title: Mary of Guise

text: In many affairs, Mary of Guise consulted her brothers in France—the Cardinal of Lorraine, and Francis, Duke of Guise, both of whom held government positions in France—so that Scotland and France worked as allies in dealing with other nations. Henry II's representative in Scotland from 1546 to 1560 was an ambassador resident, Henri Cleutin, who had been effectively in charge of Scotland during her trip to France. During her regency (1554–60), Frenchmen were put in charge of the treasury and the Great Seal, while the French ambassador sometimes attended the Privy Council. Yves de Rubay was Master of Requests and Keeper of the Seals and Bartholomew de Villemore was Comptroller and Receiver-General of Revenue. Although Cleutin seems to have been universally popular, the resentment of the Scottish nobility at these appointments fuelled the coming crisis.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Mary quickly began to deal effectively with Scottish affairs. In July 1554, she travelled to Jedburgh to hold a Justice Ayre for a fortnight, hoping to quell the longstanding feud between the Scott and Kerr border clans. She was escorted by armed horsemen commanded by Cleutin. In the autumn she paid for a ship, troops and a cannon to help the Earl of Sutherland arrest Iye du Mackay, Lord Reay, who had caused mischief in Sutherland. With much less success the Earls of Huntly and Argyll were despatched to pass with fire and sword to Moidart and Lewis. Huntly's failure led to his imprisonment. During another progress in 1556 she visited Inverness, Ross, Elgin, Banff and Aberdeen. These domestic efforts were hampered by the outbreak of international conflict in January 1557. An apparent set-back occurred in October, when Guise went south to Hume Castle and sent an army towards England. Instructed to cross the border and attack Wark Castle, the Scottish lords held their own council at Eckford and returned home.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Mary's regency was threatened, however, by the growing influence of the Scottish Protestants. To an extent she had tolerated the growing number of Protestant preachers. She needed to win support for her pro-French policies, and they could expect no alternative support from England at a time when Mary Tudor ruled. The marriage of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, to the dauphin of France on 24 April 1558 was quickly followed by Mary Tudor's death and the succession to the throne of England by Elizabeth on 17 November 1558. Mary Stuart's claim and rights of succession to the English throne depended in part on the Papal view of Elizabeth's legitimacy. If Henry II of France was to pursue Mary's claim with the Pope, as part of an ambitious plan that Scotland and England would succumb to French domination, he needed Scotland to be a secure Catholic country. Some modern historians such as Pamela E. Ritchie believe that the change to Guise's policy was not dramatic, but both Catholic and Protestant would perceive and react to the tense political situation. As the Scottish Reformation crisis was developing, Henry II died on 10 July 1559, and Mary Stuart became Queen Consort of France. In France, Mary and Francis II began to publicly display the arms of England in their blazon. This too was a motivation for English intervention in Scottish affairs.


title: Mary of Guise

text: In 1557, a group of Scottish lords who became known as the "Lords of the Congregation" drew up a covenant to "maintain, set forth, and establish the most blessed Word of God and his Congregation". This was followed by outbreaks of iconoclasm in 1558/59. At the same time, plans were being drawn up for a Reformed programme of parish worship and preaching, as local communities sought out Protestant ministers. In 1558, the Regent summoned the Protestant preachers to answer for their teaching, but backed down when lairds from the west country threatened to revolt.


title: Mary of Guise

text: The accession of the Protestant Elizabeth in England in 1558 stirred the hopes and fears of Scottish Protestants. Elizabeth came to secretly support the Lords of the Congregation. In January 1559, the anonymous "Beggars' Summons" threatened friars with eviction in favour of beggars. This was calculated to appeal to the passions of the populace of towns who appeared to have particular complaints against friars. Fearing disorder and now determined by circumstance to show less tolerance, the Regent summoned the reformed preachers to appear before her at Stirling on 10 May. Insurrection followed. The men of Angus assembled in Dundee to accompany the preachers to Stirling, and on 4 May they were joined by John Knox, who had recently arrived from France. Stirred by Knox's sermons in Perth and Dundee, the mob sacked religious houses (including the tomb of James I in Perth). In response, the Regent marched on Perth, but was forced to withdraw and negotiate when another reformed contingent arrived from the west at Cupar Muir.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Among the Regent's ambassadors were the Earl of Argyll and Lord James Stewart, Earl of Moray, both professed Protestants. When the Regent stationed French mercenaries in Perth, both abandoned her and joined the Lords of the Congregation at St Andrews, where they were also joined by John Knox. Even Edinburgh soon fell to them in July, as Mary retreated to Dunbar. The Congregation Lords made a truce with Guise and signed the Articles of Leith at Leith Links on 25 July 1559 which promised religious tolerance, then withdrew to Stirling.


title: Mary of Guise

text: In September, the previous regent, the 2nd Earl of Arran, with the safe return of his son, accepted the leadership of the Lords of the Congregation and established a provisional government. However, Mary of Guise was reinforced by professional French troops. Some of these troops established themselves at Kinghorn in Fife, and after they destroyed the house of William Kirkcaldy of Grange, according to Knox, Mary declared, "Where is now John Knox's God? My God is now stronger than his, yea, even in Fife." In November, the rebels were driven back to Stirling. Fighting continued in Fife. All seemed lost for the Protestant side until an English fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth in January 1560, which caused the French to retreat to Leith.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Negotiations with England then began, from which Knox was excluded; in particular his earlier tract "The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women", although it had been aimed at Mary Tudor, rendered him unacceptable to the female English monarch. The resulting Treaty of Berwick in February was an agreement between the Earl of Arran and the English to act jointly to expel the French. As a result, the newly crowned Queen of England, Elizabeth I, sent an English land army into Scotland to join their Scottish allies in besieging the French at Leith. As the fighting continued the English ambassador in France Nicholas Throckmorton praised Guise for having the "hart of a man of warre" and the English bishop John Jewel described her as "a woman with a man's courage."


title: Mary of Guise

text: After an English assault on Leith was repulsed with heavy losses, some of the leaders of the Lords of the Congregation came to Edinburgh Castle on 12 May 1560 and had dinner with Mary and the keeper of the castle, Lord Erskine. They discussed a plan that had been made before the troubles, in which Mary would have travelled to France and met Elizabeth in England, and her brother would have been made viceroy in Scotland. The Lords again complained about Frenchmen being appointed to Scottish government posts. Negotiations to end the siege of Leith and demolish new fortifications at Dunbar Castle continued. But the next day, the talks ended when permission was refused for the French commanders in Leith to come to the castle to discuss the proposals with Mary.


title: Mary of Guise

text: While continuing to fortify Edinburgh Castle, Mary became seriously ill, and over the course of the next eight days her mind began to wander; on some days she could not even speak. On 8 June she made her will. She died of dropsy on 11 June 1560.


title: Mary of Guise

text: She lay in state in the castle for a time, wrapped in cerecloth and covered with a white sheet, on a bed hung with black satin, attended by her ladies-in-waiting. Her body was then wrapped in lead and rested in a coffin on a bier in St Margaret's Chapel in Edinburgh Castle for several months. The chapel was hung with black cloth with a white taffeta cross above the body. On 18 March 1561, it was secretly carried from the castle at midnight and shipped to France. Mary, Queen of Scots attended her funeral at Fécamp in July 1561. Mary of Guise was interred at the church of Saint-Pierre-les-Dames, Reims, where Mary's sister Renée was abbess. A marble tomb was erected with a bronze statue of Mary, in royal robes, holding a sceptre and the rod of justice in one hand. The tomb was destroyed during the French revolution. Of Mary's five children, only her daughter Mary survived her.


title: Mary of Guise

text: In modern times, there has been speculation that Mary was assassinated (by poisoning), either by order of Queen Elizabeth I of England or possibly by others protecting the Queen's interests without any direct order from the Queen. However, no evidence supports such allegations, and there was an autopsy the day after she died. Mary's death was evidently from natural causes, since she herself complained she had become lame from the swelling of her legs in April and diagnosed herself as having dropsy. The swelling was confirmed by her enemy, John Knox, who wrote that in May, "began hir bellie and lothsome leggis to swell." Even in the paranoid political climate of the 16th century, in which many royal deaths were suspected to have been murders, none of Mary's contemporaries saw signs of "foul play" in her death.


title: Mary of Guise

text: The Regent's death made way for the Treaty of Edinburgh, in which France and England agreed they would each withdraw their troops from Scotland. Although the French commissioners were unwilling to make a treaty with the insurgent Lords of the Congregation, they offered the Scots certain concessions from King Francis and Queen Mary, including the right to summon a parliament according to use and custom. The effect of the treaty was to leave power in the hands of the pro-English Protestants.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Amongst records of her expenses and household there is a list of her ladies-in-waiting. The names (modernised) of the "dames" or married women are; Lady Arran, Lady Cassillis (senior), Lady Erskine, Lady Elphinston, Lady Livingston and Coullombe (senior). The unmarried "demoiselles" were Margaret Hume, Margery Livingston, Jean Elphinston, Jean Murray, Annabell Murray, Margaret Steward, Anne Scot, Margery Kirkcaldy, Coullombe, Barbara Sandilands, Barbara Kennedy, Cassillis, Crespy, Crespanville, with Elizabeth Murray the wife of Alexander Durham, the daughter of Lady Livingston, and two female fools.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Her household included a female fool or jester, called Serat, who wore a red-and-yellow gown with a green skirt. Jane, or Jean, a dwarf, wore a light-purple velvet.


