title: Tom Clancy's

text: The Ghost Recon series: Squad-based first-and third-person tactical shooters. Unlike "Rainbow Six", "Ghost Recon" usually takes place in larger, outdoor environments. There have been 15 "Ghost Recon" games so far.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: The Splinter Cell series: action-adventure third-person shooter covert-ops stealth games; lately spawned a line of books written by a series of different authors, all writing under the pseudonym David Michaels.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: The EndWar series: Real-time tactics strategic war game; set in a speculative World War III, taking place in 2020.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: "Tom Clancy's The Division" is a 2016 online-only action role-playing third-person shooter video game developed by Massive Entertainment and published by Ubisoft, with assistance from Red Storm Entertainment, for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One. "The Division" is set in a dystopian New York City in the aftermath of a smallpox pandemic; the player, who is an agent of the titular Strategic Homeland Division, commonly referred to as simply "The Division", is tasked with helping to rebuild the Division's operations in Manhattan, investigating the nature of the outbreak and combating criminal activity in its wake. "The Division" is structured with elements of role-playing games, as well as collaborative and player versus player online multiplayer.


title: Tom Clancy's

text: The game received positive reviews, and was a commercial success, with Ubisoft stating that the game broke the company's record for highest number of first-day sales. Furthermore, one week after the game's release, Ubisoft stated that "The Division" is the company's bestselling game, and the industry's biggest first-week launch for a new game franchise, generating an estimated amount of $330 million.


title: Breakfast

text: Breakfast is the first meal of the day usually eaten in the morning. The word in English refers to breaking the fasting period of the previous night. Various "typical" or "traditional" breakfast menus exist, with food choices varying by regions and traditions worldwide.


title: Breakfast

text: The English word "dinner" (from Old French ) also referred originally to breaking a fast; until its meaning shifted in the mid-13th century it was the name given to the first meal of the day. The tradition of eating a morning meal has existed since ancient times, though it was not until the 15th century that "breakfast" came into use in written English as a calque of dinner to describe a morning meal: literally a breaking of the fasting period of the night just ended. In Old English the term had been , literally "morning food."


title: Breakfast

text: In Ancient Egypt, peasants ate a daily meal, most likely in the morning, consisting of soup, beer, bread, and onions before they left for work in the fields or work commanded by the pharaohs.


title: Breakfast

text: The traditional breakfast believed to have been cooked in ancient Egypt was fūl (made from fava beans, possibly the ancestor of today's ful medames), baladi bread, made from emmer wheat, and falafel, and a mixture of fava beans with onions, garlic, parsley and coriander.


title: Breakfast

text: In Greek literature, there are numerous mentions of , a meal taken not long after sunrise. The "Iliad" notes this meal with regard to a labor-weary woodsman eager for a light repast to start his day, preparing it even as he is aching with exhaustion. The opening prose of the 16th book of the "Odyssey" mentions breakfast as the meal being prepared in the morning before attending to one's chores. Eventually was moved to around noon, and a new morning meal was introduced.


title: Breakfast

text: In the post-Homeric classical period of Greece, a meal called was typically consumed immediately after rising in the morning. (, ) consisted of barley bread dipped in wine (, ), sometimes complemented by figs or olives. They also made pancakes called (), (). or (), all words deriving from (), meaning "frying pan". The earliest attested references on are in the works of the 5th century BC poets Cratinus and Magnes. Another kind of pancake was (), from (), "of flour or dough of spelt", derived itself from (), "flour of spelt". Athenaeus in his Deipnosophistae mentions topped with honey, sesame and cheese.


title: Breakfast

text: Romans called breakfast . It was usually composed of everyday staples like bread, cheese, olives, salad, nuts, raisins, and cold meat left over from the night before. They also drank wine-based drinks such as , a mixture of wine, honey, and aromatic spices. 1st century Latin poet Martial said that was eaten at 3:00 or 4:00 in the morning, while 16th century scholar Claudius Saumaise wrote that it was typically eaten at 9:00 or 10:00 a.m. It seems unlikely that any fixed time was truly assigned for this meal.


title: Breakfast

text: Roman soldiers woke up to a breakfast of , porridge similar to the Italian polenta, made from roasted spelt wheat or barley that was then pounded and cooked in a cauldron of water.


title: Breakfast

text: In the European Middle Ages, breakfast was not usually considered a necessary and important meal, and was practically nonexistent during the earlier medieval period. Monarchs and their entourages would spend a lot of time around a table for meals. Only two formal meals were eaten per day—one at mid-day and one in the evening. The exact times varied by period and region, but this two-meal system remained consistent throughout the Middle Ages.


title: Breakfast

text: Breakfast in some times and places was solely granted to children, the elderly, the sick, and to working men. Anyone else did not speak of or partake in eating in the morning. Eating breakfast meant that one was poor, was a low-status farmer or laborer who truly needed the energy to sustain his morning's labor, or was too weak to make it to the large, midday dinner.


title: Breakfast

text: In the 13th century, breakfast when eaten sometimes consisted of a piece of rye bread and a bit of cheese. Morning meals would not include any meat, and would likely include of low alcohol-content beers. Uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals.


title: Breakfast

text: By the 15th century, breakfast in western Europe often included meat. By this time, noble men were seen to indulge in breakfast, making it more of a common practice, and by the early 16th century, recorded expenses for breakfast became customary. Breakfast in eastern Europe remained mostly the same as the modern day: a "continental breakfast". The 16th century introduction of caffeinated beverages into the European diet was also an addition to breakfast, believed that coffee and tea aid the body in "evacuation of superfluities".


title: Breakfast

text: Traditionally, the various cuisines of Africa use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features milk, curd and whey products. A type of porridge is most commonly eaten. In the book "The Bible cyclopædia (et al.)" published in 1843, it was documented that during this time in the Arab world, Bedouins often utilized locusts mixed with butter for breakfast, spreading the mixture on unleavened bread.


title: Breakfast

text: In the book "The Bible cyclopædia (et al.)" published in 1843, it was documented that Egyptians were early risers that sometimes had a first meal consisting of coffee along with the smoking of a pipe, and did not eat breakfast until noon. At this time, it was documented that Egyptian breakfast foods included bread, cheese, eggs, butter, curds, clotted cream and stewed beans. In addition, fava beans are an established national breakfast dish.


title: Breakfast

text: In the Middle East region of Asia, refers to the evening meal when Muslims break their (fast) during the Islamic month of Ramadan. is one of the religious observances of Ramadan, and is often done as a community, with people gathering to break their fast together. is done right after (sunset) time. During the month of Ramadan, Muslims replace traditional breakfast with , an Islamic term referring to the meal consumed early in the morning by Muslims before during daylight hours. The meal is eaten before (dawn).


title: Breakfast

text: In the book "The Bible cyclopædia (et al.)" it was documented that c. 1843, poor Lebanese people would consume raw leeks with bread for breakfast.


title: Breakfast

text: French breakfasts are often similar to the continental breakfast. French breakfast pastries include apple turnovers, brioche, croissant and pain au chocolat. Croissants have been described as becoming a standard fare in French breakfast cuisine by 1875.


title: Breakfast

text: Breakfast usually consists of bread with a wide variety of cold cuts, cheeses and sweet toppings; such as "hagelslag", "vlokken", "muisjes", "", chocolate spread, treacle (a thick, dark brown sugar syrup called "stroop"), apple butter and peanut butter.


title: Breakfast

text: The word waffle derives from the Dutch word , which itself derives from the Middle Dutch , and is likely the origin of the food as it is known today.


title: Breakfast

text: In the early 16th century, some physicians warned against eating breakfast, because they said it was not healthy to eat before a prior meal was digested. By the 1550s, however, there were multiple sources that claimed breakfast was an important meal. For example, in 1551, Thomas Wingfield stated that breakfast was essential. In 1589, Thomas Cogan stated that it was unhealthy to miss breakfast in the morning. He was one of the first to claim that it was healthy for those who were not young, ill or elders to eat breakfast.


title: Breakfast

text: The full breakfast is a staple of British cuisine, and typically consists of bacon, sausages and eggs, often served with a variety of side dishes and a beverage such as coffee or tea. Prior to 1600, breakfast in Great Britain typically included bread, cold meat or fish, and ale. Tea, chocolate and coffee were introduced to Great Britain in the mid-1600s, and in the 1700s coffee and chocolate were adopted as breakfast drinks by the fashionable. Tea eventually became more popular than chocolate as a breakfast drink.


title: Breakfast

text: The first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar were indigenous peoples living in the northeastern part of North America. According to aboriginal oral traditions, as well as archaeological evidence, maple tree sap was being processed into syrup long before Europeans arrived in the region.


title: Breakfast

text: While it has been a source of controversy where the lumberjack breakfast came from, the most cited source is that the lumberjack breakfast was first served in a Vancouver hotel, in 1870. The breakfast consisted of eggs, assorted fried pork strips, and flapjacks. It is said by Anita Stewart that the tradition of hearty cooking developed because of men needing the energy for manual labor.


title: Breakfast

text: A typical Aztec breakfast often included corn porridge with honey and chillies, or tortillas with beans and salsa.


title: Breakfast

text: Chilaquiles are a staple breakfast dish that dates back to the times of the Aztecs; they consist of tortilla chips (locally known as "totopos") slathered in salsa and usually come with a side of refried beans. Depending on the region or person, they may be eaten with fried or scrambled eggs, pulled chicken, sprinkled cheese, crema, diced onion, or chopped cilantro (coriander) leaves. Eggs are also a staple in Mexican breakfasts, scrambled and fried eggs are usually eaten with tortillas, salsa, and beans; local varieties include huevos rancheros and "huevos con tortilla," which are scrambled eggs fried alongside pieces of corn tortillas.


title: Breakfast

text: Breakfast cereals are also common in Mexico, mainly due to American influence. Health concerns have arisen regarding the nutritional quality of processed breakfast cereal; it is estimated that Mexican preschoolers consume 7% of their total energy intake from processed breakfast cereals and that 6% of Mexican children exclusively have ready-to-eat cereals with milk for breakfast.


