title: Rickets

text: Signs and symptoms of dietary deficiency rickets can include bone tenderness, and a susceptibility for bone fractures, particularly greenstick fractures. Early skeletal deformities can arise in infants such as soft, thinned skull bones – a condition known as craniotabes, which is the first sign of rickets; skull bossing may be present and a delayed closure of the fontanelles.


title: Rickets

text: Young children may have bowed legs and thickened ankles and wrists; older children may have knock knees. Spinal curvatures of kyphoscoliosis or lumbar lordosis may be present. The pelvic bones may be deformed. A condition known as rachitic rosary can result as the thickening caused by nodules forming on the costochondral joints. This appears as a visible bump in the middle of each rib in a line on each side of the body. This somewhat resembles a rosary, giving rise to its name. The deformity of a pigeon chest may result in the presence of Harrison's groove.


title: Rickets

text: Hypocalcemia, a low level of calcium in the blood can result in tetany – uncontrolled muscle spasms. Dental problems can also arise.


title: Rickets

text: An X-ray or radiograph of an advanced patient with rickets tends to present in a classic way: the bowed legs (outward curve of long bone of the legs) and a deformed chest. Changes in the skull also occur causing a distinctive "square headed" appearance known as "caput quadratum". These deformities persist into adult life if not treated. Long-term consequences include permanent curvatures or disfiguration of the long bones, and a curved back.


title: Rickets

text: Maternal deficiencies may be the cause of overt bone disease from before birth and impairment of bone quality after birth. The primary cause of congenital rickets is vitamin D deficiency in the mother's blood, which the baby shares. Vitamin D ensures that serum phosphate and calcium levels are sufficient to facilitate the mineralization of bone. Congenital rickets may also be caused by other maternal diseases, including severe osteomalacia, untreated celiac disease, malabsorption, pre-eclampsia, and premature birth. Rickets in children is similar to osteoporosis in the elderly, with brittle bones. Pre-natal care includes checking vitamin levels and ensuring that any deficiencies are supplemented.


title: Rickets

text: Exclusively breast-fed infants may require rickets prevention by vitamin D supplementation or an increased exposure to sunlight.


title: Rickets

text: In sunny countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Bangladesh, there is sufficient endogenous vitamin D due to exposure to the sun. However, the disease occurs among older toddlers and children in these countries, which in these circumstances is attributed to low dietary calcium intakes due to a mainly cereal-based diet.


title: Rickets

text: Diseases causing soft bones in infants, like hypophosphatasia or hypophosphatemia, can also lead to rickets.


title: Rickets

text: Strontium is allied with calcium uptake into bones; at excessive dietary levels strontium has a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action.


title: Rickets

text: Sunlight, especially ultraviolet light, lets human skin cells convert vitamin D from an inactive to active state. In the absence of vitamin D, dietary calcium is not properly absorbed, resulting in hypocalcaemia, leading to skeletal and dental deformities and neuromuscular symptoms, e.g. hyperexcitability. Foods that contain vitamin D include butter, eggs, fish liver oils, margarine, fortified milk and juice, portabella and shiitake mushrooms, and oily fishes such as tuna, herring, and salmon. A rare X-linked dominant form exists called vitamin D-resistant rickets or X-linked hypophosphatemia.


title: Rickets

text: Cases have been reported in Britain in recent years of rickets in children of many social backgrounds caused by insufficient production in the body of vitamin D because the sun's ultraviolet light was not reaching the skin due to use of strong sunblock, too much "covering up" in sunlight, or not getting out into the sun. Other cases have been reported among the children of some ethnic groups in which mothers avoid exposure to the sun for religious or cultural reasons, leading to a maternal shortage of vitamin D, and people with darker skin need more sunlight to maintain vitamin D levels.


title: Rickets

text: Rickets had historically been a problem in London, especially during the Industrial Revolution. Persistent thick fog and heavy industrial smog permeating the city blocked out significant amounts of sunlight to such an extent that up to 80 percent of children at one time had varying degrees of rickets in one form or the other. It is sometimes known "the English Disease" in some foreign languages (e.g. German: , Dutch: , Hungarian: ).


title: Rickets

text: Rickets is often a result of vitamin D3 deficiency. The correlation between human skin color and latitude is thought to be the result of positive selection to varying levels of solar ultraviolet radiation. Northern latitudes have selection for lighter skin that allows UV rays to produce vitamin D from 7-dehydrocholesterol. Conversely, latitudes near the equator have selection for darker skin that can block the majority of UV radiation to protect from toxic levels of vitamin D, as well as skin cancer.


title: Rickets

text: An anecdote often cited to support this hypothesis is that Arctic populations whose skin is relatively darker for their latitude, such as the Inuit, have a diet that is historically rich in vitamin D. Since these people acquire vitamin D through their diet, there is not a positive selective force to synthesize vitamin D from sunlight.


title: Rickets

text: Environment mismatch: vitamin D deficiency arises from a mismatch between an individual's previous and current environment. This risk of mismatch increases with advances in transportation methods and increases in urban population size at high latitudes.


title: Rickets

text: Similar to the environmental mismatch when dark-skinned people live at high latitudes, Rickets can also occur in religious communities that require long garments with hoods and veils. These hoods and veils act as sunlight barriers that prevent individuals from synthesizing vitamin D naturally from the sun.


title: Rickets

text: In a study by Mithal et al., vitamin D insufficiency of various countries was measured by lower 25-hydroxyvitamin D. 25(OH) D is an indicator of vitamin D insufficiency that can be easily measured. These percentages should be regarded as relative vitamin D levels, and not as predicting evidence for development of rickets.


title: Rickets

text: Asian immigrants living in Europe have an increased risk for vitamin D deficiency. Vitamin D insufficiency was found in 40% of non-Western immigrants in the Netherlands, and in more than 80% of Turkish and Moroccan immigrants.


title: Rickets

text: The Middle East, despite high rates of sun-exposure, has the highest rates of rickets worldwide. This can be explained by limited sun exposure due to cultural practices and lack of vitamin D supplementation for breast-feeding women. Up to 70% and 80% of adolescent girls in Iran and Saudi Arabia, respectively, have vitamin D insufficiency. Socioeconomic factors that limit a vitamin D rich diet also plays a role.


title: Rickets

text: In the United States, vitamin D insufficiency varies dramatically by ethnicity. Among females aged 70 years and older, the prevalence of low serum 25(OH) D levels was 28.5% for non-Hispanic whites, 55% for Mexican Americans, and 68% for non-Hispanic blacks. Among males, the prevalence was 23%, 45%, and 58%, respectively.


title: Rickets

text: A systematic review published in the Cochrane Library looked at children up to three years old in Turkey and China and found there was a beneficial association between vitamin D and rickets. In Turkey children getting vitamin D had only a 4% chance of developing rickets compared to children who received no medical intervention. In China, a combination of vitamin D, calcium and nutritional counseling was linked to a decreased risk of rickets.


title: Rickets

text: Parents can supplement their nutritional intake with vitamin D enhanced beverages if they feel their child is at risk for vitamin D deficiency.


title: Rickets

text: Osteochondrodysplasias, also known as genetic bone diseases, may mimic the clinical picture of rickets in regard to the features of bone deformities. The radiologic picture and the laboratory findings of serum calcium, phosphate and alkaline phosphatase are important differentiating factors. Blount's disease is an important differential diagnosis because it causes knee deformities in a similar fashion to rickets namely bow legs or genu varum. Infants with rickets can have bone fractures. This sometimes leads to child abuse allegations. This issue appears to be more common for solely nursing infants of black mothers, in winter in temperate climates, suffering poor nutrition and no vitamin D supplementation. People with darker skin produce less vitamin D than those with lighter skin, for the same amount of sunlight.


title: Rickets

text: Treatment involves increasing dietary intake of calcium, phosphates and vitamin D. Exposure to ultraviolet B light (most easily obtained when the sun is highest in the sky), cod liver oil, halibut-liver oil, and viosterol are all sources of vitamin D.


title: Rickets

text: A sufficient amount of ultraviolet B light in sunlight each day and adequate supplies of calcium and phosphorus in the diet can prevent rickets. Darker-skinned people need to be exposed longer to the ultraviolet rays. The replacement of vitamin D has been proven to correct rickets using these methods of ultraviolet light therapy and medicine.


title: Rickets

text: Recommendations are for 400 international units (IU) of vitamin D a day for infants and children. Children who do not get adequate amounts of vitamin D are at increased risk of rickets. Vitamin D is essential for allowing the body to uptake calcium for use in proper bone calcification and maintenance.


title: Rickets

text: Sufficient vitamin D levels can also be achieved through dietary supplementation and/or exposure to sunlight. Vitamin D (cholecalciferol) is the preferred form since it is more readily absorbed than vitamin D. Most dermatologists recommend vitamin D supplementation as an alternative to unprotected ultraviolet exposure due to the increased risk of skin cancer associated with sun exposure. Endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is approximately 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.


title: Rickets

text: According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), all infants, including those who are exclusively breast-fed, may need vitamin D supplementation until they start drinking at least of vitamin D-fortified milk or formula a day.


title: Rickets

text: Despite this recommendation, a recent Cochrane systematic review has found limited evidence that vitamin D plus calcium, or calcium alone compared to vitamin D improves healing in children with nutritional rickets.


title: Rickets

text: Occasionally surgery is needed to correct severe and persistent deformities of the lower limbs, especially around the knees namely genu varum and genu valgum. Surgical correction of rachitic deformities can be achieved through osteotomies or guided growth surgery. Guided growth surgery has almost replaced the use of corrective osteotomies. The functional results of guided growth surgery in children with rickets are satisfactory. While bone osteotomies work through acute/immediate correction of the limb deformity, guided growth works through gradual correction.


title: Rickets

text: In developed countries, rickets is a rare disease (incidence of less than 1 in 200,000). Recently, cases of rickets have been reported among children who are not fed enough vitamin D.


title: Rickets

text: In 2013/2014 there were fewer than 700 cases in England. In 2019 the number of cases hospitalised was said to be the highest in 50 years.


title: Rickets

text: Greek physician Soranus of Ephesus, one of the chief representatives of the Methodic school of medicine who practiced in Alexandria and subsequently in Rome, reported deformation of the bones in infants as early as the first and second centuries AD. Rickets was not defined as a specific medical condition until 1645, when an English physician Daniel Whistler gave the earliest known description of the disease. In 1650 a treatise on rickets was published by Francis Glisson, a physician at Caius College, Cambridge, who said it had first appeared about 30 years previously in the counties of Dorset and Somerset. In 1857, John Snow suggested rickets, then widespread in Britain, was being caused by the adulteration of bakers' bread with alum. German pediatrician Kurt Huldschinsky successfully demonstrated in the winter of 1918–1919 how rickets could be treated with ultraviolet lamps. The role of diet in the development of rickets was determined by Edward Mellanby between 1918 and 1920. In 1923, American physician Harry Steenbock demonstrated that irradiation by ultraviolet light increased the vitamin D content of foods and other organic materials. Steenbock's irradiation technique was used for foodstuffs, but most memorably for milk. By 1945, rickets had all but been eliminated in the United States.


title: Rickets

text: The word "rickets" may be from the Old English word ('to twist'), although because this is conjectured, several major dictionaries simply say "origin unknown". The name "rickets" is plural in form but usually singular in construction. The Greek word (, meaning 'in or of the spine') was later adopted as the scientific term for rickets, due chiefly to the words' similarity in sound.


title: Rickets

text: "Vide": Aubrey's Brief Lives: the word has no connection whatever with the Greek "rachitis". I quote:


title: Rickets

text: " about 1620 one Ricketts of Newberye a Practictioner of Physick was excellent at the Curing Children with swoln heads, and small legges: and the Disease being new, and without a name, He being so famous for the cure of it, they called the Disease the Ricketts: as the King's Evill from the King's cureing of it with his Touch; and now 'tis good sport to see how they vex their Lexicons, and fetch it from the Greek PaXis, the back bone."


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Good Luck Jerry is a 2022 Indian Hindi-language black comedy crime film directed by Debutant Sidharth Sengupta, written by Pankaj Matta and produced by Subaskaran Allirajah, Aanand L. Rai and Mahaveer Jain . A remake of the 2018 Tamil film "Kolamaavu Kokila", it stars Janhvi Kapoor as the titular lead alongside Deepak Dobriyal, Mita Vashisht, Neeraj Sood, and Sushant Singh in pivotal roles. The film premiered on 29 July 2022 on Disney+ Hotstar.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Jaya "Jerry" Kumari is a younger Bihari girl who lost her father during a stampede at a railway station and has since been living in a small town in Punjab, where she works in a massage parlour as an adult. Her mother Sharbati sells vegetable dumplings for a living and her little sister Chhaya "Cherry" Kumari is a student. Their unmarried neighbour, Anil, who secretly harbours feelings for Sharbati, is always supportive towards them and acts as a father figure to both Jerry and Cherry. Sharbati is unhappy about Jerry's job, though she is determined to continue the job as she can earn more money there and can live a comfortable life. Rinku, a local derp, stalks Jerry even though she is uninterested in him.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: One day, Sharbati gets ill and is taken to the hospital. Jerry learns that Sharbati has been diagnosed with stage two lung cancer; 25 lakh rupees would be needed for her medical treatment and chemotherapy. A worried Jerry requests a loan from her boss but is refused. One day, while exiting from a shop, she unintentionally hits an absconder, who is actually a drug smuggler trying to evade the police, but is eventually caught upon being injured. Inspector Lal thanks her for catching him. The smuggler's boss, Timmy, and his henchmen, Mohinder "Daddu" Singh Chandal and Jigar, confront Jerry outside the market. Timmy tells Jerry that a stash of cocaine has been hidden away by the absconder in the market's common toilet, and it is impossible for his men to retrieve it since the market is still under strong guard and investigation. With Cherry being taken hostage by Jigar till such time as the drugs are retrieved, a frightened Jerry somehow manages to retrieve the drugs amidst police security. While returning home, Jerry discovers that Cherry found a bag belonging to one of the smugglers money bag loaded with cash and kept it. At first, she refuses to keep the money, but eventually agrees to keep it, considering her current situation. She thinks overnight and decides to smuggle drugs to earn more money for her mother's treatment.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Over the next day, Jerry locates Timmy's place and asks him to consider her for the job as she badly needs money. Timmy at first hesitates but ultimately agrees to keep her as he is infatuated with her. He also convinces his boss Daler to give Jerry the job. He directs her to supply the drugs to a fish factory owned by Ram Malik by hiding it within noodles in a tiffin box. Quickly enough, she becomes an expert and begins to earn more than the men, using the money to treat Sharbati who she has told that her boss sanctioned a loan. One day, Jerry sees Inspector Lal in the massage parlour and suffers a nervous fit, but it turns out that he is the owner's husband. Meanwhile, one of Timmy's henchmen snitches Jerry out to Inspector Lal. Consequently, a police officer searches Jerry on the bus she has boarded and finds drugs in the tiffin box but dismisses it, as he is later revealed to work for Timmy, who discovers the traitor's identity using one of his other men's, but kills both on Jerry's request. Shaken and traumatized, she tells Timmy about not wishing to continue and asks him to pay her dues. Timmy tells her to come the next day. When Jerry goes there to settle the dues, an enraged Timmy says she is very selfish and asks her to give him a body massage. When he tries to take advantage on Jerry, she pushes him away and escapes, leaving him paralyzed.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Jerry returns home to elope with her family but finds Daddu, Jigar and the rest of Timmy's henchmen already holding Sharbati and Cherry captive. Daddu calls Daler, who informs Jerry that she is good to earn her freedom back in exchange for a grand delivery worth 100 kilograms of cocaine. Jerry agrees to do so and hatches a plan with her family and Anil. As part of the plan, Sharbati fakes illness the next day and Jerry and Cherry pretend to ask for help. However, just when the plan seems to work fine with Jigar and a henchman driving the minivan into the area, Rinku intercepts the gang and offers to help Jerry. Eventually, they pick up Sharbati along with the bed, and get her on the minivan. On the way, Rinku learns that they are smuggling drugs which are actually hidden beneath the bed, causing him to lose his composure. They somehow escape a police check, faking Sharbati's illness, and arrive at the fish factory to deliver the drugs and leave. However, Daler soon learns that only 10% of the consignment was actual cocaine, and the rest was salt. Aware of the realization that she and her family, along with Anil and Rinku, would be killed at the end of the consignment delivery, Jerry reveals to Daler that she is safe as long as they can't figure out the location of the rest of the drugs. Malik catches Jerry and her family along with Anil and Rinku yet again and Jerry discloses another location, though it soon turns out that instead of salt, it was just refined sugar.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: While being tortured for their bluff by Malik's man, Jerry and the others, shortly after killing their captor, bump into Inspector Lal and seek his help for caputuring the gang in exchange for her freedom. They convene at Timmy's restaurant, where Daler and his men take everyone hostage, with enraged Daler hitting Jerry everywhere. Jerry's friend Tenzin and his gang reach there with the drugs, but yet again, it turns out to be fine flour; in the meantime, Inspector Lal and his team fight back. After a shootout, all the gang members except an injured Timmy are shot dead. The police seizes the place and Jerry is about to return home, but is interjected by Inspector Lal who demands that she come with him to the police station. Jerry reminds him of their deal but he rebuffs her. Out of options, Jerry tells him that he would never know the real location of the drugs in the event of an arrest, which, as it turns out, is revealed to be his own house, where an almirah due for movement was stashed with the drugs. Helpless, he allows Jerry to walk free, after which she is seen leaving the place with her family and Anil, reciting the fact that, to survive in this world, all one needs is a little bravery.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Principal photography of the Movie commenced on 11 January 2021 in Punjab. The film was wrapped up on 20 March 2021.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Distributed and released by Zee Music Company, the songs of "Good Luck Jerry" is composed entirely by Parag Chhabra in his first solo venture, with lyrics by Raj Shekhar. Aman Pant composed the background score.


title: Good Luck Jerry

text: Dishya Sharma of "News 18" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Good Luck Jerry" is chaotic and fun, bringing back memories of simple comedies such as "Hungama" and "Tanu Weds Manu". I did wish this was a theatrical release". Dhaval Roy of "The Times of India" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Good Luck Jerry is a hilarious and entertaining fare that would have been perfect if it were a tad shorter". Rohit Bhatnagar of "The Free Press Journal" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Good Luck Jerry" is the perfect weekend binge with a runtime of 119 minutes. Watch it for Janhvi's performance and dark humour". Shubham Kulkarni of "Koimoi" rated the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Janhvi Kapoor is proving herself film after film. I hope she only gets better at her craft. The film as a whole is a fun watch and has its own amazing moments". A critic for "Bollywood Hungama" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote ""GOOD LUCK JERRY" rests on a wellwritten script, strong performances and good humour". A critic for "Pinkvilla" rated the film 3 out of 5 stars and wrote ""Good Luck Jerry" is an entertaining ride despite some hiccups in the narrative. It's a film made for the OTT, and this section of the audience should embrace the dark comedy space with open arms. Shubhra Gupta of "The Indian Express" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "Despite a few slack patches, this Janhvi Kapoor-starrer never loses sight of the fact that it needs to be a caper". Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" rated the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "The film benefits from the effort that Janhvi puts and the support that she gets from the rest of the cast, made up mostly of actors who definitely deserve to be busy and popular".


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich (Struthio camelus), or simply ostrich, is a species of flightless bird native to certain large areas of Africa and is the largest living bird species. It is one of two extant species of ostriches, the only living members of the genus "Struthio" in the ratite order of birds. The other is the Somali ostrich ("Struthio molybdophanes"), which was recognized as a distinct species by BirdLife International in 2014 having been previously considered a distinctive subspecies of ostrich.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich belongs to the order Struthioniformes. Struthioniformes previously contained all the ratites, such as the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, recent genetic analysis has found that the group is not monophyletic, as it is paraphyletic with respect to the tinamous, so the ostriches are now classified as the only members of the order. Phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the sister group to all other members of Palaeognathae and thus the flighted tinamous are the sister group to the extinct moa. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a long neck and legs, and can run for a long time at a speed of with short bursts up to about , the fastest land speed of any bird. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and largest living dinosaur. It lays the largest eggs of any living bird (the extinct elephant birds of Madagascar and the giant moa of New Zealand laid larger eggs).


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich's diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates and small reptiles. It lives in nomadic groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground or run away. If cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by geographical region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers, which are decorative and are also used as feather dusters. Its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches usually weigh from , or as much as one to two adult humans. The Masai ostriches of East Africa ("S. c. massaicus") average in males and in females, while the nominate subspecies, the North African ostrich ("S. c. camelus"), was found to average in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches (in the nominate subspecies) can weigh up to . At sexual maturity (two to four years), male common ostriches can be from in height, while female common ostriches range from tall. New chicks are fawn in color, with dark brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about per month. At one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately . Their lifespan is typically 40–45 years.


title: Common ostrich

text: The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff. Females and young males are grayish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a thin layer of down. The skin of the female's neck and thighs is pinkish gray, while the male's is gray or pink dependent on subspecies.


title: Common ostrich

text: The long neck and legs keep their head up to above the ground, and their eyes are said to be the largest of any land vertebrate in diameter helping them to see predators at a great distance. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above. However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds' huge size, with the bill measuring .


title: Common ostrich

text: Their skin varies in color depending on the subspecies, with some having light or dark gray skin and others having pinkish or even reddish skin. The strong legs of the common ostrich are unfeathered and show bare skin, with the tarsus (the lowest upright part of the leg) being covered in scales: red in the male, black in the female. The tarsus of the common ostrich is the largest of any living bird, measuring in length. The bird is didactyl, having just two toes on each foot (most birds have four), with the nail on the larger, inner toe resembling a hoof. The outer toe has no nail. The reduced number of toes is an adaptation that appears to aid in running, useful for getting away from predators. Common ostriches can run at a speed over and can cover in a single stride. The wings reach a span of about , and the wing chord measurement of is around the same size as for the largest flying birds.


title: Common ostrich

text: The feathers lack the tiny hooks that lock together the smooth external feathers of flying birds, and so are soft and fluffy and serve as insulation. Common ostriches can tolerate a wide range of temperatures. In much of their habitat, temperatures vary as much as between night and day. Their temperature control relies in part on behavioral thermoregulation. For example, they use their wings to cover the naked skin of the upper legs and flanks to conserve heat, or leave these areas bare to release heat. The wings also function as stabilizers to give better maneuverability when running. Tests have shown that the wings are actively involved in rapid braking, turning, and zigzag maneuvers. They have 50–60 tail feathers, and their wings have 16 primary, four alular, and 20–23 secondary feathers.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich's sternum is flat, lacking the keel to which wing muscles attach in flying birds. The beak is flat and broad, with a rounded tip. Like all ratites, the ostrich has no crop, and it also lacks a gallbladder and the caecum is . Unlike all other living birds, the common ostrich secretes urine separately from feces. All other birds store the urine and feces combined in the coprodeum, but the ostrich stores the feces in the terminal rectum. They also have unique pubic bones that are fused to hold their gut. Unlike most birds, the males have a copulatory organ, which is retractable and long. Their palate differs from other ratites in that the sphenoid and palatal bones are unconnected.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich was originally described by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in his 18th-century work, "Systema Naturae" under its current binomial name. Its genus is derived from the Late Latin "struthio" meaning "ostrich". The specific name is an allusion to "strouthokamelos" the Ancient Greek name for the ostrich, meaning camel-sparrow, the "camel" term referring to its dry habitat. Στρουθοκάμηλος is still the modern Greek name for the ostrich.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich belongs to the ratite order Struthioniformes. Other members include rheas, emus, cassowaries, moa, kiwi and the largest known bird ever, the now-extinct elephant bird ("Aepyornis"). However, the classification of the ratites as a single order has always been questioned, with the alternative classification restricting the Struthioniformes to the ostrich lineage and elevating the other groups.


title: Common ostrich

text: Some analyses indicate that the Somali ostrich is now considered a full species; the Tree of Life Project, "The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World", BirdLife International, and the recognize it as a different species. A few authorities, including the "Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World", do not recognize it as separate. Mitochondrial DNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the East African Rift. Hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range, "S. c. massaicus", has apparently been prevented from occurring on a significant scale by ecological separation; the Somali ostrich prefers bushland where it browses middle-height vegetation for food while the Masai ostrich is, like the other subspecies, a grazing bird of the open savanna and "miombo" habitat.


title: Common ostrich

text: The population from Río de Oro was once separated as "Struthio camelus spatzi" because its eggshell pores were shaped like a teardrop and not round. As there is considerable variation of this character and there were no other differences between these birds and adjacent populations of "S. c. camelus", the separation is no longer considered valid. However, a study analysing the postcranial skeleton of all living and recently extinct species and subspecies of ostriches appeared to validate "S. c. spatzi" based on its unique skeletal proportions. This population disappeared in the latter half of the 20th century. There were 19th-century reports of the existence of small ostriches in North Africa; these are referred to as Levaillant's ostrich ("Struthio bidactylus") but remain a hypothetical form not supported by material evidence.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, East Africa, Africa south of the rainforest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today common ostriches prefer open land and are native to the savannas and Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In southwest Africa they inhabit the semi-desert or true desert. Farmed common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations. The Arabian ostriches in the Near and Middle East were hunted to extinction by the middle of the 20th century. Attempts to reintroduce the common ostrich into Israel have failed. Common ostriches have occasionally been seen inhabiting islands on the Dahlak Archipelago, in the Red Sea near Eritrea.


title: Common ostrich

text: Research conducted by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany in India found molecular evidence that ostriches lived in India 25,000 years ago. DNA tests on fossilized eggshells recovered from eight archaeological sites in the states of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh found 92% genetic similarity between the eggshells and the North African ostrich, so these could have been fairly distant relatives.


title: Common ostrich

text: Ostriches are farmed in Australia. Many escaped, however, and feral ostriches now roam the Australian outback.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone. Only 16 percent of common ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 100 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. The male common ostrich territory is between .


title: Common ostrich

text: With their acute eyesight and hearing, common ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of , or possibly and can maintain a steady speed of , which makes the common ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear like a mound of earth from a distance, aided by the heat haze in their hot, dry habitat.


title: Common ostrich

text: When threatened, common ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward.


title: Common ostrich

text: They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit, and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts, small reptiles such as lizards, and occasionally animal remains left by carnivorous predators. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The bolus may be as much as . After passing through the neck (there is no crop) the food enters the gizzard and is worked on by the aforementioned pebbles. The gizzard can hold as much as , of which up to 45% may be sand and pebbles. Common ostriches can go without drinking for several days, using metabolic water and moisture in ingested plants, but they enjoy liquid water and frequently take baths where it is available. They can survive losing up to 25% of their body weight through dehydration.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. As with other birds, an individual may reproduce several times over its lifetime. The mating season begins in March or April and ends sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically boom (by inflating their neck) in defense of their territory and harem of two to seven hens; the successful male may then mate with several females in the area, but will only form a pair bond with a 'major' female.


title: Common ostrich

text: The cock performs with his wings, alternating wing beats, until he attracts a mate. They will go to the mating area and he will maintain privacy by driving away all intruders. They graze until their behavior is synchronized, then the feeding becomes secondary and the process takes on a ritualistic appearance. The cock will then excitedly flap alternate wings again and start poking on the ground with his bill. He will then violently flap his wings to symbolically clear out a nest in the soil. Then, while the hen runs a circle around him with lowered wings, he will wind his head in a spiral motion. She will drop to the ground and he will mount for copulation. Common ostriches raised entirely by humans may direct their courtship behavior not at other ostriches, but toward their human keepers.


title: Common ostrich

text: The female common ostrich lays her fertilized eggs in a single communal nest, a simple pit, deep and wide, scraped in the ground by the male. The dominant female lays her eggs first; when it is time to cover them for incubation, she discards extra eggs from the weaker females, leaving about 20 in most cases. A female common ostrich can distinguish her own eggs from the others in a communal nest. Ostrich eggs are the largest of all eggs, though they are actually the smallest eggs relative to the size of the adult bird – on average they are long, wide, and weigh , over 20 times the weight of a chicken's egg and only 1 to 4% the size of the female. They are glossy cream-colored, with thick shells marked by small pits.


title: Common ostrich

text: The eggs are incubated by the females by day and by the males by night. This uses the coloration of the two sexes to escape detection of the nest, as the drab female blends in with the sand, while the black male is nearly undetectable in the night. The incubation period is 35 to 45 days, which is rather short compared to other ratites. This is believed to be the case due to the high rate of predation. Typically, the male defends the hatchlings and teaches them to feed, although males and females cooperate in rearing chicks. Fewer than 10% of nests survive the 9-week period of laying and incubation, and of the surviving chicks, only 15% of those survive to 1 year of age. However, among those common ostriches who survive to adulthood, the species is one of the longest-living bird species. Common ostriches in captivity have lived to 62 years and 7 months.


title: Common ostrich

text: As a flightless species in the rich biozone of the African savanna, the common ostrich faces a variety of formidable predators throughout its life cycle. Animals that prey on ostriches of all ages may include cheetahs, lions, leopards, African hunting dogs, spotted hyenas, and Nile crocodiles. Predators of nests and young common ostriches include jackals, various birds of prey, warthogs, mongoose, and Egyptian vultures. Egyptian vultures have been known to hurl stones at ostrich eggs to crack them open so they can eat their contents.


title: Common ostrich

text: Due to predation pressure, common ostriches have many antipredator tactics. Though they can deliver formidable kicks, they use their great eyesight and speed to run from most of their predators. Since ostriches that have detected predators are almost impossible to catch, most predators will try to ambush an unsuspecting bird using obstructing vegetation or other objects. Some ostriches forage with other ostriches or mammals such as wildebeests and zebras to detect predators more efficiently. If the nest or young are threatened, either or both of the parents may create a distraction, feigning injury. However, they may sometimes fiercely fight predators, especially when chicks are being defended, and are capable of killing humans, hyenas, and even lions in such confrontations.


title: Common ostrich

text: Usually, ostrich hunting is done by male cheetah coalitions in the Kalahari region during the night, when ostrich's vigilance is less effective. Cheetahs in other regions rarely hunt ostriches, but an exceptional coalition composed of three East African cheetahs has been reported in Kenya. Similarly, lions hunt ostriches mainly in the Kalahari region and not in other regions, or take ostriches as only a small percentage of their prey. Overall, due to their speed, vigilance, and possibly dangerous kick, ostriches are usually avoided by most predators, including lions, leopards, wild dogs, and cheetahs. Despite parental care, 90% is typical for chick mortality, most of it caused by predation.


title: Common ostrich

text: Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac is relatively small, lying to the right of the mesentery, and dorsally to the liver. While the left abdominal air sac is large and lies to the left of the mesentery. The connection from the main mesobronchi to the more anterior air sacs including the interclavicular, lateral clavicular, and pre-thoracic sacs known as the ventrobronchi region. While the caudal end of the mesobronchus branches into several dorsobronchi. Together, the ventrobronchi and dorsobronchi are connected by intra-pulmonary airways, the parabronchi, which form an arcade structure within the lung called the paleopulmo. It is the only structure found in primitive birds such as ratites.


title: Common ostrich

text: The largest air sacs found within the respiratory system are those of the post-thoracic region, while the others decrease in size respectively, the interclavicular (unpaired), abdominal, pre-thoracic, and lateral clavicular sacs. The adult common ostrich lung lacks connective tissue known as interparabronchial septa, which render strength to the non-compliant avian lung in other bird species. Due to this the lack of connective tissue surrounding the parabronchi and adjacent parabronchial lumen, they exchange blood capillaries or avascular epithelial plates. Like mammals, ostrich lungs contain an abundance of type II cells at gas exchange sites; an adaptation for preventing lung collapse during slight volume changes.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich is an endotherm and maintains a body temperature of in its extreme living temperature conditions, such as the heat of the savanna and desert regions of Africa. The ostrich utilizes its respiratory system via a costal pump for ventilation rather than a diaphragmatic pump as seen in most mammals. Thus, they are able to use a series of air sacs connected to the lungs. The use of air sacs forms the basis for the three main avian respiratory characteristics:


title: Common ostrich

text: Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea ( ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The common ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration, since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen.


title: Common ostrich

text: To compensate for the large "dead" space, the common ostrich trachea lacks valves to allow faster inspiratory air flow. In addition, the total lung capacity of the respiratory system, (including the lungs and ten air sacs) of a ostrich is about , with a tidal volume ranging from . The tidal volume is seen to double resulting in a 16-fold increase in ventilation. Overall, ostrich respiration can be thought of as a high velocity-low pressure system. At rest, there is a small pressure difference between the ostrich air sacs and the atmosphere, suggesting simultaneous filling and emptying of the air sacs.


title: Common ostrich

text: The increase in respiration rate from the low range to the high range is sudden and occurs in response to hyperthermia. Birds lack sweat glands, so when placed under stress due to heat, they heavily rely upon increased evaporation from the respiratory system for heat transfer. This rise in respiration rate however is not necessarily associated with a greater rate of oxygen consumption. Therefore, unlike most other birds, the common ostrich is able to dissipate heat through panting without experiencing respiratory alkalosis by modifying ventilation of the respiratory medium. During hyperpnea ostriches pant at a respiratory rate of 40–60 cycles per minute, versus their resting rate of 6–12 cycles per minute. Hot, dry, and moisture lacking properties of the common ostrich respiratory medium affect oxygen's diffusion rate (Henry's Law).


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches develop via Intussusceptive angiogenesis, a mechanism of blood vessel formation, characterizing many organs. It is not only involved in vasculature expansion, but also in angioadaptation of vessels to meet physiological requirements. The use of such mechanisms demonstrates an increase in the later stages of lung development, along with elaborate parabronchial vasculature, and reorientation of the gas exchange blood capillaries to establish the crosscurrent system at the blood-gas barrier. The blood–gas barrier (BGB) of their lung tissue is thick. The advantage of this thick barrier may be protection from damage by large volumes of blood flow in times of activity, such as running, since air is pumped by the air sacs rather than the lung itself. As a result, the capillaries in the parabronchi have thinner walls, permitting more efficient gaseous exchange. In combination with separate pulmonary and systemic circulatory systems, it helps to reduce stress on the BGB.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich's heart has similar features to other avian species, like having a conically shaped heart and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds:


title: Common ostrich

text: The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricle. Upon view, the myocardial cells are observed to have large densely packed chromosomes within the nucleus.


title: Common ostrich

text: The coronary arteries start in the right and left aortic sinus and provide blood to the heart muscle in a similar fashion to most other vertebrates. Other domestic birds capable of flight have three or more coronary arteries that supply blood to the heart muscle. The blood supply by the coronary arteries are fashioned starting as a large branch over the surface of the heart. It then moves along the coronary groove and continues on into the tissue as interventricular branches toward the apex of the heart. The atria, ventricles, and septum are supplied of blood by this modality. The deep branches of the coronary arteries found within the heart tissue are small and supply the interventricular and right atrioventricular valve with blood nutrients for which to carry out their processes. The interatrial artery of the ostrich is small in size and exclusively supplies blood to only part of the left auricle and interatrial septum.


title: Common ostrich

text: These Purkinje fibers (p-fibers) found in the hearts moderator bands are a specialized cardiac muscle fiber that causes the heart to contract. The Purkinje cells are mostly found within both the endocardium and the sub-endocardium. The sinoatrial node shows a small concentration of Purkinje fibers, however, continuing through the conducting pathway of the heart the bundle of his shows the highest amount of these Purkinje fibers.


title: Common ostrich

text: The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich's tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface.


title: Common ostrich

text: During the embryonic stage, Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E diminishes while hemoglobin A and D increase in concentration. This shift in hemoglobin concentration results in both decreased oxygen affinity and increased P value.


title: Common ostrich

text: Furthermore, the P value is influenced by differing organic modulators. In the typical mammalian RBC 2,3 – DPG causes a lower affinity for oxygen. 2,3- DPG constitutes approximately 42–47%, of the cells phosphate of the embryonic ostrich. However, the adult ostrich have no traceable 2,3- DPG.In place of 2,3-DPG the ostrich uses inositol polyphosphates (IPP), which vary from 1–6 phosphates per molecule. In relation to the IPP, the ostrich also uses ATP to lower oxygen affinity. ATP has a consistent concentration of phosphate in the cell around 31% at incubation periods and dropping to 16–20% in 36-day-old chicks. However, IPP has low concentrations, around 4%, of total phosphate concentration in embryonic stages, but the IPP concentration jumps to 60% of total phosphate of the cell. The majority of phosphate concentration switches from 2,3- DPG to IPP, suggesting the result of the overall low oxygen affinity is due to these varying polyphosphates.


title: Common ostrich

text: Concerning immunological adaptation, it was discovered that wild common ostriches have a pronounced non-specific immunity defense, with blood content reflecting high values of lysosome and phagocyte cells in medium. This is in contrast to domesticated ostriches, who in captivity develop high concentration of immunoglobulin antibodies in their circulation, indicating an acquired immunological response. It is suggested that this immunological adaptability may allow this species to have a high success rate of survival in variable environmental settings.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environments, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is a ground bird and cannot fly to find water sources, which poses a further challenge. Because of their size, common ostriches cannot easily escape the heat of their environment; however, they dehydrate less than their small bird counterparts because of their small surface area to volume ratio. Hot, arid habitats pose osmotic stress, such as dehydration, which triggers the common ostrich's homeostatic response to osmoregulate.


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich is well-adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon a length of approximately between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around long. A well-developed caeca is also found and, in combination with the rectum, forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the feces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected in a species inhabiting arid regions, dehydration causes a reduction in fecal water, or dry feces. This reduction is believed to be caused by high levels of plasma aldosterone, which leads to rectal absorption of sodium and water. Also expected is the production of hyperosmotic urine; cloacal urine has been found to be 800 mosmol/L. The U:P (urine:plasma) ratio of the common ostrich is therefore greater than one. Diffusion of water to the coprodeum (where urine is stored) from plasma across the epithelium is voided. This void is believed to be caused by the thick mucosal layering of the coprodeum.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have two kidneys, which are chocolate brown in color, are granular in texture, and lie in a depression in the pelvic cavity of the dorsal wall. They are covered by peritoneum and a layer of fat. Each kidney is about long, wide, and divided into a cranial, middle, and caudal sections by large veins. The caudal section is the largest, extending into the middle of the pelvis. The ureters leave the ventral caudomedial surface and continue caudally, near the midline into the opening of the urodeum of the cloaca. Although there is no bladder, a dilated pouch of ureter stores the urine until it is secreted continuously down from the ureters to the urodeum until discharged.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostrich kidneys are fairly large and so are able to hold significant amounts of solutes. Hence, common ostriches drink relatively large volumes of water daily and excrete generous quantities of highly concentrated urine. It is when drinking water is unavailable or withdrawn that the urine becomes highly concentrated with uric acid and urates. It seems that common ostriches who normally drink relatively large amounts of water tend to rely on renal conservation of water within the kidney system when drinking water is scarce. Though there have been no official detailed renal studies conducted on the flow rate (Poiseuille's Law) and composition of the ureteral urine in the ostrich, knowledge of renal function has been based on samples of cloacal urine, and samples or quantitative collections of voided urine. Studies have shown that the amount of water intake and dehydration impacts the plasma osmolality and urine osmolality within various sized ostriches. During a normal hydration state of the kidneys, young ostriches tend to have a measured plasma osmolality of 284 mOsm and urine osmolality of 62 mOsm. Adults have higher rates with a plasma osmolality of 330 mOsm and urine osmolality of 163 mOsm. The osmolality of both plasma and urine can alter in regards to whether there is an excess or depleted amount of water present within the kidneys. An interesting fact of common ostriches is that when water is freely available, the urine osmolality can reduce to 60–70 mOsm, not losing any necessary solutes from the kidneys when excess water is excreted. Dehydrated or salt-loaded ostriches can reach a maximal urine osmolality of approximately 800 mOsm. When the plasma osmolality has been measured simultaneously with the maximal osmotic urine, it is seen that the urine:plasma ratio is 2.6:1, the highest encountered among avian species. Along with dehydration, there is also a reduction in flow rate from 20 L·d to only 0.3–0.5 L·d.


title: Common ostrich

text: In mammals and common ostriches, the increase of the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and urine flow rate (UFR) is due to a high protein diets. As seen in various studies, scientists have measured clearance of creatinine, a fairly reliable marker of glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It has been seen that during normal hydration within the kidneys, the glomerular filtration rate is approximately 92 ml/min. However, when an ostrich experiences dehydration for at least 48 hours (2 days), this value diminishes to only 25% of the hydrated GFR rate. Thus in response to the dehydration, ostrich kidneys secrete small amounts of very viscous glomerular filtrates that have not been broken down and return them to the circulatory system through blood vessels. The reduction of GFR during dehydration is extremely high and so the fractional excretion of water (urine flow rate as a percentage of GFR) drops down from 15% at normal hydration to 1% during dehydration.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches employ adaptive features to manage the dry heat and solar radiation in their habitat. Ostriches will drink available water; however, they are limited in accessing water by being flightless. They are also able to harvest water through dietary means, consuming plants such as the "Euphorbia heterochroma" that hold up to 87% water.


title: Common ostrich

text: Water mass accounts for 68% of body mass in adult common ostriches; this is down from 84% water mass in 35-day-old chicks. The differing degrees of water retention are thought to be a result of varying body fat mass. In comparison to smaller birds ostriches have a lower evaporative water loss resulting from their small body surface area per unit weight.


title: Common ostrich

text: When heat stress is at its maximum, common ostriches are able to recover evaporative loss by using a metabolic water mechanism to counter the loss by urine, feces, and respiratory evaporation. An experiment to determine the primary source of water intake in the ostrich indicated that while the ostrich does employ a metabolic water production mechanism as a source of hydration, the most important source of water is food. When ostriches were restricted to the no food or water condition, the metabolic water production was only 0.5 L·d, while total water lost to urine, feces, and evaporation was 2.3 L·d. When the birds were given both water and food, total water gain was 8.5 L·d. In the food only condition total water gain was 10.1 L·d. These results show that the metabolic water mechanism is not able to sustain water loss independently and that food intake, specifically of plants with a high water content such as "Euphorbia heterochroma", is necessary to overcome water loss challenges in the common ostrich's arid habitat.


title: Common ostrich

text: In times of water deprivation, urine electrolyte and osmotic concentration increases while urination rate decreases. Under these conditions urine solute:plasma ratio is approximately 2.5, or hyperosmotic; that is to say that the ratio of solutes to water in the plasma is shifted down whereby reducing osmotic pressure in the plasma. Water is then able to be held back from excretion, keeping the ostrich hydrated, while the passed urine contains higher concentrations of solute. This mechanism exemplifies how renal function facilitates water retention during periods of dehydration stress.


title: Common ostrich

text: A number of avian species use nasal salt glands, alongside their kidneys, to control hypertonicity in their blood plasma. However, the common ostrich shows no nasal glandular function in regard to this homeostatic process. Even in a state of dehydration, which increases the osmolality of the blood, nasal salt glands show no sizeable contribution of salt elimination. Also, the overall mass of the glands was less than that of the duck's nasal gland. The common ostrich, having a heavier body weight, should have larger, heavier nasal glands to more effectively excrete salt from a larger volume of blood, but this is not the case. These unequal proportions contribute to the assumption that the common ostrich's nasal glands do not play any role in salt excretion. The nasal glands may be the result of an ancestral trait, which is no longer needed by the common ostrich, but has not been bred out of their gene pool.


title: Common ostrich

text: The majority of the common ostrich's internal solutes are made up of sodium ions (), potassium ions (), chloride ions (), total short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), and acetate. The caecum contains a high water concentration with reduced levels nearing the terminal colon and exhibits a rapid fall in concentrations and small changes in and .


title: Common ostrich

text: The colon is divided into three sections and takes part in solute absorption. The upper colon largely absorbs and SCFA and partially absorbs KCl. The middle colon absorbs and SCFA, with little net transfer of K and Cl. The lower colon then slightly absorbs and water and secretes . There is no net movements of and SCFA found in the lower colon.


title: Common ostrich

text: When the common ostrich is in a dehydrated state, plasma osmolality, , , and ions all increase; however, ions return to controlled concentration. The common ostrich also experiences an increase in haematocrit, resulting in a hypovolemic state. Two antidiuretic hormones, Arginine vasotocin (AVT) and angiotensin (AII), are increased in blood plasma as a response to hyperosmolality and hypovolemia. AVT triggers antidiuretic hormone (ADH) which targets the nephrons of the kidney. ADH causes a reabsorption of water from the lumen of the nephron to the extracellular fluid osmotically. These extracellular fluids then drain into blood vessels, causing a rehydrating effect. This drainage prevents loss of water by both lowering volume and increasing concentration of the urine. Angiotensin, on the other hand, causes vasoconstriction on the systemic arterioles and acts as a dipsogen for ostriches. Both of these antidiuretic hormones work together to maintain water levels in the body that would normally be lost due to the osmotic stress of the arid environment.


title: Common ostrich

text: Ostriches are uricotelic, excreting nitrogen in the form of uric acid and related derivatives. Uric acid's low solubility in water gives a semi-solid paste consistency to the ostrich's nitrogenous waste.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches are homeothermic endotherms; they regulate a constant body temperature via regulating their metabolic heat rate. They closely regulate their core body temperature, but their appendages may be cooler in comparison as found with regulating species. The temperature of their beak, neck surfaces, lower legs, feet, and toes are regulated through heat exchange with the environment. Up to 40% of their produced metabolic heat is dissipated across these structures, which account for about 12% of their total surface area. Total evaporative water loss (TEWL) is statistically lower in the common ostrich than in membering ratites.


title: Common ostrich

text: As ambient temperature increases, dry heat loss decreases, but evaporative heat loss increases because of increased respiration. As ostriches experience high ambient temperatures, circa , they become slightly hyperthermic; however, they can maintain a stable body temperature, around , for up to 8 hours in these conditions. When dehydrated, the common ostrich minimizes water loss, causing the body temperature to increase further. When the body heat is allowed to increase the temperature gradient between the common ostrich and ambient heat is equilibrated.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have developed a comprehensive set of behavioral adaptations for thermoregulation, such as altering their feathers. Common ostriches display a feather fluffing behavior that aids them in thermoregulation by regulating convective heat loss at high ambient temperatures. They may also physically seek out shade in times of high ambient temperatures. When feather fluffing, they contract their muscles to raise their feathers to increase the air space next to their skin. This air space provides an insulating thickness of . The ostrich will also expose the thermal windows of their unfeathered skin to enhance convective and radiative loss in times of heat stress. At higher ambient temperatures lower appendage temperature increases to difference from ambient temperature. Neck surfaces are around difference at most ambient temperatures, except when temperatures are around it was only above ambient.


title: Common ostrich

text: At low ambient temperatures the common ostrich utilizes feather flattening, which conserves body heat through insulation. The low conductance coefficient of air allows less heat to be lost to the environment. This flattening behavior compensate for common ostrich's rather poor cutaneous evaporative water loss (CEWL). These feather-heavy areas such as the body, thighs, and wings do not usually vary much from ambient temperatures due to this behavioural controls. This ostrich will also cover its legs to reduce heat loss to the environment, along with undergoing piloerection and shivering when faced with low ambient temperatures.


title: Common ostrich

text: The use of countercurrent heat exchange with blood flow allows for regulated conservation/ elimination of heat of appendages. When ambient temperatures are low, heterotherms will constrict their arterioles to reduce heat loss along skin surfaces. The reverse occurs at high ambient temperatures, arterioles dilate to increase heat loss.


title: Common ostrich

text: At ambient temperatures below their body temperatures (thermal neutral zone (TNZ)), common ostriches decrease body surface temperatures so that heat loss occurs only across about 10% of total surface area. This 10% include critical areas that require blood flow to remain high to prevent freezing, such as their eyes. Their eyes and ears tend to be the warmest regions. It has been found that temperatures of lower appendages were no more than above ambient temperature, which minimizes heat exchange between feet, toes, wings, and legs.


title: Common ostrich

text: Both the Gular and air sacs, being close to body temperature, are the main contributors to heat and water loss. Surface temperature can be affected by the rate of blood flow to a certain area and also by the surface area of the surrounding tissue. The ostrich reduces blood flow to the trachea to cool itself and vasodilates to its blood vessels around the gular region to raise the temperature of the tissue. The air sacs are poorly vascularized but show an increased temperature, which aids in heat loss.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have evolved a 'selective brain cooling' mechanism as a means of thermoregulation. This modality allows the common ostrich to manage the temperature of the blood going to the brain in response to the extreme ambient temperature of the surroundings. The morphology for heat exchange occurs via cerebral arteries and the ophthalmic rete, a network of arteries originating from the ophthalmic artery. The ophthalmic rete is analogous to the carotid rete found in mammals, as it also facilitates transfer of heat from arterial blood coming from the core to venous blood returning from the evaporative surfaces at the head.


title: Common ostrich

text: Researchers suggest that common ostriches also employ a 'selective brain warming' mechanism in response to cooler surrounding temperatures in the evenings. The brain was found to maintain a warmer temperature when compared to carotid arterial blood supply. Researchers hypothesize three mechanisms that could explain this finding:


title: Common ostrich

text: The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird's metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way to panting. Both these behaviors allow the ostrich to actively increase the rate of evaporative cooling.


title: Common ostrich

text: In hot temperatures water is lost via respiration. Moreover, varying surface temperatures within the respiratory tract contribute differently to overall heat and water loss through panting. The surface temperature of the gular area is , that of the tracheal area is between , and that of both anterior and posterior air sacs is . The long trachea, being cooler than body temperature, is a site of water evaporation.


title: Common ostrich

text: As ambient air becomes hotter, additional evaporation can take place lower in the trachea making its way to the posterior sacs, shunting the lung surface. The trachea acts as a buffer for evaporation because of the length and the controlled vascularization. The Gular is also heavily vascularized; its purpose is for cooling blood, but also evaporation, as previously stated. Air flowing through the trachea can be either laminar or turbulent depending on the state of the bird. When the common ostrich is breathing normally, under no heat stress, air flow is laminar. When the common ostrich is experiencing heat stress from the environment the air flow is considered turbulent. This suggests that laminar air flow causes little to no heat transfer, while under heat stress turbulent airflow can cause maximum heat transfer within the trachea.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches are able to attain their necessary energetic requirements via the oxidation of absorbed nutrients. Much of the metabolic rate in animals is dependent upon their allometry, the relationship between body size to shape, anatomy, physiology, and behavior of an animal. Hence, it is plausible to state that metabolic rate in animals with larger masses is greater than animals with a smaller mass.


title: Common ostrich

text: When a bird is inactive and unfed, and the ambient temperature (i.e. in the thermo-neutral zone) is high, the energy expended is at its minimum. This level of expenditure is better known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and can be calculated by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed during various activities. Therefore, in common ostriches we see use of more energy when compared to smaller birds in absolute terms, but less per unit mass.


title: Common ostrich

text: A key point when looking at the common ostrich metabolism is to note that it is a non-passerine bird. Thus, BMR in ostriches is particularly low with a value of only 0.113 mL O g h. This value can further be described using Kleiber's law, which relates the BMR to the body mass of an animal.


title: Common ostrich

text: In common ostriches, a BMR (mL O g h) = 389 kg, describing a line parallel to the intercept with only about 60% in relation to other non-passerine birds.


title: Common ostrich

text: Along with BMR, energy is also needed for a range of other activities. If the ambient temperature is lower than the thermo-neutral zone, heat is produced to maintain body temperature. So, the metabolic rate in a resting, unfed bird, that is producing heat is known as the standard metabolic rate (SMR) or resting metabolic rate (RMR). The common ostrich SMR has been seen to be approximately 0.26 mL O g h, almost 2.3 times the BMR. On another note, animals that engage in extensive physical activity employ substantial amounts of energy for power. This is known as the maximum metabolic scope. In an ostrich, it is seen to be at least 28 times greater than the BMR. Likewise, the daily energy turnover rate for an ostrich with access to free water is 12,700 kJ d, equivalent to 0.26 mL O g h.


title: Common ostrich

text: The wild common ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years, with most surviving birds in reserves or on farms. However, its range remains very large (), leading the IUCN and BirdLife International to treat it as a species of Least Concern. Of its 5 subspecies, the Arabian ostrich ("S. c. syriacus") became extinct around 1966. North African ostrich populations are protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) meaning commercial international trade is prohibited and non-commercial trade is strictly regulated.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt. A statue of Arsinoe II of Egypt riding a common ostrich was found in a tomb in Egypt. Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari use ostrich eggshells as water containers, punching a hole in them. They also produce jewelry from it. The presence of such eggshells with engraved hatched symbols dating from the Howiesons Poort period of the Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa suggests common ostriches were an important part of human life as early as 60,000 BP.


title: Common ostrich

text: In Eastern Christianity it is common to hang decorated common ostrich eggs on the chains holding the oil lamps. The initial reason was probably to prevent mice and rats from climbing down the chain to eat the oil. Another, symbolical explanation is based in the fictitious tradition that female common ostriches do not sit on their eggs, but stare at them incessantly until they hatch out, because if they stop staring even for a second the egg will addle. This is equated to the obligation of the Christian to direct his entire attention towards God during prayer, lest the prayer be fruitless.


title: Common ostrich

text: Contrary to popular belief, ostriches do not bury their heads in sand to avoid danger. This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), who wrote that ostriches "imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed." This may have been a misunderstanding of their sticking their heads in the sand to swallow sand and pebbles to help digest their fibrous food, or, as National Geographic suggests, of the defensive behavior of lying low, so that they may appear from a distance to have their head buried. Another possible origin for the myth lies with the fact that ostriches keep their eggs in holes in the sand instead of nests and must rotate them using their beaks during incubation; digging the hole, placing the eggs, and rotating them might each be mistaken for an attempt to bury their heads in the sand.


title: Common ostrich

text: In Roman times, there was a demand for common ostriches to use in "venatio" games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times have been popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins are valued for their leather. In the 18th century they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. At the start of the 20th century there were over 700,000 birds in captivity. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins and meat became widespread during the 1970s.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches have been farmed in South Africa since the beginning of the 19th century. According to Frank G. Carpenter, the English are credited with first taming common ostriches outside Cape Town. Farmers captured baby common ostriches and raised them successfully on their property, and they were able to obtain a crop of feathers every seven to eight months instead of killing wild common ostriches for their feathers. It is claimed that common ostriches produce the strongest commercial leather. Common ostrich meat tastes similar to lean beef and is low in fat and cholesterol, as well as high in calcium, protein, and iron. It is considered to be both poultry and red meat. Uncooked, it is dark red or cherry red, a little darker than beef. Ostrich stew is a dish prepared using common ostrich meat.


title: Common ostrich

text: Some common ostrich farms also cater to agri-tourism, which may produce a substantial portion of the farm's income. This may include tours of the farmlands, souvenirs, or even ostrich rides.


title: Common ostrich

text: Common ostriches typically avoid humans in the wild, since they correctly assess humans as potential predators. If approached, they often run away, but sometimes ostriches can be very aggressive when threatened, especially if cornered, and may also attack if they feel the need to defend their territories or offspring. Similar behaviors are noted in captive or domesticated common ostriches, which retain the same natural instincts and can occasionally respond aggressively to stress. When attacking a person, common ostriches deliver slashing kicks with their powerful feet, armed with long claws, with which they can disembowel or kill a person with a single blow. In one study of common ostrich attacks, it was estimated that two to three attacks that result in serious injury or death occur each year in the area of Oudtshoorn, South Africa, where a large number of common ostrich farms are set next to both feral and wild common ostrich populations.


title: Common ostrich

text: In some countries, people race each other on the backs of common ostriches. The practice is common in Africa and is relatively unusual elsewhere. The common ostriches are ridden in the same way as horses with special saddles, reins, and bits. However, they are harder to manage than horses. The practice is becoming less common due to ethical concerns, and nowadays ostrich farms set a limit weight for people to ride ostriches, making the activity mostly suited for children and smaller adults.


title: Common ostrich

text: The racing is also a part of modern South African culture. Within the United States, a tourist attraction in Jacksonville, Florida, called 'The Ostrich Farm' opened up in 1892; it and its races became one of the most famous early attractions in the history of Florida. Likewise, the arts scene in Indio, California, consists of both ostrich and camel racing.


title: Common ostrich

text: Chandler, Arizona, hosts the annual "Ostrich Festival", which features common ostrich races. Racing has also occurred at many other locations such as Virginia City in Nevada, Canterbury Park in Minnesota, Prairie Meadows in Iowa, Ellis Park in Kentucky, and the Fairgrounds in New Orleans, Louisiana.


title: Ambrosia

text: In the ancient Greek myths, ambrosia (, ), the food or drink of the Greek gods, is often depicted as conferring longevity or immortality upon whoever consumed it. It was brought to the gods in Olympus by doves and served either by Hebe or by Ganymede at the heavenly feast.


title: Ambrosia

text: Ancient art sometimes depicted ambrosia as distributed by the nymph named Ambrosia, a nurse of Dionysus.


title: Ambrosia

text: Ambrosia is very closely related to the gods' other form of sustenance, "nectar". The two terms may not have originally been distinguished; though in Homer's poems nectar is usually the drink and ambrosia the food of the gods; it was with ambrosia that Hera "cleansed all defilement from her lovely flesh", and with ambrosia Athena prepared Penelope in her sleep, so that when she appeared for the final time before her suitors, the effects of years had been stripped away, and they were inflamed with passion at the sight of her. On the other hand, in Alcman, nectar is the food, and in Sappho and Anaxandrides, ambrosia is the drink. A character in Aristophanes' "Knights" says, "I dreamed the goddess poured ambrosia over your head—out of a ladle." Both descriptions could be correct, as ambrosia could be a liquid considered a food (such as honey).


title: Ambrosia

text: The consumption of ambrosia was typically reserved for divine beings. Upon his assumption into immortality on Olympus, Heracles is given ambrosia by Athena, while the hero Tydeus is denied the same thing when the goddess discovers him eating human brains. In one version of the myth of Tantalus, part of Tantalus' crime is that after tasting ambrosia himself, he attempts to steal some to give to other mortals. Those who consume ambrosia typically have ichor, not blood, in their veins.


title: Ambrosia

text: Both nectar and ambrosia are fragrant, and may be used as perfume: in the "Odyssey" Menelaus and his men are disguised as seals in untanned seal skins, "and the deadly smell of the seal skins vexed us sore; but the goddess saved us; she brought ambrosia and put it under our nostrils." Homer speaks of ambrosial raiment, ambrosial locks of hair, even the gods' ambrosial sandals.


title: Ambrosia

text: Among later writers, ambrosia has been so often used with generic meanings of "delightful liquid" that such late writers as Athenaeus, Paulus and Dioscurides employ it as a technical term in contexts of cookery, medicine, and botany. Pliny used the term in connection with different plants, as did early herbalists.


title: Ambrosia

text: Additionally, some modern ethnomycologists, such as Danny Staples, identify ambrosia with the hallucinogenic mushroom "Amanita muscaria": "it was the food of the gods, their ambrosia, and nectar was the pressed sap of its juices", Staples asserts.


title: Ambrosia

text: W. H. Roscher thinks that both nectar and ambrosia were kinds of honey, in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing powers of honey, and because fermented honey (mead) preceded wine as an entheogen in the Aegean world; on some Minoan seals, goddesses were represented with bee faces (compare Merope and Melissa).


title: Ambrosia

text: The concept of an immortality drink is attested in at least two ancient Indo-European languages: Greek and Sanskrit. The Greek ἀμβροσία ("ambrosia") is semantically linked to the Sanskrit ("amṛta") as both words denote a drink or food that gods use to achieve immortality. The two words appear to be derived from the same Indo-European form *"ṇ-mṛ-tós", "un-dying" ("n-": negative prefix from which the prefix "a-" in both Greek and Sanskrit are derived; "mṛ": zero grade of *"mer-", "to die"; and "-to-": adjectival suffix). A semantically similar etymology exists for nectar, the beverage of the gods (Greek: νέκταρ "néktar") presumed to be a compound of the PIE roots "*nek-", "death", and "-*tar", "overcoming".


title: Ambrosia

text: Lycurgus, king of Thrace, forbade the cult of Dionysus, whom he drove from Thrace, and attacked the gods' entourage when they celebrated the god. Among them was Ambrosia, who turned herself into a grapevine to hide from his wrath. Dionysus, enraged by the king's actions, drove him mad. In his fit of insanity he killed his son, whom he mistook for a stock of ivy, and then himself.


title: Ambrosia

text: In The Sims videogame saga, ambrosia is a dish that if the sim is dead, It brings them back to life, Or If alive resets the sim to the start of their life stage.


title: Ambrosia

text: In the manga series Record of Ragnarok, the Ambrosia is referred to as the blood of Zeus. The mortal Alcides ends up drinking the Ambrosia and after surviving it, gains immortality and a position as a demi-God. He is adopted by Zeus and Hera and in turn his name is changed to Heracles.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The is a minivan produced by the Japanese automaker Toyota since 2002. It is available as a seven or eight-seater with petrol and hybrid engine options. Hybrid variants have been available since 2003, which incorporates Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive technology.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The Alphard is primarily made for the Japanese market, but is also sold in Bangladesh, Belarus, Russia, the Middle East, Greater China, and Southeast Asia. Similar to the Camry, it is often classified as a luxury car in Southeast Asian markets.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: Since the second generation, a twin model called has also been available, which is marketed as a sportier alternative to the Alphard and exclusively marketed by the Netz Store dealership chain until 2020. Since 2019, a modified version of the third-generation model has been sold as the Lexus LM for several Asian markets outside Japan.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The vehicle was named after Alphard, the brightest star in the constellation Hydra. The Alphard also received a special front emblem, which depicts the lowercase alpha letter. The name "Vellfire" was derived from "velvet" and "fire" to emphasize "smooth" and "passionate" as characteristics of the vehicle.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The Alphard was launched by Toyota in May 2002. The Alphard V was exclusive to the Netz Store, while the Alphard G has a different grille design and was exclusive to Toyopet Store. The Alphard was facelifted in 2005 with new design of rear lamp and use of 16" and 17" aluminium alloy wheels.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: In 2006, a Royal Lounge Alphard was introduced. It is a more upmarket, four-seat version of the Alphard G.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: For model year 2007, on Japanese models only, G-BOOK, a subscription telematics service, was offered as an option. The Alphard is also the first Japanese market minivan to feature a laser-guided Adaptive Cruise Control, although only as an option on V6 variants.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: A hybrid version was also added to the lineup in MY 2003, featuring a 2.4-litre "2AZ-FE" Atkinson cycle petrol engine with a power output of and of torque which has been developed specifically for use in Toyota's Hybrid Synergy Drive technology and features a high-expansion ratio cycle that raises efficiency and reduces friction; however, this led to reliability problems of pistons' rings premature wear and consequent high oil consumption due to the poorly designed ring in order to minimize friction.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The Alphard Hybrid uses "by-wire" technology that monitors brake pedal pressure and vehicle speed in order to calculate the optimum hydraulic pressure. By-wire works with the E-Four AWD system to maximize the collection of kinetic energy from braking for conversion into electric power.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The Alphard Hybrid can generate up to 1,500 watts and is equipped with 100-volt AC power outlets, to power external appliances such as laptops and emergency lights.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: In Japan, the Alphard Hybrid locally qualifies as an Ultra-Low Emissions Vehicle (ULEV), achieving emission levels 75% lower than the Japanese government's year 2000 benchmark.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: After being previewed as the FT-MV in 2007, the second generation Alphard went on sale in May 2008. For this generation, a twin model, the Vellfire, was introduced. According to Toyota's press release, the Alphard is described as having an "elegant and sophisticated" design while the Vellfire emphasizes on "strength and strong individuality." Both models are sold via separate distribution channels, with the Alphard sold by Toyota's Toyopet Store dealership chain, while the Vellfire is sold at Toyota's youth oriented Netz Store dealership chain.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The hybrid version was reintroduced in November 2011 and whilst the model variants remained similar, all specs were available in all three drivetrains, 2.4/3.5/2.4 Hybrid.  The Hybrid was the later generation of THS2 with Eco Mode and EV mode.  The petrol variants also received Eco mode buttons on the dash, helping to smooth out acceleration and to improve efficiency.  Styling differences introduced across all models and interior trim colours and materials improved.  Nanoe air purifiers were available in almost all variants.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: JNCAP has rated the Alphard a full six stars for occupant crash safety and outstanding safety features. Safety features such as Anti-lock Braking System, Electronic Brakeforce Distribution, Brake Assist, Vehicle Stability Control and seven airbags (Dual front, Driver and passenger side airbags, Driver's knee and curtain airbags) are standard across all variants. Higher end variants offer a first-in-class Pre-Crash system as an option (only for Japanese models). Features include a radar-guided Adaptive Cruise Control, Lane Departure Warning with Lane Keep Assist and Pre-collision Warning with Semi-Autonomous Emergency Braking, which only helps apply a moderate amount of brake pressure, and does not completely stop the vehicle.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: A facelift model was announced by Toyota on 27 September 2011, with sales in Japan started from 1 November 2011. Also introduced a hybrid version of both the Alphard and Vellfire.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: Toyota released the third generation Alphard on 26 January 2015 with a completely redesigned exterior and 2 new engines, including a 2.5-litre 2AR-FE petrol engine and a 2.5-litre 2AR-FXE petrol-hybrid engine. The 3.5-litre 2GR-FE V6 along with the 6-speed automatic was carried over from the previous generation. A new top-of-the-line Executive Lounge grade was added for both the Alphard and Vellfire.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The third generation features a large grille similar to the S210 series Crown and its tail lights are located on top similar to the third generation Previa and second generation Sienna. The length has grown by , the width by , and the wheelbase has grown longer by ; but the height is shorter by compared to the previous generation. The Alphard faces competition from other minivans such as the Nissan Elgrand and the fifth generation international market Honda Odyssey. Large audio manufacturers like Alpine Electronics and JBL, also manufacture navigation and audio/visual accessories specifically for the Alphard. The Alphard can be optioned with a 1200W 17-speaker, 5.1 channel JBL sound system.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The third-generation Alphard is available in Japan and selected Asian markets including Brunei, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines and Hong Kong, being the first markets outside Japan to receive this all-new model. The third-generation Alphard was introduced in Russia, the model's primary, and only European market, but only with the 3.5-litre V6 engine. The V6 model is also available in other left-hand drive markets, like China and Taiwan. In India, the Vellfire was offered since February 2020 as the brand's only import model in the country with the 2.5-litre hybrid engine with four-wheel drive.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The facelifted third generation Alphard and second generation Vellfire were unveiled on 25 December 2017 and released on 8 January 2018. Most of the changes are only to the exterior and powertrain, whereas interior equipment remains largely similar with minor changes. New rectangular taillights replace the horizontal ones on the Vellfire, mimicking the design of the second generation's taillights. The Alphard gets slimmer LED headlights and a larger grille up front. Both models get sequential LED turn signals as standard. Also new is an updated V6 engine, the 2GR-FKS that replaces the outgoing 2GR-FE (except for Hong Kong, due to the emission rules). Output has increased to and . Also new is a Direct-Shift 8-speed automatic, that replaces the 6-speed Super ECT that is only found in V6-powered variants. Accelerating from can be achieved in 7.5 seconds. The debut of the second generation Toyota Safety Sense system is launched with the facelifted Alphard and Vellfire, which became standard equipment across all variants.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: On 1 May 2020, the Alphard and Vellfire became available at all Toyota dealership sales channels in Japan (Toyota Store, Toyopet Store, Corolla Store and Netz), and the Netz logo emblem on the Vellfire's front grille was replaced by the Toyota logo emblem.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: In April 2021, trim levels for the Vellfire in Japan were reduced to one special edition trim, Golden Eyes II, due to decreasing sales as the result of the dealership line-up unification in 2020.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: In the same month, the Vellfire in China was renamed to Toyota Crown Vellfire (), with the inclusion of the Crown logo replacing the front Toyota logo, and in other places such as the hubcaps and instrument cluster.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: The Lexus-badged limousine version of the third generation Alphard, called the Lexus LM, was unveiled on 16 April 2019 at the 18th Shanghai International Automobile Industry Exhibition and first released on 20 February 2020 in China. The LM designation stands for "Luxury Mover". The LM is slightly longer than the Alphard it is based on, measuring in at long. The LM features newer and stronger structural components, along with additional soundproofing elements such as dual-pane windows. There are two seating configurations, a 7-seater configuration that is based on the Alphard Executive Lounge variant, and a 4-seater configuration named the "Emperor Suite", based on the Alphard Royal Lounge variant. The LM features a new suspension setup featuring Swing Valve technology.


title: Toyota Alphard

text: Two engine options are available, a 2.5-litre 2AR-FXE hybrid four-cylinder in the LM 300h, and the 3.5-litre 2GR-FKS V6 in the LM 350 (2GR-FE for the Hong Kong market).


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: Père Lachaise Cemetery ( ; formerly , "East Cemetery") is the largest cemetery in Paris, France (). With more than 3.5 million visitors annually, it is the most visited necropolis in the world. Notable figures in the arts buried at Père Lachaise include Michel Ney, Frédéric Chopin, Émile Waldteufel, Édith Piaf, Marcel Proust, Georges Méliès, Marcel Marceau, Sarah Bernhardt, Oscar Wilde, Thierry Fortineau, J.R.D. Tata, Jim Morrison and Sir Richard Wallace.


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: The Père Lachaise is located in the 20th arrondissement and was the first garden cemetery, as well as the first municipal cemetery in Paris. It is also the site of three World War I memorials. The cemetery is located on the Boulevard de Ménilmontant. The Paris Métro station Philippe Auguste on Line 2 is next to the main entrance, while the station Père Lachaise, on both Line 2 and Line 3, is 500 meters away near a side entrance.


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: The cemetery of Père Lachaise opened in 1804 and takes its name from the confessor to Louis XIV, Père François de la Chaise (1624–1709), who lived in the Jesuit house rebuilt during 1682 on the site of the chapel. The property, situated on the hillside from which the king watched skirmishing between the armies of the Condé and Turenne during the Fronde, was bought by the city in 1804. Established as a cemetery by Napoleon during that year, plans were laid out by Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart; the property was later extended. Napoleon, who had been proclaimed Emperor by the Senate three days earlier, had declared during the Consulate that "Every citizen has the right to be buried regardless of race or religion".


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: After the closing of the Holy Innocents' Cemetery on 1 December 1780 and as the city graveyards of Paris filled, several new, large cemeteries, outside the precincts of the capital, replaced them: Montmartre Cemetery in the north, Père Lachaise in the east, and Montparnasse Cemetery in the south. Near the middle of the city is Passy Cemetery.


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: The French officials approved the transformation of 17 hectares of Mont-Louis into the Cemetery of the East in 1803 and the work was given to neoclassical architect Alexandre-Theodore Brongniart. He used English-style gardens as inspiration, designing the cemetery with uneven paths adorned with diverse trees and plants and lined with carved graves. He anticipated various funerary monuments but only one was finally built: the grave of the Greffulhe family, in a refined neo-Gothic style.


title: Père Lachaise Cemetery

text: At the time of its opening, the cemetery was considered to be situated too far from the city and attracted few funerals. Moreover, many Roman Catholics refused to have their graves in a place that had not been blessed by the Church. In 1804, the Père Lachaise contained only 13 graves. Consequently, the administrators devised a marketing strategy to improve the cemetery's stature: in 1804, with great fanfare, they organized the transfer of the remains of Jean de La Fontaine and Molière to the new resting place. The next year there were 44 burials, with 49 during 1806, 62 during 1807 and 833 during 1812. Then, in another great spectacle of 1817, the purported remains of Pierre Abélard and Héloïse d'Argenteuil were also transferred to the cemetery along with their monument's canopy made from fragments of the abbey of Nogent-sur-Seine. By tradition, lovers or lovelorn singles leave letters at the crypt in tribute to the couple or in hope of finding true love.