title: Mary of Guise

text: Apart from her bitter enemy John Knox, the leader of the Scottish reformation, views by historians have generally been favourable. Marshall says that "her biographers, Strickland in the nineteenth century, McKerlie and Marshall in the twentieth, [have] been unanimous in praising her intelligence and fortitude" as have most other scholars. In evaluating her life, historian Rosalind K. Marshall says:Sacrificing her own comfort, interests, and ultimately her life, Mary of Guise had fought a long, desperate, and, in the end, hopeless struggle to preserve Scotland as a pro-French, Roman Catholic nation for her daughter...Charming, highly intelligent, and hard-working, with a diplomatic manner and an ability to fight on regardless of hostility, disappointment, and ill health, Mary was never merely a pawn of the French king.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Ravindrasinh Anirudhsinh Jadeja (born 6 December 1988), commonly known as Ravindra Jadeja, is an Indian international cricketer. He is an all-rounder, who bats left-handed and bowls left-arm orthodox spin. He was the captain of the Chennai Super Kings in the Indian Premier League. He represents Saurashtra in first-class cricket. He is considered as one of the best fielders in the current decade.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja was vice-captain of the Indian U-19 cricket team that won the World Cup in Malaysia in 2008, under the captaincy of former Indian captain Virat Kohli. He made his ODI debut against Sri Lanka on 8 February 2009 and scored an unbeaten 60 off 77 balls in that match. However, his Test debut came almost four years later, on 13 December 2012, against England at Nagpur.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja was bought for $2 million by the Chennai Super Kings at the 2012 IPL Players Auction. He was bought by the Gujarat Lions in the 2016 IPL Players Auction for 9.5 crores after the Chennai Super Kings were banned from the IPL for two seasons. On 22 January 2017, Jadeja became the first Indian left-arm spinner to take 150 One Day International wickets, when he dismissed Sam Billings at Eden Gardens, Kolkata. In March 2017, he became the top ranked bowler in the world leaving behind Ravichandran Ashwin who held that position for a long time. He was announced as captain of the Chennai Super Kings IPL franchise, for the 2022 IPL season, succeeding MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja was born on 6 December 1988 in a Gujarati Rajput family in Navagam Ghed city of Jamnagar district in Gujarat. His father Anirudh was a watchman for a private security agency. His father wanted him to become an Army officer but his interest was in Cricket, he was scared of his father in his childhood. His mother Lata died in an accident in 2005 and the trauma of his mother's death almost made him quit cricket. His sister Naina is a nurse. He lives in Jamnagar.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja made his first Under-19 appearance for India in 2005 at the age of 16. He was picked in the Indian squad for the 2006 U/19 Cricket World Cup in Sri Lanka. India finished runners-up with Jadeja impressing in the final against Pakistan with a haul of 3 wickets. He was the vice-captain of the victorious Indian team at the 2008 U/19 Cricket World Cup. He played a crucial role with the ball in the tournament, taking 10 wickets in 6 games at an average of 13.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja made his first-class debut in the 2006–07 Duleep Trophy. He played for West Zone in the Duleep Trophy and for Saurashtra in the Ranji Trophy.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In 2012, Jadeja became the eighth player in history, and the first Indian player, to score three first-class triple centuries in his career, joining Don Bradman, Brian Lara, Bill Ponsford, Wally Hammond, WG Grace, Graeme Hick and Mike Hussey. His first came in early November 2011 against Orissa, in which he scored 314 off 375 balls. His second came in November 2012 against Gujarat, in which he scored 303 not out. His third came against Railways in December 2012, in which he scored 331 runs in 501 balls. Jadeja reached this milestone at the young age of only 23.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja became the fifth-fastest player ever to complete the double of 2000 runs and get 200 wickets in Tests, during his 56-run knock vs England in Nottingham.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja caught the attention of the national selectors with his strong all-round showing in the 2008–09 Ranji Trophy – 42 wickets and 739 runs – and was picked for the ODI series in Sri Lanka. His international debut came in the final match of the series on 8 February 2009 where he scored 60*, although India lost the match. In the 2009 World Twenty20, Jadeja was criticised for not scoring fast enough in India's loss to England. After the incumbent all-rounder Yusuf Pathan suffered a loss of form, Jadeja took his place at No. 7 in the ODI team in late 2009. In the third ODI against Sri Lanka in Cuttack on 21 December 2009, Jadeja was awarded the man of the match award following a haul of four wickets. His best bowling is 4–32.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: He made a comeback into the Indian ODI side in the third ODI against England at The Oval in London. Arriving at the crease with India 58–5 after 19 overs, he scored 78, adding 112 with skipper Mahendra Singh Dhoni and 59 off only 5.1 overs with Ravichandran Ashwin to help his side reach 234–7 in 50 overs. He also took 2–42 from his 9 overs and was named "player of the match", but England won the rain-affected game. His performance in the fourth ODI at Lord's was mixed: he gave away four crucial overthrows with a poor throw from the boundary, but then took a catch on the boundary off the last ball.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In the second T20I of the Australian tour in February 2012, Jadeja had figures of 1/16 in 3 overs and effected two run outs in the Australian innings. India went on to win the game and Jadeja was awarded Man of the Match, mainly for his fielding effort.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: After his impressive performance at the start of Ranji Trophy season 2012–13, when he scored two 300+ scores in 4 matches (4/125 and then 303* against Gujarat at Surat; 331 and 3/109 against Railways at Rajkot in the Ranji Trophy 2012–13), he was called up to join the 15-member India Test team to play the fourth Test against England at Nagpur. In his Test debut against England at Nagpur, he bowled 70 overs and picked 3/117.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: During the second ODI in the India-England series at Kochi, Jadeja hit 61 off just 37 balls, which took India to a total of 285. In the second innings, he bowled a spell of 2 for 12 in 7 overs, helping India beat England by 127 runs and level the series 1–1. This performance earned Jadeja the Man of the Match award.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In the historic 4–0 home Test series win against Australia in February–March 2013, Jadeja took 24 wickets, dismissing the Australian captain Michael Clarke five out of six times in the series which cemented his place in the team as an all-rounder, despite not contributing much with the bat. His seven-wicket haul, including a five-for in the second innings of the final Test match, earned him the Man of the Match award. He played an important role for India in lifting the ICC Champions Trophy 2013. He was the highest wicket taker of the tournament with 12 wickets, which won him the Golden Ball. He made 33* with bat and took 2 wickets in the final against England. He was also named as part of the 'Team of the Tournament' by the ICC and ESPNCricinfo.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: He was ranked as the No.1 bowler in ODI Cricket by the ICC in August 2013. Jadeja is the first India bowler to top the rankings since Anil Kumble, who topped the table in 1996. He is the fourth India bowler after Kapil Dev, Maninder Singh and Kumble to be ranked No. 1.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja scored his maiden test fifty on 20 July 2014, playing against England and saving the match for India who were struggling at 235/7. He made 68 runs from just 57 balls. His partnership of 99 with Bhuvneshwar Kumar helped India set England a target of 319.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja was selected for the 2015 Cricket World Cup in Australia and New Zealand despite not being fully fit due to a shoulder injury. He took 9 wickets in 8 games. His returns with the bat were modest, scoring just 57 runs from 5 innings. India went on to lose against Australia in the semi-final. After his poor performance in the next ODI series in Bangladesh, he was dropped from the Indian team.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja returned strongly in the next Ranji season (2015–16), where he picked up 38 wickets from 4 games and 215 runs, including 3 50+ scores. His strong performances were rewarded with selection for the Indian test side facing South Africa at home. Jadeja helped his team achieve victory, by taking 23 wickets in 4 games. He scored 109 runs in the series, which included crucial knocks lower down the order. Jadeja was included in Indian limited-overs side touring Australia to play 5 ODIs and 3 T20Is. In ODIs, Jadeja bowled economically in a series where more than 3000 runs were scored in 5 matches. He took 3 wickets at an economy rate of 5.35. He was the second highest wicket-taker in T20Is, picking up 5 wickets in 3 games. In the second game of the series, Jadeja took a blinder off his own bowling to get the important wicket of Shane Watson and he also ran Aaron Finch out, who was batting on 74 at that moment.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: He featured in all four tests against the visiting Australian side. He bagged 25 wickets and made two half centuries down the order, which earned him the player of the match as well as the player of the series award in the latest concluded series on 28 March 2017.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: He along with Ravichandran Ashwin became the first pair of spinners to be jointly ranked number 1 bowler in ICC Test Rankings history. On 5 August 2017, Jadeja became the fastest left-arm bowler to reach 150 wickets in terms of number of Tests played (32).


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: On 5 October 2018, he scored his first century in Tests. In March 2019, during the second ODI against Australia, Jadeja became the third cricketer for India to score 2,000 runs and take 150 wickets in ODIs. In April 2019, he was named in India's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In October 2019, in the first Test against South Africa, Jadeja took his 200th wicket in Test cricket.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In September 2021, Jadeja was named in India's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. His spin-bowling partner on many occasions, R Ashwin, was also named in the squad after 4 years out of the white-ball team.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: On 5 March 2022, in a Test match against Sri Lanka, Jadeja broke the 35-year old record of Kapil Dev by scoring 175*. He made the record of the highest score by a No. 7 or below.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: He then took 5/41 and then 4/46 in the two innings, registering match figures of 9/87 to help India beat Sri Lanka by an innings and 222 runs.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Ravindra Jadeja was selected by the Rajasthan Royals for the inaugural season of the Indian Premier League (IPL) in 2008, and played an important role in their victory (Royals defeated Chennai Super Kings in the final). Jadeja scored 135 runs from 14 matches at a strike rate of 131.06, his best score being 36* against Kings XI Punjab. He did even better in 2009, scoring 295 runs at a strike rate of 110.90, and conceding fewer than 6.5 runs per over. Shane Warne, the captain of Rajasthan Royals, referred to Jadeja as a "superstar in the making". Warne also nicknamed him "Rockstar".


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja sat out the 2010 IPL because of a ban arising from contractual irregularities. In 2011, he was bought by the Kochi Tuskers Kerala for $950,000. Kochi Tuskers were terminated from the IPL in September 2011, and in the 2012 IPL player auction, Jadeja was bought by Chennai Super Kings for $2 million (approx. Rs. 9.8 crore) after a tie-breaker with Deccan Chargers who bid the same amount. Jadeja was the most expensive player of the year's auction. He won the Man of the Match award in the second match of the season against Deccan Chargers for his all-round performance (48 runs off 29 balls, 5/16 in 4 overs).


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In a Mother's Day game during IPL 2015, Jadeja put in a fine spin bowling performance in Chennai; he took four wickets for 11 runs with a brilliant spell of bowling against Rajasthan Royals.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: In the 19th match of the 2021 Indian Premier League, Jadeja hit 62*, including a joint-highest ever 37 runs in the last over bowled by Harshal Patel. He later took 3/13 in his four overs and was named Man of the Match.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Jadeja was appointed as the captain for the Chennai Super Kings ahead of the 2022 IPL season, replacing MS Dhoni. He however stepped down in the middle of the season, handing over the captaincy back to Dhoni. He was later ruled out of the tournament due to a rib injury. Jadeja and the franchise later unfollowed each other on Instagram, leading to reports about a rift. But the CEO of CSK maintained that he was ruled out on medical advice, and denied allegations of the rift.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Sunil Gavaskar said in March 2013 that Ravindra Jadeja, along with Cheteshwar Pujara, was a role model for youngsters. Jadeja's contributions in India's 4–0 test series win over Australia in February and March 2013 were praised in the media, and Gavaskar called him one of the architects of the win. Jadeja's dominance of Clarke was also praised in the media. Jadeja was named "Player of the Week" by the portal Cricket World after the end of the fourth test.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: Since his performance at the 2009 ICC World Twenty20 event, Jadeja has been a consistent target of sarcasm and jokes on cricket portals and by Indian cricket fans. On Twitter and Facebook, he is jokingly referred to as "Sir Ravindra Jadeja" since an online joke calling him the same went viral. When Jadeja was out clean bowled for 16 while not offering a shot in the February 2013 Chennai test against Australia, a cricket portal described his dismissal as "Jadeja falls 284 runs short of what would have been a fourth first-class triple-century". Following his good performance against Australia in the 2013 test series, there was a flurry of "Jadeja jokes" on Twitter comparing him to Rajinikanth. His Wikipedia article was temporarily vandalized to mock him. In April 2013, Mahendra Singh Dhoni, Suresh Raina and Ravichandran Ashwin, teammates of Jadeja in Chennai Super Kings, tweeted several "Jadeja jokes" on Twitter, in one of which Dhoni referred to him as "Sri Sri Pandit Sir Lord Ravindra Jadeja". In response, Jadeja said in April 2013 that it was a joke which everybody was enjoying, and that he had no problem with the prefix "Sir".


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: For his flamboyancy with bat, ball and while fielding, Jadeja is often nicknamed 'Rockstar', as he was originally called by Shane Warne. His IPL jersey has the name 'Jaddu' on the back rather than Jadeja, and Dhoni can often be heard calling him this from behind the stumps. Jadeja's sword celebration has been a popular feature of world cricket over the years, as he usually brings this out after scoring a 50 or a 100. Though, he has often been criticised for his caste reference regarding the sword celebration.


title: Ravindra Jadeja

text: During the 2019 Cricket World Cup, commentator Sanjay Manjrekar criticised Jadeja by calling him a 'bits and pieces player'. The former apologised after Jadeja's performance at the tournament.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Orson Scott Card (born August 24, 1951) is an American writer known best for his science fiction works. He is the first and (as of 2022) only person to win both a Hugo Award and a Nebula Award in consecutive years, winning both awards for both his novel "Ender's Game" (1985) and its sequel "Speaker for the Dead" (1986). A feature film adaptation of "Ender's Game", which Card co-produced, was released in 2013. Card also wrote the Locus Fantasy Award-winning series "The Tales of Alvin Maker" (1987–2003).