title: Breakfast

text: In 1620, waffles were first introduced to North America by pilgrims who had lived in the Netherlands. Later pioneers consumed largely cornmeal-based breakfasts, and would also consume meals such as oatmeal for dinner and lunch. Common breakfast products included corn pone, johnnycakes, ashcakes, hoe-cakes, and corn dodgers. Ashcakes consisted of cornmeal wrapped in cabbage leaves cooked in the ashes of a campfire, while corn pone is baked, corn dodgers are pan fried, and hoe-cakes are similar to pancakes. After the American Civil War, it became fairly common in America to eat sandwiches that were made of ham and eggs. These sandwiches were not strictly consumed in the morning. In 1897, the first true breakfast sandwich recipe was published in a cookbook.


title: Breakfast

text: Popcorn cereal was consumed by Americans in the 1800s, which typically consisted of popcorn with milk and a sweetener. Cold breakfast cereal has been consumed by Americans since the late 1890s, and during the 1920s a considerable number of new cereals were marketed. The reason for this movement towards cold breakfast cereals was inspired by the Jacksonian-era Clean Living Movement (1830–1860). This movement focused on a lot of lifestyle changes, but specific to breakfast it claimed that eating bacon, eggs, pancakes and hot coffee was too indulgent. The first prepared cold breakfast cereal marketed to American consumers was created by Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, who introduced it in 1878 and named it granola. The product was prepared with baked wheat, oatmeal and cornmeal, and was the first brand-name breakfast cereal in the United States.


title: Breakfast

text: Canned fruit juice became prominent as a breakfast beverage after the discovery of vitamins. C. 1900, orange juice as a breakfast beverage was a new concept. The development of frozen orange juice concentrate began in 1915, and in the 1930s it was produced by several companies. Additionally, mass-produced tomato juice began to be marketed in the mid-1920s, and became a popular breakfast drink a few years thereafter.


title: Breakfast

text: While breakfast is commonly referred to as "the most important meal of the day", some contest the positive implications of its "most important" status.


title: Breakfast

text: Some epidemiological research indicates that having breakfast high in rapidly available carbohydrates increases the risk of metabolic syndrome.


title: Breakfast

text: Memory was found to be adversely affected in subjects of a study who had not eaten their breakfast (q.v. also "Studies using mice" under this heading). Intelligence was not affected. Children aged within 8 and 11 years were found to have differing brainwave; EEG activity states, causative to breakfast consumption. Non-breakfasting children were observed to have higher activity of upper and lower theta wave, alpha wave, and delta wave, which indicated a causative relationship of breakfast consumption to memory function in the subjects.


title: Breakfast

text: A review of 47 studies associating breakfast to (i) nutrition, (ii) body weight and (iii) academic performance found amongst those who had eaten breakfast: (i) better nutrition profiles, many studies found less weight (ii) irrespective of greater calorific consumption per day, although a number didn't find this correlation, (iii) studies suggested a possible link to better academic performance in the breakfast eating groups (q.v. Benton and Parker 1998, under this heading).


title: Breakfast

text: The expression of hippocampal genes that mediate the function or non function of memory was affected to the detriment in mouse subjects not having consumed breakfast for a consistent time.


title: Breakfast

text: Present professional opinion is largely in favor of eating breakfast, but skipping breakfast might be better than eating unhealthy foods.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel is an American unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) developed by Lockheed Martin and operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). While the USAF has released few details on the UAV's design or capabilities, defense analysts believe that it is a stealth aircraft fitted with aerial reconnaissance equipment. Introduced in 2007, it was deployed to Afghanistan in late 2007, and to South Korea two years later, in September 2009. Some images and details of the aircraft were released after Iran captured an RQ-170 in 2011. It has a flying wing design, and uses a single engine, speculated to be either a General Electric TF34 turbofan or a Garrett TFE731.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The RQ-170 Sentinel was developed by Lockheed Martin's Skunk Works as a stealth unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Journalists have noted design similarities between the RQ-170 and previous stealth and UAV programs such as the RQ-3 DarkStar and Polecat. An Air Force official said, "It's the same concept as [the RQ-3] DarkStar, it's stealthy, and it uses the same apertures and data links, only it's bigger." It is a tailless flying wing aircraft with pods built into the upper surface of each wing. According to the US Army Training Circular 3-01.80, the Sentinel has a wingspan of , and is long. In a December 2012 report, journalist David Axe stated that "20 or so" RQ-170s had been built.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The "RQ" designation (R for reconnaissance Q for unmanned) indicates that the RQ-170 Sentinel does not carry weapons. "Aviation Week"s David A. Fulghum believes that the UAV is probably a "tactical, operations-oriented platform and not a strategic intelligence-gathering design".


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The USAF confirmed the "grainy photos of a gray, flying-wing-typed unmanned airplane near Kandahar Airfield." Since then, this aircraft has been known as "The Beast of Kandahar" in relation to the sighting of the RQ-170 Sentinel on 4 December 2009. A USAF colonel subsequently commented that RQ-170 is separate from the MQ-X program, which has yet to determine stealth or powerplant requirements, and thus the Sentinel will not replace the General Atomics MQ-1 Predator and General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper drones. In 2021, the 432d Air Expeditionary Wing made a statement in which they said that "the 432nd AEW has ... successfully deployed and redeployed RQ-170 Sentinel forces."


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The RQ-170 is a flying wing design containing a single (as yet classified) engine, and was estimated in 2009 by "Aviation Week" as having a wingspan of approximately . Its takeoff weight is estimated as being greater than the RQ-3 DarkStar's, which was . The design lacks several elements common to stealth engineering, such as zigzag edged landing gear doors and sharp leading edges, and the exhaust is not shielded by the wing. "Aviation Week" postulates that these elements suggest the designers have avoided "highly sensitive technologies" due to the near certainty of eventual operational loss inherent with a single engine design and a desire to avoid the risk of compromising leading edge technology. The publication also suggests that the medium-grey color implies a mid-altitude ceiling, unlikely to exceed , since a higher ceiling would normally be painted darker for concealment. The postulated weight and ceiling parameters suggests the possible use of a General Electric TF34 engine, or a variant in the airframe.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: On the basis of the few publicly available photographs of the RQ-170, aviation expert Bill Sweetman has assessed that the UAV is equipped with an electro-optical/infrared sensor and possibly an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar mounted in its belly fairing. He has also speculated that the two undercarriage fairings over the UAV's wings may house datalinks and that the belly fairing could be designed for modular payloads, allowing the UAV to be used for strike missions and/or electronic warfare. "The New York Times" has reported that the RQ-170 is "almost certainly" equipped with communications intercept equipment as well as highly sensitive hyperspectral sensors capable of detecting very small amounts of radioactive isotopes, as well as chemicals which may indicate the existence of nuclear weapons facilities.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: Following Iranian claims of downing an RQ-170 near the Afghan border in December 2011, Iranian TV showed video footage of what appears to be an advanced unmanned U.S. aircraft that most closely resembles the RQ-170 UAV. In the footage, a member of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard released dimensions of the aircraft, including a wingspan of about , a height of , and a length of .


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The 30th Reconnaissance Squadron was the first unit to operate RQ-170 Sentinels. This squadron, which is based at Tonopah Test Range Airport in Nevada, was activated on 1 September 2005. RQ-170 Sentinels have been deployed to Afghanistan, where one was sighted at Kandahar International Airport in late 2007. This sighting, and the Sentinel's secret status at the time, led Sweetman to dub it the "Beast of Kandahar". The UAV being deployed to Afghanistan, despite the Taliban having no radar, led to speculation that the aircraft was used to spy on Pakistan or Iran. Phil Finnegan, a UAV analyst at an aerospace consulting firm, suggests the stealth capabilities of the Sentinel are being used to fly in nearby countries. Iran has an air defense system that would require stealth technology to penetrate.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: In December 2009, South Korea's "JoongAng Daily" newspaper reported that the RQ-170 Sentinel had been test-flown in South Korea for the past few months and that it was expected to be permanently deployed in 2010 to replace Lockheed U-2 reconnaissance aircraft operating from Osan Air Base. In response to this report, Sweetman argued that the Sentinel's deployments to Afghanistan and South Korea were probably undertaken to monitor Pakistan and North Korea's ballistic missile programs. In 2020, through an FOIA request, it was revealed that the USAF ordered the deployment of the drone to Kunsan Air Base on 4 September 2009. It is unknown exactly how many RQ-170s were deployed.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: On 2 May 2011, at least one RQ-170 monitored the area while elements of the United States Naval Special Warfare Development Group launched an assault on the compound which resulted in bin Laden's death. The aircraft provided footage of the attack which was watched live by President Barack Obama and his senior national security advisors. The RQ-170 also monitored Pakistani military radio transmissions in the area to provide warning of the response to the attack. On 27 May the "Los Angeles Times" reported that Pakistani officials were "alarmed" by the use of the RQ-170 over their country as the drones are "designed to evade radar and other surveillance systems, and can be used as a spy plane".


