title: All rights reserved

text: Other copyright treaties did not require this formality. For example, in 1952 the Universal Copyright Convention (UCC) adopted the © symbol as an indicator of protection. (The symbol was introduced in the US by a 1954 amendment to the Copyright Act of 1909.) The Berne Convention rejected formalities altogether in Article 4 of the 1908 revision, so authors seeking to protect their works in countries that had signed on to the Berne Convention were also not required to use the "all rights reserved" formulation. However, because not all Buenos Aires signatories were members of Berne or the UCC, and in particular the United States did not join UCC until 1955, a publisher in a Buenos Aires signatory seeking to protect a work in the greatest number of countries between 1910 and 1952 would have used both the phrase "all rights reserved" and the copyright symbol.


title: All rights reserved

text: The requirement to add the "all rights reserved" notice became essentially obsolete on August 23, 2000, when Nicaragua became the final member of the Buenos Aires Convention to also become a signatory to the Berne Convention. As of that date, every country that was a member of the Buenos Aires Convention (which is the only copyright treaty requiring this notice to be used) was also a member of Berne, which requires protection be granted without any formality of notice of copyright.


title: ABBA discography

text: The discography of Swedish pop music group ABBA consists of nine studio albums, two live albums, seven compilation albums, four box sets, five video albums, 50 singles, and 43 music videos. To date, "ABBA" has sold 150 million records worldwide becoming one of the best-selling music artists in history. They have scored 9 No. 1 singles and 10 No. 1 albums in the UK, becoming the most successful Swedish act of all time on the Official Charts.


title: ABBA discography

text: ABBA's biggest hit singles worldwide are "Dancing Queen" and "Fernando", with "Arrival" being their biggest hit studio album.


title: ABBA discography

text: The compilation album "" (1992) is the second best-selling album of all time in the UK and has sold over 30 million copies worldwide.


title: ABBA discography

text: The members of ABBA are Agnetha Fältskog, Anni-Frid Lyngstad (better known as Frida), Benny Andersson, and Björn Ulvaeus.


title: ABBA discography

text: The pre-ABBA songs "Hej Gamle Man", "Tänk Om Jorden Vore Ung", "She's My Kind of Girl", "Det Kan Ingen Doktor Hjälpa", "En karusell/En Carousel" and "Love Has Its Ways" were released in Sweden and/or Japan as singles (1970–1972). These songs were released officially as singles by Björn & Benny, but some featured vocal contributions from both Agnetha Fältskog and Annifrid Lyngstad. The German version of "Hej Gamle Man" ("Hey Musikant") was released as a single in Germany (1971), while France saw a release of "Inga Theme" as a single in 1971.


title: ABBA discography

text: "En Sång Och En Saga" was released as an Agnetha Fältskog solo single in Sweden (1970). It features the remaining ABBA-members as vocalists.


title: ABBA discography

text: "En hälsning till våra parkarrangörer" was released as a promo single (1972) in order promote ABBA's then-upcoming tour of the Swedish "Folk Parks". This track was in fact a series of snippets of then well-known ABBA-songs and solo-songs with a spoken overdub featuring all of the ABBA-members. It was officially released as part of the Deluxe Edition of the album "Ring Ring" released in 2013.


title: ABBA discography

text: "I Am Just a Girl" was released in Japan in 1973. The song was a B-side "Love Isn't Easy (But It Sure Is Hard Enough)" everywhere else.


title: ABBA discography

text: The Spanish version of "Chiquitita" was widely released—throughout South America as well as in Australia, Austria, Canada, France, Germany, South Africa, Spain, and USA. The Spanish versions of "Andante, Andante", "Thank You for the Music" ("Gracias Por La Música"), "I Have a Dream" ("Estoy Soñando"), "Happy New Year" ("Felicidad"), "When All Is Said and Done" ("No Hay a Quien Culpar"), "Slipping Through My Fingers" ("Se Me Está Escapando"), "Fernando", "Hasta Mañana", and "Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)" ("Dame! Dame! Dame!") were released as singles in various Spanish-speaking countries—primarily in Spain and South America—as well as some in Japan and USA (1979–1981).


title: ABBA discography

text: “Film clips” showing groups performing their songs had been used to great effect by major artists like The Beatles since the mid-Sixties as a convenience for those who were


title: ABBA discography

text: reluctant or unable to tour or make appearances abroad. In the summer of 1974, when there was a demand for the group's presence in the United States, they hired the director Lasse Hallström to direct the group's first film clips, for ‘Waterloo’ and ‘Ring Ring’. Hallström had been making pop film clips for television since the late Sixties, and had recently directed a sequence of successful short comedy skits for Swedish television. The videos were successful, and the following year the group rehired him to make four promo clips of the songs they felt had the strongest hit potential on the new album (‘I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do’, ‘Mamma Mia’, ‘SOS’ and ‘Bang-A-Boomerang’). Hallström would go on to make most of their in-house promotional clips, often on a very small budget (the four 1975 films were completed in two days, at a total cost of less than 50,000 kronor (£5,500), and Hallström did the editing work himself from his apartment). The relationship ended in 1982, prompted by changing tastes and demands and complaints from ABBA's distributors that Hallström's low-budget approach made it difficult to market the band. Director Kjell Sundvall and cinematographer Kjell-Åke Andersson, an up-and-coming filmmaker team, were hired to replace them for the final two promotional videos, 'The Day Before You Came' and 'Under Attack'.


title: Conleth Hill

text: Conleth Seamus Eoin Croiston Hill (born 24 November 1964) is an actor from Northern Ireland. He has performed on stage in productions in the UK, Ireland, Canada and the United States. He has won two Laurence Olivier Awards and received two Tony Award nominations. He is best known for his role as Varys in the HBO series "Game of Thrones" (2011–2019).


title: Conleth Hill

text: Conleth Hill was born in Ballycastle in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. He has an older brother who works as a cameraman, a sister who is a producer, and a younger brother, Ronan, who is a sound engineer who has won four Emmy Awards for his sound mixing on "Game of Thrones".


title: Conleth Hill

text: Hill attended St MacNissi's College, Garron Tower and graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama's (Clothworkers Company Scholar) acting programme in 1989.


title: Conleth Hill

text: Hill made his Broadway debut in Marie Jones' "Stones in His Pockets". For his work in the Canadian production of the play he received a Dora Mavor Moore Award. He played the German professor Max Staefel in a television adaptation of "Goodbye, Mr Chips" (2002). He played "Mum" to Peter Kay's character, Geraldine McQueen, in "Peter Kay's Britain's Got the Pop Factor... and Possibly a New Celebrity Jesus Christ Soapstar Superstar Strictly on Ice", a spoof on the talent show genre of programmes. He also played the role of Edward Darby in the television series "Suits," alongside his Game of Thrones co-star, Michelle Fairley.


title: Conleth Hill

text: From 2011 to 2019, Hill appeared as Varys in the television series "Game of Thrones", based on George R. R. Martin's novel series "A Song of Ice and Fire". Martin hinted, in a February 2013 post on his website, that he thought Hill would be a good choice to play the title character in a TV show based on Martin's science fiction novel "Tuf Voyaging". He appeared in Series 2 episode 2 of "Peter Kay's Car Share" as Elsie, the drunk deli counter supervisor dressed as Smurfette. He also appeared as Carlos Santini in Season 3, Episode 4 of Derry Girls.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Saccharomyces cerevisiae () (brewer's yeast or baker's yeast) is a species of yeast (single-celled fungus microorganisms). The species has been instrumental in winemaking, baking, and brewing since ancient times. It is believed to have been originally isolated from the skin of grapes. It is one of the most intensively studied eukaryotic model organisms in molecular and cell biology, much like "Escherichia coli" as the model bacterium. It is the microorganism behind the most common type of fermentation. "S. cerevisiae" cells are round to ovoid, 5–10 μm in diameter. It reproduces by budding.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their homologs in yeast; these proteins include cell cycle proteins, signaling proteins, and protein-processing enzymes. "S. cerevisiae" is currently the only yeast cell known to have Berkeley bodies present, which are involved in particular secretory pathways. Antibodies against "S. cerevisiae" are found in 60–70% of patients with Crohn's disease and 10–15% of patients with ulcerative colitis, and may be useful as part of a panel of serological markers in differentiating between inflammatory bowel diseases (e.g. between ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease), their localisation and severity.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: ""Saccharomyces"" derives from Latinized Greek and means "sugar-mould" or "sugar-fungus", "saccharon" (σάκχαρον) being the combining form "sugar" and "myces" (μύκης) being "fungus". "cerevisiae" comes from Latin and means "of beer". Other names for the organism are:


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: In the 19th century, bread bakers obtained their yeast from beer brewers, and this led to sweet-fermented breads such as the Imperial "Kaisersemmel" roll,


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: which in general lacked the sourness created by the acidification typical of "Lactobacillus". However, beer brewers slowly switched from top-fermenting ("S. cerevisiae") to bottom-fermenting ("S. pastorianus") yeast. The Vienna Process was developed in 1846.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: While the innovation is often popularly credited for using steam in baking ovens, leading to a different crust characteristic, it is notable for including procedures for high milling of grains (see Vienna grits),


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: cracking them incrementally instead of mashing them with one pass; as well as better processes for growing and harvesting top-fermenting yeasts, known as press-yeast.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Refinements in microbiology following the work of Louis Pasteur led to more advanced methods of culturing pure strains. In 1879, Great Britain introduced specialized growing vats for the production of "S. cerevisiae", and in the United States around the turn of the century centrifuges were used for concentrating the yeast,