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's works were influenced by classic literature, popular fantasy, and science fiction; he often uses tropes from genre fiction. His background as a screenwriter has helped Card make his works accessible. Card's early fiction is original but contains graphic violence. His fiction often features characters with exceptional gifts who make difficult choices with high stakes. Card has also written political, religious, and social commentary in his columns and other writing. Card's opposition to homosexuality has provoked public criticism.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card, who is a great-great-grandson of Brigham Young, was born in Richland, Washington, and grew up in Utah and California. While he was a student at Brigham Young University (BYU), his plays were performed on stage. He served in Brazil as a missionary for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) and headed a community theater for two summers. Card had twenty-seven short stories published between 1978 and 1979, and won the John W. Campbell Award for best new writer in 1978. He earned a master's degree in English from the University of Utah in 1981 and wrote novels in science fiction, fantasy, non-fiction, and historical fiction genres in the 1980s. Card continued to write prolifically, and published over 50 novels and over 45 short stories.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card teaches English at Southern Virginia University; he has written two books on creative writing and serves as a judge in the Writers of the Future contest. He is a practicing member of LDS Church and has taught many successful writers at his "literary boot camps." Mormon fiction writers Stephenie Meyer, Brandon Sanderson, and Dave Wolverton have cited his works as a major influence.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Orson Scott Card was born on August 24, 1951, in Richland, Washington. He is the son of Peggy Jane (née Park) and Willard Richards Card, and is the third of six children and the older brother of composer and arranger Arlen Card. Card's family has Mormon pioneer heritage. His direct ancestors include Brigham Young, Charles Ora Card, Zina P. Young Card, Zina Young Card Brown and Hugh B. Brown.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: When Card was one month old, his family moved to San Mateo, California, so Willard Card could begin a sign-painting business. When he was three years old, the family moved to Salt Lake City, Utah, so his father could finish his bachelor's degree. The family moved to Santa Clara, California, when Card was six; they stayed there for seven years while his father completed his master's degree and worked as a professor at San Jose State College. In school, Card took classes for gifted students but he was more interested in studying music—he played clarinet and French horn. He read widely, including historical fiction, nonfiction, and literary classics. At age ten, he wrote his first story, which was about an intelligent child who is assaulted by bullies and sustains brain damage. Ender's confrontation with Stilson in "Ender's Game" is based on this story.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 1964, Card and his family moved to Mesa, Arizona, where he participated in mock debates in junior high school. In 1967, the family moved to Orem, Utah, where his father worked at Brigham Young University (BYU). Card attended BYU's laboratory school, where he took both high school and early college-level classes before graduating in one year. When beginning his college studies he intended to major in archeology, but after becoming increasingly more interested in theater, he began script-writing, writing ten original plays and rewriting other students' plays. Most of his plays were based on Mormon history and scriptures; one was science fiction. By watching the body language of an audience, he could tell when an audience was interested in his scripts. During his studies as a theater major, he began doctoring scripts, adapting fiction for reader's theater production, and writing one-act and full-length plays, several of which were produced by faculty directors at BYU. Charles W. Whitman, Card's play-writing professor, encouraged his students to write plays with LDS themes. Card studied poetry with Clinton F. Larson at BYU. He also wrote short stories, which were later published together in "The Worthing Saga".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Before graduating, Card served as a missionary for the LDS Church in Brazil starting in 1971. During his mission, he wrote a play called "Stone Tables". He returned from his mission in 1973 and graduated from BYU in 1975, receiving a bachelor's degree with distinction in theater. After graduation, he started the Utah Valley Repertory Theatre Company, which for two summers produced plays at "the Castle", a Depression-era outdoor amphitheater. After going into debt with the community theatre's expenses, Card took part-time employment as a proofreader at BYU Press, moving on to full-time employment as a copy editor. In 1981, Card completed his master's degree in English at the University of Utah where he studied with François Camoin and Norman Council. He began a doctoral program at the University of Notre Dame but dropped out to pursue his more lucrative writing projects.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 1977, Card married Kristine Allen, who is the daughter of Mormon historian James B. Allen. The two met when Kristine was in the chorus of a roadshow Card directed before his mission. They courted after Card's mission, and Card was impressed with her intellectual rigor.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: After their marriage they had five children; their son Charles had cerebral palsy and died aged 17; their daughter Erin died the day she was born. Card's short story, "Lost Boys", is highly autobiographical, but contains the death of a fictional child. One of Card's workshop readers, Karen Fowler, said that Card had pretended to experience the grief of a parent who has lost a child. In response, Card realized that the story expressed his grief and difficulty in accepting Charles's disability. Card stated that he rarely discusses Charles and Erin because his grief has not faded over time.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card and his wife live in Greensboro, North Carolina; their daughter Emily, along with two other writers, adapted Card's short stories "Clap Hands and Sing", "Lifeloop", and "A Sepulchre of Songs" for the stage in "Posing as People". Card suffered a mild stroke on January 1, 2011, and made a full recovery.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 1976 Card became an assistant editor at the LDS Church's magazine "Ensign" and moved to Salt Lake City. While working at "Ensign," Card published his first piece of fiction, a short story called "Gert Fram", which appeared in the July 1977 issue of "Ensign" under the pseudonym Byron Walley. Between 1978 and 1988, Card wrote over 300 half-hour audioplays on LDS Church history, the New Testament, and other subjects for Living Scriptures in Ogden, Utah.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card started writing science fiction short stories because he felt he could sell short stories in that genre more easily than others. His first short story "The Tinker" was initially rejected by "Analog Science Fiction and Fact". Ben Bova, the editor of "Analog", rejected a rewrite of the story but asked Card to submit a science fiction piece. In response, Card wrote the short story "Ender's Game", which Ben Bova published in the August 1977 issue of "Analog". Card left "The Ensign" in 1977 and began his career as a freelance writer in 1978. Ben Bova continued to work with Card to publish his stories and his wife Barbara Bova became Card's literary agent, a development that drew criticism of a possible conflict of interest. Nine of Card's science fiction stories, including "Malpractice", "Kingsmeat", and "Happy Head", were published in 1978.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card modeled "Mikal's Songbird" on "Ender's Game", both of which include a child with special talents who goes through emotional turmoil when adults seek to exploit his ability. "Mikal's Songbird" was a Nebula Award finalist in 1978 and a Hugo finalist in 1979—both in the "novelette" category. Card won the John W. Campbell Award for best new writer in 1978 for his stories published that year; the award helped Card's stories sell internationally. "Unaccompanied Sonata" was published in 1979 issue of "Omni" and was nominated for both the Hugo and Nebula awards for a short story. Eighteen Card stories were published in 1979.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's first published book, ""Listen, Mom and Dad...": Young Adults Look Back on Their Upbringing" (1977) is about child-rearing. He received advances for the manuscripts of "Hot Sleep" and "A Planet Called Treason", which were published in 1979. Card later called his first two novels "amateurish" and rewrote both of them later. A publisher offered to buy a novelization of "Mikal's Songbird", which Card accepted; the finished novel is titled "Songmaster" (1980). Card edited fantasy anthologies "Dragons of Light" (1980) and "Dragons of Darkness" (1981), and collected his own short stories in "Unaccompanied Sonata and Other Stories" (1981). In the early 1980s, Card focused on writing longer works, only publishing ten short stories between 1980 and 1985. He published a few non-fiction works that were aimed at an LDS audience; these include a satirical dictionary called "Saintspeak", which resulted in him being temporarily banned from publishing in church magazines. Card wrote the fantasy-epic "Hart's Hope" (1983) and a historical novel, "A Woman of Destiny" (1984), which was later republished as "Saints" and won the 1985 award from the Association for Mormon Letters for best novel. He rewrote the narrative of "Hot Sleep" and published it as "The Worthing Chronicle" (1983), which replaced "Hot Sleep" and the short-story collection set in the same universe, "Capitol" (1979). The recession of the early 1980s made it difficult to get contracts for new books so Card returned to full-time employment as the book editor of "Compute!" magazine that was based in Greensboro, North Carolina, for nine months in 1983. In October of that year, Tom Doherty offered a contract for Card's proposed Alvin Maker series, which allowed him to return to creative writing full-time.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's 1977 novella "Ender's Game" is about a young boy who undergoes military training for space war. Card expanded the story into a novel with the same title and told the backstory of the adult Ender in "Speaker for the Dead". In contrast to the fast-paced "Ender's Game", "Speaker for the Dead" is about honesty and maturity. "Ender's Game" and "Speaker for the Dead" were both awarded the Hugo Award and the Nebula Award, making Card the first author to win both of science fiction's top prizes in consecutive years. According to Card, some members of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America (SFWA) resented his receiving of the Nebula award while editing the "Nebula Awards Report". Subsequently, Card left the SFWA. Card attended many science fiction conventions in the late 1980s. He held several "Secular Humanist Revival Meetings" at the conventions, satirizing Evangelical revival meetings.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card continued to write short stories and columns and published two short story collections: "Cardography" (1987) and "The Folk of the Fringe" (1989). The novella "Eye for Eye" was republished with another novella by Tor and won the Hugo Award for best novella in 1988. Between 1987 and 1989, Card edited and published a short science fiction review magazine called "Short Form". He also wrote "Characters & Viewpoint" (1988) and "How to Write Science Fiction and Fantasy" (1990). Card also offered advice about writing in an interview in "Leading Edge" #23 in 1991. He wrote the script for an updated Hill Cumorah Pageant in 1988.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Inspired by Spenser's "Faerie Queene", Card composed the long poem "Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow", which uses colloquial language and diction common to Joseph Smith's time. The poem, along with the novelette "Hatrack River," became the basis for "Seventh Son" (1987), the first book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series, a fantasy retelling of the Joseph Smith story. In the alternate history novel, Alvin Maker, the seventh son of a seventh son, is born with unusual magical abilities that make him a "Maker." Alvin has many similarities to Joseph Smith. Following "Seventh Son", he wrote "Red Prophet", and "Prentice Alvin", which focus on settlers' interactions with indigenous peoples and slaves, respectively. The series has sustainable environmental ethics as a main theme, addressing ways humans affect the environment in the Americas. Alvin Maker's life has many parallels with Joseph Smith's. "Seventh Son" won the 1988 Mythopoeic Fantasy award, and the two following books were nominees. The awards are given to books that exemplify "the spirit of The Inklings". Critics praised "Seventh Son" for creating an American mythology from American experience and belief. According to literary critic Eugene England, the series brings up questions about what, exactly, the mission of a religious prophet is. The series also questions the difference between a prophet and magician, religion and magic.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In the 1980s, Card also wrote "Wyrms" (1987), a novel about colonizing a planet, and revised "A Planet Called Treason", which was published as "Treason". He also novelized James Cameron's film "The Abyss".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card wrote prolifically in the 1990s, including many books and the short story omnibus "Maps in a Mirror" (1990). Card continued the Ender's Game series with "Xenocide" (1991) and "Children of the Mind" (1996), which focus on Jane, an artificial intelligence that develops self-awareness. These books were considered inferior to their predecessors and were, according to science fiction critic Gary Westfahl, "overly prolonged".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: While "Children of the Mind" concluded the initial Ender's Game series, Card started another series of books and continued writing in The Tales of Alvin Maker series. The "Homecoming Saga" is a science-fiction adaptation of "The Book of Mormon". The series' volumes; "The Memory of Earth", "The Call of Earth", "The Ships of Earth", "Earthfall", and "Earthborn" were published between 1992 and 1995. "Alvin Journeyman" (1995), the fourth book in The Tales of Alvin Maker series, won a Locus Award and "Heartfire" (1998) was a nominee for the same award.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card wrote several stand-alone novels in the 1990s. "" (1996) examines time travel and Christopher Columbus. Card collaborated with "Star Wars" artist Doug Chiang on "Robota" and with Kathryn H. Kidd on "Lovelock". "Lost Boys" (1992) is a horror story with a semi-autobiographical background. "Treasure Box" (1996) and "Homebody" (1998) represent Card's foray in horror. "Enchantment" (1999) is a fantasy novel based on the Russian version of "Sleeping Beauty". It deals with a couple who learn to love each other after they marry. Card stated: "I put all my love for my wife into ["Enchantment"]."


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 1999, Card started a spin-off "shadow" series in the Ender's Game universe that is told from the point of view of other characters. These novels are "Ender's Shadow", "Shadow of the Hegemon", "Shadow Puppets", "Shadow of the Giant" and "Shadows in Flight", the latter serving as a bridge to a planned final book "The Last Shadow", which will also be a sequel to "Children of the Mind". Westfahl praised the "Shadow" series, stating they were "executed with panache and skill". Card wrote other spin-offs: a series of shorter stories, "First Meetings in the Enderverse", and novels "", and "Ender in Exile". Aaron Johnston and Card conceptualized the stories that make up the prequel to "Ender's Game", realizing many of them would work best in novel format but first publishing the comics through Marvel. The "Burning Earth" and "Silent Strike" comic series were published in 2011 and 2012. Card and Johnston co-wrote the novels in the series between 2012 and 2019; these are "Earth Unaware", "Earth Afire", "Earth Awakens", "The Swarm", and The Hive. "Children of the Fleet" is the first novel in a new sequel series, called "Fleet School".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: While Card was writing books in the "Shadow" series, he also wrote a series of books focused on women in the Bible, novellas, and other novels. Card's "The Women of Genesis" series includes "Sarah" (2000), "Rebekah" (2002), and "Rachel and Leah" (2004). Card wrote three novellas in the 2000s; "Space Boy" (2007) is a children's story, "Hamlet's Father" (2008) is a retelling of Shakespeare's "Hamlet", and "Stonefather" (2008) is the first story set in the Mithermages universe. "The Crystal City" (2003), is the sixth book in The Alvin Maker series.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card wrote two young-adult fantasy trilogies in the 2010s. "Mithermages" is about a teenager growing up on a magical estate in rural Virginia; it includes "The Lost Gate" (2011), "The Gate Thief" (2013), and "Gatefather" (2015). The "Pathfinder" trilogy consists of "Pathfinder" (2010), "Ruins" (2012), and "Visitors" (2014), and follows a young man who can change the past. Card has also written several urban fantasies, including "Magic Street" (2005) and "Lost and Found" (2019), both of which are about teenagers with special powers.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card wrote the Christmas novel "Zanna's Gift" (2004), which was originally published under a pseudonym. "A Town Divided by Christmas" and a "Hallmark Christmas movie in prose" were published in 2018. Invasive Procedures (2007), a medical thriller co-written with Aaron Johnston, is based on a screenplay Johnston wrote, which is based on Card's novel "Malpractice".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In the 1990s, Card contributed dialogue to the point-and-click adventure video games "The Secret of Monkey Island", "The Dig", and "NeoHunter", an early first-person shooter. His collaboration on videogame scripts continued in the 2000s, when he worked with Cameron Dayton on "Advent Rising" and outlined the story for "Shadow Complex", a prequel to the events in his novels "Empire" and "Hidden Empire." The novels and game are about a near-future civil war in the United States that occurs after civilians resist a left-wing coup in the White House.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card has written scripts for the two-volume comic-book series "Ultimate Iron Man". He collaborated with his daughters Emily and Zina on the graphic novel "Laddertop," and with Aaron Johnston to write a series of six "Dragon Age" comics. In 2017, Card wrote, produced, and co-created a television series called "Extinct" for BYU TV that ran for one season before it was canceled.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Many of Card's works have been adapted into comic books. Dabel Brothers Productions published comic-book adaptations of "Red Prophet" and "Wyrms" in 2006. Aaron Johnston wrote comic-book versions of "Ender in Exile" and "Speaker for the Dead". Marvel published two "Ender's Game" miniseries, which were collected in the graphic novel version of "Ender's Game"; Christ Yost wrote the script and Pasqual Ferry was the artist. Two sets of comic miniseries were adapted by Mike Carey for "Ender's Shadow" and the comics collected in "Ender's Shadow Ultimate Collection". A series of one-shots, some of which are based on Card's "Enderverse" short stories, were collected in "Ender's Game: War of Gifts".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Since "Ender's Game" was published in 1985, Card was reluctant to license film rights and artistic control for the novel. He had two opportunities to sell the rights of "Ender's Game" to Hollywood studios, but refused when creative differences became an issue. Card announced in February 2009 that he had completed a script for Odd Lot Entertainment, and that they had begun assembling a production team. On April 28, 2011, it was announced that Summit Entertainment had picked up the film's distribution and Digital Domain joined Odd Lot Entertainment in a co-production role. Card wrote many versions of the script for the movie, but ultimately director Gavin Hood wrote the screenplay. Card was a co-producer of the film. On Rotten Tomatoes, the critical consensus states: "If it isn't quite as thought-provoking as the book, "Ender's Game" still manages to offer a commendable number of well-acted, solidly written sci-fi thrills."


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Since 2001, Card's commentary includes the political columns "War Watch", "World Watch", and "Uncle Orson Reviews Everything", which were published in the Greensboro "Rhinoceros Times" until 2019. "Uncle Orson Reviews Everything" features personal reviews of films and commentary on other topics. The column also appears on Card's website, which is titled "Hatrack River". From 2008 to 2015, Card wrote a column of Latter-day Saint devotional and cultural commentary for the "Nauvoo Times", which was published through Hatrack River.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: During his childhood, Card read widely. He read children's classics and popular novels. His favorite book was Mark Twain's "The Prince and the Pauper" and he read his family's World Book Encyclopedia in its entirety. He read science fiction stories in anthologies and science fiction novels. He especially credits "Tunesmith" by Lloyd Biggle Jr. as having a large effect on his life. Card often refers to works by Robert A. Heinlein and J. R. R. Tolkien as sources of inspiration. Card credits C. S. Lewis's apologetic fiction in the "Chronicles of Narnia" and The Screwtape Letters as influences that shaped his life and career. In 2014, Card stated that Isaac Asimov and Ray Bradbury were conscious influences on his writing, along with Early Modern English from the King James Version of the Bible and the works of William Shakespeare. As a college student, Card read classic literature, science fiction, and fantasy. Spenser's poetry inspired the original "Prentice Alvin and the No-Good Plow". Influences from Portuguese and Brazilian Catholicism, which Card learned about during his LDS mission to Brazil, are evident in his "Shadow" and "Speaker" novels. Card stated his writing improved after teaching writing workshops with Jay Wentworth and from Algis Budrys's workshops at Writers of the Future.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's membership of the LDS Church has been an important influence on his writing, though he initially tried to keep his religious beliefs separate from his fiction. Susanne Reid, a science fiction scholar, stated Card's religious background is evident in his frequent messiah protagonists and the "moral seriousness" in his works. Card's science-fiction books do not reference the LDS religion directly but "offer careful readers insights that are compelling and moving in their religious intensity". Non-LDS readers of "A Planet Called Treason" did not remark on religious themes, however, LDS reviewer Sandy Straubhaar disliked the novel's explicit violence and sex, and stated LDS connections were "gratuitous". Dick Butler criticized "A Planet Called Treason" for its lack of Gospel themes and ideas, and two other LDS reviewers defended Card. According to Michael Collings, a critic who acknowledges his "unabashed appreciation" of Card, knowledge of Mormon theology is vital to completely understanding Card's works, stating the life stages of the "piggies" in "Speaker for the Dead" correspond to phases of life in the LDS's plan of salvation.In an article in "Sunstone", Christopher C. Smith also noticed this parallel, noting that the "piggies" procreate "more or less eternally" in the last stage of their development. "Ender's Game" and "Speaker for the Dead" deal with religious themes common in LDS theology but without many surface references to the religion. The Alvin Maker series does not try to explain Mormon history but uses it to examine his characters' relationships with God. Card stated that his church membership influences his communitarian values, specifically, making personal sacrifices for the good of a community. Individuals making sacrifices for their community is a theme in his work.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's "Homecoming Saga" is a dramatization of Book of Mormon. Eugene England called the first five novels "good literature". Card received criticism from members of the LDS church for "plagiarizing" the Book of Mormon and using it irreverently. He defended his choices and said speculative fiction is the genre best suited to exploring theological and moral issues. Also in the "Homecoming Saga", Card imagines backstories and explanations for "anomalies" in the Book of Mormon, making the fictional work function as a work of Mormon apologetics. While women are not prominent in the Book of Mormon, Card makes them prominent in his retelling. One non-LDS critic described the saga as "readable" but lacking in new ideas. Unaware of its relation to the Book of Mormon, another critic said it is similar to the Bible.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Because Card began his writing career in screenplays, his early work is considered accessible and fast-paced with good characters, but also stylistically unremarkable. According to biographer Richard Bleiler, a number of critics described his tone as emotionless or conversely, as nonjudgmental, leaving readers to come to their own conclusions about how to feel about a story. Though Card was initially classified as a hard science fiction writer for publishing in "Analog", his science fiction focuses more on his characters than on the details of future technology. One critic said Card is poor at characterization, stating the characters Peter and Valentine in "Ender's Game" are "totally unbelievable". While noticing that some of Card's early stories were formulaic, Westfahl praised many of Card's early stories as showing "conspicuous originality". The graphic violence in his early fiction was controversial; frequent appearances of naked men and boys raised "questions about homoerotic imagery" according to Westfahl. Collings stated that the early stories are "essential steps in the development of Card's fiction". Card uses a technique common in pulp fiction when he refers to characters by a quirk of their appearance or personality. Card's fantasy stories also use tropes that are common to fantasy.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card cites the Book of Mormon as an important influence on his writing; his habit of beginning sentences with conjunctions comes from the book. Literary devices in "Hot Sleep" parallel those of the Book of Mormon. Collings said "Hot Sleep" mimicry of Book of Mormon language makes it an "inherently" Mormon novel. Card combined several Worthing stories and revised "Hot Sleep" to create "The Worthing Chronicle", which does not mirror the language of the Book of Mormon as much as "Hot Sleep" does.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: One theme in Card's works is that of a precocious child who is isolated from others but is uniquely positioned to help or save their community. These characters with exceptional abilities achieve their destiny "through discipline and suffering". Often, his gifted protagonists are introspective children. Card's work features children and adults working together, which is unusual. His characters feel "real" and must grow and take on responsibilities, and often sacrifice themselves to improve their own societies. This sacrifice is a difficult choice in which none of the options are obviously good. These protagonists have unusual abilities that are both a blessing and a curse. The protagonists, who are isolated from family and friends, relate better to adults than to other young people; when they grow up, they often mentor other precocious youths. Alvin Maker follows this pattern; his magical abilities are very unusual and he uses them to redeem his people.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: According to Collings, Card's protagonists are "lonely and manipulative Messiah-figures" who make sacrifices that can be interpreted as a declaration of principles. Family and community problems arise when individuals are not fully accepted or when communities do not work with others in larger units. Often one group tries to kill or enslave another group but their conflict is alleviated when they try to understand each other. Protagonists make choices that save a person or a group of people. In "The Porcelain Salamander", a girl is saved by a magical salamander; this action restores her ability to move but she takes on some attributes of the salamander. In "Kingsmeat" the Shepherd painlessly excises meat from humans to save them from being completely eaten by their alien overlords. The violence of removing parts of people is like the violence of repentance. Collings states part of this story "could serve as an epigram of all Card's fictions; trapped within a circle of opposing forces, one focal character must decide whether or not to become, like Ender Wiggin, 'something of a savior, or a prophet, or at least a martyr'."