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: In October 2012 a RQ-170 was used to conduct bomb damage assessment for a test drop of a Massive Ordnance Penetrator bomb from a Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit stealth bomber. The 44th Reconnaissance Squadron was established on 1 April 2015. While the USAF did not disclose what aircraft the unit was equipped with, it has been reported that it was established to operate RQ-170s. From 4 August 2020 to 6 August 2020, at least one RQ-170 participated in a $1.4 million Large Force Test Event at Nellis Air Force Base, in Nevada.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: It is believed that between 20 and 30 RQ-170s were in service with the USAF as of 2021. At this time, the type continued to be operated by the 30th and 44th Reconnaissance Squadrons. The USAF disclosed a deployment of RQ-170s in March 2021, but did not identify where they had operated.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: On 4 December 2011, media reports stated that the Iranian Army's electronic warfare unit had downed an RQ-170 that violated Iranian airspace along its eastern border through overriding its controls, and had captured the lightly damaged UAV. On 6 December, U.S. officials acknowledged that a drone crashed in or near Iranian airspace and that it belonged to the CIA, and not to the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) as was earlier stated by the US government.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The Iranian government released footage of a captured RQ-170 on 8 December. After examining the video that same day, U.S. officials confirmed that the drone was genuine. In April 2012, General Amir Ali Hajizadeh, the commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps aerospace division, claimed that Iran had reverse-engineered the RQ-170, and was building a copy of the UAV. He also stated that data was being recovered from the captured RQ-170. The semi-official Tasnim news agency of Iran reported in September 2016 that a UAV named Saegheh-2, similar in appearance to the RQ-170 Sentinel, had been built. It was said to be able to carry four precision-guided bombs; the range was not stated. The Shahed 171 Simorgh is also based on the downed Sentinel.


title: Lockheed Martin RQ-170 Sentinel

text: The Israeli military shot down a Saegheh drone during the February 2018 Israel–Syria incident. Israeli media reported that the UAV's design was indeed largely based on the RQ-170, IAF Brigadier General Tomer Bar said that the drone was quite advanced and emulated western technology.


title: Indian English

text: Indian English (IE) is a group of English dialects spoken in the republic of India and among the Indian diaspora. English is used by the Indian government for communication, along with Hindi, as enshrined in the Constitution of India. English is also an official language in seven states and seven union territories of India, and the additional official language in seven other states and one union territory. Furthermore, English is the sole official language of the Indian Judiciary, unless the state governor or legislature mandates the use of a regional language, or if the President of India has given approval for the use of regional languages in courts.


title: Indian English

text: After gaining independence from the British Raj in 1947, English remained an official language of the new Dominion of India and later the Republic of India. Only a few hundred thousand Indians, or less than 0.1% of the total population, speak English as their first language, and around 30% of the Indian population can speak English to some extent.


title: Indian English

text: According to the 2001 Census, 12.18% of Indians knew English at that time. Of those, approximately 200,000 reported that it was their first language, 86 million reported that it was their second, and 39 million reported that it was their third.


title: Indian English

text: According to the 2005 India Human Development Survey, of 41,554 surveyed, households reported that 72% of men (29,918) spoke no English, 28% of them (11,635) spoke at least some English, and 5% of them (2,077, roughly 17.9% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke fluent English. Among women, 83% (34,489) spoke no English, 17% (7,064) spoke at least some English, and 3% (1,246, roughly 17.6% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke English fluently. According to statistics from the District Information System for Education (DISE) of the National University of Educational Planning and Administration under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, enrollment in English-medium schools increased by 50% between 2008–09 and 2013–14. The number of English-medium school students in India increased from over 15 million in 2008–09 to 29 million by 2013–14.


title: Indian English

text: According to the 2011 Census, 129 million Indians (10.6%) spoke English. 259,678 (0.02%) Indians spoke English as their first language. It concluded that approximately 83 million Indians (6.8%) reported English as their second language, and 46 million (3.8%) reported it as their third language, making English the second-most spoken language in India.


title: Indian English

text: India ranks 50 out of 100 countries in the 2021 EF English Proficiency Index published by the EF Education First. The index gives the country a score of 496 indicating "low proficiency". India ranks 8th out of 24 Asian countries included in the index. Among Asian countries, Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, South Korea and China (including Hong Kong and Macau) received higher scores than India.


title: Indian English

text: Writing for "The New York Times", journalist Manu Joseph states that, due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth." In his book, "In Search of Indian English: History, Politics and Indigenisation", Ranjan Kumar Auddy shows that the history of the rise of Indian nationalism and the history of the emergence of Indian English are deeply inter-related.


title: Indian English

text: Under the Indian Constitution, English is the language of India's Supreme Court and of all the high courts of India. However, as allowed by the Constitution, Hindi is also used in courts in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan by virtue of special presidential approval. As of 2018, the high courts of Punjab and Haryana were also awaiting presidential approval to use Hindi alongside English, and the Madras High Court has been taking steps to use Tamil alongside English.


title: Indian English

text: The first occurrence of the term "Indian English" dates from 1696, though the term did not become common until the 19th century. In the colonial era, the most common terms in use were "Anglo-Indian English", or simply "Anglo-Indian", both dating from 1860. Other less common terms in use were "Indo-Anglian" (dating from 1897) and "Indo-English" (1912). An item of Anglo-Indian English was known as an "Anglo-Indianism" from 1851.


title: Indian English

text: In the modern era, a range of colloquial portmanteau words for Indian English have been used. The earliest of these is "Indlish" (recorded from 1962), and others include "Indiglish" (1974), "Indenglish" (1979), "Indglish" (1984), "Indish" (1984), "Inglish" (1985) and "Indianlish" (2007).


title: Indian English

text: Indian English generally uses the Indian numbering system. Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary languages and vernaculars have been absorbed into Indian English. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology among various dialects of Indian English.


title: Indian English

text: Formal written publications in English in India tend to use lakh/crore for Indian currency and Western numbering for foreign currencies like dollars and pounds.


title: Indian English

text: The English language established a foothold in India with the granting of the East India Company charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 and the subsequent establishment of trading ports in coastal cities such as Surat, Bombay (called Mumbai since 1995), Madras (called Chennai since 1996), and Calcutta (called Kolkata since 2001).


title: Indian English

text: English-language public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the British East India Company (India was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the world). In 1835, English replaced Persian as the official language of the East India Company. Lord Macaulay played a major role in introducing English and Western concepts into educational institutions in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary, middle, and high schools were opened in many districts of British India, with most high schools offering English language instruction in some subjects. In 1857, just before the end of East India Company rule, universities that were modeled on the University of London and used English as the medium of instruction were established in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During the British Raj (1858 to 1947), English-language penetration increased throughout India. This was driven in part by the gradually increasing hiring of Indians in the civil services. At the time of India's independence in 1947, English was the only functional "lingua franca" in the country.


title: Indian English

text: After Indian Independence in 1947, Hindi was declared the first official language, and attempts were made to declare Hindi the sole national language of India. Due to protests from Tamil Nadu and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to temporarily retain English for official purposes until at least 1965. By the end of this period, however, opposition from non-Hindi states was still too strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the English Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language "until such time as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being dropped." This has not yet occurred, and English is still widely used. For instance, it is the only reliable means of day-to-day communication between the central government and the non-Hindi states.


title: Indian English

text: The view of the English language among many Indians has changed over time. It used to be associated primarily with colonialism; it is now primarily associated with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.


title: Indian English

text: While there is an assumption that English is readily available in India, studies show that its usage is actually restricted to the elite, because of inadequate education to large parts of the Indian population. The use of outdated teaching methods and the poor grasp of English exhibited by the authors of many guidebooks disadvantage students who rely on these books, giving India only a moderate proficiency in English.


title: Indian English

text: In addition, many features of Indian English were imported into Bhutan due to the dominance of Indian-style education and teachers in the country after it withdrew from its isolation in the 1960s.


title: Indian English

text: The term "Hinglish" is a portmanteau of the languages English and Hindi. This typically refers to the macaronic hybrid use of Hindi and English. It is often the growing preferred language of the urban and semi-urban educated Indian youth, as well as the Indian diaspora abroad. The Hindi film industry, more popularly known as Bollywood, incorporates considerable amounts of Hinglish as well. Many internet platforms and voice commands on Google also recognise Hinglish. When Hindi–Urdu is viewed as a single language called Hindostani, the portmanteaus Hinglish and Urdish mean the same code-mixed tongue, where the former term is used predominantly in modern India and the latter term predominantly in Pakistan.


title: Indian English

text: Other macaronic hybrids such as "Minglish" (Marathi and English), "Manglish" (Malayalam and English), "Kanglish" (Kannada and English), "Tenglish" (Telugu and English), and "Tanglish" or "Tamglish" (Tamil and English) exist in South India.


title: Indian English

text: In general, Indian English has fewer peculiarities in its vowel sounds than the consonants, especially as spoken by native speakers of languages like Hindi, the vowel phoneme system having some similarities with that of English. Among the distinctive features of the vowel-sounds employed by some Indian English speakers:


title: Indian English

text: A number of distinctive features of Indian English are due to "the vagaries of English spelling". Most Indian languages, unlike English, have a nearly phonetic spelling, so the spelling of a word is a highly reliable guide to its modern pronunciation. Indians' tendency to pronounce English phonetically as well can cause divergence from British English. This phenomenon is known as spelling pronunciation.


title: Indian English

text: English is a stress-timed language. Both syllable stress and word stress (where only certain words in a sentence or phrase are stressed) are important features of Received Pronunciation. Indian native languages are actually syllable-timed languages, like French. Indian-English speakers usually speak with a syllabic rhythm. Further, in some Indian languages, stress is associated with a low pitch, whereas in most English dialects, stressed syllables are generally pronounced with a higher pitch. Thus, when some Indian speakers speak, they appear to put the stress accents at the wrong syllables, or accentuate all the syllables of a long English word. Certain Indian accents possess a "sing-song" quality, a feature seen in a few English dialects of Britain, such as Scouse and Welsh English.


title: Indian English

text: The Indian numbering system is preferred for digit grouping. When written in words, or when spoken, numbers less than 100,000/100 000 are expressed just as they are in Standard English. Numbers including and beyond 100,000/100 000 are expressed in a subset of the Indian numbering system. Thus, the following scale is used:


title: Indian English

text: Larger numbers are generally expressed as multiples of the above (for example, one lakh crores for one trillion).


title: Indian English

text: Indian English includes many political, sociological, and administrative terms, such as dharna, hartal, eve-teasing, vote bank, swaraj, swadeshi, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, and NRI. It incorporates some Anglo-Indian words such as tiffin, hill station, gymkhana, along with slang.


title: Indian English

text: Some examples of words and phrases unique to, or chiefly used in, standard written Indian English include:


title: Indian English

text: Spelling practices in Indian English generally follow the British style, e.g., using "travelling", "litre", "practise" (as a verb), "anaesthesia", "fulfil", "catalogue" and "colour", rather than the American style.