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: turning yeast production into a major industrial process which simplified its distribution, reduced unit costs and contributed to the commercialisation and commoditisation of bread and beer. Fresh "cake yeast" became the standard leaven for bread bakers in much of the Western world during the early 20th century.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a granulated active dry yeast for the United States armed forces, which did not require refrigeration and had a longer shelf-life and better temperature tolerance than fresh yeast; it is still the standard yeast for US military recipes. The company created yeast that would rise twice as fast, cutting down on baking time. Lesaffre would later create instant yeast in the 1970s, which has gained considerable use and market share at the expense of both fresh and dry yeast in their various applications.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: In nature, yeast cells are found primarily on ripe fruits such as grapes (before maturation, grapes are almost free of yeasts). "S. cerevisiae" can also be found year-round in the bark of oak trees. Since "S. cerevisiae" is not airborne, it requires a vector to move.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Queens of social wasps overwintering as adults ("Vespa crabro" and "Polistes" spp.) can harbor yeast cells from autumn to spring and transmit them to their progeny. The intestine of "Polistes dominula", a social wasp, hosts "S. cerevisiae" strains as well as "S. cerevisiae" × "S. paradoxus" hybrids. Stefanini et al. (2016) showed that the intestine of "Polistes dominula" favors the mating of "S. cerevisiae" strains, both among themselves and with "S. paradoxus" cells by providing environmental conditions prompting cell sporulation and spores germination.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Two forms of yeast cells can survive and grow: haploid and diploid. The haploid cells undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth, and under conditions of high stress will, in general, die. This is the asexual form of the fungus. The diploid cells (the preferential 'form' of yeast) similarly undergo a simple lifecycle of mitosis and growth. The rate at which the mitotic cell cycle progresses often differs substantially between haploid and diploid cells. Under conditions of stress, diploid cells can undergo sporulation, entering meiosis and producing four haploid spores, which can subsequently mate. This is the sexual form of the fungus. Under optimal conditions, yeast cells can double their population every 100 minutes. However, growth rates vary enormously between strains and between environments. Mean replicative lifespan is about 26 cell divisions.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: In the wild, recessive deleterious mutations accumulate during long periods of asexual reproduction of diploids, and are purged during selfing: this purging has been termed "genome renewal".


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: All strains of "S. cerevisiae" can grow aerobically on glucose, maltose, and trehalose and fail to grow on lactose and cellobiose. However, growth on other sugars is variable. Galactose and fructose are shown to be two of the best fermenting sugars. The ability of yeasts to use different sugars can differ depending on whether they are grown aerobically or anaerobically. Some strains cannot grow anaerobically on sucrose and trehalose.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: All strains can use ammonia and urea as the sole nitrogen source, but cannot use nitrate, since they lack the ability to reduce them to ammonium ions. They can also use most amino acids, small peptides, and nitrogen bases as nitrogen sources. Histidine, glycine, cystine, and lysine are, however, not readily used. "S. cerevisiae" does not excrete proteases, so extracellular protein cannot be metabolized.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Yeasts also have a requirement for phosphorus, which is assimilated as a dihydrogen phosphate ion, and sulfur, which can be assimilated as a sulfate ion or as organic sulfur compounds such as the amino acids methionine and cysteine. Some metals, like magnesium, iron, calcium, and zinc, are also required for good growth of the yeast.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Concerning organic requirements, most strains of "S. cerevisiae" require biotin. Indeed, a "S. cerevisiae"-based growth assay laid the foundation for the isolation, crystallisation, and later structural determination of biotin. Most strains also require pantothenate for full growth. In general, "S. cerevisiae" is prototrophic for vitamins.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Yeast has two mating types, a and α ("alpha"), which show primitive aspects of sex differentiation. As in many other eukaryotes, mating leads to genetic recombination, i.e. production of novel combinations of chromosomes. Two haploid yeast cells of opposite mating type can mate to form diploid cells that can either sporulate to form another generation of haploid cells or continue to exist as diploid cells. Mating has been exploited by biologists as a tool to combine genes, plasmids, or proteins at will.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The mating pathway employs a G protein-coupled receptor, G protein, RGS protein, and three-tiered MAPK signaling cascade that is homologous to those found in humans. This feature has been exploited by biologists to investigate basic mechanisms of signal transduction and desensitization.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Growth in yeast is synchronised with the growth of the bud, which reaches the size of the mature cell by the time it separates from the parent cell. In well nourished, rapidly growing yeast cultures, all the cells have buds, since bud formation occupies the whole cell cycle. Both mother and daughter cells can initiate bud formation before cell separation has occurred. In yeast cultures growing more slowly, cells lacking buds can be seen, and bud formation only occupies a part of the cell cycle.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Cytokinesis enables budding yeast "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" to divide into two daughter cells. "S. cerevisiae" forms a bud which can grow throughout its cell cycle and later leaves its mother cell when mitosis has completed.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. cerevisiae" is relevant to cell cycle studies because it divides asymmetrically by using a polarized cell to make two daughters with different fates and sizes. Similarly, stem cells use asymmetric division for self-renewal and differentiation.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: For many cells, M phase does not happen until S phase is complete. However, for entry into mitosis in "S. cerevisiae" this is not true. Cytokinesis begins with the budding process in late G1 and is not completed until about halfway through the next cycle. The assembly of the spindle can happen before S phase has finished duplicating the chromosomes. Additionally, there is a lack of clearly defined G2 in between M and S. Thus, there is a lack of extensive regulation present in higher eukaryotes.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: When the daughter emerges, the daughter is two-thirds the size of the mother. Throughout the process, the mother displays little to no change in size. The RAM pathway is activated in the daughter cell immediately after cytokinesis is complete. This pathway makes sure that the daughter has separated properly.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Two interdependent events drive cytokinesis in "S. cerevisiae". The first event is contractile actomyosin ring (AMR) constriction and the second event is formation of the primary septum (PS), a chitinous cell wall structure that can only be formed during cytokinesis. The PS resembles in animals the process of extracellular matrix remodeling. When the AMR constricts, the PS begins to grow. Disrupting AMR misorients the PS, suggesting that both have a dependent role. Additionally, disrupting the PS also leads to disruptions in the AMR, suggesting both the actomyosin ring and primary septum have an interdependent relationship.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The AMR, which is attached to the cell membrane facing the cytosol, consists of actin and myosin II molecules that coordinate the cells to split. The ring is thought to play an important role in ingression of the plasma membrane as a contractile force.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Proper coordination and correct positional assembly of the contractile ring depends on septins, which is the precursor to the septum ring. These GTPases assemble complexes with other proteins. The septins form a ring at the site where the bud will be created during late G1. They help promote the formation of the actin-myosin ring, although this mechanism is unknown. It is suggested they help provide structural support for other necessary cytokinesis processes. After a bud emerges, the septin ring forms an hourglass. The septin hourglass and the myosin ring together are the beginning of the future division site.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The septin and AMR complex progress to form the primary septum consisting of glucans and other chitinous molecules sent by vesicles from the Golgi body. After AMR constriction is complete, two secondary septums are formed by glucans. How the AMR ring dissembles remains poorly unknown.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Microtubules do not play as significant a role in cytokinesis compared to the AMR and septum. Disruption of microtubules did not significantly impair polarized growth. Thus, the AMR and septum formation are the major drivers of cytokinesis.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: When researchers look for an organism to use in their studies, they look for several traits. Among these are size, generation time, accessibility, manipulation, genetics, conservation of mechanisms, and potential economic benefit. The yeast species "S. pombe" and "S. cerevisiae" are both well studied; these two species diverged approximately , and are significant tools in the study of DNA damage and repair mechanisms.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. cerevisiae" has developed as a model organism because it scores favorably on a number of these criteria.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: For more than five decades "S. cerevisiae" has been studied as a model organism to better understand aging and has contributed to the identification of more mammalian genes affecting aging than any other model organism. Some of the topics studied using yeast are calorie restriction, as well as in genes and cellular pathways involved in senescence. The two most common methods of measuring aging in yeast are Replicative Life Span (RLS), which measures the number of times a cell divides, and Chronological Life Span (CLS), which measures how long a cell can survive in a non-dividing stasis state. Limiting the amount of glucose or amino acids in the growth medium has been shown to increase RLS and CLS in yeast as well as other organisms. At first, this was thought to increase RLS by up-regulating the sir2 enzyme, however it was later discovered that this effect is independent of sir2. Over-expression of the genes sir2 and fob1 has been shown to increase RLS by preventing the accumulation of extrachromosomal rDNA circles, which are thought to be one of the causes of senescence in yeast. The effects of dietary restriction may be the result of a decreased signaling in the TOR cellular pathway. This pathway modulates the cell's response to nutrients, and mutations that decrease TOR activity were found to increase CLS and RLS. This has also been shown to be the case in other animals. A yeast mutant lacking the genes and Ras2 has recently been shown to have a tenfold increase in chronological lifespan under conditions of calorie restriction and is the largest increase achieved in any organism.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Mother cells give rise to progeny buds by mitotic divisions, but undergo replicative aging over successive generations and ultimately die. However, when a mother cell undergoes meiosis and gametogenesis, lifespan is reset. The replicative potential of gametes (spores) formed by aged cells is the same as gametes formed by young cells, indicating that age-associated damage is removed by meiosis from aged mother cells. This observation suggests that during meiosis removal of age-associated damages leads to rejuvenation. However, the nature of these damages remains to be established.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: During starvation of non-replicating "S. cerevisiae" cells, reactive oxygen species increase leading to the accumulation of DNA damages such as apurinic/apyrimidinic sites and double-strand breaks. Also in non-replicating cells the ability to repair endogenous double-strand breaks declines during chronological aging.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. cerevisiae" reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant. However, when starved, these cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Evidence from studies of "S. cerevisiae" bear on the adaptive function of meiosis and recombination. Mutations defective in genes essential for meiotic and mitotic recombination in "S. cerevisiae" cause increased sensitivity to radiation or DNA damaging chemicals. For instance, gene "rad52" is required for both meiotic recombination and mitotic recombination. "Rad52" mutants have increased sensitivity to killing by X-rays, Methyl methanesulfonate and the DNA cross-linking agent 8-methoxypsoralen-plus-UVA, and show reduced meiotic recombination. These findings suggest that recombination repair during meiosis and mitosis is needed for repair of the different damages caused by these agents.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Ruderfer et al. (2006) analyzed the ancestry of natural "S. cerevisiae" strains and concluded that outcrossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. Thus, it appears that in nature, mating is likely most often between closely related yeast cells. Mating occurs when haploid cells of opposite mating type MATa and MATα come into contact. Ruderfer et al. pointed out that such contacts are frequent between closely related yeast cells for two reasons. The first is that cells of opposite mating type are present together in the same ascus, the sac that contains the cells directly produced by a single meiosis, and these cells can mate with each other. The second reason is that haploid cells of one mating type, upon cell division, often produce cells of the opposite mating type with which they can mate. The relative rarity in nature of meiotic events that result from outcrossing is inconsistent with the idea that production of genetic variation is the main selective force maintaining meiosis in this organism. However, this finding is consistent with the alternative idea that the main selective force maintaining meiosis is enhanced recombinational repair of DNA damage, since this benefit is realized during each meiosis, whether or not out-crossing occurs.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. cerevisiae" was the first eukaryotic genome to be completely sequenced. The genome sequence was released to the public domain on April 24, 1996. Since then, regular updates have been maintained at the "Saccharomyces" Genome Database. This database is a highly annotated and cross-referenced database for yeast researchers. Another important "S. cerevisiae" database is maintained by the Munich Information Center for Protein Sequences (MIPS). The "S. cerevisiae" genome is composed of about 12,156,677 base pairs and 6,275 genes, compactly organized on 16 chromosomes. Only about 5,800 of these genes are believed to be functional. It is estimated at least 31% of yeast genes have homologs in the human genome. Yeast genes are classified using gene symbols (such as Sch9) or systematic names. In the latter case the 16 chromosomes of yeast are represented by the letters A to P, then the gene is further classified by a sequence number on the left or right arm of the chromosome, and a letter showing which of the two DNA strands contains its coding sequence.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The availability of the "S. cerevisiae" genome sequence and a set of deletion mutants covering 90% of the yeast genome has further enhanced the power of "S. cerevisiae" as a model for understanding the regulation of eukaryotic cells. A project underway to analyze the genetic interactions of all double-deletion mutants through synthetic genetic array analysis will take this research one step further. The goal is to form a functional map of the cell's processes.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: From this, 170,000 gene interactions were found and genes with similar interaction patterns were grouped together. Genes with similar genetic interaction profiles tend to be part of the same pathway or biological process. This information was used to construct a global network of gene interactions organized by function. This network can be used to predict the function of uncharacterized genes based on the functions of genes they are grouped with.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Approaches that can be applied in many different fields of biological and medicinal science have been developed by yeast scientists. These include yeast two-hybrid for studying protein interactions and tetrad analysis. Other resources, include a gene deletion library including ~4,700 viable haploid single gene deletion strains. A GFP fusion strain library used to study protein localisation and a TAP tag library used to purify protein from yeast cell extracts.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Stanford University's yeast deletion project created knockout mutations of every gene in the "S. cerevisiae" genome to determine their function.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The yeast genome is highly accessible to manipulation, hence it is an excellent model for genome engineering.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The international Synthetic Yeast Genome Project (Sc2.0 or "Saccharomyces cerevisiae version 2.0") aims to build an entirely designer, customizable, synthetic "S. cerevisiae" genome from scratch that is more stable than the wild type. In the synthetic genome all transposons, repetitive elements and many introns are removed, all UAG stop codons are replaced with UAA, and transfer RNA genes are moved to a novel neochromosome. , 6 of the 16 chromosomes have been synthesized and tested. No significant fitness defects have been found.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: All 16 chromosomes can be fused into one single chromosome by successive end-to-end chromosome fusions and centromere deletions. The single-chromosome and wild-type yeast cells have nearly identical transcriptomes and similar phenotypes. The giant single chromosome can support cell life, although this strain shows reduced growth across environments, competitiveness, gamete production and viability.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Among other microorganisms, a sample of living "S. cerevisiae" was included in the Living Interplanetary Flight Experiment, which would have completed a three-year interplanetary round-trip in a small capsule aboard the Russian Fobos-Grunt spacecraft, launched in late 2011. The goal was to test whether selected organisms could survive a few years in deep space by flying them through interplanetary space. The experiment would have tested one aspect of transpermia, the hypothesis that life could survive space travel, if protected inside rocks blasted by impact off one planet to land on another. Fobos-Grunt's mission ended unsuccessfully, however, when it failed to escape low Earth orbit. The spacecraft along with its instruments fell into the Pacific Ocean in an uncontrolled re-entry on January 15, 2012. The next planned exposure mission in deep space using "S. cerevisiae" is BioSentinel. (see: List of microorganisms tested in outer space)


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is used in brewing beer, when it is sometimes called a top-fermenting or top-cropping yeast. It is so called because during the fermentation process its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO and rise to the top of the fermentation vessel. Top-fermenting yeasts are fermented at higher temperatures than the lager yeast "Saccharomyces pastorianus", and the resulting beers have a different flavor from the same beverage fermented with a lager yeast. "Fruity esters" may be formed if the yeast undergoes temperatures near , or if the fermentation temperature of the beverage fluctuates during the process. Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately , where "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" becomes dormant. A variant yeast known as "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" var. "diastaticus" is a beer spoiler which can cause secondary fermentations in packaged products.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: In May 2013, the Oregon legislature made "S. cerevisiae" the official state microbe in recognition of the impact craft beer brewing has had on the state economy and the state's identity.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. cerevisiae" is used in baking; the carbon dioxide generated by the fermentation is used as a leavening agent in bread and other baked goods. Historically, this use was closely linked to the brewing industry's use of yeast, as bakers took or bought the barm or yeast-filled foam from brewing ale from the brewers (producing the barm cake); today, brewing and baking yeast strains are somewhat different.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is the main source of nutritional yeast, which is sold commercially as a food product. It is popular with vegans and vegetarians as an ingredient in cheese substitutes, or as a general food additive as a source of vitamins and minerals, especially amino acids and B-complex vitamins.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Owing to the high cost of commercial CO cylinder systems, CO injection by yeast is one of the most popular DIY approaches followed by aquaculturists for providing CO to underwater aquatic plants. The yeast culture is, in general, maintained in plastic bottles, and typical systems provide one bubble every 3–7 seconds. Various approaches have been devised to allow proper absorption of the gas into the water.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is used as a probiotic in humans and animals. The strain "Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. boulardii" is industrially manufactured and used clinically as a medication.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Several clinical and experimental studies have shown that "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" is, to lesser or greater extent, useful for prevention or treatment of several gastrointestinal diseases. Moderate quality evidence has shown "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" reduces risk of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea both in adults and in children and to reduce risk of adverse effects of "Helicobacter pylori" eradication therapy. There is some evidence to support efficacy of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" in prevention (but not treatment) of traveler's diarrhoea and, at least as an adjunct medication, in treatment of acute diarrhoea in adults and children and of persistent diarrhoea in children. It may also reduce symptoms of allergic rhinitis.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Administration of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" is considered generally safe. In clinical trials it was well tolerated by patients, and adverse effects rate was similar to that in control groups (i. e. groups with "placebo" or no treatment). No case of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" fungemia has been reported during clinical trials.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: In clinical practice, however, cases of fungemia, caused by "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" are reported. Patients with compromised immunity or those with central vascular catheters are at special risk. Some researchers have recommended avoiding use of "S. cerevisiae var. boulardii" as treatment in such patients. Others suggest only that caution must be exercised with its use in risk group patients.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" is proven to be an opportunistic human pathogen, though of relatively low virulence. Despite widespread use of this microorganism at home and in industry, contact with it very rarely leads to infection.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" was found in the skin, oral cavity, oropharinx, duodenal mucosa, digestive tract, and vagina of healthy humans (one review found it to be reported for 6% of samples from human intestine). Some specialists consider "S. cerevisiae" to be a part of the normal microbiota of the gastrointestinal tract, the respiratory tract, and the vagina of humans, while others believe that the species cannot be called a true commensal because it originates in food. Presence of "S. cerevisiae" in the human digestive system may be rather transient; for example, experiments show that in the case of oral administration to healthy individuals it is eliminated from the intestine within 5 days after the end of administration.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Under certain circumstances, such as degraded immunity, "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" can cause infection in humans. Studies show that it causes 0.45–1.06% of the cases of yeast-induced vaginitis. In some cases, women suffering from "S. cerevisiae"-induced vaginal infection were intimate partners of bakers, and the strain was found to be the same that their partners used for baking. As of 1999, no cases of "S. cerevisiae"-induced vaginitis in women, who worked in bakeries themselves, were reported in scientific literature. Some cases were linked by researchers to the use of the yeast in home baking. Cases of infection of oral cavity and pharynx caused by "S. cerevisiae" are also known.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Occasionally "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" causes invasive infections (i. e. gets into the bloodstream or other normally sterile body fluid or into a deep site tissue, such as lungs, liver or spleen) that can go systemic (involve multiple organs). Such conditions are life-threatening. More than 30% cases of "S. cerevisiae" invasive infections lead to death even if treated. "S. cerevisiae" invasive infections, however, are much rarer than invasive infections caused by "Candida albicans" even in patients weakened by cancer. "S. cerevisiae" causes 1% to 3.6% nosocomial cases of fungemia. A comprehensive review of "S. cerevisiae" invasive infection cases found all patients to have at least one predisposing condition.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" may enter the bloodstream or get to other deep sites of the body by translocation from oral or enteral mucosa or through contamination of intravascular catheters (e. g. central venous catheters). Intravascular catheters, antibiotic therapy and compromised immunity are major predisposing factors for "S. cerevisiae" invasive infection.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: A number of cases of fungemia were caused by intentional ingestion of living "S. cerevisiae" cultures for dietary or therapeutic reasons, including use of "Saccharomyces boulardii" (a strain of "S. cerevisiae" which is used as a probiotic for treatment of certain forms of diarrhea). "Saccharomyces boulardii" causes about 40% cases of invasive "Saccharomyces" infections and is more likely (in comparison to other "S. cerevisiae" strains) to cause invasive infection in humans without general problems with immunity, though such adverse effect is very rare relative to "Saccharomyces boulardii" therapeutic administration.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: "S. boulardii" may contaminate intravascular catheters through hands of medical personnel involved in administering probiotic preparations of "S. boulardii" to patients.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Systemic infection usually occurs in patients who have their immunity compromised due to severe illness (HIV/AIDS, leukemia, other forms of cancer) or certain medical procedures (bone marrow transplantation, abdominal surgery).


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: A case was reported when a nodule was surgically excised from a lung of a man employed in baking business, and examination of the tissue revealed presence of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae". Inhalation of dry baking yeast powder is supposed to be the source of infection in this case.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Not all strains of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" are equally virulent towards humans. Most environmental strains are not capable of growing at temperatures above 35 °C (i. e. at temperatures of living body of humans and other mammalian). Virulent strains, however, are capable of growing at least above 37 °C and often up to 39 °C (rarely up to 42 °C). Some industrial strains are also capable of growing above 37 °C. European Food Safety Authority (as of 2017) requires that all "S. cerevisiae" strains capable of growth above 37 °C that are added to the food or feed chain in viable form must, as to be qualified presumably safe, show no resistance to antimycotic drugs used for treatment of yeast infections.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: The ability to grow at elevated temperatures is an important factor for strain's virulence but not the sole one.


title: Saccharomyces cerevisiae

text: Other traits that are usually believed to be associated with virulence are: ability to produce certain enzymes such as proteinase and phospholipase, invasive growth (i.e. growth with intrusion into the nutrient medium), ability to adhere to mammalian cells, ability to survive in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (that is used by macrophages to kill foreign microorganisms in the body) and other abilities allowing the yeast to resist or influence immune response of the host body. Ability to form branching chains of cells, known as pseudohyphae is also sometimes said to be associated with virulence, though some research suggests that this trait may be common to both virulent and non-virulent strains of "Saccharomyces cerevisiae".


title: Bologna sausage

text: Bologna sausage, informally baloney ( ), is a sausage derived from the Italian mortadella, a similar-looking, finely ground pork sausage, originally from the city of Bologna (). Typical seasonings for bologna include black pepper, nutmeg, allspice, celery seed and coriander, and, like mortadella, myrtle berries give it its distinctive flavor.


title: Bologna sausage

text: Other common names include parizer (Parisian sausage) in Hungary, Romania, and the countries of the former Yugoslavia, polony in Zimbabwe, Zambia, South Africa and Western Australia, devon in most states of Australia, and fritz in South Australia.


title: Bologna sausage

text: Aside from pork, "bologna" can be made out of chicken, turkey, beef, venison, a combination of meats, or soy protein.


title: Bologna sausage

text: U.S. government regulations require American bologna to be finely ground, and without visible pieces of fat.


title: Bologna sausage

text: Lebanon bologna is a Pennsylvania Dutch prepared meat. While called bologna, it is a cured, smoked and fermented semidry beef sausage similar to salami.


title: Bologna sausage

text: In the United Kingdom and Ireland, a "polony" is a finely ground pork-and-beef sausage. The name, likely derived from "Bologna", has been in use since the 17th century. The modern product is usually cooked in a red or orange skin and is served as cold slices.


title: Bologna sausage

text: In New Zealand "polony" is a type of cocktail sausage with pink or red artificially-coloured skin similar to, but much smaller than, a saveloy. Miniature polonies in New Zealand are called "Cheerios" and are eaten boiled.


title: Bologna sausage

text: South African "polony" is similar to bologna in constitution and appearance, and is typically inexpensive. Large-diameter (artificially coloured) pink polonies are called "French polony", with thinner rolls referred to simply as "polony". Garlic polony is also widely available.


title: Bologna sausage

text: In 2018 a South African factory that produced polony and other processed meats was associated with a listeriosis outbreak that killed approximately 180 people and sickened a further thousand.


title: Bologna sausage

text: Rag bologna is a long stick, or "chub", of high-fat bologna native to West Tennessee and its surrounding area. Unavailable beyond it, the sausage is traditionally sold wrapped in a cloth rag. The recipe has a higher content of filler than that of regular bologna. Milk solids, flour, cereal, and spices are added during processing, and the roll of bologna is bathed in lactic acid before being coated in paraffin wax. It is generally eaten on white bread with mustard and pickles, but is also a staple of family gatherings, where thick slices are smoked and barbecued along with other meats. In Newfoundland, a type of rag bologna referred to as "wax" bologna is sliced thickly and fried, which is referred to as "Newfie steak".


title: Bologna sausage

text: Ring bologna is much smaller in diameter than standard bologna. It is better suited for slicing and serving on crackers, either as a snack or "hors d'oeuvre". It is generally sold as an entire link rather than sliced. The link is arranged as a semicircle or "ring" when prepared for sale (hence the name). Pickled bologna is usually made from ring bologna soaked in vinegar and typical pickling spices. It is usually served in chunks as a cold snack.


title: Bologna sausage

text: Various vegetarian and vegan versions of bologna are available. A typical UK recipe uses soya and wheat protein in the place of lean meat and palm oil instead of fat together with starch, carrageenan, and flavorings. It can be eaten cold or cooked in the same ways as traditional bologna.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ivanhoe: A Romance () by Walter Scott is a historical novel published in three volumes, in 1819, as one of the Waverley novels. Set in England in the Middle Ages, this novel marked a shift away from Scott’s prior practice of setting stories in Scotland and in the more recent past. "Ivanhoe" became one of Scott’s best-known and most influential novels.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Set in 12th-century England, with colourful descriptions of a tournament, outlaws, a witch trial, and divisions between Jews and Christians, Normans and Saxons, "Ivanhoe" was credited by many, including Thomas Carlyle and John Ruskin, with inspiring increased interest in chivalric romance and medievalism. As John Henry Newman put it, Scott "had first turned men's minds in the direction of the Middle Ages". "Ivanhoe" was also credited with influencing contemporary popular perceptions of historical figures such as Richard the Lionheart, King John, and Robin Hood.


title: Ivanhoe

text: In June 1819, Walter Scott still suffered from the severe stomach pains that had forced him to dictate the last part of "The Bride of Lammermoor", and also most of "A Legend of the Wars of Montrose", which he finished at the end of May. By the beginning of July, at the latest, Scott had started dictating his new novel "Ivanhoe", again with John Ballantyne and William Laidlaw as amanuenses. For the second half of the manuscript, Scott was able to take up the pen, and completed "Ivanhoe: A Romance" in early November 1819.


title: Ivanhoe

text: For detailed information about the Middle Ages Scott drew on three works by the antiquarian Joseph Strutt: "Horda Angel-cynnan or a Compleat View of the Manners, Customs, Arms, Habits etc. of the Inhabitants of England" (1775–76), "Dress and Habits of the People of England" (1796–99), and "Sports and Pastimes of the People of England" (1801). Two historians gave him a solid grounding in the period: Robert Henry with "The History of Great Britain" (1771–93), and Sharon Turner with "The History of the Anglo-Saxons from the Earliest Period to the Norman Conquest" (1799–1805). His clearest debt to an original medieval source involved the Templar Rule, reproduced in "The Theatre of Honour and Knight-Hood" (1623) translated from the French of André Favine. Scott was happy to introduce details from the later Middle Ages, and Chaucer was particularly helpful, as (in a different way) was the fourteenth-century romance "Richard Coeur de Lion". The figure of Locksley in the story and many elements of the tale are undoubtedly influenced by Scott's association with Joseph Ritson, who had earlier compiled "Robin Hood : a collection of all the ancient poems, songs and ballads now extant relative to that celebrated English outlaw (1795)."


title: Ivanhoe

text: "Ivanhoe" was published by Archibald Constable in Edinburgh. All first editions carry the date of 1820, but it was released on 20 December 1819 and issued in London on the 29th by Hurst, Robinson and Co.. As with all of the Waverley novels before 1827, publication was anonymous. The print run was 10,000 copies, and the cost was £1 10"s" (£1.50, equivalent in purchasing power to £149 in 2021). It is possible that Scott was involved in minor changes to the text during the early 1820s but his main revision was carried out in 1829 for the 'Magnum' edition where the novel appeared in Volumes 16 and 17 in September and October 1830.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The standard modern edition, by Graham Tulloch, appeared as Volume 8 of the Edinburgh Edition of the Waverley Novels in 1998: this is based on the first edition with emendations principally from Scott's manuscript in the second half of the work; the new Magnum material is included in Volume 25b.


title: Ivanhoe

text: "Ivanhoe" is the story of one of the remaining Anglo-Saxon noble families at a time when the nobility in England was overwhelmingly Norman. It follows the Saxon protagonist, Sir Wilfred of Ivanhoe, who is out of favour with his father for Sir Wilfred's allegiance to the Norman king Richard the Lionheart. The story is set in 1194, after the failure of the Third Crusade, when many of the Crusaders were still returning to their homes in Europe. King Richard, who had been captured by Leopold of Austria on his return journey to England, was believed to still be in captivity.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Protagonist Wilfred of Ivanhoe is disinherited by his father Cedric of Rotherwood for supporting the Norman King Richard and for falling in love with the Lady Rowena, a ward of Cedric and descendant of the Saxon Kings of England. Cedric planned to have Rowena marry the powerful Lord Athelstane, a pretender to the Crown of England by his descent from the last Saxon King, Harold Godwinson. Ivanhoe accompanies King Richard on the Third Crusade, where he is said to have played a notable role in the Siege of Acre; and tends to Louis of Thuringia, who suffers from malaria.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The book opens with a scene of Norman knights and prelates seeking the hospitality of Cedric. They are guided there by a pilgrim, known at that time as a palmer. Also returning from the Holy Land that same night, Isaac of York, a Jewish moneylender, seeks refuge at Rotherwood. Following the night's meal, the palmer observes one of the Normans, the Templar Brian de Bois-Guilbert, issue orders to his Saracen soldiers to capture Isaac.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The palmer then assists in Isaac's escape from Rotherwood, with the additional aid of the swineherd Gurth.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Isaac of York offers to repay his debt to the palmer with a suit of armour and a war horse to participate in the tournament at Ashby-de-la-Zouch Castle, on his inference that the palmer was secretly a knight. The palmer is taken by surprise, but accepts the offer.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The tournament is presided over by Prince John. Also in attendance are Cedric, Athelstane, Lady Rowena, Isaac of York, his daughter Rebecca, Robin of Locksley and his men, Prince John's advisor Waldemar Fitzurse, and numerous Norman knights.


title: Ivanhoe

text: On the first day of the tournament, in a bout of individual jousting, a mysterious knight, identifying himself only as "Desdichado" (described in the book as Spanish, taken by the Saxons to mean Disinherited), defeats Bois-Guilbert. The masked knight declines to reveal himself despite Prince John's request, but is nevertheless declared the champion of the day and is permitted to choose the Queen of the Tournament. He bestows this honour upon Lady Rowena.


title: Ivanhoe

text: On the second day, at a melee, Desdichado is the leader of one party, opposed by his former adversaries. Desdichado's side is soon hard-pressed and he himself beset by multiple foes until rescued by a knight nicknamed "Le Noir Faineant" ('the Black Sluggard'), who thereafter departs in secret. When forced to unmask himself to receive his coronet (the sign of championship), Desdichado is identified as Wilfred of Ivanhoe, returned from the Crusades. This causes much consternation to Prince John and his court who now fear the imminent return of King Richard.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ivanhoe is severely wounded in the competition yet his father does not move quickly to tend to him. Instead, Rebecca, a skilled healer, tends to him while they are lodged near the tournament and then convinces her father to take Ivanhoe with them to their home in York when he is fit for that trip. The conclusion of the tournament includes feats of archery by Locksley, such as splitting a willow reed with his arrow. Prince John's dinner for the local Saxons ends in insults.


title: Ivanhoe

text: In the forests between Ashby and York, Isaac, Rebecca and the wounded Ivanhoe are abandoned by their guards, who fear bandits and take all of Isaac's horses. Cedric, Athelstane and the Lady Rowena meet them and agree to travel together. The party is captured by de Bracy and his companions and taken to Torquilstone, the castle of Front-de-Boeuf. The swineherd Gurth and Wamba the jester manage to escape, and then encounter Locksley, who plans a rescue.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The Black Knight, having taken refuge for the night in the hut of local friar, the Holy Clerk of Copmanhurst, volunteers his assistance on learning about the captives from Robin of Locksley. They then besiege the Castle of Torquilstone with Robin's own men, including the friar and assorted Saxon yeomen. Inside Torquilstone, de Bracy expresses his love for the Lady Rowena but is refused. Brian de Bois-Guilbert tries to seduce Rebecca and is rebuffed. Front-de-Boeuf tries to wring a hefty ransom from Isaac of York, but Isaac refuses to pay unless his daughter is freed.


title: Ivanhoe

text: When the besiegers deliver a note to yield up the captives, their Norman captors demand a priest to administer the Final Sacrament to Cedric; whereupon Cedric's jester Wamba slips in disguised as a priest, and takes the place of Cedric, who escapes and brings important information to the besiegers on the strength of the garrison and its layout. The besiegers storm the castle. The castle is set aflame during the assault by Ulrica, the daughter of the original lord of the castle, Lord Torquilstone, as revenge for her father's death. Front-de-Boeuf is killed in the fire while de Bracy surrenders to the Black Knight, who identifies himself as King Richard and releases de Bracy. Bois-Guilbert escapes with Rebecca while Isaac is captured by the Clerk of Copmanhurst. The Lady Rowena is saved by Cedric, while the still-wounded Ivanhoe is rescued from the burning castle by King Richard. In the fighting, Athelstane is wounded and presumed dead while attempting to rescue Rebecca, whom he mistakes for Rowena.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Following the battle, Locksley plays host to King Richard. Word is conveyed by de Bracy to Prince John of the King's return and the fall of Torquilstone. In the meantime, Bois-Guilbert rushes with his captive to the nearest Templar Preceptory, where Lucas de Beaumanoir, the Grand Master of the Templars, takes umbrage at Bois-Guilbert's infatuation and subjects Rebecca to a trial for witchcraft. At Bois-Guilbert's secret request, she claims the right to trial by combat; and Bois-Guilbert, who had hoped for the position, is devastated when the Grand-Master orders him to fight against Rebecca's champion. Rebecca then writes to her father to procure a champion for her. Cedric organises Athelstane's funeral at Coningsburgh, in the midst of which the Black Knight arrives with a companion. Cedric, who had not been present at Locksley's carousal, is ill-disposed towards the knight upon learning his true identity; but Richard calms Cedric and reconciles him with his son. During this conversation, Athelstane emerges – not dead, but laid in his coffin alive by monks desirous of the funeral money. Over Cedric's renewed protests, Athelstane pledges his homage to the Norman King Richard and urges Cedric to marry Rowena to Ivanhoe, to which Cedric finally agrees.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Soon after this reconciliation, Ivanhoe receives word from Isaac beseeching him to fight on Rebecca's behalf. Ivanhoe, riding day and night, arrives in time for the trial by combat; however, both horse and man are exhausted, with little chance of victory. The two knights make one charge at each other with lances, Bois-Guilbert appearing to have the advantage. Bois-Gilbert and Ivanhoe are unhorsed by each other’s lances in the first joust. Ivanhoe rises quickly to finish the fight by sword; however, Bois-Guilbert, a man trying to have it all without offering to marry Rebecca, dies from emotional turmoil and rises not.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ivanhoe and Rowena marry and live a long and happy life together. Fearing further persecution, Rebecca and her father plan to quit England for Granada. Before leaving, Rebecca comes to Rowena shortly after the wedding to bid her a solemn farewell. Ivanhoe's military service ends with the death of King Richard five years later.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Dedicatory Epistle: An imaginary letter to the Rev. Dr Dryasdust from Laurence Templeton who has found the materials for the following tale mostly in the Anglo-Norman Wardour Manuscript. He wishes to provide an English counterpart to the preceding Waverley novels, in spite of various difficulties arising from the chronologically remote setting made necessary by the earlier progress of civilisation south of the Border.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 2: Wamba and Gurth wilfully misdirect a group of horsemen headed by Prior Aymer and Brian de Bois-Guilbert seeking shelter at Cedric's Rotherwood. Aymer and Bois-Guilbert discuss the beauty of Cedric's ward Rowena and are redirected, this time correctly, by a palmer [Ivanhoe in disguise].


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 5: During the feast: Isaac enters and is befriended by the palmer; Cedric laments the decay of the Saxon language; the palmer refutes Bois-Guilbert's assertion of Templar supremacy with an account of a tournament in Palestine, where Ivanhoe defeated him; the palmer and Rowena give a pledge for a return match; and Isaac is thunderstruck by Bois-Guilbert's denial of his assertion of poverty.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 6: Next day the palmer tells Rowena that Ivanhoe will soon be home. He offers to protect Isaac from Bois-Guilbert, whom he has overheard giving instructions for his capture. On the road to Sheffield Isaac mentions a source of horse and armour of which he guesses the palmer has need.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 7: As the audience for a tournament at Ashby assembles, Prince John amuses himself by making fun of Athelstane and Isaac.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 8: After a series of Saxon defeats in the tournament the 'Disinherited Knight' [Ivanhoe] triumphs over Bois-Guilbert and the other Norman challengers.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 10: The Disinherited Knight refuses to ransom Bois-Guilbert's armour, declaring that their business is not concluded. He instructs his attendant, Gurth in disguise, to convey money to Isaac to repay him for arranging the provision of his horse and armour. Gurth does so, but Rebecca secretly refunds the money.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 11: Gurth is assailed by a band of outlaws, but they spare him on hearing his story and after he has defeated one of their number, a miller, at quarter-staves.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 12: The Disinherited Knight's party triumph at the tournament, with the aid of a knight in black [Richard in disguise]; he is revealed as Ivanhoe and faints as a result of the wounds he has incurred.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 13: John encourages De Bracy to court Rowena and receives a warning from France that Richard has escaped. Locksley [Robin Hood] triumphs in an archery contest.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 14: At the tournament banquet Cedric continues to disown his son (who has been associating with the Normans) but drinks to the health of Richard, rather than John, as the noblest of that race.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 1 (15): De Bracy (disguised as a forester) tells Fitzurse of his plan to capture Rowena and then 'rescue' her in his own person.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 4 (18): (Retrospect: Before going to the banquet Cedric learned that Ivanhoe had been removed by unknown carers; Gurth was recognised and captured by Cedric's cupbearer Oswald.) Cedric finds Athelstane unresponsive to his attempts to interest him in Rowena, who is herself only attracted by Ivanhoe.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 5 (19): Rowena persuades Cedric to escort Isaac and Rebecca, who have been abandoned (along with a sick man [Ivanhoe] in their care) by their hired protectors. Wamba helps Gurth to escape again. De Bracy mounts his attack, during which Wamba escapes. He meets up with Gurth and they encounter Locksley who, after investigation, advises against a counter-attack, the captives not being in immediate danger.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 6 (20): Locksley sends two of his men to watch De Bracy. At Copmanhurst he meets the Black Knight who agrees to join in the rescue.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 7 (21): De Bracy tells Bois-Guilbert he has decided to abandon his 'rescue' plan, mistrusting his companion though the Templar says it is Rebecca he is interested in. On arrival at Torquilstone castle Cedric laments its decline.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 8 (22): Under threat of torture Isaac agrees to pay Front-de-Bœuf a thousand pounds, but only if Rebecca is released.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 9 (23): De Bracy uses Ivanhoe's danger from Front-de-Bœuf to put pressure on Rowena, but he is moved by her resulting distress. The narrator refers the reader to historical instances of baronial oppression in medieval England.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 10 (24): A hag Urfried [Ulrica] warns Rebecca of her forthcoming fate. Rebecca impresses Bois-Guilbert by her spirited resistance to his advances.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 11 (25): Front-de-Bœuf rejects a written challenge from Gurth and Wamba. Wamba offers to spy out the castle posing as a confessor.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 12 (26): Entering the castle, Wamba exchanges clothes with Cedric who encounters Rebecca and Urfried.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 13 (27): Urfried recognises Cedric as a Saxon and, revealing herself as Ulrica, tells her story which involves Front-de-Bœuf murdering his father, who had killed her father and seven brothers when taking the castle, and had become her detested lover. She says she will give a signal when the time is ripe for storming the castle. Front-de-Bœuf sends the presumed friar with a message to summon reinforcements. Athelstane defies him, claiming that Rowena is his fiancée. The monk Ambrose arrives seeking help for Aymer who has been captured by Locksley's men.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 14 (28): (Retrospective chapter detailing Rebecca's care for Ivanhoe from the tournament to the assault on Torquilstone.)


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 15 (29): Rebecca describes the assault on Torquilstone to the wounded Ivanhoe, disagreeing with his exalted view of chivalry.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 16 (30): Front-de-Bœuf being mortally wounded, Bois-Guilbert and De Bracy discuss how best to repel the besiegers. Ulrica sets fire to the castle and exults over Front-de-Bœuf who perishes in the flames.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 1 (31): (The chapter opens with a retrospective account of the attackers' plans and the taking of the barbican.) The Black Knight defeats De Bracy, making himself known to him as Richard, and rescues Ivanhoe. Bois-Guilbert rescues Rebecca, striking down Athelstane who thinks she is Rowena. Ulrica perishes in the flames after singing a wild pagan hymn.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 2 (32): Locksley supervises the orderly division of the spoil. Friar Tuck brings Isaac whom he has made captive, and engages in good-natured buffeting with the Black Knight.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 4 (34): De Bracy informs John that Richard is in England. Together with Fitzurse he threatens to desert John, but the prince responds cunningly.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 5 (35): At York, Nathan is horrified by Isaac's determination to seek Rebecca at Templestowe. At the priory the Grand-Master Beaumanoir tells Conrade Mountfitchet that he intends to take a hard line with Templar irregularities. Arriving, Isaac shows him a letter from Aymer to Bois-Guilbert referring to Rebecca whom Beaumanoir regards as a witch.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 6 (36): Beaumanoir tells Preceptor Albert Malvoisin of his outrage at Rebecca's presence in the preceptory. Albert insists to Bois-Guilbert that her trial for sorcery must proceed. Mountfichet says he will seek evidence against her.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 7 (37): Rebecca is tried and found guilty. At Bois-Guilbert's secret prompting she demands that a champion defend her in trial by combat.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 8 (38): Rebecca's demand is accepted, Bois-Guilbert being appointed champion for the prosecution. Bearing a message to her father, the peasant Higg meets him and Nathan on their way to the preceptory, and Isaac goes in search of Ivanhoe.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 9 (39): Rebecca rejects Bois-Guilbert's offer to fail to appear for the combat in return for her love. Albert persuades him that it is in his interest to appear.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 10 (40): The Black Knight leaves Ivanhoe to travel to Coningsburgh castle for Athelstane's funeral, and Ivanhoe follows him the next day. The Black Knight is rescued by Locksley from an attack carried out by Fitzurse on John's orders, and reveals his identity as Richard to his companions, prompting Locksley to identify himself as Robin Hood.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 11 (41): Richard talks to Ivanhoe and dines with the outlaws before Robin arranges a false alarm to put an end to the delay. The party arrive at Coningsburgh.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 12 (42): Richard procures Ivanhoe's pardon from his father. Athelstane appears, not dead, giving his allegiance to Richard and surrendering Rowena to Ivanhoe.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 13 (43): Ivanhoe appears as Rebecca's champion, and as they charge Bois-Guilbert dies the victim of his contending passions.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ch. 14 (44): Beaumanoir and his Templars leave Richard defiantly. Cedric agrees to the marriage of Ivanhoe and Rowena. Rebecca takes her leave of Rowena before her father and she quit England to make a new life under the tolerant King of Granada.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Critics of the novel have treated it as a romance intended mainly to entertain boys. "Ivanhoe" maintains many of the elements of the Romance genre, including the quest, a chivalric setting, and the overthrowing of a corrupt social order to bring on a time of happiness. Other critics assert that the novel creates a realistic and vibrant story, idealising neither the past nor its main character.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Scott treats themes similar to those of some of his earlier novels, like "Rob Roy" and "The Heart of Midlothian", examining the conflict between heroic ideals and modern society. In the latter novels, industrial society becomes the centre of this conflict as the backward Scottish nationalists and the "advanced" English have to arise from chaos to create unity. Similarly, the Normans in "Ivanhoe", who represent a more sophisticated culture, and the Saxons, who are poor, disenfranchised, and resentful of Norman rule, band together and begin to mould themselves into one people. The conflict between the Saxons and Normans focuses on the losses both groups must experience before they can be reconciled and thus forge a united England. The particular loss is in the extremes of their own cultural values, which must be disavowed in order for the society to function. For the Saxons, this value is the final admission of the hopelessness of the Saxon cause. The Normans must learn to overcome the materialism and violence in their own codes of chivalry. Ivanhoe and Richard represent the hope of reconciliation for a unified future.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Ivanhoe, though of a more noble lineage than some of the other characters, represents a middling individual in the medieval class system who is not exceptionally outstanding in his abilities, as is expected of other quasi-historical fictional characters, such as the Greek heroes. Critic György Lukács points to middling main characters like Ivanhoe in Walter Scott's other novels as one of the primary reasons Scott's historical novels depart from previous historical works, and better explore social and cultural history.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The location of the novel is centred upon southern Yorkshire, north-west Leicestershire and northern Nottinghamshire in England. Castles mentioned within the story include Ashby de la Zouch Castle (now a ruin in the care of English Heritage), York (though the mention of Clifford's Tower, likewise an extant English Heritage property, is anachronistic, it not having been called that until later after various rebuilds) and 'Coningsburgh', which is based upon Conisbrough Castle, in the ancient town of Conisbrough near Doncaster (the castle also being a popular English Heritage site). Reference is made within the story to York Minster, where the climactic wedding takes place, and to the Bishop of Sheffield, although the Diocese of Sheffield did not exist at either the time of the novel or the time Scott wrote the novel and was not founded until 1914. Such references suggest that Robin Hood lived or travelled in the region.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Conisbrough is so dedicated to the story of "Ivanhoe" that many of its streets, schools, and public buildings are named after characters from the book.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Sir Walter Scott took the title of his novel, the name of its hero, from the Buckinghamshire village of Ivinghoe.


title: Ivanhoe

text: "The name of Ivanhoe," he says in his 1830 Introduction to the Magnum edition, "was suggested by an old rhyme.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Older rural people in the Ivinghoe area most probably pronounced the name the same as Ivanhoe, according to Prof. Paul Kerswill of the University of York, a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA).


title: Ivanhoe

text: It is most probable Scott had direct knowledge of Ivinghoe and did some research before using it as the title for his novel, as he did for the other places mentioned in the novel.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The presence of Sir Walter Scott was recorded in Berkhamsted that is just 8 miles away from Ivinghoe.


title: Ivanhoe

text: In the novel he speaks also of "the rich fief of Ivanhoe". The Manor of Ivanhoe is listed in the largest 20% of settlements recorded in Domesday.


title: Ivanhoe

text: "Locksley" becomes Robin Hood's title in the Scott novel, and it has been used ever since to refer to the legendary outlaw. Scott appears to have taken the name from an anonymous manuscript – written in 1600 – that employs "Locksley" as an epithet for Robin Hood. Owing to Scott's decision to make use of the manuscript, Robin Hood from Locksley has been transformed for all time into "Robin of Locksley", alias Robin Hood. (There is, incidentally, a village called Loxley in Yorkshire.)


title: Ivanhoe

text: Scott makes the 12th-century's Saxon-Norman conflict a major theme in his novel. The original medieval stories about Robin Hood did not mention any conflict between Saxons and Normans; it was Scott who introduced this theme into the legend. The characters in "Ivanhoe" refer to Prince John and King Richard I as "Normans"; contemporary medieval documents from this period do not refer to either of these two rulers as Normans. Recent re-tellings of the story retain Scott's emphasis on the Norman-Saxon conflict.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Scott also shunned the late 16th-century depiction of Robin as a dispossessed nobleman (the Earl of Huntingdon).


title: Ivanhoe

text: This, however, has not prevented Scott from making an important contribution to the noble-hero strand of the legend, too, because some subsequent motion picture treatments of Robin Hood's adventures give Robin traits that are characteristic of Ivanhoe as well. The most notable Robin Hood films are the lavish Douglas Fairbanks 1922 silent film, the 1938 triple Academy Award-winning "Adventures of Robin Hood" with Errol Flynn as Robin (which contemporary reviewer Frank Nugent links specifically with "Ivanhoe"), and the 1991 box-office success "" with Kevin Costner. There is also the Mel Brooks spoof "".


title: Ivanhoe

text: In most versions of Robin Hood, both Ivanhoe and Robin, for instance, are returning Crusaders. They have quarrelled with their respective fathers, they are proud to be Saxons, they display a highly evolved sense of justice, they support the rightful king even though he is of Norman-French ancestry, they are adept with weapons, and they each fall in love with a "fair maid" (Rowena and Marian, respectively).


title: Ivanhoe

text: This particular time-frame was popularised by Scott. He borrowed it from the writings of the 16th-century chronicler John Mair or a 17th-century ballad presumably to make the plot of his novel more gripping. Medieval balladeers had generally placed Robin about two centuries later in the reign of Edward I, II or III.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Robin's familiar feat of splitting his competitor's arrow in an archery contest appears for the first time in "Ivanhoe".


title: Ivanhoe

text: The general political events depicted in the novel are relatively accurate; the novel tells of the period just after King Richard's imprisonment in Austria following the Crusade and of his return to England after a ransom is paid. Yet the story is also heavily fictionalised. Scott himself acknowledged that he had taken liberties with history in his "Dedicatory Epistle" to "Ivanhoe". Modern readers are cautioned to understand that Scott's aim was to create a compelling novel set in a historical period, not to provide a book of history.


title: Ivanhoe

text: There has been criticism of Scott's portrayal of the bitter extent of the "enmity of Saxon and Norman, represented as persisting in the days of Richard" as "unsupported by the evidence of contemporary records that forms the basis of the story." Historian E. A. Freeman criticised Scott's novel, stating its depiction of a Saxon–Norman conflict in late twelfth-century England was unhistorical. Freeman cited medieval writer Walter Map, who claimed that tension between the Saxons and Normans had declined by the reign of Henry I. Freeman also cited the late twelfth-century book "Dialogus de Scaccario" by Richard FitzNeal. This book claimed that the Saxons and Normans had so merged through intermarriage and cultural assimilation that (outside the aristocracy) it was impossible to tell "one from the other." Finally, Freeman ended his critique of Scott by saying that by the end of the twelfth century, the descendants of both Saxons and Normans in England referred to themselves as "English", not "Saxon" or "Norman".


title: Ivanhoe

text: However, Scott may have intended to suggest parallels between the Norman conquest of England, about 130 years previously, and the prevailing situation in Scott's native Scotland (Scotland's union with England in 1707 – about the same length of time had elapsed before Scott's writing and the resurgence in his time of Scottish nationalism evidenced by the emergence of Robert Burns, the famous poet who deliberately chose to work in Scots vernacular though he was an educated man and spoke modern English eloquently). Indeed, some experts suggest that Scott deliberately used "Ivanhoe" to illustrate his own combination of Scottish patriotism and pro-British Unionism.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The novel generated a new name in English – Cedric. The original Saxon name had been "Cerdic" but Scott misspelled it – an example of metathesis. "It is not a name but a misspelling" said satirist H. H. Munro.


title: Ivanhoe

text: In England in 1194, it would have been unlikely for Rebecca to face the threat of being burned at the stake on charges of witchcraft. It is thought that it was shortly afterwards, from the 1250s, that the Church began to undertake the finding and punishment of witches and death did not become the usual penalty until the 15th century. Even then, the form of execution used for witches in England was hanging, burning being reserved for those also convicted of treason. There are various minor errors, e.g. the description of the tournament at Ashby owes more to the 14th century, most of the coins mentioned by Scott are exotic, William Rufus is said to have been John Lackland's grandfather, but he was actually his great-great-uncle, and Wamba (disguised as a monk) says "I am a poor brother of the Order of St Francis", but St. Francis of Assisi only began his preaching ten years after the death of Richard I.


title: Ivanhoe

text: "For a writer whose early novels were prized for their historical accuracy, Scott was remarkably loose with the facts when he wrote "Ivanhoe"... But it is crucial to remember that "Ivanhoe", unlike the Waverley books, is entirely a romance. It is meant to please, not to instruct, and is more an act of imagination than one of research. Despite this fancifulness, however, "Ivanhoe" does make some prescient historical points. The novel is occasionally quite critical of King Richard, who seems to love adventure more than he loves the well-being of his subjects. This criticism did not match the typical idealised, romantic view of Richard the Lion-Hearted that was popular when Scott wrote the book, and yet it accurately echoes the way King Richard is often judged by historians today."


title: Ivanhoe

text: As usual, Scott's descriptive powers and his ability to present the matters of the past were generally praised. More than one reviewer found the work notably poetic. Several of them found themselves transported imaginatively to the remote period of the novel, although some problems were recognised: the combining of features from the high and late Middle Ages; an awkwardly created language for the dialogue; and antiquarian overload. The author's excursion into England was generally judged a success, the forest outlaws and the creation of 'merry England' attracting particular praise. Rebecca was almost unanimously admired, especially in her farewell scene. The plot was either criticised for its weakness, or just regarded as of less importance than the scenes and characters. The scenes at Torquilstone were judged horrible by several critics, with special focus on Ulrica. Athelstane's resurrection found no favour, the kindest response being that of Francis Jeffrey in "The Edinburgh Review" who suggested (writing anonymously, like all the reviewers) that it was 'introduced out of the very wantonness of merriment'.


title: Ivanhoe

text: Letitia Elizabeth Landon, who was a devotee of Scott's, wrote a poetical illustration to a picture of by Thomas Allom in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1838.


title: Ivanhoe

text: The Eglinton Tournament of 1839 held by the 13th Earl of Eglinton at Eglinton Castle in Ayrshire was inspired by and modelled on "Ivanhoe".


title: Ivanhoe

text: Victor Sieg's dramatic cantata "Ivanhoé" won the Prix de Rome in 1864 and premiered in Paris the same year. "Ivanhoe" was the grand opera by Arthur Sullivan and Julian Sturgis (Sturgis was recommended by Sullivan's oft-time partner W.S. Gilbert). It debuted in 1891, and ran for 155 consecutive performances. Other operas based on the novel have been composed by Gioachino Rossini ("Ivanhoé"), Thomas Sari ("Ivanhoé"), Bartolomeo Pisani ("Rebecca"), A. Castagnier ("Rébecca"), Otto Nicolai ("Il Templario"), and Heinrich Marschner ("Der Templer und die Jüdin"). Rossini's opera is a "pasticcio" (an opera in which the music for a new text is chosen from pre-existent music by one or more composers). Scott attended a performance of it and recorded in his journal, "It was an opera, and, of course, the story sadly mangled and the dialogue, in part nonsense."


title: Ivanhoe

text: The railway running through Ashby-de-la-Zouch was known as the Ivanhoe line between 1993 and 2005, in reference to the book's setting in the locality.


title: Ivanhoe

text: A portion of the Silver Lake neighborhood in Los Angeles was originally known as Ivanhoe, named by Hugo Reid, a Scottish immigrant for whom the rolling hills of the area reminded him of his home in Scotland. The upper reservoir is still named "Ivanhoe" while many of the streets in the area reference Scott's other works and characters such as Herkimer, Rowena, Kenilworth, Ben Lomond, Hawick, and St. George.


title: All Tomorrows

text: All Tomorrows: A Billion Year Chronicle of the Myriad Species and Mixed Fortunes of Man is a 2006 work of science fiction and speculative evolution written and illustrated by the Turkish artist C. M. Kosemen under the pen name Nemo Ramjet. It explores a hypothetical future path of human evolution set from the near future to a billion years from the present. Several future human species evolve through natural means and through genetic engineering, conducted by both humans themselves and by a mysterious and superior alien species called the Qu.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Inspired by the science fiction works of Olaf Stapledon and Edward Gibbon's "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", Kosemen worked on "All Tomorrows" from 2003 to the publication of the book as a free PDF file online in 2006. The book has never been physically published, but as per Kosemen himself "had a life of its own" on the internet. Kosemen intends to eventually publish "All Tomorrows" in physical form, with new text and updated illustrations.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Following the colonization of Mars, a brief but catastrophic Interplanetary War takes place between Mars and Earth. After both planets make peace with each other, a large-scale colonization initiative is carried out by genetically-engineered humans called Star People throughout the galaxy.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Humans then encounter a malevolent and superior alien species called the Qu. The Qu's religion motivates them to remake the universe through genetic engineering. A short war follows in which humanity is defeated. The Qu bioengineer the surviving humans as punishment into a range of exotic forms, many of them unintelligent. They are left to evolve on their own as the Qu leave the galaxy. The bioengineered humans range from worm-like humans to insectivores and modular and cell-based species. The book follows the progress of these new humans as they either go extinct or regain sapience in wildly different forms and gradually discover that the Qu experimented on them.


title: All Tomorrows

text: One race, known as the Ruin Haunters, eventually replaces their bodies with mechanical forms, now to be known as the Gravitals. The Gravitals colonize the rest of the galaxy while annihilating most life within it, including the other post-human species. They are, themselves, destroyed by the Asteromorphs, the descendants of the human species who escaped experimentation by the Qu. The final chapters of the book detail humanity's rebound as a posthuman species, their first contact with another galaxy's life, rediscovering and defeating the Qu, and concluding with the rediscovery of Earth.


title: All Tomorrows

text: "All Tomorrows" ends with a picture of the alien author of the book, holding a billion-year-old human skull and writing that all human species disappeared a billion years ago, for unknown reasons. The author goes on to state that mankind's story was always about the lives of humans themselves, not major wars and abstract ideals. The author ends by encouraging the reader to "Love Today, and seize All Tomorrows!"


title: All Tomorrows

text: Kosemen worked on "All Tomorrows" from 2003 to 2006. The work of Olaf Stapledon, particularly "Last and First Men" (1930) and "Star Maker" (1937), served as the main inspiration for the work, alongside Edward Gibbon's "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire".


title: All Tomorrows

text: "All Tomorrows" is written in the style of an historical work, narrated by an alien creature recounting the history of humanity. According to Kosemen, the "tone of voice is a high school student fanboying on the "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" by Edward Gibbon". The artwork is also reflective of this "archaeological" approach, with faded and textured visual effects applied to the paintings. The original reason for adding the faded tint to the paintings was Kosemen wanting to avoid the paintings looking like "horrible racist caricatures".


title: All Tomorrows

text: "All Tomorrows" has never been physically published. It was released for free online as a PDF on 4 October 2006 and has since then, per Kosemen himself, "had a life of its own as a PDF floating around the backwaters of the internet like a ghost ship". One of the common links which "All Tomorrows" has been shared through is a wiki site dedicated to speedrunning.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Originally an obscure work, "All Tomorrows" slowly gained popularity online following its 2006 publication. In a 2021 podcast interview, Kosemen noted that the generation born right after him (Kosemen having been born in 1984) "really embraced" "All Tomorrows", which he believes might partially be due to the "myriad disasters" that have happened in the world since then. The book has received some scholarly attention; in 2020, "All Tomorrows" was among the works discussed in Jörg Matthias Determann's book "Islam, Science Fiction and Extraterrestrial Life", which explores astrobiology and science fiction in the Muslim world. Following the upload of an abridged version of the book's story by YouTuber "Alt Shift X" in June 2021 "All Tomorrows" saw a particular surge in popularity online during the summer of 2021. Among other things, there was a surge of internet memes based on the book, primarily on YouTube and Twitter as well as fan art based on the creatures in the book.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Readers have characterized "All Tomorrows" as "bizarre", "inexplicable", "interesting" and "fascinating", and as a work incorporating body horror. Ivan Farkas of Cracked.com called "All Tomorrows" "existentially freak-ay" in 2021 and described the artwork as "otherwordly". A 2022 article by Andrea Viscusi on the Italian media website "Stay Nerd" compared "All Tomorrows" to "Man After Man" (1990) by Dougal Dixon, also a work tackling future human evolution, but found the depictions in "All Tomorrows" to be "even more disturbing", yet still possible on an "almost subliminal level" to "recognize as our fellow men". In a 2022 article in the lifestyle magazine "A Little Bit Human", Allia Luzong considered "All Tomorrows" to be a "fun exploration of what could be" but also a serious work with serious themes, particularly noting how humanity's social ills are present throughout the narrative.


title: All Tomorrows

text: Kosemen stated in 2021 that though the book had grown popular, he had almost "disowned" "All Tomorrows", finding parts of it "a bit cringey". When designing his website and including his different books and projects, Kosemen purposefully left out "All Tomorrows". Following the summer of 2021, he has since added the book to his website and intends to eventually publish "All Tomorrows" in physical form with new text and illustrations. By 16 October 2022, Kosemen had written the expanded version up until the Qu's conquest of the galaxy. Kosemen stated that the material up until that point amounted to 200 pages, almost twice the length of the entire original book.


title: Nicole Kidman on screen and stage

text: Throughout her career spanning over nearly four decades, American-born Australian actress and producer Nicole Kidman has appeared in numerous film and television projects, as well as in theatre productions. She made her film debut in the Australian drama "Bush Christmas" in 1983. Four years later, she starred in the television miniseries "Bangkok Hilton", for which she received the AACTA Award for Best Lead Actress in a Television Drama. Her breakthrough role was as a married woman trapped on a yacht with a murderer in the 1989 thriller "Dead Calm". She followed this with her Hollywood debut opposite Tom Cruise in Tony Scott's auto-racing film "Days of Thunder" (1990). Her role as a homicidal weather forecaster in Gus Van Sant's crime comedy-drama "To Die For" garnered Kidman a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Motion Picture Comedy or Musical in 1996. She worked with Cruise again on Stanley Kubrick's erotic thriller "Eyes Wide Shut" in 1999.


title: Nicole Kidman on screen and stage

text: Kidman played a courtesan in Baz Luhrmann's 2001 musical "Moulin Rouge!", for which she received her second Golden Globe Award and her first nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. That same year, she appeared in the horror-thriller "The Others", which garnered her a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best Actress. For her portrayal of writer Virginia Woolf in the drama "The Hours" (2002), she received the Academy Award for Best Actress, becoming the first Australian to win that award. Following her Oscar win, she starred in Lars von Trier's "Dogville", the drama "The Human Stain", and the epic war drama "Cold Mountain". The following year, she appeared in the sci-fi comedy film "The Stepford Wives" (2004), and the drama "Birth" (2004). Four years later, she reunited with Luhrmann on the historical drama "Australia". In 2010, she starred in the drama "Rabbit Hole", for which she received her third Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.


title: Nicole Kidman on screen and stage

text: In 2012, Kidman played novelist Martha Gellhorn in the HBO biopic "Hemingway & Gellhorn" (2012), for which she received her first Primetime Emmy Award nomination. She then portrayed actress-turned-princess Grace Kelly in the biopic "Grace of Monaco" (2014) and starred as an evil taxidermist in the comedy "Paddington" (2014). For her performance in the biographical drama "Lion" (2016), she received her fourth Academy Award nomination, her first in the Best Supporting Actress category. For producing and starring in the HBO drama series "Big Little Lies" (2017–2019), she won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Limited Series or Movie and a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series.


title: Harry Styles discography

text: As a solo artist, English singer-songwriter Harry Styles has released three studio albums, one extended play (EP), one video album, twelve singles, ten music videos, and one promotional single. Styles's music career began in 2010 as a member of the boy band One Direction. Following the group's indefinite hiatus in 2016, he signed a recording contract with Columbia Records as a solo artist the same year. In April 2017, Styles released his debut single "Sign of the Times". It reached number one on the UK Singles Chart and number four on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, while also topping the singles chart in Australia; it was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and quadruple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA).


title: Harry Styles discography

text: The following month, Styles released his eponymous debut studio album, which included "Sign of the Times". The album reached number one in Australia, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and the United States, where it was certified platinum. With over a million copies sold globally, it became one of the best-selling albums of 2017. The other singles from the album were "Two Ghosts" and "Kiwi". In 2018, during Harry Styles: Live on Tour, Styles played two unreleased songs: "Medicine" and "Anna."


title: Harry Styles discography

text: In 2019, Styles's second studio album, "Fine Line", was preceded by the release of two singles, "Lights Up" and "Adore You", both of which became top-ten hits on several singles charts, including Australia and the United Kingdom. "Fine Line", released in December of that year, debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, recording the highest first-week sales by a British male act in the United States. Styles became the first British male artist to have his first two albums debut atop the "Billboard" 200. "Fine Line" was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) and double platinum by the RIAA. The album spawned four more singles: "Falling", "Watermelon Sugar", "Golden", and "Treat People with Kindness". Its fourth single, "Watermelon Sugar", topped the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming Styles's first number one in the United States, and earned multiple multi-platinum certifications, including five times platinum status in Canada.


title: Harry Styles discography

text: Styles released his third album, "Harry's House", on 20 May 2022. The album has two singles, "As It Was" and "Late Night Talking". "As It Was" topped the "Billboard" Hot 100 for 15 non-consecutive weeks, while "Late Night Talking" reached the top 3 in both the UK and US.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: A strap-on dildo (also strap-on) is a dildo designed to be worn, usually with a harness, during sexual activity. Harnesses and dildos are made in a wide variety of styles, with variations in how the harness fits the wearer, how the dildo attaches to the harness, as well as various features intended to facilitate stimulation of the wearer or a sexual partner. Strap-on dildos are most frequently used by lesbian women (or women who have sex with women), but can be used by people of any gender or sexuality.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: A strap-on dildo can be used for a wide variety of sexual activities, including vaginal sex, anal sex, pegging, oral sex, or solo or mutual masturbation. Sexual lubricant can be used to ease insertion.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Many types of equipment are available, with different features and drawbacks, for a strap-on dildo set up. Often the strap-on dildo will be used with a harness, but some do not need a harness or are built onto one; for these, please see the sections on dildo types and attachment methods.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: The first part of a strap-on setup is the harness, which connects the dildo to the wearer's body, usually in a position similar to that of a male's genitals. A good harness should be sturdy yet comfortable, and is often designed to provide stimulation for the wearer.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: A two-strap harness, in its most basic form, is similar to a g-string. One strap goes around the wearer's waist, like a belt, while the other goes between the wearer's legs and connects to the other strap in the middle at the lower back. While these are simple, many people find them uncomfortable because the strap rubs against the anus and other areas, and they sometimes do not hold the dildo very firmly, causing it to sag, flop, twist, or squeak.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Three-strap harnesses have one strap around the wearer's waist, but instead of one strap between the legs, they have two straps, one around each thigh, rejoining the first strap near the front. This design leaves the genitals and anus uncovered, and attaches the dildo more firmly, giving the wearer more control. Not all people find this design comfortable, and sometimes they are difficult to fit properly, and tend to slip.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Leather is comfortable and adjusts to the wearer's body, but still is strong. Leather is harder to clean and requires more work to maintain than other materials.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Cloth is used mostly for clothing harnesses such as corsets and other lingerie, although is occasionally used by extremely inexpensive harnesses.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Some harnesses are made with soft plastic, such as flexible vinyl. These are often available in colors besides traditional black, and may be completely transparent (not possible with other materials). They may be less comfortable than other materials, and may be difficult to make fit well. They are very easy to clean and fairly robust.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Latex harnesses usually cover the entire area, rather than just using straps. They tend to be medium-priced, and have a limited lifespan, especially if used with oil-based lubricants. Latex can require much care, such as special cleaners or shiners to keep it from turning dry and dusty. Latex harnesses may or may not have the dildo(s) molded as part of the harness, and in either case, they tend to be floppy due to the flexibility of the latex. Similar harnesses are also available made of rubber or PVC, and are similar to latex harnesses, although PVC tends to be much less flexible and elastic


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Strap-on harnesses built into various clothing items are available, most often as a corset or other item of lingerie. Some are designed to be worn underneath normal clothing for quick use (if done with the dildo in place, either to give the appearance of a penis or to be able to quickly initiate intercourse, this is sometimes called "packing"), while others take advantage of the additional strength and sturdiness an item of clothing can provide over a few straps, or just to integrate the strap-on into an erotic outfit.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Fittings are available to attach dildos to just about any household object, allowing for many creative uses. A dildo could be attached to a chair, bed, or any other item of furniture, and penetrate someone during other activities, with or without a partner.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: Nylon webbing and soft foam-like synthetic leather are common, relatively affordable, and very durable. Synthetic harnesses are relatively easy to clean and require relatively little maintenance. Some, such as the "Spare Parts" harness, are machine-washable.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: The principal feature of any strap-on setup is the attachment of the dildo to the harness. While there is a huge array of different dildos available, most need a specific kind of attachment to a harness, All methods have tradeoffs, and many couples will have different harnesses depending on which type of dildo they intend to use.


title: Strap-on dildo

text: The most common means of holding the dildo to the harness is to have an opening or ring in the harness through which a wide-based dildo is inserted. Inexpensive harnesses tend to just have a round hole in the fabric or leather, while more expensive ones will use a steel or rubber ring. The advantage of this method is that dildos which fit are widely available and inexpensive, and even many dildos not meant for harness use will work in one of these harnesses, such as most dildos with testicles. The major disadvantage is the dildo is often held loosely (especially on cheap harnesses) and tends to flop downwards, and the dildo often can rotate in the harness, making it difficult or impossible to use g-spot or other shaped dildos.