title: Orson Scott Card

text: The original short story "Ender's Game" is reminiscent of Heinlein's young adult novels because it is about a young person with impressive gifts who is guided by a stern mentor whose choices affect all of humanity. The situations and choices in the "Ender" series invoke a number of philosophical topics, including the rules of war, embodiment psychology, the ethics of anthropology and xenology, and the morality of manipulating children. Though Card described "Happy Head" (1978) as an embarrassment, it anticipated cyberpunk fiction with an investigator judge who can experience memories with witnesses. Both "A Thousand Deaths" (1978) and "Unaccompanied Sonata" feature protagonists who rebel against the dystopias they inhabit.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In a May 2013 essay called "Unlikely Events", which Card presented as an experiment in fiction-writing, Card described an alternative future in which President Barack Obama ruled as a "Hitler- or Stalin-style dictator" with his own national police force of young unemployed men; Obama and his wife Michelle would have amended the U.S. Constitution to allow presidents to remain in power for life, as in Nigeria, Zimbabwe, and Nazi Germany. In the essay, first published in "The Rhinoceros Times", Card attributed Obama's success to being a "black man who talks like a white man (that's what they mean by calling him "articulate" and a "great speaker")." The essay drew criticism from journalists for its allusions to Obama's race and its reference to "urban gangs". Vice author Dave Schilling featured the article in his "This Week in Racism" roundup several months after its publication.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: "Empire" (2006) is a novel about civil war between progressive and conservative extremists in America. It was a finalist for the Prometheus Award, an award given by the Libertarian Futurist Society. "Publishers Weekly" stated that "right-wing rhetoric trumps the logic of story and character" in the novel. Another review from "Publishers Weekly" noted that "Card's conservative bias seeps into" the novel. At "SFReviews", Thomas Wagner took further issue with Card's tendency to "smugly pretend[...] to be above it all," or claiming to be moderate while espousing conservative views of news media. In an interview with Mythaxis Review in April 2021, Card stated that he writes fiction "without conscious agenda."


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In Card's fiction writing, homosexual characters appear in contexts that some critics have interpreted as homophobic. Writing for "Salon", Aja Romano lists the "homophobic subtext" of characters in four of Card's books. In "Songmaster", a man falls in love with a 15-year-old castrato in a pederastic society. Their sexual union has "creepy overtones" that makes the teenager "unable to have sex again." On the topic of "Songmaster", Card wrote that he was not trying to show homosexual sex as beautiful. Romano wrote that the book's "main plot point revolve[d] around punishing homosexual sex." In the Homecoming series, a gay male character, Zdorab, marries and procreates for the good of society. Romano notes that Zdorab does not stop being gay after his marriage, but that procreation is paramount in the book's society. Eugene England defends Zdorab, arguing that he is a sympathetic character who discovered that his homosexuality was determined by his mother's hormone levels during pregnancy. Therefore, Card acknowledges that homosexuality is not a character trait that can be erased or reversed. While Zdorab marries and has children, he sees his choice to become a father as very deliberate and not "out of some inborn instinct."


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's 2008 novella "Hamlet's Father" re-imagines the backstory of Shakespeare's play "Hamlet". In the novella, Hamlet's friends were sexually abused as children by his pedophilic father and subsequently identify as homosexual adults. The novella prompted public outcry and its publishers were inundated with complaints. Trade journal "Publishers Weekly" criticized Card's work, stating its main purpose was to attempt to link homosexuality with pedophilia. Card responded that he did not link homosexuality with pedophilia, stating that in his book, Hamlet's father was a pedophile that shows no sexual attraction to adults of either sex.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card became a member of the U.S. Democratic Party in 1976 and has on multiple occasions referred to himself as a Moynihan or Blue Dog Democrat, as recently as 2020. Card supported Republican presidential candidate John McCain in 2008 and Newt Gingrich in 2012. In 2016 he followed the "hold your nose, vote Trump" hashtag and voted accordingly. According to "Salon", Card's views are close to neoconservative. Card has described himself as a moral conservative, Card was a vocal supporter of the U.S.'s War on Terror. In a 2020 interview with Ben Shapiro, Card stated that he was not a conservative because he has beliefs that do not align with typical conservative platforms, including desiring liberal immigration laws, gun control, and abolishing the death penalty. In 2000, Card said he believed government has a duty to protect citizens from capitalism.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card has publicly declared his support of laws against homosexual activity and same-sex marriage. Card's 1990 essay "A Changed Man: The Hypocrites of Homosexuality" was first published in "Sunstone" and republished in his collection of non-fiction essays, "A Storyteller in Zion". In the essay, he argued that laws against homosexual behavior should not be "indiscriminately enforced against anyone who happens to be caught violating them, but [used only] when necessary to send a clear message [to] those who flagrantly violate society's regulation". Card also questioned in a 2004 column the notion that homosexuality was a purely innate or genetic trait, and asserted that a range of environmental factors also contributed to its development, including abuse. In an introduction to a reprint of his essay, Card wrote that since 2003, when the US Supreme Court had ruled those laws unconstitutional, he has "no interest in criminalizing homosexual acts".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card has stated there is no need to legalize same-sex marriage and that he opposes efforts to do so. In 2008, he wrote in an opinion piece in the "Deseret News" that relationships between same-sex couples would always be different from those between opposite-sex couples, and that if a government were to say otherwise, "married people" would "act to destroy" it as their "mortal enemy". In 2012, Card supported North Carolina Amendment 1, a ballot measure to outlaw same-sex marriage in North Carolina, saying the legalization of gay marriage was a slippery slope upon which the political left would make it "illegal to teach traditional values in the schools". In 2009, Card joined the board of directors of the National Organization for Marriage, a group that campaigns against same-sex marriage. Card resigned from the board in mid-2013. In July 2013, one week after the U.S. Supreme Court issued rulings in two cases that were widely interpreted as favoring recognition of same-sex marriages, Card published in "Entertainment Weekly" a statement saying the same-sex marriage issue is moot because of the Supreme Court's decision on the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA).


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card's views have had professional repercussions. In 2013, he was selected as a guest author for DC Comics' new "Adventures of Superman" comic book series, but controversy over his views on homosexuality led illustrator Chris Sprouse to leave the project. An online petition to drop the story received over 16,000 signatures and DC Comics put Card's story on hold indefinitely. A few months later, an LGBT non-profit organization Geeks OUT proposed a boycott of the movie adaptation of "Ender's Game", calling Card's views "anti-gay" and causing the movie studio Lionsgate to publicly distance itself from Card's opinions.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card won the ALA Margaret Edwards Award, which recognizes one writer and a particular body of work for "significant and lasting contributions to young adult literature", in 2008 for his contribution in writing for teenagers; his work was selected by a panel of YA librarians. Card said he was unsure his work was suitable for the award because it was never marketed as "young adult". In the same year, Card won the Lifetime Achievement Award for Mormon writers at the Whitney Awards.


title: Orson Scott Card

text: In 1978, the Harold B. Lee Library acquired the Orson Scott Card papers, which include Card's works, writing notes, and letters. The collection was formally opened in 2007. Stephenie Meyer, Brandon Sanderson, and Dave Wolverton have cited Card's works as a major influence. In addition, Card inspired Lindsay Ellis's novel "Axiom's End".


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Since 1994, Card has served as a judge for Writers of the Future, a science fiction and fantasy story contest for amateur writers. In late 2005, Card launched "Orson Scott Card's InterGalactic Medicine Show", an online fantasy and science fiction magazine. In 2005, Card accepted a permanent appointment as "distinguished professor" at Southern Virginia University in Buena Vista, Virginia, a small liberal arts college. Card has served on the boards of a number of organizations, including public television station UNC-TV (2013–present) and the National Organization for Marriage (2009–2013).


title: Orson Scott Card

text: Card taught a course on novel-writing at Pepperdine University, which was sponsored by Michael Collings. Afterwards, Card designed his own writing courses called "Uncle Orson's Writing Course" and "literary boot camp". Eric James Stone, Jamie Ford, Brian McClellan, Mette Ivie Harrison and John Brown have attended Card's literary boot camp. Luc Reid, founder of the Codex Writers Group is also a literary book camp alumnus. Card has been a Special Guest and/or Literary Guest of Honor and Keynote Speaker at the Life, the Universe, & Everything professional science fiction and fantasy arts symposium, on at least six separate occasions: 1983, 1986, 1987, 1997, 2008, 2014.


title: Robert Wolders

text: Robert Wolders (28 September 1936 – 12 July 2018) was a Dutch television actor known for his role in the US television series "Laredo" and appearing in series such as "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "Bewitched" and "The Mary Tyler Moore Show". He was married to Merle Oberon, and was the longtime partner of Audrey Hepburn.


title: Robert Wolders

text: Typecast as a "Latin Lover" because of his good looks and exotic accent, Wolders started out appearing in TV series like "Flipper" and "The John Forsythe Show". He signed a contract with Universal Pictures that led to several film roles as well as landing the role of Erik Hunter in the second season of the TV series "Laredo". He also had guest roles in other shows, including "Daniel Boone", "The Man from U.N.C.L.E.", "The Name of the Game", "The F.B.I.", "Bewitched", and "The Mary Tyler Moore Show". Wolders stopped acting shortly after marrying Merle Oberon in 1975.


title: Robert Wolders

text: Wolders met actress Merle Oberon while filming "Interval" in 1973. Oberon was married at the time, but after filming with Wolders she divorced her husband of sixteen years, Bruno Pagliai, and married Wolders in 1975. Wolders was 25 years younger than Oberon. They remained married until her death in 1979.


title: Robert Wolders

text: In 1980, Wolders became the companion of Audrey Hepburn until her death in 1993. From 1994 to 1995, he and actress-dancer Leslie Caron were a couple.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, gas, hydroelectricity and wind power. , India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Nuclear power produced a total of 43 TWh in 2020-21, contributing 3.11% of total power generation in India (1,382 TWh). 10 more reactors are under construction with a combined generation capacity of 8,000 MW.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In October 2010, India drew up a plan to reach a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW in 2032. However, following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster there have been numerous anti-nuclear protests at proposed nuclear power plant sites.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: There have been mass protests against the Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, and a proposed large nuclear power plant near Haripur was refused permission by the Government of West Bengal.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the government’s civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: However, capacity factors have been improving in recent years. The availability factor of Indian reactors was 74.4% in the years 2019-2021.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: India has been making advances in the field of thorium-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part of India's three stage nuclear power programme.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: As early as 1901, the Geological Survey of India (GSI) had recognised India as potentially having significant deposits of radioactive ores, including pitchblende, uranium and thorianite. In the ensuing 50 years, however, little to no effort was made to exploit those resources. During the 1920s and 1930s, Indian scientists maintained close links to their counterparts in Europe and the United States, and were well aware of the latest developments in physics. Several Indian physicists, notably Daulat Singh Kothari, Meghnad Saha, Homi J. Bhabha and R. S. Krishnan, conducted pioneering research in nuclear physics in Europe during the 1930s.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: By 1939, Meghnad Saha, the Palit Professor of Physics at the University of Calcutta, had recognised the significance of the discovery of nuclear fission, and had begun to conduct various experiments in his laboratory related to nuclear physics. In 1940, he incorporated nuclear physics into the university's post-graduate curriculum. In the same year, the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust sanctioned funds for installing a cyclotron at the University of Calcutta, but various difficulties likely related to the war delayed the project. In 1944, Homi J. Bhabha, a distinguished nuclear physicist who had established a research school at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, wrote a letter to his distant cousin J. R. D. Tata, the chairman of the Tata Group. He requested funds to establish a research institute of fundamental physics, "with special reference to cosmic rays and nuclear physics." The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) was inaugurated in Mumbai the following year.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Following the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in August 1945, R.S. Krishnan, a nuclear physicist who had studied under Norman Feather and John Cockcroft, and who recognised the massive energy-generating potential of uranium, observed, "If the tremendous energy released from atomic explosions is made available to drive machinery, etc., it will bring about an industrial revolution of a far-reaching character." He further noted, however, the difficulties in harnessing nuclear power for peaceful usage, "...a great deal more research work is needed before atomic power can be put to industrial use."


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In March 1946, the Board of Scientific and Industrial Research (BSIR), under the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), set up an Atomic Research Committee under Bhabha's leadership to explore India's atomic energy resources and to suggest ways to develop and harness them, along with establishing contacts with similar organisations in other nations. At the same time, the University of Travancore's research council met to discuss Travancore's future industrial development. Among other matters, the council made recommendations for developing the state's resources of monazite, a valuable thorium ore, and ilmenite, with regard to their applications in atomic energy. The council suggested the project could be undertaken by an all-India programme. This was followed by the deputation of Bhabha and Sir Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar, the Director of the CSIR, to Travancore in April 1947 and the establishment of a working relationship with the kingdom's "dewan", Sir C. P. Ramaswami Iyer.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Early in 1947, plans were made to establish a Uranium Unit under the Geological Survey of India, to focus on identifying and developing resources of uranium-bearing minerals. In June 1947, two months before Indian independence, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, then Minister for Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, established an Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy. Chaired by Bhabha and placed under the CSIR, the Advisory Board included Saha, Bhatnagar and several other distinguished scientists, notably Sir K. S. Krishnan, the co-discoverer of the Raman effect, geologist Darashaw Nosherwan Wadia and Nazir Ahmed, a student of Ernest Rutherford. A Joint Committee comprising the above scientists and three representatives of the Travancore government was set up to determine how best to utilise Travancore's resources of monazite. Following the independence and partition of India, Travancore briefly declared itself independent before acceding to the new Dominion of India in 1949 after a period of intense negotiations, while Ahmad departed for Pakistan, where he would eventually head that nation's atomic energy agency.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: On 23 March 1948, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Atomic Energy Bill in the Indian Parliament, and it was subsequently passed as the Indian Atomic Energy Act. Modelled on the British Atomic Energy Act 1946, the Act granted sweeping powers to the central government over nuclear science and research, including surveying for atomic minerals, the development of such mineral resources on an industrial scale, conducting research regarding the scientific and technical problems connected with developing atomic energy for peaceful purposes, the training and education of the necessary personnel and the fostering of fundamental research in the nuclear sciences in Indian laboratories, institutes and universities. Around the same time, the Government of West Bengal sanctioned the construction of a nuclear physics institute under the University of Calcutta; the cornerstone was laid in May 1948, and the institute was inaugurated on 11 January 1950 by Irène Joliot-Curie.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: With effect from 1 June 1948, the Advisory Board for Research in Atomic Energy, together with its parent organisation the CSIR, was folded into the new Department of Scientific Research and placed directly under the Prime Minister. On 3 August 1948, the Atomic Energy Commission of India (AEC) was established and made separate from the Department of Scientific Research, with Bhabha as its first chairman. In January 1949, the AEC met to formulate a uniform under- and post-graduate university syllabus for theoretical and fundamental physics and chemistry, to guarantee sufficient numbers of nuclear scientists and to ensure they would receive consistent levels of training and education. In the same year, the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research was designated by the CSIR as the hub for all major nuclear science research projects. In 1950, the government announced it would purchase all available stocks of uranium and beryllium minerals and ores, and declared large rewards for any significant discoveries of the same. On 3 January 1954, the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET) was established by the Atomic Energy Commission to consolidate all nuclear reactor research and technology-related developments; on 3 August, the Atomic Energy Commission and all its subordinate agencies, including the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research and the nuclear research institute at Calcutta University, were transferred to the new Department of Atomic Energy and placed under the direct charge of the Prime Minister's Office. In May 1956, construction on a uranium metal plant and a fuel element fabrication facility for the research reactors began at Trombay; the uranium plant came into operation in January 1959, followed by the fuel element facility in February 1960. The AEET (renamed the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967, after Bhabha's death) was formally inaugurated by Nehru in January 1957. With the expanding scope of Indian nuclear research, the 1948 Atomic Energy Act was amended in 1961, and was passed as the new Atomic Energy Act, coming into force in September 1962.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: At a meeting of the Atomic Energy Commission on 15 March 1955, the decision was made to construct a small nuclear reactor at Trombay. The reactor would be used for training personnel for the operation of future reactors and for research, including experiments in nuclear physics, studying the effects of irradiation and the production of isotopes for medical, agricultural and industrial research. In October 1955, an agreement was signed by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority and the Indian Department of Atomic Energy, under which Britain would supply uranium fuel elements for a swimming pool reactor to be designed by India. The agreement further ensured the "close cooperation and mutual assistance between the Department and the Authority in the promotion and development of the peaceful uses of atomic energy," and provided for future design and collaboration in the construction of a high flux reactor at a later date. Named "Apsara", the reactor was housed in a 100 x 50 x 70 concrete building. India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor, "Apsara" reached criticality at 3:45 p.m on 4 August 1956 and was inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on 20 January 1957.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In April 1955, the Canadian government under Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent offered to assist in building an NRX-type reactor for India under the Colombo Plan, of which both India and Canada were then members. Prime Minister St. Laurent expressed hopes the reactor would serve India well in the development of peaceful atomic research and development. On behalf of the Indian government, Nehru formally accepted the offer that September, stating the reactor would be made available to any accredited foreign scientists, including those from other Colombo Plan member states. On 28 April 1956, Nehru and the Canadian High Commissioner to India Escott Reid signed an agreement for a "Canada-India Colombo Plan Atomic Reactor Project." Under the terms of the agreement, Canada would provide a 40 MW CIRUS reactor for solely research purposes, including the initial manufacture and engineering of the reactor, and would also provide technical expertise, including training Indian personnel in its operation. India would supply the reactor site and foundation, and would also pay all "internal" costs, including the construction of the reactor complex, the costs of local labour and any shipping and insurance fees. Under Article II of the agreement, India would make the reactor facilities available to other Colombo Plan nations. Article III stipulated that the "reactor and any products resulting from its use will be employed for peaceful purposes only;" at the time, however, there were no effective safeguards to ensure this clause. A further agreement was made with the United States government to supply 21 tons of heavy water for the reactor. Construction of the reactor began later in 1956, with Indian technical personnel sent to Chalk River for training. CIRUS was completed in early 1960 and after achieving criticality in July 1960, was inaugurated by Nehru in January 1961. Construction of a third research reactor, ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) began at Trombay in 1958; ZERLINA was also commissioned in 1961.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In September 1955, the question of building a commercial nuclear power station was raised in Parliament. Shortly after the world's first commercial nuclear power plant came online at Obninsk in the Soviet Union, the Soviets invited a number of Indian experts to visit it; the United States concurrently offered training in atomic energy to Indian technical and scientific personnel. In August 1957, members of the Gujarat Chamber of Commerce in Ahmedabad (then in Bombay State) requested an atomic power station for their city, by which time the Indian government was actively considering the construction of at least "one or more large Atomic Power Stations to generate electricity." By November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission had recommended construction of two nuclear power stations, each consisting of two units and able to generate 500 MW of power, for a total generating capacity of 1000 MW; the government decided that a minimum of 250 MW of electricity generated from nuclear reactors would be incorporated into the Third Five Year Plan (1961-1966).


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In February 1960, it was decided the first power plant would be erected in Western India, with locations in Rajasthan, near Delhi and near Madras noted for future commercial reactors. In September, the Punjab government requested a nuclear power station for their state. On 11 October 1960, the Indian government issued a tender for India's first nuclear power station near Tarapur, Maharashtra and consisting of two reactors, each generating around 150 MW of electricity and to be commissioned in 1965. In August 1961, the Indian and Canadian governments agreed to conduct a joint study on building a Canada-India nuclear power plant in Rajasthan; the reactor would be based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and would generate 200 MW. By this time, seven responses to India's global tender for the Tarapur power station had been received: three from the United States, two from the UK and one each from France and Canada.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. RAPP-1 began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW. The technical and design information were given free of charge by Atomic Energy of Canada Limited to India. The United States and Canada terminated their assistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: After successful commissioning of Kudankulam units 1 & 2, an agreement was made with Russia in June 2017 for the units 5 & 6 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 250 million (3.85 million US$) per MW. Earlier, India had also entered in to an agreement with Russia in October 2016 for the units 3 & 4 (2 x 1000 MW) with an estimated cost of INR 200 million (3.08 million US$) per MW.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India. Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves, electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008. Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade, India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, including France, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, and South Korea. India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Argentina and Namibia. An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract in Niger.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In March 2011 large deposits of uranium were discovered in the Tummalapalle belt in Andhra Pradesh and in the Bhima basin in Karnataka by the Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The Tummalapalle belt uranium reserves promises to be one of the world's top 20 uranium reserves discoveries.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: 44,000 tonnes of natural uranium have been discovered in the belt so far, which is estimated to have three times that amount.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The natural uranium deposits of the Bhima basin has better grade of natural uranium ore, even though it is smaller than the Tummalapalle belt.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In recent years, India has shown increased interest in thorium fuels and fuel cycles because of large deposits of thorium (518,000 tonnes) in the form of monazite in beach sands as compared to very modest reserves of low-grade uranium (92,000 tonnes).


title: Nuclear power in India

text: As of 2016, India has signed civil nuclear agreements with 14 countries: Argentina, Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Japan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Namibia, Russia, South Korea, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Vietnam. The 48-nation NSG granted a waiver to India on 6 September 2008 allowing it to access civilian nuclear technology and fuel from other countries. India is the only country with known nuclear weapons which is not a party to the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) but is still allowed to carry out nuclear commerce with the rest of the world.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. The MoU on "development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of radioactive minerals and nuclear energy" was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba's five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The Indo-Namibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in Toronto on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of the world's largest exporters of uranium and Canada's heavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad with CANDU-type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President Nazarbaev announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. Kazakhstan is the largest producer of uranium in the world. India and Kazakhstan already have civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear company KazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in India’s nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In 2014, India and Australia signed a civil nuclear agreement which allows the export of uranium to India. This was signed in New Delhi during Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott's meeting with the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi on 4 September 2014. Australia is the third largest producer of uranium in the world. The agreement allows supply of uranium for peaceful generation of power for civil use in India.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: India's Prime Minister Narendra Modi and UK Prime Minister David Cameron signed Civil Nuclear Agreement on 12 November 2015.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008. During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third-generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years. Construction has faced regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 20 During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicolas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two third-generation EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years. Construction has faced regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In April 2021 French group EDF made a binding offer to build six third-generation EPR nuclear reactors at the Jaitapur site, with an installed capacity of 9.6 gigawatts.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In November 2016 Japan signed a nuclear cooperation agreement with India. Japanese nuclear plant builders saw this as potential lifeline given that domestic orders had ended following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, and India is proposing to build about 20 new reactors over the next decade.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two VVER 1000 MW reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) at Koodankulam in Tamil Nadu. A 2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity 1170 MW each. Russia has assisted in India’s efforts to design a nuclear plant for its nuclear submarine. In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: In October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 nuclear reactors. Russian state-owned reactor manufacturer Rosatom stated that it would offer its third-generation VVER reactors. The agreement is not a firm contract, but rather an agreement to work toward a firm contract.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a Letter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from the USA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators." On 5 October 2018, India and Russia signed an agreement to construct 6 Russian nuclear reactors in India.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The PHWR fleet of India, in analysis by M.V. Ramana, were constructed, fuelled and continue to operate, close to the price of Indian coal power stations.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: As of 2009, India envisaged to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25 years.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity was expected to increase to 20 GW. In fact, the 2020 capacity will not exceed 7 GW, as the 2018 operating capacity was only 6.2 GW, and only one more reactor was expected on line before 2020.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25 GW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45 GW.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Risks related to nuclear power generation prompted Indian legislators to enact the 2010 Nuclear Liability Act which stipulates that nuclear suppliers, contractors and operators must bear financial responsibility in case of an accident.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The legislation addresses key issues such as nuclear radiation and safety regulations, operational control and maintenance management of nuclear power plants, compensation in the event of a radiation-leak accident, disaster clean-up costs, operator responsibility and supplier liability.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: A nuclear accident like the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster would have dire economic consequences in heavily populated India as did the 1984 Union Carbide Bhopal disaster, considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal.


title: Nuclear power in India

text: Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum.