title: Corporal

text: Corporals have what is termed 'power of arrest', and is impressed on recruits in RNZAF basic training. Basically, this power means that any airman or private disobeying or ignoring an order from a corporal will be subject to military arrest by that individual. Power of arrest is used by higher ranks to enforce their orders, corporal in the RNZAF being the lowest rank with this power.


title: Corporal

text: These ranks are still used in the Pakistan Air Force. it is a rank given to an airman who is senior to leading aircraftsman but junior to a sergeant.


title: Corporal

text: In the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the rank Corporal is locally called as "Kabo". It is currently being used by both the Philippine Army and the Philippine Marine Corps. It stand above the rank of private first class and below sergeant.


title: Corporal

text: The Philippine Revolutionary Army also used corporal as part of their ranks during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine–American War. It is the lowest enlisted personnel rank on the service, below the rank of sergeant.


title: Corporal

text: As of February 8, 2019, a new ranking classification for the Philippine National Police was adopted, eliminating confusion of old ranks. The rank of corporal is included on the new ranking classification. It is the second from the bottom, placing above the rank of Patrolman and below police staff sergeant.


title: Corporal

text: In the Polish Land Forces, the rank of is the lowest rank in the NCO corps (OR-3 in NATO code). Most commonly the rank is held by a NCO commanding an infantry squad, tank or gun crew, or a similar unit. The equivalent rank in the Polish Navy is .


title: Corporal

text: As with many other military ranks, direct comparison between various armies might be misleading. Before World War II, the Polish Army's was more or less equivalent to the British rank of lance corporal, while the British rank of corporal was named (lit. "platooner"). In modern times, the rank is still equivalent to a UK lance corporal or a private first class in the U.S. Army (OR-3), while the British and American rank of corporal (OR-4) is equivalent to the Polish rank of (lit. "senior corporal"), which was introduced in 1971.


title: Corporal

text: Historically, the rank was first introduced in Poland in the 17th century, together with mercenary troops of Italian origin. In foreign troops on the royal payroll, a commanded four ranks of musketeers or part of a company of pikemen. In the 20th century, between the world wars, the rank of corporal was held by both conscripted NCOs and professional soldiers alike. This was changed after World War II, when the Polish Army was under Soviet command and the rank of was modified to resemble that of Soviet "junior sergeant", reserved for conscripted NCOs. In the modern Polish Army, the rank is exclusively reserved for professional soldiers.


title: Corporal

text: The Portuguese Navy has the rank of (corporal of the Navy). All other branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces have several ranks of corporal ( in Portuguese). The Portuguese Army and the Portuguese Air Force have the ranks of (second corporal), (first corporal) and (corporal adjudant). The National Republican Guard has the ranks of (corporal), (chief corporal) and (corporal-major).


title: Corporal

text: The several ranks of corporal correspond to the several pay grades, above that of private, that can be reached inside the enlisted rank professional category of the Army, the Air Force and the National Republican Guard. In the Navy, the rank of is the highest pay grade in the enlisted rank category.


title: Corporal

text: The rank of corporal () existed in the Russian Army from 1647 to 1798, when it was replaced with that of non-commissioned officer (, from , literally "sub-officer"). Soviet and modern Russian armies have the rank of "" (derived from the German ) as the highest rank of enlisted personnel, below lance (or junior) sergeant () which are assigned as squad leaders.


title: Corporal

text: The Corporal rank in the Singapore Armed Forces is between the rank of Lance Corporal and Corporal First Class. National Servicemen are usually promoted to this rank within the 2nd year of their service.


title: Corporal

text: Prior to 1992, the SAF followed the British model where corporals were non-commissioned officers often holding the appointment of section leader. Today, a corporal is not a specialist (NCO-equivalent). Corporals are usually given higher responsibilities/ appointments as a section 2IC, or 2nd-in-command.


title: Corporal

text: In the Singapore Police Force, Singapore Civil Defence Force, Singapore Prison Service, Immigration and Checkpoints Authority and Singapore Customs, a corporal is a rank below sergeant.


title: Corporal

text: For the National Cadet Corps (NCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Third Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal. For the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and the National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (NCDCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal.


title: Corporal

text: For NCC, the rank insignia is same as that of an SAF CPL, except that the letters 'NCC' are below the insignia, so as to differentiate NCC cadets from SAF personnel. As for NPCC and NCDCC, the rank insignia is two pointed-down chevrons with the letters 'NPCC' and 'NCDCC' below the insignia, so as to differentiate NPCC and NCDCC cadets from Singapore Police Force and Singapore Civil Defence Force personnel, respectively.


title: Corporal

text: The rank of Corporal is generally awarded to cadets in Secondary Two, or Secondary Three. Corporals, after being appointed, are given training to command a squad.


title: Corporal

text: In the Spanish Armed Forces, (corporal) is the rank between (first class private) and (first corporal). It actually equates to a NATO OR-3, with equating to an OR-4 and to an OR-5.


title: Corporal

text: Since 2015, the Corporal (), was introduced in the National Police of Ukraine, that is a special rank of junior quarterdeck. It corresponds to former junior sergeant of militia. Also since 2018–19, the Corporal () was introduced in the Court Security Service (), and the DBR () as a special rank of junior quarterdeck.


title: Corporal

text: The rank of corporal, which falls between lance-corporal and sergeant is used by the British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Air Force.


title: Corporal

text: The badge of rank is a two-bar chevron (also known as "stripes", "tapes", or "hooks"). A corporal's role varies between regiments; but, in the standard infantry role, a corporal commands a section, with a lance-corporal as second-in-command (2ic). When the section is split into fire teams, they command one each. In the Royal Armoured Corps, a corporal commands an individual tank. Their duties therefore largely correspond to those of staff sergeants in the United States Army and corporals are often described as the "backbone" of the British Army.


title: Corporal

text: In the Household Cavalry, all non-commissioned ranks are designated as different grades of corporal up to regimental corporal major (who is a warrant officer class 1). There is no effective actual rank of corporal, however, and the ranks progress directly from lance-corporal to lance-corporal of horse (who is effectively equivalent to a corporal; technically, a lance-corporal of horse holds the rank of corporal but is automatically give the appointment of lance-corporal of horse). Similarly, in the Foot Guards and in the Honourable Artillery Company, every Corporal is appointed as a lance-sergeant meaning they wear three chevrons rather than the regular two, with a lance-corporal wearing two chevrons instead of one: this is sometimes said to have originated with Queen Victoria who did not like "her own guardsmen" having only one chevron.


title: Corporal

text: Royal Artillery corporals are called bombardiers; although, until 1920, the Royal Artillery had corporals and bombardier was a lower rank. The rank of second corporal existed in the Royal Engineers and Royal Army Ordnance Corps until 1920.


title: Corporal

text: A common nickname for a corporal is a "full screw", with lance-corporals being known as "lance-jacks".


title: Corporal

text: Corporal is the lowest NCO rank in the Royal Air Force (aside from the RAF Regiment who have lance-corporals), coming between junior technician or Senior aircraftman technician and sergeant in the technical trades, or senior aircraftman and sergeant in the non-technical trades. Between 1950 and 1964, corporals in technical trades were known as "corporal technicians" and wore their chevrons point up.


title: Corporal

text: The Army Cadet Force, Combined Cadet Force, Air Training Corps, Royal Marines sections of the Sea Cadet Corps and the Combined Cadet Force all have the rank of corporal, reflecting the structure of their parent service; therefore it is the second NCO rank of the ACF, CCF (including the RAF Section, which has the rank of lance corporal) and marine cadets, and the first NCO rank in the ATC.


title: Corporal

text: In the U.S. Army, corporal is preceded by the first three forms of private and the rank of specialist. A corporal rank shares the same pay grade (E-4) as a specialist. Unlike a specialist, however, a corporal is a non-commissioned officer and may direct the activities of other soldiers.


title: Corporal

text: After the Civil War, U.S. Army infantry strategy increasingly focused on units below the company level. In 1891, a squad was defined as an eight-man unit led by a corporal, a definition which held through World War I until the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II. In 1940, with the recognition of the increasing importance of small-unit tactics, the size of the squad was increased to twelve men, now led by a sergeant, with a corporal as assistant squad leader. In February 1944, the squad leader became a staff sergeant, assisted by a sergeant, dropping the corporal from the infantry company's chain of command. As a result of this "steady inflation" of the NCO corps, writes historian Ernest F. Fisher, "the rank of corporal came to mean very little in a line organization, though the corporal was in theory and by tradition a combat leader." After the Korean War, squad leaders were further promoted to sergeant first class (E-7), and the "once-honored rank of corporal sank into oblivion."


title: Corporal

text: Beginning in July 2021, specialists who are graduates of the Basic Leader Course (BLC) and who have been recommended for promotion are to become corporals before further promotion; conversely current corporals who have not yet graduated from BLC will be laterally reassigned as specialists until they have graduated from BLC. No change in pay is involved, but corporals are expected to lead, teach, and mentor their teams.


title: Corporal

text: Corporal is the fourth enlisted rank in the U.S. Marine Corps, ranking immediately above lance corporal and immediately below sergeant. The Marine Corps, unlike the Army, has no other rank at the pay grade of E-4. Corporal is the lowest grade of non-commissioned officer in the U.S. Marine Corps, though promotion to corporal traditionally confers a significant jump in authority and responsibility compared to promotion from private through lance corporal. Marine infantry corporals generally serve as "fire-team leaders", leading a four-man team or weapons crew of similar size (e.g., assault weapons squad, medium machine gun team, or LWCMS mortar squad).


title: Corporal

text: In practice, however, the billet of fire team leader is generally held by a lance corporal, while corporals serve in the squad leader billet that would normally be held by a sergeant (E-5) in infantry units. In support units, corporals generally serve in "journeyman" level roles in which they direct the activities of junior Marines and provide technical supervision, on a very limited scope, under the direct supervision of a sergeant or SNCO.


title: Corporal

text: Due to its emphasis on small-unit tactics, its infantry-centric ethos, and its tradition of empowering junior NCOs to exercise first-level leadership, the U.S. Marine Corps' Tables of Organization (TOs) usually places corporals (as well as sergeants and staff sergeants) in billets where other services would normally have higher ranking NCOs in authority. For example, the USMC Table of Organization "billet" rank for rifle fire team leader, rifle squad leader, and rifle platoon sergeant is corporal (E-4), sergeant (E-5), and staff sergeant (E-6), respectively. However, the same positions (Table of Organization and Equipment "slots") in US Army infantry units are one grade higher and, except in fire teams (both services with four men in each team), the equivalent Army units are smaller (viz., USMC rifle squad and rifle platoon – 13 men and 43 men, respectively, vice US Army rifle squad and rifle platoon – 9 men and 34 men, respectively). Specifically, for the Army rifle units, the rank of the fire team, squad leader, and platoon sergeant are: sergeant (E-5), staff sergeant (E-6), and sergeant first class (E-7), respectively. Similarly, the term "strategic corporal" refers to the special responsibilities conferred upon a Marine corporal over against the normal responsibilities, and usual authority, of service members in the grade of E-4 in the other branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.


title: Corporal

text: Until the mid-to-late 1980s, corporals were the lowest USMC rank eligible for selection as a drill instructor for USMC recruit training.


title: Corporal

text: The history of the rank of corporal in the USMC roughly parallels that of the U.S. Army until 1942. From 1775 until WWII, the Marine Corps used essentially the same rank and organizational structure as its common British and colonial forebears with the Army, as well as the later Continental and U.S. armies. In 1942, as the Army modified its triangular division infantry organization to best fight in the European/North African/Middle Eastern Theatre the Marine Corps began modifying the triangular division plan to best employ its amphibious warfare doctrine in the Pacific Theatre. This meant that for the Corps, squad leaders would remain as sergeants and that the rifle squad would be sub-divided into three four-man fire teams each led by a corporal.


title: Corporal

text: While the rank is used in a number of NATO countries, it is ranked differently depending on the country.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: The "Harry Potter" video games are a series of video games based on the "Harry Potter" franchise originally created by J.K. Rowling. Many of the "Harry Potter"-inspired video games are tie-ins to the novels and films of the same name. The main series features a video game for every novel, as well as two for the finale. There are multiple distinct versions for individual games.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: After the success of the initial games, Warner Bros. Games created the label Portkey Games and expanded the series to include a pair of Lego video games. The games grossed over $1.5 billion in sales; the main series received mixed reviews from critics, while the Lego games were both critically and commercially successful.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Despite the games having a wide variety of developers, Electronic Arts developed all games from "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" until "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2".


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Generally, the video game adaptations of the Harry Potter series were designed to be released to coincide with the release schedule of the film series. The first game in the series, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" (known as ""Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone"", for the North American release) was developed by five different teams, each creating different versions for different consoles. The games were developed by Argonaut Games (PlayStation), Aspyr (Mac OS), Griptonite Games (Game Boy Color and Game Boy Advance), and KnowWonder (personal computer). Two years later, Warthog Games released versions for sixth generation consoles (GameCube, PlayStation 2, and Xbox). The version was released after the "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", and used many of the same assets. The game featured puzzles aimed at "eight- to fourteen-year-olds" and aimed to capture the mood of the novel of the same name.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: During the release of "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" in 2002, developer Eurocom was brought on board to create the sixth generation console releases (GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Xbox) as well as the Game Boy Advance and the Game Boy Color release. This version included new assets specifically for the "Chamber of Secrets" and free-roam flying on a broomstick on the PlayStation 2 release, which was not possible on any other release. This version removed many of the puzzle sections found in the first game and replaced them with action sections and boss fights. The PC version, however, used many of the same assets as those in "Philosopher's Stone", and retained a more puzzle-oriented gameplay style.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: The release of "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban" (2004) switched genre to a role-playing video game (RPG). GameSpot likened the game to "Chrono Trigger" and "Pokémon". The third instalment featured separate games for the PC version and a console release (which was this time developed by EA UK). Both of these versions made Harry, Hermione and Ron playable characters. In the PC release, Buckbeak and Hedwig were made playable as well.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2005, "World of Harry Potter" was released for PC, containing all of the first three novel games, and the "Quiddich World Cup" game. Following "Prisoner of Azkaban", EA, specifically EA UK (which was later renamed as EA Bright Light), took charge of creating all versions of the game. The PC and Mac releases were developed as ports of the console release. In "Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire" (2005), the style from previous titles was reduced to a more linear, level based system, as the character followed certain scenes from the film. Multiplayer components were factored into the game's release: up to three players from the same console. This was also the first game in the series to be released on Nintendo DS.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: During the development of "Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix" (2007), the development team had more interaction with author J.K. Rowling when attempting to create playable card games for the series. The rules that were created were later revealed to be the official rules in canon. This release was the first in the series to include motion capture from actors in the film series, including Rupert Grint and Evanna Lynch. The release removed the multiplayer component of the previous two games; Fred and George Weasley were still playable, but only in certain locations. The game made a return to the free-roaming style of earlier games.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2009, "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince" was released after originally being planned for 2008. It was pushed back six months to be released with the film of the same name. Like with the previous game, the multiplayer component was removed; Ron and Ginny Weasley were still playable, but only in certain locations. The final two games in the main series, "Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 1" (2010) and "Part 2" (2011), take place away from Hogwarts, and features locations such as The Ministry of Magic. These games use a stealth and combat mechanic similar to those found in modern first person shooters. Jonathan Bunney, head of Production at EA Bright Light, stated that the final two instalments would be "darker and more action-oriented game(s)."


title: Harry Potter video games

text: The first retail release of a "Harry Potter" game outside of the film adaptations was for the "Lego Creator", released in 2001 as "Lego Creator: Harry Potter" and the sequel, "Lego Creator: Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets", released in 2002. Following the release of "Chamber of Secrets", EA Games engaged game developer Magic Pockets, who created the Game Boy Advanced version, to produce a video game based on Quidditch.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Due to the release schedule of the film "Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban", there was no main series release in 2003. Instead, "" was released in its place. Previous games had featured Quidditch but only focused on Potter as the seeker; Quidditch World Cup put players in control of the team's chasers and the rest of the team's players via mini-games. The game featured both matches played at Hogwarts, and matches played internationally.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2010, following a release of a special Potter-themed Lego set, Lego Harry Potter, Traveller's Tales announced that a Lego Harry Potter video game would be released, similar to releases for "" and "". The series was split into two: "" was released in 2010 followed by "" in 2011.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2012 and 2013, two augmented reality games were created, titled "Book of Spells" and "Book of Potions" respectively. These were both released for PlayStation 3, and used the PlayStation Move controller, as well as the Wonderbook accessory for the PlayStation Eye. The Wonderbook accessory was brought out in conjuncture with "Book of Spells", allowing players to see an augmented reality version of real life books.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2016, a Fantastic Beast VR game was released In 2017, two new themed character packs for a Toys-to-life console video game "Lego Dimensions" were released. One contained Lego figurines of Harry, Voldemort, mini Ford Anglia and mini Hogwarts Express, while the other one contained figurines of Hermione and Buckbeak. At the same time, Portkey Games partnered with Jam City to release "" in March 2018 for iOS and Android. The game was a spin off from the Harry Potter universe by setting the game before the book series, but still at Hogwarts. The game featured similar components to those of other freemium games, such as wait timers, and microtransactions.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Following the release of "Pokémon Go", in 2019 Niantic announced "", a similar augmented reality game. The game allowed players to see the game world through a smartphone.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2020, "Harry Potter: Puzzles & Spells" by Zynga Inc. was released on App Store, Google Play, Amazon Kindle, and Facebook Gaming in 14 languages.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: "Hogwarts Legacy", an open-world, action role-playing video game and a prequel to the "Harry Potter" books, is set to be released in 2023.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In the novel video games, gameplay is featured around puzzle solving with some action-oriented scenes. Releases in the series generally followed the plot of the associated novel. The protagonist learns spells or other techniques from classes within Hogwarts school, which are often used to solve the puzzles at hand. While some are similar to those used in other Harry Potter media (such as "Wingardium Leviosa", used for levitating objects), other spells are unique to the video games (such as "Flipendo", described as the "knockback jinx", an attacking spell, used to push objects, or "Spongefy", to make an object turn into a bounce pad).


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Earlier games in the series contained "secrets" which were a countable list of hidden extras. The games contained "beans", based on "Bertie Botts every flavour beans", used as currency, and Famous Witch or Wizard cards, used as collectables. However, in later games (specifically the final two entries), entries employ first person shooter and stealth sections.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: The Harry Potter video game series received mixed reviews from critics. Nintendo consoles (specifically the Wii) scored higher marks than other console releases. According to media review site Metacritic, the series received its best response for the "Chamber of Secrets" game. Despite the game being created differently for different systems, the game was rated higher consoles across the board against every other entry in the series.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: The series was judged on its representation of the novel and film series. "Detroit Free Press" gave the "Goblet of Fire" GameCube version four out of four stars and said, "this is a masterful video game because it can be enjoyed on many levels. Younger players can simply explore this graphically rich "Harry Potter" world and succeed. Older players will enjoy manipulating the magic by choosing spells and skills and casting magic together with friends." However, "The Sydney Morning Herald" gave the game three out of five stars and stated that the series highlight "is a brief but thrilling broomstick chase against a fire-breathing dragon. An underwater interlude is less successful, although it provides variety." "Frank Provo" of "GameSpot" was very positive about the "Prisoner of Azkaban" GBA game's recreation of the novel; saying "The main thing to keep in mind is that "Prisoner of Azkaban" on the GBA offers a fun way for "Harry Potter" fans to step into the shoes of their favorite wizard-in-training and experience firsthand everything that happened in the third instalment of the series." Gerald Villoria of "GameSpot" praised the developers efforts, for the PlayStation version, in re-creating the Hogwarts castle and different looking characters, but said the despite the graphics being like "extremely jagged polygons."


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Later entries in the series received increasingly lower scores on Metacritic, as critics rated "Deathly Hallows – Part 1" being the poorest reviewed. The "Official Xbox Magazine" stated the game had "so much wrong with [it] that we don't have space to list it all" and Kristine Steimer from "IGN" calling that game not "worthy of the Harry Potter branding" before giving the gameplay for the game 2 out of 10, stating "Between the camera breaking frequently, boring shoot-out sequences and uninspired stealth missions, the game gets worse and worse as you play."


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Other games based around Harry Potter have been generally praised better than the novel adaptions, especially the Lego Harry Potter games. "" specifically scored well: Metacritic scored the game at 79%, for its PC, PlayStation 3 and Xbox release. Greg Miller of "IGN" praised the game for its "gorgeous environments, clever use of the famed spells, legitimate humor and adorable references" and called it a "love letter to fans of the Boy Who Lived." The "Official Nintendo Magazine" gave the Wii and DS version 80%, saying that it was "one of the best Harry Potter games ever", however it lacked originality compared to previous Lego video games.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: Besides the Lego Harry Potter titles, two titles were released for the PlayStation 3, using augmented reality. "Book of Potions" and "Book of Spells" both built for the Wonderbook, received mixed reviews from critics. They criticized the game's short length, but commended use of the augmented reality within the games. Alex Simmons of "IGN" commented that "Book of Spells" was "shallow and rarely compelling", but called the technology behind it "fantastic". "Harry Potter: Hogwarts Mystery", also released in 2018, received media backlash for its use of microtransactions, despite the game being free to play. "David Jagnaeux" from "IGN" Africa reviewed the game, but called it "awful", and the "gratuitous" microtransactions "actively prevented" him from enjoying the game.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: In 2002, "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone" was nominated for three D.I.C.E. Awards in the "Console Family", "Original Musical Composition" and "PC Family" categories. "Lego Harry Potter: Years 1–4" won the "Kotaku" "best adapted game" award in 2010, with "Brian Crecente" proclaiming it to be the "Best Lego Game to Date." The game was nominated for two awards in the 7th British Academy Games Awards, in the "family" and "handheld" sections. In addition, it was nominated for "Best Adapted Video Game" for the Spike Video Game Awards in 2010. The musical score of "Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets" by Jeremy Soule received a BAFTA Award for Original Music in 2004.


title: Harry Potter video games

text: "Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince" received a BAFTA nomination in 2010 for James Hannigan's music score, and won an International Film Music Critics Association (IFMCA) Award for best video game score in 2009. "Book of Spells" received a nomination for "game innovation" at the BAFTA Awards in 2013. As of 2014, the "Harry Potter" video game series was stated to have sold $1.5 billion in sales.


title: Kidney failure

text: Kidney failure, also known as end-stage kidney disease, is a medical condition in which the kidneys can no longer adequately filter waste products from the blood, functioning at less than 15% of normal levels. Kidney failure is classified as either acute kidney failure, which develops rapidly and may resolve; and chronic kidney failure, which develops slowly and can often be irreversible. Symptoms may include leg swelling, feeling tired, vomiting, loss of appetite, and confusion. Complications of acute and chronic failure include uremia, high blood potassium, and volume overload. Complications of chronic failure also include heart disease, high blood pressure, and anemia.


title: Kidney failure

text: Causes of acute kidney failure include low blood pressure, blockage of the urinary tract, certain medications, muscle breakdown, and hemolytic uremic syndrome. Causes of chronic kidney failure include diabetes, high blood pressure, nephrotic syndrome, and polycystic kidney disease. Diagnosis of acute failure is often based on a combination of factors such as decreased urine production or increased serum creatinine. Diagnosis of chronic failure is based on a glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of less than 15 or the need for renal replacement therapy. It is also equivalent to stage 5 chronic kidney disease.


title: Kidney failure

text: Treatment of acute failure depends on the underlying cause. Treatment of chronic failure may include hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or a kidney transplant. Hemodialysis uses a machine to filter the blood outside the body. In peritoneal dialysis specific fluid is placed into the abdominal cavity and then drained, with this process being repeated multiple times per day. Kidney transplantation involves surgically placing a kidney from someone else and then taking immunosuppressant medication to prevent rejection. Other recommended measures from chronic disease include staying active and specific dietary changes. Depression is also common among patients with kidney failure, and is associated with poor outcomes including higher risk of kidney function decline, hospitalization, and death. A recent PCORI-funded study of patients with kidney failure receiving outpatient hemodialysis found similar effectiveness between nonpharmacological and pharmacological treatments for depression.


title: Kidney failure

text: In the United States acute failure affects about 3 per 1,000 people a year. Chronic failure affects about 1 in 1,000 people with 3 per 10,000 people newly developing the condition each year. Acute failure is often reversible while chronic failure often is not. With appropriate treatment many with chronic disease can continue working.


title: Kidney failure

text: Kidney failure can be divided into two categories: acute kidney failure or chronic kidney failure. The type of renal failure is differentiated by the trend in the serum creatinine; other factors that may help differentiate acute kidney failure from chronic kidney failure include anemia and the kidney size on sonography as chronic kidney disease generally leads to anemia and small kidney size.


title: Kidney failure

text: Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a rapidly progressive loss of renal function, generally characterized by oliguria (decreased urine production, quantified as less than 400 mL per day in adults, less than 0.5 mL/kg/h in children or less than 1 mL/kg/h in infants); and fluid and electrolyte imbalance. AKI can result from a variety of causes, generally classified as "prerenal", "intrinsic", and "postrenal". Many people diagnosed with paraquat intoxication experience AKI, sometimes requiring hemodialysis. The underlying cause must be identified and treated to arrest the progress, and dialysis may be necessary to bridge the time gap required for treating these fundamental causes.


title: Kidney failure

text: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) can also develop slowly and, initially, show few symptoms. CKD can be the long term consequence of irreversible acute disease or part of a disease progression.


title: Kidney failure

text: Acute kidney injuries can be present on top of chronic kidney disease, a condition called acute-on-chronic kidney failure (AoCRF). The acute part of AoCRF may be reversible, and the goal of treatment, as with AKI, is to return the person to baseline kidney function, typically measured by serum creatinine. Like AKI, AoCRF can be difficult to distinguish from chronic kidney disease if the person has not been monitored by a physician and no baseline (i.e., past) blood work is available for comparison.


title: Kidney failure

text: Symptoms can vary from person to person. Someone in early stage kidney disease may not feel sick or notice symptoms as they occur. When the kidneys fail to filter properly, waste accumulates in the blood and the body, a condition called azotemia. Very low levels of azotaemia may produce few, if any, symptoms. If the disease progresses, symptoms become noticeable (if the failure is of sufficient degree to cause symptoms). Kidney failure accompanied by noticeable symptoms is termed uraemia.


title: Kidney failure

text: Acute kidney injury (previously known as acute renal failure) – or AKI – usually occurs when the blood supply to the kidneys is suddenly interrupted or when the kidneys become overloaded with toxins. Causes of acute kidney injury include accidents, injuries, or complications from surgeries in which the kidneys are deprived of normal blood flow for extended periods of time. Heart-bypass surgery is an example of one such procedure.


title: Kidney failure

text: Drug overdoses, accidental or from chemical overloads of drugs such as antibiotics or chemotherapy, along with bee stings may also cause the onset of acute kidney injury. Unlike chronic kidney disease, however, the kidneys can often recover from acute kidney injury, allowing the person with AKI to resume a normal life. People with acute kidney injury require supportive treatment until their kidneys recover function, and they often remain at increased risk of developing future kidney failure.


title: Kidney failure

text: Among the accidental causes of renal failure is the crush syndrome, when large amounts of toxins are suddenly released in the blood circulation after a long compressed limb is suddenly relieved from the pressure obstructing the blood flow through its tissues, causing ischemia. The resulting overload can lead to the clogging and the destruction of the kidneys. It is a reperfusion injury that appears after the release of the crushing pressure. The mechanism is believed to be the release into the bloodstream of muscle breakdown products – notably myoglobin, potassium, and phosphorus – that are the products of rhabdomyolysis (the breakdown of skeletal muscle damaged by ischemic conditions). The specific action on the kidneys is not fully understood, but may be due in part to nephrotoxic metabolites of myoglobin.


title: Kidney failure

text: Chronic kidney failure has numerous causes. The most common causes of chronic failure are diabetes mellitus and long-term, uncontrolled hypertension. Polycystic kidney disease is another well-known cause of chronic failure. The majority of people affected with polycystic kidney disease have a family history of the disease. Other genetic illnesses cause kidney failure, as well.


title: Kidney failure

text: Overuse of common drugs such as ibuprofen, and acetaminophen (paracetamol) can also cause chronic kidney failure.


title: Kidney failure

text: The "APOL1" gene has been proposed as a major genetic risk locus for a spectrum of nondiabetic renal failure in individuals of African origin, these include HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN), primary nonmonogenic forms of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis, and hypertension affiliated chronic kidney disease not attributed to other etiologies. Two western African variants in APOL1 have been shown to be associated with end stage kidney disease in African Americans and Hispanic Americans.


title: Kidney failure

text: Chronic kidney failure is measured in five stages, which are calculated using the person's GFR, or glomerular filtration rate. Stage 1 CKD is mildly diminished renal function, with few overt symptoms. Stages 2 and 3 need increasing levels of supportive care from their medical providers to slow and treat their renal dysfunction. People with stage 4 and 5 kidney failure usually require preparation towards active treatment in order to survive. Stage 5 CKD is considered a severe illness and requires some form of renal replacement therapy (dialysis) or kidney transplant whenever feasible.


title: Kidney failure

text: A normal GFR varies according to many factors, including sex, age, body size and ethnic background. Renal professionals consider the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) to be the best overall index of kidney function. The National Kidney Foundation offers an easy to use on-line GFR calculator for anyone who is interested in knowing their glomerular filtration rate. (A serum creatinine level, a simple blood test, is needed to use the calculator.)


title: Kidney failure

text: Before the advancement of modern medicine, renal failure was often referred to as uremic poisoning. Uremia was the term for the contamination of the blood with urea. It is the presence of an excessive amount of urea in blood. Starting around 1847, this included reduced urine output, which was thought to be caused by the urine mixing with the blood instead of being voided through the urethra. The term "uremia" is now used for the illness accompanying kidney failure.


title: Kidney failure

text: Those with end stage renal failure who undergo haemodialysis have higher risk of spontaneous intra-abdominal bleeding than the general population (21.2%) and non-occlusive mesenteric ischemia (18.1%). Meanwhile, those undergoing peritoneal dialysis have a higher chance of developing peritonitis and gastrointestinal perforation. However, the rate of acute pancreatitis does not differ from the general population.


title: Kidney failure

text: The treatment of acute kidney injury depends on the cause. The treatment of chronic kidney failure may include renal replacement therapy: hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or kidney transplant.


title: Kidney failure

text: In non-diabetics and people with type 1 diabetes, a low protein diet is found to have a preventive effect on progression of chronic kidney disease. However, this effect does not apply to people with type 2 diabetes. A whole food, plant-based diet may help some people with kidney disease. A high protein diet from either animal or plant sources appears to have negative effects on kidney function at least in the short term.


title: Kidney failure

text: People who receive earlier referrals to a nephrology specialist, meaning a longer time before they must start dialysis, have a shorter initial hospitalization and reduced risk of death after the start of dialysis. Other methods of reducing disease progression include minimizing exposure to nephrotoxins such as NSAIDs and intravenous contrast.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts, officially the Saint Christopher Island, is an island in the West Indies. The west side of the island borders the Caribbean Sea, and the eastern coast faces the Atlantic Ocean. Saint Kitts and the neighbouring island of Nevis constitute one country: the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis. Saint Kitts and Nevis are separated by a shallow channel known as "The Narrows".


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts became home to the first Caribbean British and French colonies in the mid-1620s. Along with the island of Nevis, Saint Kitts was a member of the British West Indies until gaining independence on 19 September 1983.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The island is one of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles. It is situated about southeast of Miami, Florida, US. The land area of Saint Kitts is about , being approximately long and on average about across.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts has a population of about 40,000, the majority of whom are of African descent. The primary language is English, with a literacy rate of approximately 98%. Residents call themselves Kittitians.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Brimstone Hill Fortress National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest fortress ever built in the Western Caribbean. The island of Saint Kitts is home to the Warner Park Cricket Stadium, which was used to host 2007 Cricket World Cup matches. This made Saint Kitts and Nevis the smallest nation to ever host a World Cup event. Saint Kitts is also home to several institutions of higher education, including Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Windsor University School of Medicine, and the University of Medicine and Health Sciences.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The capital of the two-island nation, and also its largest port, is the town of Basseterre on Saint Kitts. There is a modern facility for handling large cruise ships there. A ring road goes around the perimeter of the island with smaller roads branching off it; the interior of the island is too steep for habitation.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts is away from Sint Eustatius to the north and from Nevis to the south. St. Kitts has three distinct groups of volcanic peaks: the North West or Mount Misery Range; the Middle or Verchilds Range and the South East or Olivees Range. The highest peak is Mount Liamuiga, formerly Mount Misery, a dormant volcano 1,156 m high.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The youngest volcanic center is Mt. Liamuiga, 5 km in diameter and rising to an elevation of 1155 m. Its last eruption was 1620 years ago, corresponding with the Steel Dust series of pyroclastic deposits on the western flank. The Mansion Series of pyroclastic deposits and andesite with basalt layers occur on the northern flank, along with mudflows. This volcano has a crater 900 m wide and 244 m deep, plus two distinct parasitic domes consisting primarily of andesite, Brimstone Hill and Sandy Point Hill which is coalesced with Farm Flat. Brimstone Hill is noted for having limestone on its flanks, which was dragged upward with the formation of the dome 44,400 years ago. Mt. Liamuiga partially overlays the Middle Range to the southeast. This Middle Range is another stratovolcano 976 m in height with a small summit crater containing a lake. Next in line is the 900 m South East Range, 1 Myr in age, consisting of four peaks. Ottley's dome and Monkey Hill dome are on the flanks, while the older volcanoes represented by Canada Hills, and Conaree Hills lie past the airport and Basseterre on the southeast flank. The Salt Dome Peninsula contains the oldest volcanic deposits, 2.3–2.77 Myr in age, consisting of at least nine Pelean domes rising up to 319 m in height, which includes Williams Hill and St. Anthony's Peak.


title: Saint Kitts

text: During the last ice age, the sea level was up to lower and St. Kitts and Nevis were one island along with Saba and Sint Eustatius (also known as Statia).


title: Saint Kitts

text: St. Kitts was originally settled by pre-agricultural, pre-ceramic "Archaic people", who migrated south down the archipelago from Florida. In a few hundred years they disappeared, to be replaced by the ceramic-using and agriculturalist Saladoid people around 100 BC, who migrated to St. Kitts north up the archipelago from the banks of the Orinoco River in Venezuela. Around 800 AD, they were replaced by the Igneri people, members of the Arawak group.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Around 1300 AD, the Kalinago, or Carib people arrived on the islands. These agriculturalists quickly dispersed the Igneri, and forced them northwards to the Greater Antilles. They named Saint Kitts "Liamuiga" meaning "fertile island", and would likely have expanded further north if not for the arrival of Europeans.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The first English colony was established in 1623, followed by a French colony in 1625. The English and French briefly united to massacre the local Kalinago, and then partitioned the island, with the English colonists in the middle and the French on either end. In 1629, a Spanish force sent to clear the islands of foreign settlement seized St. Kitts. The English settlement was rebuilt following the 1630 peace between England and Spain.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The island alternated repeatedly between English (then British) and French control during the 17th and 18th centuries, as one power took the whole island, only to have it switch hands due to treaties or military action. Parts of the island were heavily fortified, as exemplified by the UNESCO World Heritage Site at Brimstone Hill and the now-crumbling Fort Charles.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Since 1783, Saint Kitts has been affiliated with the Kingdom of Great Britain, which became the United Kingdom.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The island originally produced tobacco, but farmers switched to sugar cane in 1640 because of stiff competition from the colony of Virginia. The labour-intensive cultivation of sugar cane was the reason for the large-scale importation of African slaves. The importation began almost immediately upon the arrival of Europeans to the region.


title: Saint Kitts

text: The purchasing of enslaved Africans was outlawed in the British Empire by an Act of Parliament in 1807. Slavery was abolished by an Act of Parliament which became law on 1 August 1834. This emancipation was followed by four years of forced enslavement, put in place to protect the "planters" (plantation owners) from losing their free labour force.


title: Saint Kitts

text: 1 August is now celebrated as a public holiday and is called Emancipation Day. In 1883, Saint Kitts, Nevis, and Anguilla were all linked under one presidency, located on Saint Kitts, to the dismay of the Nevisians and Anguillans. Anguilla left this arrangement in 1971, after an armed raid on Saint Kitts in 1967.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Sugar production continued to dominate the local economy until 2005, when, after 365 years of having a monoculture, the government closed the sugar industry. This decision was made because of huge losses and European Union plans to greatly cut sugar prices.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts & Nevis uses the Eastern Caribbean dollar, which maintains a fixed exchange rate of 2.7-to-one with the United States dollar. The US dollar is almost as widely accepted as the Eastern Caribbean dollar.


title: Saint Kitts

text: For hundreds of years, Saint Kitts operated as a sugar monoculture, but due to decreasing profitability, the government closed the industry in 2005. Tourism is a major and growing source of income to the island, although the number and density of resorts is less than on many other Caribbean islands. Transportation, non-sugar agriculture, manufacturing and construction are the other growing sectors of the economy.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts is dependent on tourism to drive its economy. Tourism has been increasing since 1978. In 2009, there were 587,479 arrivals to Saint Kitts compared to 379,473 in 2007, which represents an increase of just under 40% growth in a two-year period. As tourism grows, the demand for vacation property increases in conjunction.


title: Saint Kitts

text: Saint Kitts & Nevis also acquires foreign direct investment from their unique citizenship by investment programme, outlined in their Citizenship Act of 1984. Interested parties can acquire citizenship if they pass the government's strict background checks and make an investment into an approved real estate development. Purchasers who pass government due diligence and make a minimum investment of US$400,000, into qualifying government approved real estate, are entitled to apply for citizenship of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis. Many projects are approved under the citizenship by investment programme, and the main qualifying projects of interest can be found within the Henley Estates market overview .


title: Saint Kitts

text: The narrow-gauge (30 inches) St. Kitts Scenic Railway circles the island and offers passenger service from its headquarters near the airport, although the service is geared more for tourists than as day-to-day transportation for residents. Built between 1912 and 1926 to haul sugar cane from farms to the sugar factory in Basseterre, since 2003 the railway has offered a 3.5-hour, 30-mile circle tour of the island on specially designed double-decker open-air coaches, with 12 miles of the trip being by bus.


title: Saint Kitts

text: And also the scenic railway which is now used to facilitate tourist and even its citizens to give them a scenery and dramatic views of the island.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Cyd Charisse (born Tula Ellice Finklea; March 8, 1922 – June 17, 2008) was an American actress and dancer.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: After recovering from polio as a child and studying ballet, Charisse entered films in the 1940s. Her roles usually featured her abilities as a dancer, and she was paired with Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly; her films include "Singin' in the Rain" (1952), "The Band Wagon" (1953), "Brigadoon" with Gene Kelly and Van Johnson (1954) and "Silk Stockings" (1957). She stopped dancing in films in the late 1950s, but continued acting in film and television, and in 1991 made her Broadway debut. In her later years, she discussed the history of the Hollywood musical in documentaries, and was featured in "That's Entertainment! III" in 1994. She was awarded the National Medal of the Arts and Humanities in 2006.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Cyd Charisse was born Tula Ellice Finklea in Amarillo, Texas, the daughter of Lela (née Norwood) and Ernest Enos Finklea Sr., who was a jeweler. Her nickname "Sid" was taken from her older brother Ernest E. Finklea Jr., who tried to say "Sis". It was later given the spelling of "Cyd" by Arthur Freed.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She was a sickly girl who started dancing lessons at six to build up her strength after a bout of polio. At 12, she studied ballet in Los Angeles with Adolph Bolm and Bronislava Nijinska, and at 14, she auditioned for and subsequently danced in the Ballet Russe de Monte-Carlo as "Felia Siderova" and, later, "Maria Istomina". She was educated at the Hollywood Professional School.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: During a European tour, she met up again with Nico Charisse, a young dancer she had studied with for a time in Los Angeles. They married in Paris in 1939 and had a son, Nicky, born in 1942.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She appeared uncredited in some films like "Escort Girl" (1941) and was in a short for Warner Bros, "The Gay Parisian" (1942).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: The outbreak of World War II led to the breakup of the ballet company, and when Charisse returned to Los Angeles, David Lichine offered her a dancing role in Gregory Ratoff's "Something to Shout About" (1943) at Columbia. This brought her to the attention of choreographer Robert Alton—who had also discovered Gene Kelly—and soon she joined the Freed Unit at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, where she became the resident MGM ballet dancer.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse made some uncredited appearances in "Mission to Moscow" (1943) (as a ballet dancer) and "Thousands Cheer" (1943). She was borrowed by Warners for "In Our Time" (1944), playing a ballerina.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse was a ballerina in "Ziegfeld Follies" (produced in 1944 and released in 1946), dancing with Fred Astaire. Feedback was positive and Charisse was given her first speaking part supporting Judy Garland in the 1946 film "The Harvey Girls".


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She followed it with "Three Wise Fools" (1946) and she danced with Gower Champion to "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" in "Till the Clouds Roll By" (1946). She also had a supporting role in the Esther Williams musical "Fiesta" (1947).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse was second billed in "The Unfinished Dance" (1947) with Margaret O'Brien but the film was a box office flop. She had a good supporting part in "On an Island with You" (1948) with Williams and danced in "The Kissing Bandit" (1948). She had a supporting part in "Words and Music" (1948).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse was given another opportunity in a "B" movie, "Tension" (1950), where she was third billed, but it was a box office disappointment. She was billed fifth in the prestigious "East Side, West Side" (1949) and was borrowed by Universal to play the female lead in "The Mark of the Renegade" (1951).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Back at MGM Charisse was the leading lady in "The Wild North" (1951) with Stewart Granger, which was a huge hit. Because Debbie Reynolds was not a trained dancer, Kelly chose Charisse to partner with him in the celebrated "Broadway Melody" ballet finale from "Singin' in the Rain" (1952), which was acknowledged soon after release as one of the greatest musicals of all time.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse had a significant role in "Sombrero" (1953) as well as the lead female role in "The Band Wagon" (1953), where she danced with Astaire in the acclaimed "Dancing in the Dark" and "Girl Hunt Ballet" routines. Vincente Minnelli directed. Critic Pauline Kael said that "when the bespangled Charisse wraps her phenomenal legs around Astaire, she can be forgiven everything, even her three minutes of 'classical' ballet and the fact that she reads her lines as if she learned them phonetically." The film was another classic but lost money for MGM.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse had a cameo in "Easy to Love" (1953) then co-starred with Kelly in the Scottish-themed musical film "Brigadoon" (1954), directed by Minnelli. It was a box office disappointment. She again took the lead female role (alongside Kelly) in his MGM musical "It's Always Fair Weather" (1955), which lost money. In between she made an appearance in "Deep in My Heart" (1954).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse co-starred with Dan Dailey in "Meet Me in Las Vegas" (1956), which also lost money. She rejoined Astaire in the film version of "Silk Stockings" (1957), a musical remake of 1939's "Ninotchka", with Charisse taking over Greta Garbo's role. Astaire paid tribute to Charisse in his autobiography, calling her "beautiful dynamite" and writing: "That Cyd! When you've danced with her you stay danced with." The film was well received but lost money for MGM.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse had a slightly unusual serious acting role in "Party Girl" (1958), where she played a showgirl who became involved with gangsters and a crooked lawyer, although it did include two dance routines. It was far more profitable for MGM than her musicals.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: After the decline of the Hollywood musical in the late 1950s, Charisse retired from dancing but continued to appear in film and TV productions from the 1960s through the 1990s. She went to Europe to make "Five Golden Hours" (1961) and Minnelli's "Two Weeks in Another Town".


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She had a supporting role in "Something's Got to Give" (1962), the last, unfinished film of Marilyn Monroe. She did "Assassination in Rome" (1965) in Italy.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: A striptease number by Charisse set to the movie's theme song opened the 1966 Dean Martin spy spoof, "The Silencers", and she played a fashion magazine editor in the 1967 caper film "Maroc 7".


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She frequently performed dance numbers on TV variety series such as "The Ed Sullivan Show" and "The Dean Martin Show", with seven appearances on "The Hollywood Palace", a show she also hosted three times. She did "Fol-de-Rol" in 1968, which was filmed and broadcast in 1972.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: In the 1970s and 1980s Charisse guest-starred on shows such as "Medical Center", "Hawaii Five-O", "The Love Boat", "Fantasy Island", "The Fall Guy", "Glitter", "Murder, She Wrote", and "Crazy Like a Fox".


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She had a cameo in "Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood" (1976) and played Atsil, an Atlantean high priestess, in the 1978 fantasy film "Warlords of Atlantis".


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She also made cameo appearances in Blue Mercedes's "I Want to Be Your Property" (1987) and Janet Jackson's "Alright" (1990) music videos.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse appeared on Broadway from late 1991 as a replacement for Liliane Montevecchi in "Grand Hotel". Her last film appearance was in 1994 in "That's Entertainment! III" as one of the onscreen narrators of a tribute to the great MGM musical films. She also appeared in episodes of Burke's Law and Frasier in 1995 before retiring from acting. Subsequently, she made a brief and posthumous comeback in the TV movie Empire State Building Murders, which aired some two months after her death in 2008.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: In 1976, Charisse and her husband Tony Martin wrote their joint memoirs with Dick Kleiner entitled "The Two of Us" (1976). In 1990, following similar moves by MGM colleagues Debbie Reynolds and Angela Lansbury, Charisse produced the exercise video "Easy Energy Shape Up", targeted for active senior citizens. She made her Broadway debut in 1989 in the musical version of "Grand Hotel" as the aging ballerina, Elizaveta Grushinskaya. In her eighties, Charisse made occasional public appearances and appeared frequently in documentaries spotlighting the golden age of Hollywood.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: She was featured in the 2001 "Guinness Book of World Records" under "Most Valuable Legs", because a $5 million insurance policy was reportedly issued on her legs in 1952.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse's first husband, whose surname she kept, was Nico Charisse (March 1906 – April 1970); they were married in 1939 and had a son, Nico "Nicky" Charisse, before divorcing in 1947. In 1948, Charisse married singer Tony Martin, and remained married to him until her death in 2008. They had a son, Tony Martin Jr. (1950–2011).


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Her daughter-in-law is actress and model Liv Lindeland, who was married to Tony Martin Jr. until his death in 2011. Sheila Charisse, another daughter-in-law and the wife of Nicky Charisse, who was the son from her first marriage to Nico, died in the crash of American Airlines Flight 191 on May 25, 1979. Charisse, like her husband Tony Martin Sr., was a staunch Republican and campaigned for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 United States presidential election and Richard Nixon in 1968. She was the aunt of the actress Nana Visitor.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: Charisse was admitted to Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California on June 16, 2008, after suffering an apparent heart attack. She died the following day at age 86. She was a practicing Methodist, but due to her husband's religion she was buried at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery, a Jewish cemetery in Culver City, California, following a Methodist ceremony.


title: Cyd Charisse

text: On November 9, 2006, in a private White House ceremony, President George W. Bush presented Cyd Charisse with the National Medal of the Arts and Humanities, the highest official U.S. honor available in the arts.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Amber Evangeline Valletta (born February 9, 1974) is an American model and actress. She began her career as a fashion model, landing her first of sixteen American "Vogue" covers at the age of eighteen. During the 1990s, Valletta reached the status of supermodel, working as the face of Giorgio Armani, Chanel, Escada, Louis Vuitton, Prada, Valentino, Gucci and Versace, and signing multimillion-dollar cosmetics contracts with Calvin Klein and Elizabeth Arden. From 1995 to 1996, Valletta and her friend and fellow model Shalom Harlow hosted the MTV show "House of Style".


title: Amber Valletta

text: In the 2000s, Valletta began to focus on her career as an actress. She had her first major film role as a poltergeist in Robert Zemeckis's supernatural thriller "What Lies Beneath" (2000). She has since appeared in films such as "Hitch" (2005), "Transporter 2" (2005), "Man About Town" (2006), "Dead Silence" (2007), "Gamer" (2009), and "The Spy Next Door" (2010). In 2011, she moved to television, appearing in a recurring role as the fallen socialite Lydia Davis on ABC's drama television series "Revenge". In 2015, Valletta starred as the scheming Carla Briggs in another ABC soap opera, "Blood & Oil".


title: Amber Valletta

text: Amber Evangeline Valletta was born in Phoenix, Arizona and raised in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Her mother, Theresa Malaby, worked at the post office. Her father is of Italian and Portuguese descent, and her mother identifies as having English and part Cherokee ancestry. She attended Booker T. Washington High School.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta got her start in the fashion industry when her mother enrolled her in modeling school at the age of 15 at the Linda Layman Agency. Valletta, along with the likes of Kate Moss, Eva Herzigová, Tyra Banks, Carolyn Murphy and Shalom Harlow, was one of the most recognizable faces of the generation immediately subsequent to the original supermodels. During the 1990s she appeared 13 times on the cover of American "Vogue", second only to Claudia Schiffer's sixteen. Valletta was presented on the November 1999 Millennium cover of American "Vogue" as one of the "Modern Muses".


title: Amber Valletta

text: She has appeared on the cover of several international fashion magazines, such as Germany's "Cosmopolitan" and "Glamour"; Spain's "Elle", "Telva" and "Harper's Bazaar"; UK's "Esquire" and "Love" and US' "V", "Porter", "Interview", "Ocean Drive", "Shape", "Allure", "Marie Claire" and "i-D". Valletta has walked in fashion shows for Versace, Lanvin, Louis Vuitton, Balenciaga, Gucci, Valentino, Prada, Michael Kors, Alberta Ferretti, Claude Montana, Dolce & Gabbana, Pierre Balmain, Sonia Rykiel, Versus, Yohji Yamamoto, Anna Molinari, Calvin Klein, Christian Dior and Tom Ford. She was the face of NARS Cosmetics' Spring 2010 Collection.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta also continued to work with photographer Steven Meisel. Not only was she selected by Steven Meisel for the 2014 50th Anniversary Cover of Italian "Vogue" but one of her prior Italian "Vogue" editorials with super model Tracy James and photographed by Meisel was selected as one of Italian "Vogues" most Iconic photos.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta continues to work as a fashion model, closing the Versace Autumn/Winter 2017 fashion show. She was also model for Marks and Spencer. In 2018, Valletta appeared in advertisements for Mango, Blumarine, Escada, Chanel Watches, Prada and David Yurman. In 2019, she appeared on the cover of "Vogue" Korea and U.S. "Elle", advertising campaigns for Stella McCartney and Holt Renfrew, and editorials for Italian, American and Arabian "Vogue".


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta's first role was in the comedy film "Drop Back Ten" (2000). Later that year, she played a supporting role in the thriller film "What Lies Beneath", starring Harrison Ford and Michelle Pfeiffer and directed by Robert Zemeckis. She appeared alongside Nicolas Cage in "The Family Man". In 2003, she played Celine in Danny DeVito's "Duplex", starring Ben Stiller and Drew Barrymore, and in 2004, she played Martina in "Raising Helen", opposite Kate Hudson, Hayden Panettiere, Abigail Breslin, and Helen Mirren.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta's first major film role was as Allegra Cole in Andy Tennant's romantic comedy "Hitch". The film was released on February 11, 2005, and was a box office and critical success. She also had a role in "Transporter 2", playing the mother of the kidnapped child. She played the female lead in the 2006 independent film "The Last Time", co-starring alongside Michael Keaton and Brendan Fraser. In 2007, she had supporting roles in the horror film "Dead Silence", as Ella Ashen, and as Claire in "Premonition", starring Sandra Bullock. Also in 2007, Valletta played the leading role in the independent coming-of-age film "My Sexiest Year".


title: Amber Valletta

text: In 2009, Valletta starred alongside Gerard Butler in the science fiction action film "Gamer". The film was released in North America on September 4, 2009, to negative reviews from critics. In 2010, she starred in "The Spy Next Door", alongside Jackie Chan, George Lopez, and Billy Ray Cyrus; she played Chan's character's love interest, Gillian. In 2011, she appeared in the ensemble comedy film "Girl Walks into a Bar".


title: Amber Valletta

text: In 2011, Valletta was cast in the recurring role as the socialite Lydia Davis on the ABC television prime time soap opera "Revenge". In 2014, she was a regular cast member in the TNT crime drama series "Legends", playing Sean Bean's character's ex-wife. In 2015, Valletta starred in the short-lived ABC prime-time soap opera "Blood & Oil". She played Carla Briggs, the glamorous business partner and new wife of oil tycoon Hap Briggs (Don Johnson).


title: Amber Valletta

text: In 2016, Valletta starred in the video for Keith Urban's song "Blue Ain't Your Color", directed by Carter Smith. She also starred in the video for Fergie's song "M.I.L.F. $".


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta serves as the spokesperson for Oceana's Seafood Contamination Campaign, to raise awareness of the dangers of mercury poisoning in various kinds of seafood. The decision to join Oceana's campaign was prompted by the mercury-poisoning experience of a friend and the fact that she is a mother.


title: Amber Valletta

text: Valletta married Hervé Le Bihan in 1994, divorcing in 1996. In 2000, Valletta had a son, Auden, with Olympic volleyball player Chip McCaw. She married McCaw, in September 2003, and they divorced in early 2015.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Judy Lewis (born Judith Young; November 6, 1935 – November 25, 2011) was an American actress, writer, producer, and therapist. She was the secret biological daughter of actors Loretta Young and Clark Gable.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis was born on November 6, 1935 in Venice, California. She was conceived while her birth parents, Loretta Young and Clark Gable, were working on the film "Call of the Wild". Gable was married at the time of Lewis's conception, and Young concealed her pregnancy to avoid scandal. Weeks after her birth, Lewis was placed in an orphanage. Lewis would spend the next 19 months in various "hideaways and orphanages" before being reunited with her mother. Young then claimed that she had adopted Lewis. When Lewis was four years old, Young married radio producer Tom Lewis, and Judy took his last name. Young and Lewis went on to have two sons, Christopher Lewis and Peter Lewis.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis bore a striking resemblance to Gable, including having ears that stuck out. When Lewis was seven years old, Young had her undergo a painful operation to pin her ears back in another attempt to hide her real parentage. When Lewis was fifteen, Gable came to her mother's house to visit her briefly. Gable asked Lewis about her life and then, upon leaving, kissed her on her forehead. It was the only time that Lewis ever spoke to Gable, and at the time, she had no idea that he was her father. As an adult, Lewis spoke of the confusion, isolation and alienation she felt within her own family while growing up.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis' acting credits include appearances on TV serials such as "General Hospital", "Kitty Foyle", "The Brighter Day" and "The Doctors". Ms. Lewis had her longest running serial role on "The Secret Storm" as Susan Ames from 1964 to 1971. She also produced the short-lived "Another World" spin-off, "Texas" and was a script writer for NBC Daytime's "Search for Tomorrow."


title: Judy Lewis

text: In 1958, Lewis guest-starred in "Attack", an episode of the syndicated western series "Mackenzie's Raiders." She guest-starred with Grant Sullivan in his syndicated western series, "Pony Express". In 1960, Lewis portrayed a girlfriend of a United States Navy officer in the episode "Tiger Blood" of the syndicated series "The Blue Angels". In the 1961–1962 television season, she appeared as Connie Masters, an employee of the Wells Fargo office in Stillwater, Oklahoma, in the NBC western series, "Outlaws". In 1975, she guest-starred in the short-lived CBS family drama "Three for the Road".


title: Judy Lewis

text: In 1985, Lewis shared a Writers Guild of America award for several episodes of CBS's "Search For Tomorrow".


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis obtained bachelor's and master's degrees in clinical psychology from Antioch University in Los Angeles, became a licensed family and child counselor in 1992, and was a practicing psychotherapist with a specialty in foster care and marriage therapy.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis was the niece of actresses Polly Ann Young, Sally Blane, and Georgiana Young. She was also the paternal half-sister of John Clark Gable (Clark Gable's son with his fifth wife, Kay Williams) and the maternal half-sister of Christopher Lewis and Peter Lewis (Loretta's biological sons). Musician David Lindley is her maternal cousin.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis married Joseph Tinney in 1958, having one child together, daughter Maria. They divorced in 1972.


title: Judy Lewis

text: After Lewis became engaged to Tinney at age twenty-three, he told her it was common knowledge that Gable was her biological father; Lewis was stunned. After Gable's death, Lewis, at age 31, finally confronted her mother about the mystery behind her parentage. Her mother said "YES you are my sin." Young became nauseated, but acknowledged that she and Gable were Lewis's biological parents. In 1994, Lewis published a book about her life entitled "Uncommon Knowledge" in which she stated that Gable was her father; Young refused to speak with her for three years after the book was published. Loretta Young died on August 12, 2000, at age 87; her autobiography, published posthumously, confirmed that Gable was indeed Lewis's father.


title: Judy Lewis

text: Lewis died of cancer at age 76 on November 25, 2011, in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania and is interred at Mount Vernon Cemetery in Philadelphia.


title: Judy Lewis

text: In 2015, Linda Lewis, the wife of Loretta Young's son Christopher, stated publicly that Young had realized at age 85 that Judy had been conceived in an act of date rape:


title: Judy Lewis

text:
"Young loved to watch Larry King Live, which is most likely what prompted her to first ask her friend, frequent houseguest, and would-be biographer, Edward Funk, and then her daughter-in-law, Linda Lewis, to explain the term “date rape.” As Lewis recalled from her Jensen Beach, Florida, home this April, sitting next to her husband, Chris — Young's second born — and flanked by Young's Oscar and Golden Globe, it took tact to explain, in language that an 85-year-old could understand, what “date rape” meant. “I did the best I could to make her understand,” Lewis said. “You have to remember, this was a very proper lady.”

"When Lewis was finished describing the act, Young's response was a revelation: 'That's what happened between me and Clark.' "


title: Judy Lewis

text: Young had never before understood the particulars of that 1935 incident. She had not discussed this information before 1998. Young wished to keep the pregnancy secret from Twentieth Century Pictures, knowing they would try to pressure her to have an abortion; a devout Catholic, Young considered adultery and abortion to be mortal sins. According to Linda Lewis, Young added that no consensual intimate contact had occurred between Gable and herself. Young had never previously disclosed the rape to anyone. Before learning of the concept of date rape, Young had believed it was a woman's job to fend off men's amorous advances and had perceived her inability to thwart Gable's attack as a moral failing on her part. The family remained silent about the claim until Young (died 2000) and Lewis (died 2011) were both deceased.


title: Phoney War

text: The Phoney War (; ) was an eight-month period at the start of World War II, during which there was only one limited military land operation on the Western Front, when French troops invaded Germany's Saar district. Nazi Germany carried out the invasion of Poland on 1 September 1939; the Phoney period began with the declaration of war by the United Kingdom and France against Nazi Germany on 3 September 1939, after which little actual warfare occurred, and ended with the German invasion of France and the Low Countries on 10 May 1940. Although there was no large-scale military action by Britain and France, they did begin some economic warfare, especially with the naval blockade, and shut down German surface raiders. They created elaborate plans for numerous large-scale operations designed to cripple the German war effort. These included opening an Anglo-French front in the Balkans, invading Norway to seize control of Germany's main source of iron ore, and an embargo against the Soviet Union which supplied Germany's main source of oil. By April 1940, the lone execution of the Norway plan was considered inadequate to stop the German offensive.


title: Phoney War

text: The quiet of the Phoney War was punctuated by a few Allied actions. In the Saar Offensive in September, the French attacked Germany with the intention of assisting Poland, but it fizzled out within days and they withdrew. In November, the Soviets attacked Finland in the Winter War, resulting in much debate in France and Britain about an offensive to help Finland, but the forces finally assembled for this campaign were delayed until it ended in March. The Allied discussions about a Scandinavian campaign caused concern in Germany and resulted in the German invasion of Denmark and Norway in April, and the Allied troops previously assembled for Finland were redirected to Norway instead. Fighting there continued until June when the Allies evacuated, ceding Norway to Germany in response to the German invasion of France.


title: Phoney War

text: On the Axis side, the Germans launched attacks at sea in the autumn and winter against British aircraft carriers and destroyers, sinking several including the carrier with the loss of 519 lives. Action in the air began on 16 October 1939 when the Luftwaffe launched air raids on British warships. There were various minor bombing raids and reconnaissance flights on both sides.


title: Phoney War

text: The initial term used by British people for this period was "Bore War." While this was probably coined as a play on the Boer War fought approximately four decades earlier, eventually the Americanism "Phoney War" became favoured on both sides of the Atlantic, probably (especially in the British Empire and Commonwealth) in large part to avoid confusion with the aforementioned earlier conflict. The term "Phoney War" customarily appears using the British spelling even in North America, rather than the American "phony", although some American sources do not follow the pattern. The first known recorded use of the term in print was in September 1939, in a US newspaper which used the British spelling, although other contemporary American reports sometimes used "phony" since both spellings were in use at the time in the US. The term appeared in Great Britain by January 1940 as "phoney", the only acceptable spelling there.


title: Phoney War

text: The Phoney War was also referred to as the "Twilight War" (by Winston Churchill) and as the ("the sitting war": a word play on created by the British press). In French, it is referred to as the ("funny" or "strange" war).


title: Phoney War

text: The term "Phoney War" was probably coined by US Senator William Borah, who, commenting in September 1939 on the inactivity on the Western Front, said, "There is something phoney about this war."


title: Phoney War

text: In March 1939, the UK and France formalized plans in place for how a war against Germany would be conducted. Knowing that likely enemies would be more prepared, and have land and air superiority, the strategy was to defeat any enemy offensive, to allow time for economic and naval superiority to build up military resources. To this end, the UK initially committed to two divisions being sent to France, and two more eleven months later.


title: Phoney War

text: However, the Polish Army general plan for defence, Plan West, assumed that the Allies' offensive on the Western front would provide significant relief to the Polish front in the East.


title: Phoney War

text: While most of the German army was engaged in Poland, a much smaller German force manned the Siegfried Line, their fortified defensive line along the French border. On 7 September, the French launched the Saar Offensive, but had to withdraw when their artillery could not penetrate German defences. A further assault was planned for 20 September, but on 17 September, following the USSR's invasion of Poland, the assault was called off. In the air, the RAF launched a bombing raid against Wilhelmshaven on the 4th of September, although this proved costly. There were occasional dogfights between fighter planes. The Royal Air Force dropped propaganda leaflets on Germany, and the first Canadian troops arrived in Britain, and the first BEF divisions completed their transfer to France, while western Europe was under a period of uneasy calm for seven months.


title: Phoney War

text: In the first few months of the war, Germany still hoped to persuade Britain to agree to peace. Although London hospitals prepared for 300,000 casualties in the first week, Germany unexpectedly did not immediately attack British cities by air, and German pilots that attacked Scottish naval bases said that they would have been court-martialled and executed for bombing civilians. Both sides found that attacks on military targets, such as a British attack on Kiel on the second night of the war, led to high losses of aircraft. They also feared retaliation for bombing civilians. (Britain and France did not realise that Germany used 90% of its frontline aircraft during the Polish invasion.) Civilian attitudes in Britain towards their German foes were still not as intense as they were to become after the Blitz. On 30 April 1940, a German Heinkel 111 bomber crashed at Clacton-on-Sea in Essex, killing its crew and injuring 160 people on the ground. The crew were laid to rest in the local cemetery with support from the Royal Air Force. Wreaths with messages of sympathy were displayed on the coffins. British pilots mapped the Siegfried Line while German troops waved at them.


title: Phoney War

text: When Leopold Amery suggested to Kingsley Wood that the Black Forest be bombed with incendiaries to burn its ammunition dumps, Wood—the Secretary of State for Air—amazed the member of parliament by responding that the forest was "private property" and could not be bombed; neither could weapons factories, as the Germans might do the same. Some British officers in France imported packs of foxhounds and beagles in 1939, but were thwarted by the French authorities in their attempts at introducing live foxes.


title: Phoney War

text: In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France both bought large amounts of weapons from manufacturers in the US at the outbreak of hostilities, supplementing their own production. The non-belligerent US contributed to the Western Allies with discounted sales.


title: Phoney War

text: Despite the relative calm on land, on the high seas, the war was very real. Within a few hours of the declaration of war, the British liner was torpedoed off the Hebrides with the loss of 112 lives in what was to be the beginning of the long-running Battle of the Atlantic. On 4 September, the Allies announced a blockade of Germany to prevent her importing food and raw materials to sustain her war effort; the Germans immediately declared a counter-blockade while Soviet Union helped Germany with supplies bypassing the blockade. RAF Bomber Command, Britain's principal offensive arm, was also heavily engaged, but found that daylight bombing caused little damage and cost insupportable losses (e.g., 12 out of 22 Wellington bombers were shot down in an air battle over the Wilhelmshaven naval base on 18 December 1939).


title: Phoney War

text: At the Nuremberg trials, German military commander Alfred Jodl said that "if we did not collapse already in the year 1939 that was due only to the fact that during the Polish campaign, the approximately 110 French and British divisions in the West were held completely inactive against the 23 German divisions." General Siegfried Westphal stated that if the French had attacked in force in September 1939 the German army "could only have held out for one or two weeks".


title: Phoney War

text: The Saar Offensive was a French attack into the Saarland defended by the German 1st Army. Its purpose was to assist Poland. The assault was stopped after a few kilometres and the French forces withdrew. According to the Franco-Polish military convention, the French Army was to start preparations for a major offensive three days after the beginning of mobilisation. The French forces were to effectively gain control over the area between the French border and the German lines and were to probe the German defences. On the 15th day of the mobilisation (that is on 16 September), the French Army was to start a full-scale assault on Germany. The preemptive mobilisation was started in France on 26 August, and on 1 September full mobilisation was declared.


title: Phoney War

text: The offensive in the Rhine river valley area started on 7 September, four days after France declared war on Germany. Since the "Wehrmacht" was occupied in the attack on Poland, the French soldiers enjoyed a decisive numerical advantage along their border with Germany. Eleven French divisions advanced along a line near Saarbrücken against weak German opposition. The attack did not result in the diversion of any German troops. The all-out assault was to have been carried out by roughly 40 divisions, including one armoured, three mechanised divisions, 78 artillery regiments and 40 tank battalions. The French Army had advanced to a depth of and captured about 20 villages evacuated by the German army, without any resistance. The half-hearted offensive was halted after France seized the Warndt Forest, of heavily mined German territory.


title: Phoney War

text: On 12 September, the Anglo-French Supreme War Council gathered for the first time at Abbeville. It was decided that all offensive actions were to be halted immediately as the French opted to fight a defensive war, forcing the Germans to come to them. General Maurice Gamelin ordered his troops to stop no closer than from the German positions along the Siegfried Line. Poland was not notified of this decision. Instead, Gamelin informed Marshal Edward Rydz-Śmigły that half of his divisions were in contact with the enemy and that French advances had forced the "Wehrmacht" to withdraw at least six divisions from Poland. The following day, the commander of the French Military Mission to Poland, General Louis Faury, informed the Polish Chief of Staff—General Wacław Stachiewicz—that the major offensive on the western front planned from 17–20 September had to be postponed. At the same time, French divisions were ordered to withdraw to their barracks along the Maginot Line, beginning the Phoney War.


title: Phoney War

text: A notable event during the Phoney War was the Winter War, which started with the Soviet Union's assault on Finland on 30 November 1939. Public opinion, particularly in France and Britain, found it easy to side with Finland, and demanded from their governments effective action in support of "the brave Finns" against their much larger aggressor, the Soviet Union, particularly since the Finns' defence seemed so much more successful than that of the Poles during the September Campaign. As a consequence of its attack, the Soviet Union was expelled from the League of Nations, and a proposed Franco-British expedition to northern Scandinavia was much debated. British forces that began to be assembled to send to Finland's aid were not dispatched before the Winter War ended, but were sent instead to Norway's aid in the Norwegian campaign. On 20 March, after the Winter War had ended, Édouard Daladier resigned as Prime Minister of France, partially due to his failure to aid Finland's defence.


title: Phoney War

text: The open discussions on an Allied expedition to northern Scandinavia, also without the consent of the neutral Scandinavian countries, and the Altmark Incident on 16 February, alarmed the "Kriegsmarine" and Germany by threatening iron ore supplies and gave strong arguments for Germany securing the Norwegian coast. Codenamed Operation "Weserübung", the German invasion of Denmark and Norway commenced on 9 April. From the 14th, Allied troops were landed in Norway, but by the end of the month, southern parts of Norway were in German hands. The fighting continued in the north until the Allies evacuated in early June in response to the German invasion of France; the Norwegian forces in mainland Norway laid down their arms at midnight on 9 June.


title: Phoney War

text: The debacle of the Allied campaign in Norway, which was actually an offshoot of the never-realised plans to aid Finland, forced a famous debate in the House of Commons during which the British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain was under constant attack. A nominal vote of confidence in his government was won by 281 to 200, but many of Chamberlain's supporters had voted against him while others had abstained. Chamberlain found it impossible to continue to lead a National Government or to form a new coalition government with himself as the leader. So on 10 May, Chamberlain resigned the premiership but retained the leadership of the Conservative Party. Winston Churchill, who had been a consistent opponent of Chamberlain's policy of appeasement, became Chamberlain's successor. Churchill formed a new coalition government that included members of the Conservatives, Labour and the Liberal Party, as well as several ministers from a non-political background.


title: Phoney War

text: Most other major actions during the Phoney War were at sea, including the Second Battle of the Atlantic fought throughout the Phoney War. Other notable events among these were:


title: Phoney War

text: British war planning had called for a "knockout blow" by strategic bombing of German industry with the RAF's substantial Bomber Command. However, there was considerable apprehension about German retaliation, and when President Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed an agreement not to mount any bombing raids which might endanger civilians, Britain and France agreed immediately and Germany agreed two weeks later. The RAF therefore conducted a large number of combined reconnaissance and propaganda leaflet flights over Germany. These operations were jokingly termed "pamphlet raids" or "Confetti War" in the British press.


title: Phoney War

text: On 10 May 1940, eight months after Britain and France had declared war on Germany, German troops marched into Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, marking the end of the Phoney War and the beginning of the Battle of France.


title: Phoney War

text: Italy, hoping for territorial gains when France was defeated, entered the war on 10 June 1940, although the thirty-two Italian divisions which crossed the border with France enjoyed little success against five defending French divisions.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blogger is an American online content management system founded in 1999 which enables multi-user blogs with time-stamped entries. Pyra Labs developed it before being acquired by Google in 2003. Google hosts the blogs, which can be accessed through a subdomain of blogspot.com. Blogs can also be accessed from a user-owned custom domain (such as www.example.com) by using DNS facilities to direct a domain to Google's servers. A user can have up to 100 blogs or websites per account.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Google Blogger also enabled users to publish blogs and websites to their own web hosting server via FTP until May 1, 2010. All such blogs and websites had to be redirected to a blogspot.com subdomain or point their own domain to Google's servers via DNS. Google Blogger has a wide international user base and is available in more than 60 languages, despite its decline in popularity in the United States.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Pyra Labs launched Blogger on August 23, 1999. It is credited with popularizing the format as one of the first dedicated blog-publishing tools. Pyra Labs was purchased by Google in February 2003 for an undisclosed amount. Premium features, which Pyra had actually offered for a fee, were made free as a result of the takeover. Evan Williams, a co-founder of Pyra Labs, left Google in October 2004. Picasa was acquired by Google in 2004, and Picasa and its photo-sharing service Hello were incorporated into Blogger, enabling users to upload images to their blogs.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blogger underwent a major redesign on May 9, 2004, which included web standards-compliant templates, individual archive pages for posts, comments, and email posting. Blogger's new version, codenamed "Invader," was released in beta alongside the gold update on August 14, 2006. Users were moved to Google servers, and new features such as interface language in French, Italian, German, and Spanish were added. In December 2006, this new version of Blogger was taken out of beta. By May 2007, Blogger had completely moved over to Google-operated servers. Blogger was ranked 16 on the list of top 50 domains in terms of number of unique visitors in 2007.


title: Blogger (service)

text: On February 24, 2015, Blogger announced that as of late March it would no longer allow its users to post sexually explicit content, unless the nudity offers "substantial public benefit," for example in "artistic, educational, documentary, or scientific contexts." On February 28, 2015, accounting for severe backlash from long-term bloggers, Blogger reversed its decision on banning sexual content, going back to the previous policy that allowed explicit images and videos if the blog was marked as "adult".


title: Blogger (service)

text: As part of the Blogger redesign in 2006, all blogs associated with a user's Google Account were migrated to Google servers. Blogger claims that the service is now more reliable because of the quality of the servers.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Along with the migration to Google servers, several new features were introduced, including label organization, a drag-and-drop template editing interface, reading permissions (to create private blogs) and new Web feed options. Furthermore, blogs are updated dynamically, as opposed to rewriting HTML files.


title: Blogger (service)

text: In a version of the service called Blogger in Draft, new features are tested before being released to all users. New features are discussed in the service's official blog.


title: Blogger (service)

text: In September 2009, Google introduced new features into Blogger as part of its tenth-anniversary celebration. The features included a new interface for post editing, improved image handling, Raw HTML Conversion, and other Google Docs-based implementations, including:


title: Blogger (service)

text: In 2010, Blogger introduced new templates and redesigned its website. The new post editor was criticized for being less reliable than its predecessor.


title: Blogger (service)

text: In 2020, Google Blogger slowly introduced an improved web experience for Blogger. They moved everyone to the new interface starting in late June, many Blogger creators see the new interface become their default. Blogger is now responsive on the web, making it easier to use on mobile devices in addition to having a new look.


title: Blogger (service)

text: As of late 2016, Blogger is available in these 60 languages: Afrikaans, Amharic, Arabic, Basque, Bengali, Bulgarian, Catalan, Chinese (Hong Kong), Chinese (Simplified), Chinese (Traditional), Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English (United Kingdom), English (United States), Estonian, Filipino, Finnish, French, Galician, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hebrew, Hindi, Hungarian, Icelandic, Indonesian, Italian, Japanese, Kannada, Korean, Latvian, Lithuanian, Malay, Malayalam, Marathi, Norwegian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese (Brazil), Portuguese (Portugal), Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovenian, Spanish (Latin America), Spanish (Spain), Swahili, Swedish, Tamil, Telugu, Thai, Turkish, Ukrainian, Urdu, Vietnamese, and Zulu.


title: Blogger (service)

text: In February 2013, Blogger began integrating user blogs with multiple country-specific URLs. For example, exampleuserblogname.blogspot.com would be automatically redirected to exampleuserblogname.blogspot.ca in Canada, exampleuserblogname.blogspot.co.uk in the United Kingdom. Blogger explained that by doing this they could manage the blog content more locally so if there was any objectionable material that violated a particular country's laws they could remove and block access to that blog for that country through the assigned ccTLD while retaining access through other ccTLD addresses and the default Blogspot.com URL. If a blog using a country-specific URL was removed it is still technically possible to access the blog through Google's No Country Redirect override by entering the URL using the regular Blogspot.com address and adding /ncr after .com. In May 2018, Blogger stopped redirecting to ccTLDs and country-specific URLs would now redirect to the default Blogspot.com addresses.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blogger allows its users to choose from multiple templates and then customize them. Users may also choose to create their own templates using CSS. The new design template, known as "Dynamic View", was introduced on 31 August 2011 with Dynamic Views being introduced on 27 September 2011. It is built with AJAX, HTML5, and CSS3. The time for loading is 40 percent shorter than traditional templates, and allows user to present blog in seven different ways: classic, flipcard, magazine, mosaic, sidebar, snapshot, and timeslide. Readers still have the option to choose preferable views when the blog owner has set a default view. Some of the widgets (e.g., Labels, Profile, Link List, Subscription Links, Followers and Blog Archive etc.) are available for Dynamic Views; other templates are chosen by the blogger.


title: Blogger (service)

text: In April 2013, Blogger updated its HTML template editor that has some improvements to make it easy for the users to edit the blog's source code. The editor was updated with syntax highlight, number line and jump-to-widget button for ease of editing the code.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blogger has launched mobile applications for users with mobile devices. Users can post and edit blogs, and also share photos and links on Blogger through their mobile devices. Not only advanced mobile devices, such as smartphones, are being considered, since users can also post blogs via traditional cell phones by SMS and MMS.


title: Blogger (service)

text: The major two mobile operating systems that Blogger focuses on are Android and iOS. Blogger allow users to edit blogs anywhere through the app and either publish the blogs or save them as drafts. Quick navigation from posts and drafts is accessible from a list. Users can attach photos by taking a picture with a Blogger app or selecting pictures from their photo galleries. Sharing current locations on posts is also possible by tabbing My Location bar and adding locations. Users can also share photos and links directly to Blogger.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blogger also provides dynamic mobile views for the blogging compatibility with mobile devices and smartphones. They enhance the readability accuracy on these smart devices, but editing a blog on the blogger app remains an open issue for the users.


title: Blogger (service)

text: Blocking of *.blogspot.com domains by keyword-based Internet filtering systems is also encountered due to the domain containing the substring "gspot"; however, this can be alleviated by excluding the "blogspot.com" section of the URL from the keyword-based Internet filtering whilst the *. section of the URL is exposed to keyword-based Internet filtering.


title: Blogger (service)

text: On February 18, 2010, Blogger introduced "auto-pagination," which limited the number of posts that could be displayed on each page, often causing the number of posts on the main page to be less than that specified by the user and leading to a hostile response from some users.


title: Blogger (service)

text: The official support channel is the Blogger Product Forum. This online discussion forum, delivered using Google Groups, serves Blogger users of varying experience, and receives some monitoring from Google staff. "Product Experts," formerly known as "Top contributors," are community-members nominated by the Google staff who enjoy additional privileges including managing discussions and direct access to Google staff. There is likely to be a top contributor or other knowledgeable person reading the forum almost all the time.


title: Blogger (service)

text: A number of people, including some top contributors, run personal blogs where they offer advice and post information about common problems.


title: Blogger (service)

text: StackExchange's Web Applications forum has a tag for "blogger", which is used for questions about various blogging platforms, including Blogger.


title: Catherine Tresa

text: Catherine Tresa Alexander (born 10 September 1989) is an Indian actress and model. She has established her career predominantly in Telugu and Tamil films. She made her debut in 2010 in the Kannada film "Shankar IPS". Catherine has been nominated four times for the Filmfare Awards South.