title: Indian English

text: The most famous dictionary of Indian English is Yule and Brunell's "Hobson-Jobson", originally published in 1886 with an expanded edition edited by William Crooke in 1903, widely available in reprint since the 1960s.


title: Indian English

text: Numerous other dictionaries ostensibly covering Indian English, though for the most part being merely collections of administratively-useful words from local languages, include (chronologically): Rousseau "A Dictionary of Words used in the East Indies" (1804), Wilkins "Glossary to the Fifth Report" (1813), Stocqueler "The Oriental Interpreter and Treasury of East Indian Knowledge" (1844), Elliot "A Supplement to the Glossary of Indian Terms: A-J" (1845), Brown "The Zillah Dictionary in the Roman Character" (1852), Carnegy "Kutcherry Technicalities" (1853) and its second edition "Kachahri Technicalities" (1877), Wilson "Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms" (1855), Giles "A Glossary of Reference, on Subjects connected with the Far East" (1878), Whitworth "Anglo-Indian Dictionary" (1885), Temple "A Glossary of Indian Terms relating to Religion, Customs, Government, Land" (1897), and Crooke "Things India: Being Discursive Notes on Various Subjects connected with India" (1906).


title: Indian English

text: The first dictionary of Indian English to be published after independence was Hawkins "Common Indian Words in English" (1984). Other efforts include (chronologically): Lewis "Sahibs, Nabobs and Boxwallahs" (1991), Muthiah "Words in Indian English" (1991), Sengupta's Indian English supplement to the "Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary" (1996) and Hankin "Hanklyn-Janklin " (2003). Nihalani et al. "Indian and British English: A Handbook of Usage and Pronunciation" (2004) delineates how Indian English differs from British English for a large number of specific lexical items. The Macmillan publishing company also produced a range of synchronic general dictionaries for the Indian market, such as the "Macmillan Comprehensive Dictionary" (2006).


title: Indian English

text: The most recent and comprehensive dictionary is Carls "A Dictionary of Indian English, with a Supplement on Word-formation Patterns" (2017).


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Lee John Martin Evans (born 25 February 1964) is an English film and television actor stand-up comedian, musician, singer, and writer. He co-founded the production company Little Mo Films with Addison Cresswell, who was also his agent prior to Cresswell's death in December 2013.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans became one of the United Kingdom's most popular stand-up comedians, with his "Roadrunner" tour grossing £12.9 million. He made his cinema debut with the Jerry Lewis comedy "Funny Bones" (1995), earning the Paris Film Festival Award for Best Actor, and went on to appear in the Hollywood films "The Fifth Element" (1997), "Mouse Hunt" (1997), "There's Something About Mary" (1998), "The Ladies Man" (2000), and "The Medallion" (2003). He lent his voice to Zippo the Troodon in the Emmy-nominated miniseries "Dinotopia" (2002) and made a notable departure from comedy with a leading role in the Irish thriller film "Freeze Frame" (2004).


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In 2008, the DVD of Evans' "Big – Live at the O2" show became the highest-selling Christmas DVD in the United Kingdom, only to be surpassed by his own "Monsters Tour" DVD in 2014. In November 2014, he announced his retirement from stand-up comedy. In 2017, he briefly came out of retirement to star in a run of William Shakespeare and Harold Pinter plays.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Lee John Martin Evans was born in the Avonmouth suburb of Bristol on 25 February 1964, the son of Irish mother Shirley Hunt and Welsh father Dave Evans (died June 2019). He has an older brother, Wayne (born 1962). His father was a comedian, musician, and impressionist. The family left Bristol in 1975, moving to Essex, where Evans attended The Billericay School. After a spell as a boxer and two years at Thurrock Art College in Essex, he followed his father into entertainment. During his teenage years, he moved to Scarborough, North Yorkshire, where he was a drummer in a punk rock band called The Anonymous Five.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans rose to fame during the 1990s with abrasive, exciting, sweaty, energetic stage performances, and physical observational comedy. His slapstick humour has led to comparisons with Norman Wisdom, though Evans does not regard Wisdom as an influence. In 1993, he won the Perrier Comedy Award for his work at the Edinburgh Festival.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans's sweat drenches him on stage. During most of his headlining performances, he often takes an intermission, during which he has a quick shower and changes into a different suit. He has also said that his suits are regularly thrown away after three performances, mainly because of the sweat, with dry-cleaners refusing to handle them. In November 2005, Evans broke the world record for a solo act performing to the biggest comedy audience, performing to 10,108 people at the Manchester Arena.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans toured the UK in autumn 2008 with his stand-up act entitled "Big". During his "Big" tour he performed in front of over 500,000 people on 59 dates. This was scheduled to involve the first-ever performance by a comedian at the O2 Arena in London until Chris Rock announced dates that would take place at the venue prior to Evans. The DVD was filmed at the O2 Arena, and was released on 24 November 2008. It became the best-selling comedy DVD in the UK for Christmas 2008, selling over 1,000,000 copies. Evans appeared on the "Channel 4's Comedy Gala" for Great Ormond Street Hospital on 30 March 2010. He was the last act on stage and he received a comedy award and auctioned it to the audience for charity.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans toured the UK again in 2011 with a new stand-up act entitled "Roadrunner", with 50 dates starting in Bournemouth in August, running until November in Cardiff. He appeared at the Wyvern Theatre, Swindon, on 10 June to test his new material for the "Roadrunner" tour. He then sold out Bristol's Colston Hall for three nights to perfect his routine in July. The tour visited most of the UK's major cities, plus two nights in Dublin, and included four nights in Wembley Arena and four in the O2 Arena, meaning around 100,000 seats in London alone. Tickets went on sale 15 October 2010 at 9 am.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans sold £7,000,000 worth of tickets the first day they went on sale. Due to popular demand, there were a further 17 dates added to the tour in the Bournemouth International Centre, Brighton Centre, Motorpoint Arena Nottingham, Wembley Arena, the National Indoor Arena, The O2 London, Liverpool Arena, Motorpoint Arena Cardiff, Odyssey Complex Belfast and The O2 Dublin. This brought the tour up to 67 dates in 14 cities which is eight more than the record-breaking tour of 2008. In 2011, he was honoured by the British Comedy Awards with the Channel 4 Award for Special Contribution to Comedy.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In November 2014, Evans announced on "The Jonathan Ross Show" that he was retiring from stand-up comedy to spend more time with his wife and daughter.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans has made a number of film appearances, such as in "Funny Bones", "Mouse Hunt", "There's Something About Mary" (where he played an American posing as British), "The Fifth Element", "The Ladies Man", "The Martins", "The Medallion" and "Undertaking Betty". Evans provided the voice for Zippo in the 2002 TV miniseries "Dinotopia" and Train in the 2005 film "The Magic Roundabout". From 1993 to 1994, Evans appeared in the Channel 4 late-night show "Viva Cabaret!", both as a host and as a guest performer. In 1995, he starred in Channel 4 series, "The World of Lee Evans".


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In 2004, he starred as a paranoid murder suspect in his first non-comic role in the film "Freeze Frame". Although warned they may never grow back, he shaved his eyebrows (as well as his hair). In 2004, Evans appeared in Samuel Becket's "Endgame", and from 2004 to 2005, he played Leo Bloom in the London production of "The Producers" along with Nathan Lane, with whom he also starred in "MouseHunt". For his role in "The Producers", Evans received a nomination for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical; Lane won the award. In 2007 he appeared in the 50th anniversary production of "The Dumb Waiter". May 2007 saw him star in a television adaptation of the book "The History of Mr. Polly".


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans appeared as Malcolm Taylor, a Welsh scientist, in the 2009 "Doctor Who" Easter special "Planet of the Dead".


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Between September 2013 and January 2014, Evans starred in the play "Barking in Essex" at London's Wyndham's Theatre.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In October 2017 Lee Evans came out of retirement to perform scenes from Shakespeare's plays in a one-off fundraiser along with Jack Whitehall in the play "Whither Would You Go?" at the Harold Pinter Theatre, London.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans is also a singer and musician, as shown on his arena tours. He can play the guitar, bass guitar, keyboards, piano, turntables, mandolin, ukulele, and drums.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In 2001, he co-wrote and starred in the sitcom "So What Now? for the BBC". Eight episodes were written in total.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: He also has his own production company that produces his stand up DVDs called Little Mo Films, named after his daughter, to whom he often refers as Little Mo.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: Evans met Heather Nudds when they were both 17 years old; they were married on 22 September 1984, and reside in Billericay, Essex.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: His daughter, Mollie, was studying at the University of Florida as of 2014. She is now an illustrator.


title: Lee Evans (comedian)

text: In 2010, Evans received an Honorary Doctorate of the Arts at the University of East London's graduation ceremony.


title: Infiniti

text: According to the company, the Infiniti badge has a double meaning, as stylized representations of both a road extending into the horizon and of Mount Fuji, reflecting its Japanese origins.


title: Infiniti

text: The Infiniti brand was introduced in the United States in 1989 to target the premium vehicle segments in the United States that would not have otherwise fit in with Nissan's more mainstream image, and partially influenced by the Plaza Accord of 1985. The brand was created around the same time that Japanese rivals Toyota and Honda developed their Lexus and Acura premium brands, respectively. The Japanese government imposed voluntary export restraints for the U.S. market, so it was more profitable for automakers to export more expensive cars to the U.S.


title: Infiniti

text: The Infiniti marque was launched with two models, the Q45, and the M30 that were previously sold at Japanese "Nissan Motor Store" dealership networks. The Q45 was based on the all new second generation JDM Nissan President on a five millimeter shorter wheelbase platform at 2,875 mm (113.2 in). Starting with model year 1992, the wheelbase matched the President's wheelbase at 2880 mm (113.4 in). The Q45 included a V8 engine, four wheel steering, and active suspension system offered on the first generation Q45t. The car's features would have made it competitive in the full-sized "luxury" segment against the Mercedes S-Class, BMW 7 Series, Jaguar XJ and Cadillac Fleetwood.


title: Infiniti

text: A second model was introduced in November 1989, the two-door M30, a badge engineered Nissan Leopard. It remained in production for three years as an alternative to the Lexus SC. The powertrain was the VG30E engine and an automatic transmission. The M30 coupe was underpowered for its stock weight of . The M30 convertible weighed even more, due to the required body and chassis reinforcements. The appearance of the M30 had almost no resemblance to the larger Q45, and the interior was almost completely different.


title: Infiniti

text: Infiniti did not offer a mid-luxury sedan to match the first Japanese luxury sedan introduced to North America, the Acura Legend, which was later joined by the Lexus GS. Infiniti's first offering in the entry-level luxury segment was the Infiniti J30, which had to compete with the revised 1992 Lexus ES and was unsuccessful owing to its small interior and unusual styling to which it was succeeded in 1996 by the Infiniti I series introduced previously in April 1995, related to the Nissan Maxima and in 2002 by the Infiniti G35.


title: Infiniti

text: In September 1990, Infiniti introduced a third model, the Infiniti G20, derived from the compact and European-focused Nissan Primera.


title: Infiniti

text: In 1992 for the 1993 model year, Infiniti introduced a four-door coupé J30 with only one engine option, the VG30DE. This engine was from the 300ZX, the JDM Nissan Cedric, Nissan Gloria and the Nissan Cima, and was the North American version of the third generation JDM Nissan Leopard.


title: Infiniti

text: Infiniti sales were slow. The company's initial campaign aimed to bring about brand awareness with Zen-influenced spots that focused on nature and tranquility, without showing the actual cars. Designers decided not to adorn the interiors with wood accents and chrome brightwork, opting instead for a monochrome, organic and rounded surface appearance, focusing on padded leather and vinyl throughout. Some buyers had faux wood appliques added to areas surrounding the center console and around the interior door handles. The only item that had a bright appearance was the centrally installed analog clock in all models, a design that is currently maintained by the designers.


title: Infiniti

text: By the mid-1990s, Infiniti was lagging behind Lexus and Acura in sales. The Q45 had retreated considerably from its focused, taut rendition of a sporty full-size luxury sedan, having become a barely recognizable, ponderously handling sedan that earned the nickname "The Japanese Lincoln". In the summer of 1998, Infiniti revived the G20, based on the JDM Nissan Primera, a compact sport sedan. The second generation G20 was marketed as a competitor to European entry-level luxury sport sedans, but it now weighed more than the first generation version. Because Infiniti continued to use the SR20DE four-cylinder engine and compact size, it fell short of sales expectations. The G20 was also marketed primarily to the wrong demographic, that being middle-aged professional women, and as such it was not as popular new as its main competition, the similarly priced Acura Integra.


title: Infiniti

text: In late 1996, Infiniti released the QX4, modifying and adding premium accommodations to the Nissan Pathfinder, becoming one of the first luxury car manufacturers to offer a mid-size premium SUV.


title: Infiniti

text: Infiniti replaced the J30 mid-sized rear drive sedan with the second-generation JDM Nissan Cefiro, giving it the North American designation "I30" in 1996. It offered one engine, the VQ30DE with front wheel drive shared with the Maxima. The I30 was redesigned for the 2000 model year, featuring an increase in power to 231 PS (170 kW; 227 hp). Infiniti made further changes to the I30's appearance and performance in mid-2001, upgrading the engine to the more powerful 259 PS (190 kW; 255 hp) VQ35DE; this inspired a name change to the vehicle, which became the I35. Sales and the brand, bereft of an image or a following, floundered.


title: Infiniti

text: By 2000, large Japanese companies were feeling the effect of the Japanese asset price bubble, and the reduced desirability of Infiniti's led to its facing extinction. The company rededicated itself to developing a dynamic and powerful line-up of sporty luxury cars. This coincided with parent company Nissan entering into an alliance with Renault under the direction of Carlos Ghosn and the Nissan Revival Plan. "Car and Driver" reported that Infiniti executives invited members of the motoring press to a meeting where they "swore never again to take their eyes off BMW." Although this effort began with a completely redesigned Q45 flagship for the 2002 model year in early 2001, it was the G35 that helped improve Infiniti sales by 2003. In Japan, Nissan had a well established reputation with premium level performance sedans after Nissan acquired the Prince Motor Company and integrated the Nissan Skyline, Nissan Laurel and Nissan Gloria, originally Prince vehicles, in 1966–1968. A sports sedan replacing its Nissan Primera-based predecessor (the G20), the Nissan Skyline-based Infiniti G35, was successful after it was voted Motor Trend Car of the Year in 2003.


title: Infiniti

text: The release of the sport-tuned FX35/45 crossover that same year piggybacked on the G35's success. The FX used the same components as the G35 sport coupe and was designed for American tastes. It combined good handling and performance with station wagon-like versatility and all-weather capability. In 2004, Infiniti added an all-wheel drive version of the G35 sports sedan to compete with similar all-wheel drive sports sedans from Audi and BMW. Infiniti also introduced a larger SUV to compete with the Toyota Land Cruiser/Lexus LX470. This was the 2004 Infiniti QX56 based on the U.S. market Nissan Armada.


title: Infiniti

text: Nissan Motors President and CEO, Carlos Ghosn, developed a business strategy to break Infiniti away from its Nissan roots. The G series helped re-define Infiniti as the "Japanese BMW", as it was aimed directly at the BMW 3 Series of sedans and coupes. The M35/M45 garnered acclaim from the automotive press, winning an eight-car comparison test in "Car and Driver", and the model was named the best luxury sedan by "Consumer Reports". The M45 model featured the same engine as the Q45, and the M45 became the flagship model after the Q45 was discontinued. The Infiniti M (2002–2005) and the Infiniti G (starting in 2002) were known in Japan as the Nissan Gloria and the Nissan Skyline.


title: Infiniti

text: In November 2006 for the 2007 model year a redesigned version of the G35 sedan was launched, followed in August 2007 by a new version of the company's G coupe, the G37. The coupe was first unveiled at the New York International Auto Show in April 2007. Also released in (December) 2007 was new Infiniti EX35 compact crossover, Infiniti's entry into the compact luxury crossover market. The EX shared the G35's 3.5-liter, , V6 engine.


title: Infiniti

text: Carlos Ghosn unveiled Infiniti's arrival in Europe at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. The official launch was late 2008, and was phased over a two-year period across 21 European countries. Four models are offered in Europe: the next generation of the Infiniti FX37 and Infiniti FX50 performance SUV, the Infiniti G37, the Infiniti G37 coupe, and the Infiniti EX37 crossover. Infiniti Europe's headquarters are in Rolle, Switzerland.


title: Infiniti

text: Carlos Ghosn unveiled the Infiniti M at a hotel in Los Angeles. It shares the VQ37VHR from the Infiniti G, and Nissan 370Z. Featured are new powertrains: the 5.6 L V8 (VK56VD) with VVEL, Gasoline direct injection, the Nissan-Renault V9X Engine V6 Turbo Diesel (only for Europe), and the newly developed hybrid that includes one electric motor and two clutches to allow the gas engine and electric motor to drive the rear wheels simultaneously. The lithium-ion battery pack was first displayed in the Essence concept car.


title: Infiniti

text: At the 2010 Geneva Motor Show, Infiniti launched a new powertrain for Europe, with the new V9X Engine developed by the Renault-Nissan Alliance. The new engine is used in the Infiniti FX, Infiniti EX, and the new Infiniti M. The new Infiniti M made its European debut at the show.


title: Infiniti

text: In August 2010 Infiniti unveiled its new performance division named Infiniti Performance Line, or IPL. Soon thereafter in 2011, Infiniti chose to sponsor the Renault engines for Red Bull Racing for the 2011 Formula One season.


title: Infiniti

text: As of 2011, the G Series (consisting of the sedan, coupe, and convertible) accounts for 60% of sales. This has been attributed to their SUVs (including crossovers) which have been seen as determinedly aimed at the narrowest of niches, a lost opportunity as SUVs are popular in the U.S. market. In contrast, at archrival Lexus, SUVs contributed half of the sales volume. In 2011, Infiniti sales fell, while other import luxury vehicles were doing well. Furthermore, Infiniti's performance over practicality emphasis has resulted in its crossovers and SUVs faring poorly among women compared to offerings from Acura and Lexus.


title: Infiniti

text: Nissan announced the return of front-wheel drive to the Infiniti lineup on August 30, 2011, with the release of the Infiniti JX. It joins Toyota's Lexus brand in terms of blending front-wheel drive and rear-wheel drive vehicles again; since its inception in 1989, Lexus has had front-wheel drive platforms underpinning entry-level vehicles like the Lexus ES and Lexus RX. More importantly, the JX was meant to give Infiniti a credible rival to the Acura MDX and BMW X5 crossovers that offer optional three-row seating.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2012, Infiniti moved its global headquarters from the Nissan corporate building in Yokohama and incorporated in Hong Kong as Infiniti Global Limited, with Carlos Ghosn intending for Infiniti to have a greater focus on the burgeoning luxury market in mainland China as it forecast the country to become the largest luxury car market. Nissan appointed Roland Krüger, former head of BMW's Asian division, as president of Infiniti in September 2014.


title: Infiniti

text: In mid-2013 Infiniti announced their Q30 Concept car would get its world premiere at the 2013 Frankfurt Motor Show, a move which would see Infiniti start an aggressive strategy to extend the Infiniti brand into new premium segments. In 2013, Infiniti's model designation changed to the coupes and sedans starting with the letter Q (SUVs and crossovers starting with the letters QX) and a number reflecting the model's place in the brand lineup. The M sedan became the Q70 while the G sedan was replaced with the Q50; meanwhile, the QX56 became the QX80 while the EX became the QX50.


title: Infiniti

text: In August 2013 Infiniti announced that Simone Piattelli Palmarini would take up the role as head of public relations for Infiniti EMEA. Known to many in the media, Simone had previously worked for Pirelli and Ferrari.


title: Infiniti

text: With its QX60 crossover (formerly known as JX35) Infiniti began to produce vehicles outside Japan. In 2014, it started producing two models in Xiangyang, China, a plant operated by Nissan's joint venture with Dongfeng Motor. At the same time, Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK expanded in Sunderland, England, to produce a new compact car named Q30 in 2015. In mid-2019, the Sunderland plant ceased assembly of Infiniti vehicles in the United Kingdom.


title: Infiniti

text: Johan de Nysschen was appointed to head the Infiniti division in 2012. De Nysschen left the company as of August 2014 to become CEO of Cadillac. Infiniti Chairman Andy Palmer assumed de Nysschen's responsibilities. Nissan appointed Roland Krüger, former head of BMW's Asian division, as president of Infiniti after the chairman of the marque, Andy Palmer, resigned to join Aston Martin in September 2014.


title: Infiniti

text: In January 2018, chief executive Hiroto Saikawa announced that the Infiniti brand would be transformed into an electric brand, with all new vehicles either being hybrid or all-electric by 2021.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2019, Infiniti announced that the brand would be leaving the Western European market. This is due to a combination of poor sales, tough competition from European luxury brands (primarily Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Audi), and the uncertain Brexit outcome. Infiniti stated its intent to focus on the Chinese (excluding Hong Kong and Macau), Middle East, and North American markets instead, where most of the brand's sales come from. Subsequently, the QX30 and Q30 produced at the Nissan factory in Sunderland were to cease production. Similarly, on September 3, 2019, it was announced that Infiniti would leave Australia and New Zealand due to slow sales in the region.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2020, Infiniti left the European (excluding Caucasus, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine), South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Macau, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea, and Vietnam markets. Infiniti's departure from Western Europe was attributed to sales dropping by half in 2018 after several years of sales growth, plus uncertainties from Brexit negotiations as Infiniti vehicles were assembled in the UK which would likely lose access to the EU market. Furthermore Infiniti was lacking brand equity and remained a niche player in the premium car market dominated by the longtime three German luxury marques (Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz). In South Korea, sales of Nissan and Infiniti had dropped after "consumer sentiment against Japanese products intensified", leading to both marques being discontinued there. It also relocated its headquarters from Hong Kong to Yokohama, Japan where parent company Nissan is located.


title: Infiniti

text: In November 2021, Nissan stated that its Infiniti brand will become 100% all-electric by 2030, ending production and new car sales of fossil fuel powered Infiniti vehicles by that year.


title: Infiniti

text: In March 2022, Nissan withdrew entirely from Russia as a result of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, effectively ending all production in Russia, exports into Russia, and new car sales of Nissan and Infiniti vehicles in the country as a result of sanctions imposed on Russia by the European Union, Japan, and the United States.


title: Infiniti

text: Infiniti's former model name designation included one letter for coupés and sedans, two letters for SUVs, and a number reflecting engine displacement. For example, the QX56 was an SUV featuring a 5.6L engine. An exception to this was the QX4 SUV, which featured a 3.3L engine (1996–2000) and later a 3.5L engine (2000–2003). An "x" following the engine displacement of Infiniti sedans denoted an all wheel drive model (e.g. Infiniti G35x), "s" denoted a sport package, "h" denoted a hybrid model, and "d" denoted a diesel model.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2013, Infiniti's model designation changed to the coupes and sedans starting with the letter Q, the SUVs and crossovers starting with the letters QX, and a number reflecting the model's place in the brand lineup. The M sedan became the Q70, the G coupe became the Q60, and the G sedan became the Q50; meanwhile, the QX56 became the QX80, the FX became the QX70, the JX became the QX60 and the EX became the QX50.


title: Infiniti

text: In August 2010, Infiniti unveiled its new performance marque named Infiniti Performance Line, or IPL.


title: Infiniti

text: In 1996, Nissan launched an effort to compete in the Indy Racing League with the Infiniti brand. The engine chosen for the Indy cars was a racing variant of the VH engine used in the production Q45s. Eddie Cheever resulted third in the 2000 season. The IRL program was quietly wrapped after the 2002 season after a few wins.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2011, Infiniti began sponsoring Formula One team Red Bull Racing, which was chosen due to the team's already existing collaboration with the Renault-Nissan Alliance, with Renault supplying engines to Red Bull Racing. In 2011, Infiniti signed Formula One World Champion Sebastian Vettel as its first global ambassador. Infiniti ended its sponsorship of the team after the 2015 season.


title: Infiniti

text: The establishment of Renault F1 Team in 2016 by the Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi alliance provided Infiniti with the opportunity to evolve its involvement in Formula One, collaborating on three main projects. Infiniti contributes engineering resources to Renault F1 Team for the co-development of the Power Unit's Energy Recovery System (ERS), including relocating several of their specialists to the Renault F1 Team's facilities in France. In addition, the Infiniti Engineering Academy provides for engineering students to collaborate with the Renault F1 Team. Infiniti and the Renault F1 team also collaborate on Project Black S, a road car that features an ERS inspired by the one used in Formula One.


title: Infiniti

text: In 2020, a few Infiniti Q50s were entered into the British Touring Car Championship by Laser Tools Racing. They won the drivers' championship with Ash Sutton at the wheel that year and the subsequent year.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Jesse Lamont Martin ("né" Watkins; January 18, 1969) is an American actor and singer. He originated the role of Tom Collins on Broadway in the musical "Rent" and performed on television as NYPD Detective Ed Green on "Law & Order" and Captain Joe West on "The Flash".


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin, the third of four sons, was born in Rocky Mount, Virginia. His father, Jesse Reed Watkins (1943–2003), was a truck driver, and his mother, Virginia Price, a college counselor. He was born two months premature. His parents divorced when he was a child. His mother eventually remarried and Martin adopted his stepfather's surname.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: When Martin was in grade school, the family relocated to Buffalo, New York, but Martin began to dislike speaking because of his Southern accent and was often overcome with shyness. A concerned educator and mentor influenced him to join an after-school drama program and cast him as the pastor in "The Golden Goose". Being from Virginia, the young Martin played the character the only way he knew how: as an inspired Southern Baptist preacher. The act was a hit, and Martin emerged from his shell. Martin attended high school at the Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts, where he was voted "Most Talented" in his senior class. He later enrolled in New York University's Tisch School of the Arts' theatre program, and while at NYU he was also the popular president of Rubin Dorm, the former domain of Mark Twain.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: After graduation, Martin toured the states with John Houseman's The Acting Company. He appeared in "Shakespeare's Rock-in-Roles" at the Actors Theatre of Louisville and "The Butcher's Daughter" at the Cleveland Play House, and returned to Manhattan to perform in local theatre, soap operas, and commercials. Finding that auditions, regional theater, and bit parts were no way to support himself, Martin waited tables at several restaurants around the city. He was serving a pizza when his appearance on CBS's "Guiding Light" aired in the same eatery. While the show aired, the whole waitstaff gathered around the bar television to cheer his performance. Often, during the dinner rush, he broke out in song. When he gave his customers their dinner checks, he told them to "keep it, because someday I'll be famous!"


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin made his Broadway debut in "Timon of Athens", and then performed in "The Government Inspector" with Lainie Kazan. While employed at the Moondance Diner, he met the playwright Jonathan Larson, who also worked on the restaurant's staff. In 1996, Larson's musical "Rent" took the theatre world by storm, with Martin in the role of gay computer geek/philosophy professor Tom Collins. The 1990s update of Puccini's "La Bohème" earned six Drama Desk Awards, five Obie Awards, four Tony Awards, and the Pulitzer Prize. In 1998, the West End production of "Rent" opened with four of the original cast members, including Martin. He played Tad in the concept album of "Bright Lights, Big City".


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: In 2010, Martin returned to the stage for one of his biggest theater commitments since "Law & Order", performing in the productions of "The Merchant of Venice" and "The Winter's Tale" as a part of The Public Theater's "Shakespeare in the Park" at the Delacorte Theater in Central Park. He played the roles of Gratiano and King Polixenes, respectively. The two shows were performed in repertory, beginning with previews on June 9, 2010, through to the final performance on August 1, 2010.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: "The Merchant of Venice" later transferred to Broadway to the Broadhurst Theater for a limited engagement, in which Martin reprised his role as Gratiano. The show began previews on October 19, 2010, and officially opened on November 7. The show began a hiatus on January 9 to accommodate Al Pacino's pre-existing obligations, and resumed from February 1, 2011, to February 20, 2011; Martin did not reprise his role after the hiatus due to other work commitments. He took part in a one-night-only reading benefit of "Romeo and Juliet" to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the opening of the Delacorte Theater in Central Park, alongside Meryl Streep, Kevin Kline, Raúl Esparza, and others on June 18, 2012.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin landed roles on Fox's short-lived "413 Hope St." and Eric Bross's independent film "Restaurant" (1998). "Ally McBeal"s creator, David E. Kelley, attended "Rent"s Broadway premiere and remembered Martin when the show needed a new boyfriend for the title character. His performance as Dr. Greg Butters on "Ally McBeal" caught the attention of David Duchovny, who cast Martin as a baseball-playing alien in a 1999 episode of "The X-Files" titled "The Unnatural" that Duchovny wrote and directed.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: While still shooting "Ally McBeal", Martin heard rumors that actor Benjamin Bratt planned to leave the cast of "Law & Order". Martin had tried out for the show years before and won the minor role of a car-radio thief named Earl the Hamster, but decided to wait for a bigger part. With the opportunity presenting itself, Martin approached "Law & Order" producer Dick Wolf regarding the opening. Wolf hoped to cast him, and upon hearing that CBS and Fox both offered Martin development deals, he gave the actor the part without an audition.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: From 1999 to 2008, he played Detective Edward "Ed" Green on "Law & Order". Altogether, he was the fifth-longest serving cast member behind S. Epatha Merkerson, Sam Waterston, Jerry Orbach, and Steven Hill. He had a brief hiatus at the end of the 2004–2005 season while he was filming the movie adaptation of "Rent" in which he reprised the role of Tom Collins. Martin's final episode of "Law & Order" aired April 23, 2008, as he was replaced by Anthony Anderson. Martin returned to NBC a year later as the co-star of "The Philanthropist".


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: On September 14, 2012, NBC announced that Martin would be joining the cast of "Smash" during season two for a nine-episode arc as Scott Nichols, the artistic director of the Manhattan Theatre Workshop. Martin also starred in an NBC pilot called "The Secret Lives of Husbands and Wives" as Greg Cooke, however it was not picked up to series.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin currently portrays Joe West in the superhero series "The Flash", a spin-off from "Arrow" which premiered in October 2014. In the third season episode "Duet", Martin played gangster Digsy Foss in Barry and Kara's dreamworld. In its fifth season in 2018, a back injury forced Martin to take medical leave following the season's fourth episode. From the start of the season until then he was almost always leaning against a wall or sitting down. Martin returned from medical leave in January 2019 with the season's fifteenth episode. He departed as a series regular after the eighth season, having been cast in the NBC pilot "Irrational", though he is expected to recur.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: On March 4, 2013, it was announced that Martin would replace Lenny Kravitz as Marvin Gaye in "Sexual Healing," an upcoming biopic directed by Julien Temple, and produced by Vassal Benton and Fred Bestall. Martin had been attached to the Marvin Gaye biopic for years and had stated that it was his dream role to portray the legendary Motown singer. With only three weeks to go on a planned nine-and-a-half week shoot, it was reported that production had stopped on the biopic, primarily due to financial problems (crew members were said to have not been paid fully for their work on the film). Approximately 70% of the film had been shot.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin narrated the audio book "The Fire Next Time" by James Baldwin and "On the Shoulder of Giants, Volume 2: Master Intellects and Creative Giants" by Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. He co-produced the off-Broadway production of "Fully Committed" with "Rent" co-star Adam Pascal (and two other producers).


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: Martin sits on the board of trustees for the Jonathan Larson Performing Arts Foundation along with "Rent" co-producer Kevin McCollum.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: In October 2006, Martin returned to Buffalo, New York to work on an independent film ("Buffalo Bushido"), and was robbed two days after his arrival there.


title: Jesse L. Martin

text: In 2018, Martin suffered a back injury during the summer, which resulted in his being unable to commit to the fifth season of "The Flash". He took a medical leave of absence from the show after recording scenes for a few episodes.


title: Keloid

text: is the formation of a type of scar which, depending on its maturity, is composed mainly of either type III (early) or type I (late) collagen. It is a result of an overgrowth of granulation tissue (collagen type 3) at the site of a healed skin injury which is then slowly replaced by collagen type 1. Keloids are firm, rubbery lesions or shiny, fibrous nodules, and can vary from pink to the color of the person's skin or red to dark brown in color. A keloid scar is benign and not contagious, but sometimes accompanied by severe itchiness, pain, and changes in texture. In severe cases, it can affect movement of skin. In the United States keloid scars are seen 15 times more frequently in people of sub-Saharan African descent than in people of European descent. There is a higher tendency to develop a keloid among those with a family history of keloids and people between the ages of 10 and 30 years.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids should not be confused with hypertrophic scars, which are raised scars that do not grow beyond the boundaries of the original wound.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids expand in claw-like growths over normal skin. They have the capability to hurt with a needle-like pain or to itch, the degree of sensation varying from person to person.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids form within scar tissue. Collagen, used in wound repair, tends to overgrow in this area, sometimes producing a lump many times larger than that of the original scar. They can also range in color from pink to red. Although they usually occur at the site of an injury, keloids can also arise spontaneously. They can occur at the site of a piercing and even from something as simple as a pimple or scratch. They can occur as a result of severe acne or chickenpox scarring, infection at a wound site, repeated trauma to an area, excessive skin tension during wound closure or a foreign body in a wound. Keloids can sometimes be sensitive to chlorine. If a keloid appears when someone is still growing, the keloid can continue to grow as well.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids can develop in any place where skin trauma has occurred. They can be the result of pimples, insect bites, scratching, burns, or other skin injury. Keloid scars can develop after surgery.


title: Keloid

text: They are more common in some sites, such as the central chest (from a sternotomy), the back and shoulders (usually resulting from acne), and the ear lobes (from ear piercings). They can also occur on body piercings.


title: Keloid

text: Most skin injury types can contribute to scarring. This includes burns, acne scars, chickenpox scars, ear piercing, scratches, surgical incisions, and vaccination sites.


title: Keloid

text: According to the (US) National Center for Biotechnology Information, keloid scarring is common in young people between the ages of 10 and 20. Studies have shown that those with darker complexions are at a higher risk of keloid scarring as a result of skin trauma. They occur in 15–20% of individuals with sub-Saharan African, Asian or Latino ancestry, significantly less in those of a Caucasian background. Although it was previously believed that people with albinism did not get keloids, a recent report described the incidence of keloids in Africans with albinism. Keloids tend to have a genetic component, which means one is more likely to have keloids if one or both of their parents has them. However, no single gene has yet been identified which is a causing factor in keloid scarring but several susceptibility loci have been discovered, most notably in Chromosome 15.


title: Keloid

text: People who have ancestry from Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, or Latin America are more likely to develop a keloid. Among ethnic Chinese in Asia, the keloid is the most common skin condition. In the United States, keloids are more common in African Americans and Hispanic Americans than European Americans. Those who have a family history of keloids are also susceptible since about 1/3 of people who get keloids have a first-degree blood relative (mother, father, sister, brother, or child) who also gets keloids. This family trait is most common in people of African and/or Asian descent.


title: Keloid

text: Development of keloids among twins also lends credibility to existence of a genetic susceptibility to develop keloids. Marneros et al. (1) reported four sets of identical twins with keloids; Ramakrishnan et al. also described a pair of twins who developed keloids at the same time after vaccination. Case series have reported clinically severe forms of keloids in individuals with a positive family history and black African ethnic origin.


title: Keloid

text: Histologically, keloids are fibrotic tumors characterized by a collection of atypical fibroblasts with excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components, especially collagen, fibronectin, elastin, and proteoglycans. Generally, they contain relatively acellular centers and thick, abundant collagen bundles that form nodules in the deep dermal portion of the lesion. Keloids present a therapeutic challenge that must be addressed, as these lesions can cause significant pain, (itching), and physical disfigurement. They may not improve in appearance over time and can limit mobility if located over a joint.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids affect both sexes equally, although the incidence in young female patients has been reported to be higher than in young males, probably reflecting the greater frequency of earlobe piercing among women.


title: Keloid

text: The frequency of occurrence is 15 times higher in highly pigmented people. People of African descent have increased risk of keloid occurrences.


title: Keloid

text: Prevention of keloid scars in patients with a known predisposition to them includes preventing unnecessary trauma or surgery (such as ear piercing and elective mole removal) whenever possible. Any skin problems in predisposed individuals (e.g., acne, infections) should be treated as early as possible to minimize areas of inflammation.


title: Keloid

text: Treatments (both preventive and therapeutic) available are pressure therapy, silicone gel sheeting, intra-lesional triamcinolone acetonide (TAC), cryosurgery (freezing), radiation, laser therapy (PDL), IFN, 5-FU and surgical excision as well as a multitude of extracts and topical agents. Appropriate treatment of a keloid scar is age-dependent: radiotherapy, anti-metabolites and corticosteroids would not be recommended to be used in children, in order to avoid harmful side effects, like growth abnormalities.


title: Keloid

text: In adults, corticosteroids combined with 5-FU and PDL in a triple therapy, enhance results and diminish side effects.


title: Keloid

text: Cryotherapy (or cryosurgery) refers to the application of extreme cold to treat keloids. This treatment method is easy to perform, effective and safe and has the least chance of recurrence.


title: Keloid

text: Surgical excision is currently still the most common treatment for a significant amount of keloid lesions. However, when used as the solitary form of treatment there is a large recurrence rate of between 70 and 100%. It has also been known to cause a larger lesion formation on recurrence. While not always successful alone, surgical excision when combined with other therapies dramatically decreases the recurrence rate. Examples of these therapies include but are not limited to radiation therapy, pressure therapy and laser ablation. Pressure therapy following surgical excision has shown promising results, especially in keloids of the ear and earlobe. The mechanism of how exactly pressure therapy works is unknown at present, but many patients with keloid scars and lesions have benefited from it.


title: Keloid

text: Intralesional injection with a corticosteroid such as Kenalog (triamcinolone acetonide) does appear to aid in the reduction of fibroblast activity, inflammation and pruritus.


title: Keloid

text: A 2022 systematic review included multiple studies on laser therapy for treating keloid scars. There was not enough evidence for the review authors to determine if laser therapy was more effective than other treatments. They were also unable to conclude if laser therapy leads to more harm than benefits compared with no treatment or different kinds of treatment.


title: Keloid

text: Persons of any age can develop a keloid. Children under 10 are less likely to develop keloids, even from ear piercing. Keloids may also develop from Pseudofolliculitis barbae; continued shaving when one has razor bumps will cause irritation to the bumps, infection, and over time keloids will form. Persons with razor bumps are advised to stop shaving in order for the skin to repair itself before undertaking any form of hair removal. The tendency to form keloids is speculated to be hereditary. Keloids can tend to appear to grow over time without even piercing the skin, almost acting out a slow tumorous growth; the reason for this tendency is unknown.


title: Keloid

text: Extensive burns, either thermal or radiological, can lead to unusually large keloids; these are especially common in firebombing casualties, and were a signature effect of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.


title: Keloid

text: True incidence and prevalence of keloid in United States is not known. Indeed, there has never been a population study to assess the epidemiology of this disorder. In his 2001 publication, Marneros stated that “reported incidence of keloids in the general population ranges from a high of 16% among the adults in the Democratic Republic of the Congo to a low of 0.09% in England,” quoting from Bloom's 1956 publication on heredity of keloids. Clinical observations show that the disorder is more common among sub-Saharan Africans, African Americans and Asians, with unreliable and very wide estimated prevalence rates ranging from 4.5 to 16%.


title: Keloid

text: Keloids were described by Egyptian surgeons around 1700 BC, recorded in the Smith papyrus, regarding surgical techniques. Baron Jean-Louis Alibert (1768–1837) identified the keloid as an entity in 1806. He called them , later changing the name to to avoid confusion with cancer. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek , , meaning "crab pincers", and the suffix "-oid", meaning "like".


title: Keloid

text: The famous American Civil War-era photograph "Whipped Peter" depicts an escaped former slave with extensive keloid scarring as a result of numerous brutal beatings from his former overseer.


title: Keloid

text: Intralesional corticosteroid injections was introduced as a treatment in mid-1960s as a method to attenuate scaring.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Paths of Glory is a 1957 American anti-war film co-written and directed by Stanley Kubrick, based on the novel of the same name by Humphrey Cobb. Set during World War I, the film stars Kirk Douglas as Colonel Dax, the commanding officer of French soldiers who refuse to continue a suicidal attack, after which Dax attempts to defend them against charges of cowardice in a court-martial.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The film was co-produced through Douglas's film production company, Bryna Productions, and a joint venture between Stanley Kubrick and James B. Harris, Harris-Kubrick Pictures. In 1992, the film was deemed "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The film begins with a voiceover describing the trench warfare situation of World War I up to 1916. In a château, General Georges Broulard, a member of the French General Staff, asks his subordinate, the ambitious General Mireau, to take a well-defended German position called the Anthill. Mireau initially refuses, citing the impossibility of success, but when Broulard mentions a potential promotion, Mireau quickly convinces himself the attack will succeed.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Mireau proceeds to walk through the trenches, asking several soldiers, "Ready to kill more Germans?" He throws a private out of the regiment for showing signs of shell shock. Mireau leaves the detailed planning of the attack to Colonel Dax of the 701st regiment, despite Dax's protests that the only result of the attack will be to weaken the French Army with heavy losses for no benefit.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Prior to the attack, a drunken lieutenant named Roget, leading a night-time scouting mission, sends one of his two men ahead. Overcome by fear while waiting for the man's return, Roget lobs a grenade and retreats. Corporal Paris, the other soldier on the mission, finds the body of the scout, who has been killed by the grenade, and confronts Roget. Roget denies any wrongdoing and falsifies his report to Colonel Dax.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The next morning, the attack on the Anthill is a failure. Dax leads the first wave of soldiers over the top into no man's land under heavy fire. None of the men reach the German trenches, and B Company refuses to leave their own trench after seeing the first wave sustain heavy casualties. Mireau, enraged, orders his artillery to open fire on them to force them onto the battlefield. The artillery commander refuses to fire without written confirmation of the order. Meanwhile, Dax returns to the trenches and tries to rally B Company to join the battle, but as he climbs out of the trench, the body of a dead French soldier knocks him down.


title: Paths of Glory

text: At a meeting with Broulard and Dax, to deflect blame for the attack's failure, Mireau decides to court-martial 100 of the soldiers for cowardice. Broulard persuades him to reduce the number to three, one from each company. Corporal Paris is chosen because his commanding officer Roget wishes to keep him from testifying about Roget's actions in the scouting mission. Private Ferol is picked by his commanding officer because he is a "social undesirable." The last man, Private Arnaud, is chosen randomly by lot, despite having been cited for bravery twice previously.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Dax, who was a criminal defense lawyer in civilian life, volunteers to defend the men at their court-martial. The trial however, is a farce. There is no formal written indictment, a court stenographer is not present, and the court refuses to admit evidence that would support acquittal. In his closing statement, Dax denounces the proceedings: "Gentlemen of the court, to find these men guilty would be a crime to haunt each of you till the day you die." Nonetheless, the three are sentenced to death.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The night before the execution, Dax confronts Broulard at a ball, with sworn statements by witnesses attesting to Mireau's order to shell his own trenches, in an attempt to blackmail the General Staff into sparing the three men. Broulard takes the statements but brusquely dismisses Dax.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The next morning, the three men are taken out to be shot by firing squad. Dax, suspecting Roget for his nomination of Paris, forces Roget to lead the executions. While a sobbing Ferol is blindfolded, Paris refuses Roget's offer of a blindfold and reacts ambiguously to Roget's meek apology. Arnaud, meanwhile, is so badly injured after having started a fight in prison that he must be carried out in a stretcher and tied to the post. All three men are executed.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Following the executions, Broulard breakfasts with the gloating Mireau. Broulard reveals he has invited Dax to attend and tells Mireau that he will be investigated for the order to fire on his own men. Mireau storms out, protesting that he has been made a scapegoat. Broulard then blithely offers Mireau's command to Dax, assuming that Dax's attempts to stop the executions were a ploy to gain Mireau's job. Discovering that Dax was in fact sincere, Broulard rebukes him for his idealism, while the disgusted Dax calls Broulard a "degenerate, sadistic old man."


title: Paths of Glory

text: After the execution, some of Dax's soldiers are carousing at an inn. They become more subdued as they listen to a captive German girl sing a sentimental folk song. Dax decides to leave without informing the men that they have been ordered to return to the front. His face hardens as he returns to his quarters.


title: Paths of Glory

text: The title of Cobb's novel came from the ninth stanza of Thomas Gray's poem "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard" (1751).


title: Paths of Glory

text: The book was a minor success when published in 1935, retelling the true-life affair of four French soldiers who were executed to set an example to the rest of the troops. The novel was adapted to the stage the same year by Sidney Howard, World War I veteran and scriptwriter of "Gone with the Wind" . The play was a flop on Broadway, because of its harsh anti-war scenes that alienated the audience. Nonetheless, Howard continued to believe in the relevance of the subject matter and thought it should be made into a film, writing, "It seems to me that our motion picture industry must feel something of a sacred obligation to make the picture." Fulfilling Howard's "sacred obligation", Stanley Kubrick decided to adapt it to the screen after he remembered reading the book when he was younger. Kubrick and his partners purchased the film rights from Cobb's widow for $10,000.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Gray's stanza reflects Kubrick's feelings about war as well, and that becomes clear in the narrative of the film – a long battle for something with such an unimportant name as the "Ant Hill". Some of Kubrick's unrealized projects contained themes of war, as well. Kubrick once told a "New York Times" journalist:


title: Paths of Glory

text: Man isn't a noble savage, he's an ignoble savage. He is irrational, brutal, weak, silly, unable to be objective about anything where his own interests are involved – that about sums it up. I'm interested in the brutal and violent nature of man because it's a true picture of him. And any attempt to create social institutions on a false view of the nature of man is probably doomed to failure.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Kubrick's filmography shares many visual elements but thematically, the most frequent subject – even more than sexuality – is war. "Dr. Strangelove" (1964) presents war as a farce, its absurdity and pointlessness evoked through comedy. "Fear and Desire" (1953) demonstrates that the extreme stress and trauma of war can lead to the mental breakdown of soldiers to a point where they are insanely committing war crimes against a civilian population, thereby effectively abandoning the waged purpose of the war in the first place." Full Metal Jacket" (1987) enters the mind of a soldier and tells the audience that they may not like what they hear. "Spartacus" (1960) also shows the horrors of war, much like "Barry Lyndon" (1975) and "A Clockwork Orange" (1971) with its many references to World War II and other conflicts.


title: Paths of Glory

text: "Paths of Glory" is based loosely on the true story of the Souain corporals affair, when four French soldiers were executed in 1915, during World War I under General Géraud Réveilhac, for failure to follow orders. The soldiers were exonerated posthumously, in 1934. The novel is about the French execution of innocent men to strengthen others' resolve to fight. The French Army did carry out military executions for cowardice, as did most of the other major participants, excluding the United States of America and Australia. The United States sentenced 24 soldiers to death for cowardice, but the sentences were never carried out. However, a significant point in the film is the practice of selecting individuals at random and executing them as a punishment for the sins of the whole group. This is similar to the Roman practice of decimation, which was rarely used by the French Army in World War I. "Paths of Glory" takes place in France, but Kubrick's feelings on the topic stem more from his American upbringing. When General Mireau says “show me a patriot, and I'll show you an honest man”, Colonel Dax remarks that Samuel Johnson once said: “Patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel”.


title: Paths of Glory

text: Kubrick once said of his decision to make a war film: "One of the attractions of a war or crime story is that it provides an almost unique opportunity to contrast an individual or our contemporary society with a solid framework of accepted value, which the audience becomes fully aware of, and which can be used as a counterpoint to a human, individual, emotional situation. Further, war acts as a kind of hothouse for forced, quick breeding of attitudes and feelings. Attitudes crystallise and come out into the open. Conflict is natural, when it would in a less critical situation have to be introduced almost as a contrivance, and would thus appear forced or, even worse, false."


title: Paths of Glory

text: Although Kubrick's previous film "The Killing" had failed at the box office, it had managed to land on several critical top-ten lists for the year. Dore Schary, then head of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, liked the film and hired Kubrick and Harris to develop film stories from MGM's slush pile of scripts and purchased novels. Finding nothing they liked, Kubrick remembered reading Cobb's book at the age of 14 and the "great impact" it had upon him and suggested it as their next project. Schary strongly doubted the commercial success of the story, which had already been turned down by every other major studio.


title: Paths of Glory

text: After Schary was fired by MGM in a major shake-up, Kubrick and Harris managed to interest Kirk Douglas in a script version that Kubrick had done with Calder Willingham. After reading the script, Kirk Douglas was impressed and managed to get an advance for a $1 million budget from United Artists to help produce the film. Of the roughly $1 million budget, more than a third was allocated to Kirk Douglas' salary. Prior to the involvement of Douglas and his Bryna Production Company, no studio had showed interest in the seemingly noncommercial subject matter and filming in black and white. MGM rejected the idea of the film based on fears that the film would be unfavourable to European distributors and audiences. United Artists agreed to back it with Douglas as the star.