,900 BP calibrated (10,900 C uncalibrated) years ago.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In May 2007, at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in Acapulco, Firestone, West, and around twenty other scientists made their first formal presentation of the hypothesis. Later that year, the group published a paper in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" (PNAS) that suggested the impact event may have led to an immediate decline in human populations in North America.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2008, C. Vance Haynes Jr. published data to support the synchronous nature of the black mats, emphasizing that independent analysis of other Clovis sites was required to support the hypothesis. He was skeptical of the bolide impact as the cause of the Younger Dryas and associated megafauna extinction but concluded "... something major happened at 10,900 YBP (C uncalibrated) that we have yet to understand." The first debate between proponents and skeptics was held at the 2008 Pecos Conference in Flagstaff, Arizona.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2009, a paper in the journal "Science" asserted that nanodiamonds were evidence for a swarm of carbonaceous chondrites or comet fragments from air burst(s) or impact(s) that set parts of North America on fire, caused the extinction of most of the megafauna in North America, and led to the demise of the Clovis culture. A special debate-style session was convened at the 2009 AGU Fall Meeting in which skeptics and supporters alternated in giving presentations.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2010, astronomer William Napier published a model suggesting that fragments of a comet—initially 50 to 100 kilometers in diameter—could have been responsible for such an impact, and that the Taurid complex is formed of the remaining debris. Napier refined this model and published further research in 2019. An independent study carried out in 2021 by Ignacio Ferrín and Vincenzo Orofino added support for these ideas.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2011, a group of scientists challenged the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis on the basis that most of the conclusions could not be reproduced and were a misinterpretation of data. Skepticism increased when it was reported that one of the lead authors of the original paper had practiced geophysics without a license. Around that time, other articles stated that no nanodiamonds were found and that the supposed carbon spherules could be fungus or insect feces and included modern contaminants. In response, in June 2013 some of the original proponents published a re-evaluation of spherules from eighteen sites worldwide that they interpret as supporting their hypothesis.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2012, another paper in "" offered evidence of impact glass that resulted from the impact of a meteorite. Another group of scientists reported evidence supporting a modified version of the hypothesis—involving a fragmented comet or asteroid—was found in lake bed cores dating to 12,900 YBP from Lake Cuitzeo in Guanajuato, Mexico. It included nanodiamonds (including the hexagonal form called lonsdaleite), carbon spherules, and magnetic spherules. Multiple hypotheses were examined to account for these observations, though none were believed to be terrestrial. Lonsdaleite occurs naturally in asteroids and cosmic dust and as a result of extraterrestrial impacts on Earth. Lonsdaleite has also been made artificially in laboratories.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2013, scientists reported a hundredfold spike in the concentration of platinum in Greenland ice cores that are dated to 12,890 YBP with 5 year accuracy. They attribute this platinum anomaly to the likely impact of a large (~0.8 km) iron-rich meteorite locally onto Greenland's ice, which would have been "unlikely to result in an airburst or trigger wide wildfires proposed by the impact hypothesis." But they write that the large Pt anomaly "hints for an extraterrestrial source of Pt". An alternative suggestion is that the Greenland Pt anomaly was caused by a small local iron meteorite fall without any widespread consequences, but this is disputed by the paper's authors who say that a global platinum anomaly is expected due to the ~ 20 year lifetime of the platinum signal.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2016, a report on further analysis of Younger Dryas boundary sediments at nine sites found no evidence of an extraterrestrial impact at the Younger Dryas boundary. Also that year, an analysis of nanodiamond evidence failed to uncover lonsdaleite or a spike in nanodiamond concentration at the .


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2017, scientists reported a Pt anomaly at eleven continental sites dated to the Younger Dryas, which is linked with the Greenland Platinum anomaly.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2018, two papers were published dealing with an "extraordinary biomass-burning episode" associated with the Younger Dryas Impact. The claims of extraordinary fires are disputed.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2019, scientists reported evidence in sediment layers with charcoal and pollen assemblages both indicating major disturbances at Pilauco Bajo, Chile in sediments dated to 12,800 BP. This included rare metallic spherules, melt glass and nanodiamonds thought to have been produced during airbursts or impacts. Pilauco Bajo is the southernmost site where evidence of the Younger Dryas impacts has been reported. This has been interpreted as evidence that a strewn field from the Younger Dryas impact event may have affected at least 30% of Earth's radius. Also in 2019, analysis of age-dated sediments from a long-lived pond in South Carolina showed not just an overabundance of platinum but a platinum/palladium ratio inconsistent with a terrestrial origin, as well as an overabundance of soot and a decrease in fungal spores associated with the dung of large herbivores, suggesting large-scale regional wildfires and at least a local decrease in ice age megafauna.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2019, a South African team consisting of Francis Thackeray, Louis Scott and Philip Pieterse announced the discovery of a platinum (Pt) spike in peat deposits at Wonderkrater, an artesian spring site in South Africa in the Limpopo Province, near the town of Mookgophong (formerly Naboomspruit) situated between Pretoria and Polokwane. The spike in platinum was documented in a sample dated at 12,744 years BP (calibrated) preceding a decline in a paleo-temperature index based on multivariate analysis of pollen spectra. This drop in temperature is associated with the Younger Dryas. The Wonderkrater platinum spike is in marked contrast to the almost constant low Pt concentrations in adjacent levels. It is consistent with the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis and is the first of its kind in Africa, supplementing evidence for platinum anomalies at more than 25 other sites in the world.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Thackeray and his colleagues recognise that Terminal Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions in southern Africa (Antidorcas bondi, Megalotragus priscus, Syncerus antiquus, and Equus capensis) may be attributed to both environmental change and human predation within a period of time before and after 12,800 cal yr BP. However, on the basis of data presented in their study, they state that the consequences of a hypothesised cosmic impact (including the dispersal of atmospheric dust) may have contributed to some extent to the process of extinctions not only in southern Africa, but also to that which occurred in North and South America as well as Europe, recognising synchroneity of Pt anomalies that has been cited in support the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis. It is noted that in parts of South Africa, the Robberg stone tool technology terminates at about 12,800 cal yr BP, co-terminus with the termination of the Clovis technocomplex in North America, but further work is required to assess this coincidence.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2019 research at White Pond near Elgin, South Carolina, conducted by Christopher Moore from the University of South Carolina and 16 colleagues, used a core to extract sediment samples from underneath the pond. The samples, dated by radiocarbon to the beginning of the Younger Dryas, were found to contain a large platinum anomaly, consistent with findings from other sites, A large soot anomaly was also found in cores from the site.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2022, a paper by Younger Dryas impact proponent James L. Powell investigated what he described as the "premature rejection" of the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis, saying that substantial evidence existed. In the review, Powell describes how, soon after the hypothesis was first published, a few scientists reported that they were unable to replicate the critical evidence and the scientific community at large came to reject the hypothesis. Powell argues that since then, many independent studies have reproduced that evidence at dozens of YD sites.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: The impact hypothesis has been the subject of documentaries, including "Mammoth Mystery" on National Geographic Explorer (2007), "Journey to 10,000 BC" on the History Channel (2008), "Survival Earth" on Channel 4 (2008), and "Megabeasts' Sudden Death" on PBS Nova (2009).


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: Graham Hancock's 2015 book "Magicians of the Gods" argued that the Younger Dryas comet destroys the earth in a time cycle and that it was responsible for the Noahide flood myth, then universalizes the myth by comparing it with that of other peoples. These claims were criticized for their inaccuracy by various independent reviewers, including Jason Colavito, Michael Shermer, and Marc J. Defant. Hancock expanded upon his claims in his subsequent book, "America Before: The Key to Earth's Lost Civilization" (2019), in which he claimed that the Younger Dryas catastrophe had wiped out all traces of a sophisticated Ice Age civilization in North America.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: In 2017, a debate was held on the Joe Rogan Experience between proponents Graham Hancock, Randall Carlson, and Malcolm A LeCompte and opponents Michael Shermer and Marc J. Defant. The week that the podcast was released, the network was reportedly averaging over 120 million downloads a month.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: A 2021 episode of the Science Channel series "Ancient Unexplained Files" had a segment on the evidence from Abu Hureyra; geoscientist Sian Proctor also described the impact hypothesis as a whole.


title: Younger Dryas impact hypothesis

text: An extensive series of articles was published in "Mammoth Trumpet", the magazine for Texas A&M University's Center for the Study of the First Americans, featuring conversations with many proponents and opponents:


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Hypericum perforatum, known as St. John's wort, is a flowering plant in the family Hypericaceae and the type species of the genus "Hypericum".


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Possibly a hybrid between "H. maculatum" and "H. attenuatum", the species can be found across temperate areas of Eurasia and has been introduced as an invasive weed to much of North and South America, as well as South Africa and Australia. While the species is harmful to livestock and can interfere with prescription drugs, it has been used in folk medicine over centuries, and remains commercially cultivated in the 21st century. Hyperforin, a phytochemical constituent of the species, is under basic research for possible therapeutic properties.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: "Hypericum perforatum" is an herbaceous perennial plant with extensive, creeping rhizomes. Its reddish stems are erect and branched in the upper section, and can grow up to high. The stems are woody near their base and may appear jointed from leaf scars. The branches are typically clustered about a depressed base. It has opposite and stalkless leaves that are narrow and oblong in shape and long. Leaves borne on the branches subtend the shortened branchlets. The leaves are yellow-green in color, with scattered translucent dots of glandular tissue. The dots are conspicuous when held up to the light, giving the leaves a perforated appearance. The flowers measure up to across, have five petals and sepals, and are colored bright yellow with conspicuous black dots. The flowers appear in broad helicoid cymes at the ends of the upper branches, between late spring and early to mid-summer. The cymes are leafy and bear many flowers. The pointed sepals have black glandular dots. The many stamens are united at the base into three bundles. The pollen grains are ellipsoidal. The black and lustrous seeds are rough, netted with coarse grooves.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: When flower buds (not the flowers themselves) or seed pods are crushed, a reddish or purple liquid is produced.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The naphthodianthrones hypericin and pseudohypericin along with the phloroglucinol derivative hyperforin are thought to be among the numerous active constituents. It also contains essential oils composed mainly of sesquiterpenes.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Hypericin, pseudohypericin, and hyperforin may be quantitated in plasma as confirmation of usage and to estimate the dosage. These three active substituents have plasma elimination half-lives within a range of 15–60 hours in humans. None of the three has been detected in urine specimens.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: It is probable that "H. perforatum" originated as a hybrid between two closely related species with subsequent doubling of chromosomes. One species is certainly a diploid a subspecies of "H. maculatum", either subspecies "maculatum" or "immaculatum". Subspecies "maculatum" is similar in distribution and hybridizes easily with "H. perforatum", but subspecies "immaculatum" is more similar morphologically. The other parent is most likely "H. attenuatum" as it possesses the features of "H. perforatum" that "H. maculatum" lacks. Though "H. maculatum" is mostly western in its distribution across Eurasia and "Hypericum attenuatum" is mostly eastern, both species share distribution in Siberia, where hybridization likely took place. However, the subspecies "immaculatum" now only occurs in south-east Europe.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The specific epithet "perforatum" is Latin, referring to the perforated appearance of the plant's leaves.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The common name "St John's wort" may refer to any species of the genus "Hypericum". Therefore, "Hypericum perforatum" is sometimes called "common St John's wort" or "perforate St John's wort" to differentiate it.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort is named as such because it commonly flowers, blossoms and is harvested at the time of the summer solstice in late June, around St John's Feast Day on 24 June. The herb would be hung on house and stall doors on St John's Feast day to ward off evil spirits and to safeguard against harm and sickness to people and live-stock.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The genus name "Hypericum" is possibly derived from the Greek words "hyper" (above) and "eikon" (picture), in reference to the tradition of hanging plants over religious icons in the home during St John's Day.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: "H. perforatum" is native to temperate parts of Europe and Asia, but has spread to temperate regions worldwide as a cosmopolitan invasive weed. It was introduced to North America from Europe. The species thrives in areas with either a winter- or summer-dominant rainfall pattern; however, distribution is restricted by temperatures too low for seed germination or seedling survival. Altitudes greater than , rainfall less than , and daily mean temperatures greater than are considered limiting thresholds.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort reproduces both vegetatively and sexually. Depending on environmental and climatic conditions, and rosette age, St John's wort will alter growth form and habit to promote survival. Summer rains are particularly effective in allowing the plant to grow vegetatively, following defoliation by insects or grazing. The seeds can persist for decades in the soil seed bank, germinating following disturbance.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: "H. perforatum" is affected by phytoplasma diseases, and when infected with "Candidatus" phytoplasma fraxini it undergoes several phytochemical changes and shows visible symptoms, including yellowing and witches' bloom symptoms. Naphthodianthrone, flavonoid, amentoflavone, and pseudohypericin levels are reduced; chlorogenic acid levels increased. Additionally, phytoplasma diseases greatly reduced the essential oil yield of the plant.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Although "H. perforatum" is grown commercially in some regions of southeast Europe, it is listed as a noxious weed in more than twenty countries and has introduced populations in South and North America, India, New Zealand, Australia, and South Africa. In pastures, St John's wort acts as both a toxic and invasive weed. It replaces native plant communities and forage vegetation to the extent of making productive land nonviable or becoming an invasive species in natural habitats and ecosystems. Ingestion by livestock such as horses, sheep, and cattle can cause photosensitization, central nervous system depression, spontaneous abortion, or death. Effective herbicides for control of "Hypericum perforatum" include 2,4-D, picloram, and glyphosate. In western North America the beetles "Chrysolina quadrigemina", "C. hyperici", and "Agrilus hyperici" have been introduced as biocontrol agents.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: In large doses, St John's wort is poisonous to grazing livestock. Behavioral signs of poisoning are general restlessness and skin irritation. Restlessness is often indicated by pawing of the ground, headshaking, head rubbing, and occasional hindlimb weakness with knuckling over, panting, confusion, and depression. Mania and hyperactivity may also result, including running in circles until exhausted. Observations of thick wort infestations by Australian grazers include the appearance of circular patches giving hillsides a "crop circle" appearance, it is presumed, from this phenomenon. Animals typically seek shade and have reduced appetites. Hypersensitivity to water has been noted, and convulsions may occur following a knock to the head. Although general aversion to water is noted, some may seek water for relief.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Severe skin irritation is physically apparent, with reddening of non-pigmented and unprotected areas. This subsequently leads to itch and rubbing, followed by further inflammation, exudation, and scab formation. Lesions and inflammation that occur are said to resemble the conditions seen in foot and mouth disease. Sheep have been observed to have face swelling, dermatitis, and wool falling off due to rubbing. Lactating animals may cease or have reduced milk production; pregnant animals may abort. Lesions on udders are often apparent. Horses may show signs of anorexia, depression (with a comatose state), dilated pupils, and injected conjunctiva.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Increased respiration and heart rate is typically observed while one of the early signs of St John's wort poisoning is an abnormal increase in body temperature. Affected animals will lose weight, or fail to gain weight; young animals are more affected than old animals. In severe cases death may occur, as a direct result of starvation, or because of secondary disease or septicaemia of lesions. Some affected animals may accidentally drown. Poor performance of suckling lambs (pigmented and non-pigmented) has been noted, suggesting a reduction in milk production, or the transmission of a toxin in the milk. It may result in an undesirable flavor.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort may cause allergic reactions and can interact with some prescription drugs. St John's wort is generally well-tolerated, but it may cause gastrointestinal discomfort (such as nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and diarrhea), dizziness, confusion, fatigue, sedation, dry mouth, restlessness, headache and hypertension.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The organ systems associated with adverse drug reactions to St John's wort and fluoxetine have a similar incidence profile; most of these reactions involve the central nervous system. St John's wort also decreases levels of estrogens, such as estradiol, by accelerating its metabolism, and women on contraceptive pills are not advised to take it. St. John's wort should not be taken by women during pregnancy or breast-feeding.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Common St John's wort has been used in herbalism for centuries. It was thought to have medical properties in classical antiquity and was a standard component of theriacs, from the Mithridate of Aulus Cornelius Celsus' "De Medicina" ( CE) to the Venice treacle of "d'Amsterdammer Apotheek" in 1686. Folk usages included oily extract (St John's oil) and "Hypericum" snaps. "Hypericum perforatum" is a common species and is grown commercially for use in herbalism and traditional medicine.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: The red, oily extract of "H. perforatum" has been used in the treatment of wounds, including by the Knights Hospitaller, the Order of St John. Both hypericin and hyperforin are under study for their potential antibiotic properties.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: A 2015 meta-analysis review concluded that it has superior efficacy to placebo in treating depression, is as effective as standard antidepressant pharmaceuticals for treating depression, and has fewer adverse effects than other antidepressants. The authors concluded that it is difficult to assign a place for St. John's wort in the treatment of depression owing to limitations in the available evidence base, including large variations in efficacy seen in trials performed in German-speaking countries relative to other countries. In Germany, St. John's wort may be prescribed for mild to moderate depression, especially in children and adolescents. A 2008 Cochrane review of 29 clinical trials concluded that it was superior to placebo in patients with major depression, as effective as standard antidepressants and had fewer side-effects. A 2016 review noted that use of St. John's wort for mild and moderate depression was better than placebo for improving depression symptoms, and comparable to antidepressant medication. A 2017 meta-analysis found that St. John's wort had comparable efficacy and safety to SSRIs for mild-to-moderate depression and a lower discontinuation rate.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: While some studies and research reviews have supported the efficacy of St John's wort as a treatment for depression in humans, in the United States, it is not recommended as a replacement for more studied treatments, and it is advised that symptoms of depression warrant proper medical consultation.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: In the United States, St John's wort is considered a dietary supplement by the FDA, and is not regulated by the same standards as a prescription drug. According to the United States National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, St. John's wort appears to be more effective than placebo and as effective as standard antidepressant medications for mild and moderate depression, and that it is uncertain whether this is true for severe depression or for longer than 12 weeks. Supplement strength varies by manufacturer and possibly by batch. With antidepressants, one "may have to try a few before finding what works best," notes the United States National Library of Medicine.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: In China, St. John's wort combined with "Eleutherococcus senticosus" is sold as an antidepressant under the name "Shugan Jieyu Jiaonang" (), according to the "Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China". The pharmacopoeia states in Chinese that it is used "for mild and moderate unipolar depression".


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort, similarly to other herbs, contains different phytochemical constituents. Although St. John's wort is sold as a dietary supplement, there are no standardized manufacturing procedures, and some marketed products may be contaminated with metals, fillers or other impurities.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: Besides its allergenic effects, St John's wort can interfere (in potentially life-endangering ways) with the effects of many prescription drugs, including the anti-psychotics risperidone and 9-hydroxyrisperidone (i.e. paliperidone, Xeplion or Invega), cyclosporine, digoxin, HIV drugs, cancer medications including irinotecan, and warfarin. Combining both St John's wort and antidepressants could lead to increased serotonin levels causing serotonin syndrome. It should not be taken with the heart medication ranolazine. Combining estrogen-containing oral contraceptives with St John's wort can lead to decreased efficacy of the contraceptive and, potentially, unplanned pregnancies. Consumption of St John's wort is discouraged for those with bipolar disorder, schizophrenia or dementia, and for people using dietary supplements, headache medicine, anticoagulants, and birth control pills.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort has been shown to cause multiple drug interactions through induction of the cytochrome P450 enzymes CYP3A4 and CYP1A2. This drug-metabolizing enzyme induction results in the increased metabolism of certain drugs, leading to decreased plasma concentration and potential clinical effect. The principal constituents thought to be responsible are hyperforin and amentoflavone. There is strong evidence that the mechanism of action of these interactions is activation of the pregnane X receptor.


title: Hypericum perforatum

text: St John's wort has also been shown to cause drug interactions through the induction of the P-glycoprotein efflux transporter. Increased P-glycoprotein expression results in decreased absorption and increased clearance of certain drugs, leading to lower plasma concentrations and impaired clinical efficacy.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Jannik Sinner (; ; born 16 August 2001) is an Italian professional tennis player. He has been ranked as high as world No. 9 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), achieved on 1 November 2021, and world No. 124 in doubles, achieved on 27 September 2021. Sinner has won six ATP titles in singles and one in doubles, and became the youngest ATP title-holder since 2008 by winning the 2020 Sofia Open and the youngest to have five titles since Novak Djokovic in 2007. He became the first teenage ATP 500 champion by winning the 2021 Citi Open.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner grew up in northern Italy in the region of South Tyrol. He was active in skiing, football, and tennis as a child. After winning a national championship in skiing at age eight, Sinner switched his focus to tennis at age thirteen and moved to the Italian Riviera to train with veteran coach Riccardo Piatti. Despite limited success as a junior, Sinner began playing in professional events at age 16 and became one of the few players to win multiple ATP Challenger Tour titles at age 17. He won the ATP Newcomer of the Year award in 2019 after breaking through into the top 100, reaching his first ATP semifinal, and winning the Next Generation ATP Finals in Milan.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner continued his rise into the top 50 in 2020 with his first top 10 victories, a French Open quarterfinal (becoming the youngest quarterfinalist in men's singles since Novak Djokovic in 2006), and a maiden ATP title. He had a strong start to 2021, highlighted by his second ATP title in a row and a Masters 1000 runner-up at the Miami Open. On 1 November 2021, he became the first player born in the 2000s to enter the ATP top 10.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner has an excellent two-handed backhand and has led the ATP Tour in the amount of topspin on the shot.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Jannik Sinner was born 16 August 2001 to Johann and Siglinde Sinner in Innichen in the predominantly German-speaking region of South Tyrol in northern Italy. He grew up in the town of Sexten, where his father and mother work as a chef and a waitress at a ski lodge. He has a brother named Marc. Sinner began both skiing and playing tennis at age three. He was one of Italy's top junior skiers from eight to twelve years old, winning a national championship in giant slalom at age eight and earning a national runner-up at the age of twelve.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: While training in skiing, Sinner gave up tennis for a year at the age of seven before his father pushed him to return to the sport. When he resumed playing, he began working with Heribert Mayr as his first regular coach. Nonetheless, tennis was still only his third priority behind skiing and football.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the age of thirteen, Sinner decided to give up skiing and football in favour of tennis. He preferred it over skiing because he wanted to compete directly against an opponent and to have more margin of error over the course of an entire match. He also wanted to be in an individual sport where he could make all of the decisions, an opportunity he would not have in a team sport like football. He decided to move on his own to Bordighera on the Italian Riviera to train at the Piatti Tennis Centre under Riccardo Piatti and Massimo Sartori, a decision which his parents supported. At the centre, Sinner lived with the family of Luka Cvjetković, one of his coaches. Before Sinner began training in tennis full-time with Piatti, he had been playing only twice a week.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner began playing on the ITF Junior Circuit, the premier junior tour which is run by the International Tennis Federation (ITF), in 2016. Despite having limited success as a junior, he moved mainly to the professional tour following the end of 2017. He never played the main draw of any high-level Grade 1 events in singles, and the only higher-level Grade A tournament he entered was the Trofeo Bonfiglio. He followed up an opening round loss at Italy's Grade A tournament in 2017 with a quarterfinal in 2018. That was the only junior event he played in 2018. He never played any of the junior Grand Slam tournaments. Because he entered so few high-level tournaments, Sinner's career-high junior ranking was a relatively low No. 133.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner wasn't too focused on the junior circuit, and he began playing on the ITF Men's Circuit in early 2018. With his low ranking, he could initially be directly accepted into only ITF Futures events. Nonetheless, he began receiving wild cards for ATP Challenger Tour events, the second tier tour run by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), in the second half of the year. His only ITF title of the year was in doubles, and he finished the season ranked No. 551.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner won his first ATP Challenger title in Bergamo in February 2019 at the age of 17 years and 6 months, despite entering the tournament with no match wins at the Challenger level. He became the first person born in 2001 to reach a Challenger final, and the youngest Italian to win a Challenger title in history. With the title, he rose over 200 spots in ATP rankings up to No. 324. After his first two ITF Futures titles, Sinner entered his first ATP tournament at the Hungarian Open as a lucky loser, where he notched his first tour-level win over home wild card Máté Valkusz. The next week, he reached his second ATP Challenger final in Ostrava, finishing runner-up to Kamil Majchrzak.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: During the second half of the season, Sinner played more often on the ATP Tour than the Challenger Tour. His first ATP Masters victory came at the Italian Open against Steve Johnson, and he broke into the top 200 with his next ATP win at the Croatia Open Umag in July. The next month, he won a second ATP Challenger title in Lexington to become one of just eleven 17-year-olds to have won multiple Challenger titles. After losing in qualifying at Wimbledon, Sinner qualified for his first Grand Slam main draw at the US Open. He lost his debut match to No. 24 Stan Wawrinka.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner had a strong finish to the season. As a wild card at the European Open, he became the youngest player in five years to reach an ATP semifinal. Along the way, he knocked off top seed and world No. 13 Gael Monfils for his first career top 50 victory. This performance helped him break into the top 100 for the first time one week later. At the end of the season, Sinner qualified for the 2019 Next Gen ATP Finals as the Italian wild card and the lowest seed. He won in his round robin group with victories over Frances Tiafoe and Mikael Ymer, losing only to Ugo Humbert. After defeating Miomir Kecmanović in the semifinals, Sinner upset top seed and world No. 18 Alex de Minaur in straight sets to win the title. He played one last event in Italy the following week, winning a third Challenger title in Ortisei. Sinner finished the year at world No. 78, becoming the youngest player in the year-end top 80 since Rafael Nadal in 2003. He was also named ATP Newcomer of the Year.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Early in the year, Sinner made the second round of the 2020 Australian Open, recording his first Grand Slam main draw match win over home wild card Max Purcell before losing to Márton Fucsovics. As a wild card at the Rotterdam Open, he earned his first top 10 victory against world No. 10 David Goffin.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Following the ATP Tour shutdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Sinner had a successful restart to the season. Although he lost his opening round match to Karen Khachanov at the US Open, he fared better in Europe. He reached the third round at the Rome Masters, highlighted by a victory over world No. 6 Stefanos Tsitsipas. He then progressed to become the youngest quarterfinalist at the French Open since Novak Djokovic in 2006, and the first to make the quarterfinals on debut since Rafael Nadal in 2005. During the tournament, he defeated Goffin again as well as US Open runner-up and world No. 7 Alexander Zverev before losing to Nadal. After a semifinal at the Cologne Championship where he lost to Zverev,


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner closed out the season by winning the Sofia Open for his first ATP title. During the event, he defeated Next Gen rival Alex de Minaur and then Vasek Pospisil in the final. He became the youngest Italian tour-level champion in the Open Era and the youngest player overall to win an ATP title since Kei Nishikori in 2008.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner carried over his success from late 2020 into the start of the 2021 season. He won his second career ATP title at the Great Ocean Road Open, and notably defeated No. 20 Karen Khachanov in the semifinals after saving a match point. He became the youngest to win back-to-back ATP titles since Rafael Nadal in 2005. His ten-match winning streak came to an end in the first round of the 2021 Australian Open, where he lost a tight five-set match to world No. 12 Denis Shapovalov. Sinner's next big result was at the Miami Open, where he reached his first ATP Masters 1000 final. During the tournament, he defeated Khachanov again and later world No. 12 Roberto Bautista Agut in the semifinal. He finished runner-up to Hubert Hurkacz.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Then at the French Open, his campaign was stopped short for the second year running by Rafael Nadal who this time defeated Sinner in straight sets in the fourth round. In his main draw debut at Wimbledon, he lost in the first round to Márton Fucsovics.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Partnering Reilly Opelka he won his first doubles title at the 2021 Atlanta Open, defeating Steve Johnson and Jordan Thompson. At the same tournament in singles he fell in the second round to Christopher O'Connell.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the 2021 Citi Open in Washington, D.C., Sinner went into the tournament as the 5th seed and made it to the finals and beat several young players along the way such as Emil Ruusuvuori, Sebastian Korda, and Jenson Brooksby. He beat Mackenzie McDonald in the final to win his third title and first ATP 500 title. Sinner was the first Italian finalist and champion in Washington’s tournament history as well as the youngest ATP 500 and first teen champion since the category was created in 2009. As a result he entered the top 15 in the ATP rankings on 9 August 2021.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the US Open, he defeated Gaël Monfils in the third round to reach the second week of a Major for the second time in the season. Sinner's tournament ended when he lost to Alexander Zverev in the 4th round in straight sets.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner successfully defended his title at the Sofia Open as the top seed, defeating again second seed Gaël Monfils in the final.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner made his sixth career final at the 2021 European Open without dropping a set en route. He defeated Lorenzo Musetti, Arthur Rinderknech and Lloyd Harris to reach the final. He bested Diego Schwartzman in the final to take his fifth career title. He became youngest man to win five ATP titles since 19-year-old Novak Djokovic.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: On November 1, Sinner became the first male player born in the 2000's to break into the top-10 after a semifinal appearance at the Vienna Open.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the Rolex Paris Masters, Sinner received a bye in the first round but was defeated by Carlos Alcaraz. Because of this, Sinner was unable to directly qualify for the season-ending Nitto ATP Finals.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the ATP Finals in Turin, Sinner was present as the first alternate. Sinner entered the tournament after countryman Matteo Berrettini was forced to withdraw with an abdominal injury after his first match with Alexander Zverev. He defeated Hubert Hurkacz and became the youngest player to win an ATP Finals match on debut since Lleyton Hewitt in Lisbon in 2000 and the first alternate to win a match since Janko Tipsarević in London in 2011. Sinner played Daniil Medvedev next in the round robin stage, holding a match point before being defeated in 3 sets. As a result he reentered the top-10 in the rankings and finished the year at world No. 10 on 22 November 2021.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: In the Davis Cup Finals, Sinner defeated John Isner becoming only the second player (after Thiemo de Bakker) ever to bagel Isner.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the Australian Open, Sinner reached the quarterfinals of a major for the second time in his career, becoming the fifth Italian man to reach that stage in Melbourne. He then lost to fourth seed Stefanos Tsitsipas in straight sets.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the Miami Open, he saved three match points in the opening round against Emil Ruusuvuori and five match points against Pablo Carreno Busta to advance to the round of 16. He then defeated Nick Kyrgios but retired against Francisco Cerundolo in the quarterfinals. In the Monte Carlo Masters, he again reached the quarterfinals after defeating fifth seed Andrey Rublev, before losing to second seed Alexander Zverev in a three-set and over three hour-long match. He again saved three match points in the opener at the Madrid Open against Tommy Paul to move to the second round. Next, he defeated Alex de Minaur for his 100th career win; he hit this milestone after 147 matches (100-47) on Tour, which was a faster rate than everyone in the Top 10 besides Rafael Nadal (100-37) and Novak Djokovic (100-43). He was defeated in the third round by Felix Auger Aliassime.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the French Open, he retired in the fourth round against Andrey Rublev after sustaining a knee injury.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the Eastbourne International, Sinner suffered his first opening round loss of the year after losing to Tommy Paul in three sets. At the 2022 Wimbledon Championships, he recorded his first win at this Major over Stan Wawrinka. He then beat Mikael Ymer, John Isner, and Carlos Alcaraz to reach his third career Grand Slam quarterfinal. He lost to top seed and eventual champion Novak Djokovic in five sets in the quarterfinals, after being two sets to love up.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: At the Croatia Open, Sinner defeated Carlos Alcaraz in the final to win his first clay court title. In Montreal, he lost to eventual champion Pablo Carreno Busta in the third round. Sinner's loss guaranteed a maiden Masters 1000 finalist from his half of the draw. At the Cincinnati Masters, he lost in the third round to Felix Auger Aliassime after being up a set, a break, and 2 match points.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Seeded 11th at the US Open, he reached the fourth round after defeating Brandon Nakashima in four sets. Next, he defeated Ilya Ivashka in a five set match lasting close to four hours to reach the quarterfinals for the first time at this Major. He became the youngest player to reach the quarterfinals of all four Grand Slam tournaments since Novak Djokovic in 2007-08. He lost to Carlos Alcaraz in a five-set match that lasted 5 hours and 15 minutes; the match set the record as the latest finish (at 2:50AM EST) and second longest match in US Open history. Sinner held a match point while serving up 5–4 in the 4th set, but ended up losing the set 5–7. In September, during the Davis Cup Finals after Matteo Berrettini won his singles match against Argentina, Sinner won the second match (best of three matches) and thus secured a place for Italy's Davis Cup team at the Final 8 of the Davis Cup Finals. Following close to a month break due to an injury sustained in the semifinal at the 2022 Sofia Open he returned to the 2022 Erste Bank Open in Vienna and reached also the quarterfinals losing to top seed and eventual champion Daniil Medvedev. In his next tournament, the 2022 Rolex Paris Masters, he lost in the first round to qualifier Marc-Andrea Huesler.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner has been compared to Roger Federer for his calm on-court demeanor and all-court movement. Federer himself has praised Sinner for the balance in his game, remarking, "What I like about him is that he almost has the same speed of shooting from the forehand and backhand." Sinner's groundstroke strength is his two-handed backhand, which he hits with more topspin than any other player on the ATP Tour, registering an average of 1858 revolutions per minute on the shot to go along with a fifth-best average speed of . Former world No. 1 junior and tennis coach Claudio Pistolesi has praised Sinner's good lateral movement, which he attributes in part to Sinner's background in skiing. In this regard, Sinner has been compared to Novak Djokovic, who also credits a background in skiing for improving his tennis skills.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: When Sinner began to prioritize tennis at age thirteen, he was coached by Riccardo Piatti, who had also been a part-time coach of Novak Djokovic and Milos Raonic. At the time, he also began working with Andrea Volpini and Massimo Sartori, the latter of whom was a longtime coach of Andreas Seppi. He continued to work with Piatti as his primary coach, and Volpini as his second coach. His team also consisted of physiotherapist Claudio Zimaglia and fitness coach Dalibor Sirola. In February of 2022, he decided to stop his long collaboration with Piatti and his team and began to train with Simone Vagnozzi, ex-coach of Marco Cecchinato. In July 2022, coach Darren Cahill officially joined Sinner’s team.


title: Jannik Sinner

text: Sinner resides in Monte Carlo in Monaco. He is a fan of A.C. Milan football club. One of his tennis idols is compatriot Andreas Seppi, who is also from Alto Adige. Nonetheless, he aspires to surpass Seppi in terms of achievements. For that reason, his main idols are Roger Federer and Novak Djokovic.


title: Information security

text: Information security, sometimes shortened to InfoSec, is the practice of protecting information by mitigating information risks. It is part of information risk management. It typically involves preventing or reducing the probability of unauthorized/inappropriate access to data, or the unlawful use, disclosure, disruption, deletion, corruption, modification, inspection, recording, or devaluation of information. It also involves actions intended to reduce the adverse impacts of such incidents. Protected information may take any form, e.g. electronic or physical, tangible (e.g. paperwork) or intangible (e.g. knowledge). Information security's primary focus is the balanced protection of the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data (also known as the CIA triad) while maintaining a focus on efficient policy implementation, all without hampering organization productivity. This is largely achieved through a structured risk management process that involves:


title: Information security

text: To standardize this discipline, academics and professionals collaborate to offer guidance, policies, and industry standards on password, antivirus software, firewall, encryption software, legal liability, security awareness and training, and so forth. This standardization may be further driven by a wide variety of laws and regulations that affect how data is accessed, processed, stored, transferred and destroyed. However, the implementation of any standards and guidance within an entity may have limited effect if a culture of continual improvement isn't adopted.


title: Information security

text: At the core of information security is information assurance, the act of maintaining the confidentiality, integrity, and availability (CIA) of information, ensuring that information is not compromised in any way when critical issues arise. These issues include but are not limited to natural disasters, computer/server malfunction, and physical theft. While paper-based business operations are still prevalent, requiring their own set of information security practices, enterprise digital initiatives are increasingly being emphasized, with information assurance now typically being dealt with by information technology (IT) security specialists. These specialists apply information security to technology (most often some form of computer system). It is worthwhile to note that a computer does not necessarily mean a home desktop. A computer is any device with a processor and some memory. Such devices can range from non-networked standalone devices as simple as calculators, to networked mobile computing devices such as smartphones and tablet computers. IT security specialists are almost always found in any major enterprise/establishment due to the nature and value of the data within larger businesses. They are responsible for keeping all of the technology within the company secure from malicious cyber attacks that often attempt to acquire critical private information or gain control of the internal systems.


title: Information security

text: The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. It offers many areas for specialization, including securing networks and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning, electronic record discovery, and digital forensics. Information security professionals are very stable in their employment. more than 80 percent of professionals had no change in employer or employment over a period of a year, and the number of professionals is projected to continuously grow more than 11 percent annually from 2014 to 2019.


title: Information security

text: Information security threats come in many different forms. Some of the most common threats today are software attacks, theft of intellectual property, theft of identity, theft of equipment or information, sabotage, and information extortion. Viruses, worms, phishing attacks, and Trojan horses are a few common examples of software attacks. The theft of intellectual property has also been an extensive issue for many businesses in the information technology (IT) field. Identity theft is the attempt to act as someone else usually to obtain that person's personal information or to take advantage of their access to vital information through social engineering. Theft of equipment or information is becoming more prevalent today due to the fact that most devices today are mobile, are prone to theft and have also become far more desirable as the amount of data capacity increases. Sabotage usually consists of the destruction of an organization's website in an attempt to cause loss of confidence on the part of its customers. Information extortion consists of theft of a company's property or information as an attempt to receive a payment in exchange for returning the information or property back to its owner, as with ransomware. There are many ways to help protect yourself from some of these attacks but one of the most functional precautions is conduct periodical user awareness. The number one threat to any organisation are users or internal employees, they are also called insider threats.


title: Information security

text: Governments, military, corporations, financial institutions, hospitals, non-profit organisations, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status. Should confidential information about a business's customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor or a black hat hacker, a business and its customers could suffer widespread, irreparable financial loss, as well as damage to the company's reputation. From a business perspective, information security must be balanced against cost; the Gordon-Loeb Model provides a mathematical economic approach for addressing this concern.


title: Information security

text: For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in various cultures.


title: Information security

text: Since the early days of communication, diplomats and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering. Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c. 50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands. However, for the most part protection was achieved through the application of procedural handling controls. Sensitive information was marked up to indicate that it should be protected and transported by trusted persons, guarded and stored in a secure environment or strong box. As postal services expanded, governments created official organizations to intercept, decipher, read, and reseal letters (e.g., the U.K.'s Secret Office, founded in 1653).


title: Information security

text: In the mid-nineteenth century more complex classification systems were developed to allow governments to manage their information according to the degree of sensitivity. For example, the British Government codified this, to some extent, with the publication of the Official Secrets Act in 1889. Section 1 of the law concerned espionage and unlawful disclosures of information, while Section 2 dealt with breaches of official trust. A public interest defense was soon added to defend disclosures in the interest of the state. A similar law was passed in India in 1889, The Indian Official Secrets Act, which was associated with the British colonial era and used to crack down on newspapers that opposed the Raj's policies. A newer version was passed in 1923 that extended to all matters of confidential or secret information for governance. By the time of the First World War, multi-tier classification systems were used to communicate information to and from various fronts, which encouraged greater use of code making and breaking sections in diplomatic and military headquarters. Encoding became more sophisticated between the wars as machines were employed to scramble and unscramble information.


title: Information security

text: The establishment of computer security inaugurated the history of information security. The need for such appeared during World War II. The volume of information shared by the Allied countries during the Second World War necessitated formal alignment of classification systems and procedural controls. An arcane range of markings evolved to indicate who could handle documents (usually officers rather than enlisted troops) and where they should be stored as increasingly complex safes and storage facilities were developed. The Enigma Machine, which was employed by the Germans to encrypt the data of warfare and was successfully decrypted by Alan Turing, can be regarded as a striking example of creating and using secured information. Procedures evolved to ensure documents were destroyed properly, and it was the failure to follow these procedures which led to some of the greatest intelligence coups of the war (e.g., the capture of U-570).


title: Information security

text: Various Mainframe computers were connected online during the Cold War to complete more sophisticated tasks, in a communication process easier than mailing magnetic tapes back and forth by computer centers. As such, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), of the United States Department of Defense, started researching the feasibility of a networked system of communication to trade information within the United States Armed Forces. In 1968, the ARPANET project was formulated by Dr. Larry Roberts, which would later evolve into what is known as the internet.


title: Information security

text: In 1973, important elements of ARPANET security were found by internet pioneer Robert Metcalfe to have many flaws such as the: "vulnerability of password structure and formats; lack of safety procedures for dial-up connections; and nonexistent user identification and authorizations", aside from the lack of controls and safeguards to keep data safe from unauthorized access. Hackers had effortless access to ARPANET, as phone numbers were known by the public. Due to these problems, coupled with the constant violation of computer security, as well as the exponential increase in the number of hosts and users of the system, "network security" was often alluded to as "network insecurity".


title: Information security

text: The end of the twentieth century and the early years of the twenty-first century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption. The availability of smaller, more powerful, and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and home users. The establishment of Transfer Control Protocol/Internetwork Protocol (TCP/IP) in the early 1980s enabled different types of computers to communicate. These computers quickly became interconnected through the internet.


title: Information security

text: The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process, and transmit. The academic disciplines of computer security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations, all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems.


title: Information security

text: The CIA triad of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is at the heart of information security. (The members of the classic InfoSec triad—confidentiality, integrity, and availability—are interchangeably referred to in the literature as security attributes, properties, security goals, fundamental aspects, information criteria, critical information characteristics and basic building blocks.) However, debate continues about whether or not this CIA triad is sufficient to address rapidly changing technology and business requirements, with recommendations to consider expanding on the intersections between availability and confidentiality, as well as the relationship between security and privacy. Other principles such as "accountability" have sometimes been proposed; it has been pointed out that issues such as non-repudiation do not fit well within the three core concepts.


title: Information security

text: In 1992 and revised in 2002, the OECD's "Guidelines for the Security of Information Systems and Networks" proposed the nine generally accepted principles: awareness, responsibility, response, ethics, democracy, risk assessment, security design and implementation, security management, and reassessment. Building upon those, in 2004 the NIST's "Engineering Principles for Information Technology Security" proposed 33 principles. From each of these derived guidelines and practices.


title: Information security

text: In 1998, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian Hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals.


title: Information security

text: In 2011, The Open Group published the information security management standard O-ISM3. This standard proposed an operational definition of the key concepts of security, with elements called "security objectives", related to access control (9), availability (3), data quality (1), compliance, and technical (4). In 2009, DoD Software Protection Initiative released the Three Tenets of Cybersecurity which are System Susceptibility, Access to the Flaw, and Capability to Exploit the Flaw. Neither of these models are widely adopted.


title: Information security

text: In information security, confidentiality "is the property, that information is not made available or disclosed to unauthorized individuals, entities, or processes." While similar to "privacy," the two words are not interchangeable. Rather, confidentiality is a component of privacy that implements to protect our data from unauthorized viewers. Examples of confidentiality of electronic data being compromised include laptop theft, password theft, or sensitive emails being sent to the incorrect individuals.


title: Information security

text: In IT security, data integrity means maintaining and assuring the accuracy and completeness of data over its entire lifecycle. This means that data cannot be modified in an unauthorized or undetected manner. This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases, although it can be viewed as a special case of consistency as understood in the classic ACID model of transaction processing. Information security systems typically incorporate controls to ensure their own integrity, in particular protecting the kernel or core functions against both deliberate and accidental threats. Multi-purpose and multi-user computer systems aim to compartmentalize the data and processing such that no user or process can adversely impact another: the controls may not succeed however, as we see in incidents such as malware infections, hacks, data theft, fraud, and privacy breaches.


title: Information security

text: More broadly, integrity is an information security principle that involves human/social, process, and commercial integrity, as well as data integrity. As such it touches on aspects such as credibility, consistency, truthfulness, completeness, accuracy, timeliness, and assurance.


title: Information security

text: For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed. This means the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks, such as a flood of incoming messages to the target system, essentially forcing it to shut down.


title: Information security

text: In the realm of information security, availability can often be viewed as one of the most important parts of a successful information security program. Ultimately end-users need to be able to perform job functions; by ensuring availability an organization is able to perform to the standards that an organization's stakeholders expect. This can involve topics such as proxy configurations, outside web access, the ability to access shared drives and the ability to send emails. Executives oftentimes do not understand the technical side of information security and look at availability as an easy fix, but this often requires collaboration from many different organizational teams, such as network operations, development operations, incident response, and policy/change management. A successful information security team involves many different key roles to mesh and align for the CIA triad to be provided effectively.


title: Information security

text: In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction, nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction.


title: Information security

text: It is important to note that while technology such as cryptographic systems can assist in non-repudiation efforts, the concept is at its core a legal concept transcending the realm of technology. It is not, for instance, sufficient to show that the message matches a digital signature signed with the sender's private key, and thus only the sender could have sent the message, and nobody else could have altered it in transit (data integrity). The alleged sender could in return demonstrate that the digital signature algorithm is vulnerable or flawed, or allege or prove that his signing key has been compromised. The fault for these violations may or may not lie with the sender, and such assertions may or may not relieve the sender of liability, but the assertion would invalidate the claim that the signature necessarily proves authenticity and integrity. As such, the sender may repudiate the message (because authenticity and integrity are pre-requisites for non-repudiation).


title: Information security

text: Broadly speaking, risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man-made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm. The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property).


title: Information security

text: The "Certified Information Systems Auditor (CISA) Review Manual 2006" defines risk management as "the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization."


title: Information security

text: There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the "process" of risk management is an ongoing, iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerabilities emerge every day. Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected. Furthermore, these processes have limitations as security breaches are generally rare and emerge in a specific context which may not be easily duplicated. Thus, any process and countermeasure should itself be evaluated for vulnerabilities. It is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called "residual risk."


title: Information security

text: A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis.