title: Crime in New York City

text: In New York City, legislation was enacted in 2006, affecting many areas of nightlife. This legislation was in response to a number of murders which occurred in the New York City area, some involving nightclubs and bouncers. The city council introduced four pieces of legislation to help combat these problems, including "Imette's Law", which required stronger background checks for bouncers. Among the legislative actions taken were the requirement of ID scanners, security cameras, and independent monitors to oversee problem establishments.


title: Crime in New York City

text: A new guideline booklet, "NYPD and Nightlife Association Announce "Best Practices", was unveiled on October 18, 2007. This voluntary rule book included a 58-point security plan drafted in part by the New York Nightlife Association, was further recommended by Police Commissioner Ray Kelly and Speaker Christine Quinn. Security measures included cameras outside of nightclub bathrooms, a trained security guard for every 75 patrons and weapons searches for everyone, including celebrities entering the clubs. The new regulation resulted in stricter penalties for serving underage persons.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The Club Enforcement Initiative was created by the NYPD in response to what it referred to as "a series of high-profile and violent crimes against people who visited city nightclubs this year", mentioning the July 27 rape and murder of Jennifer Moore. One article discussed the dangers of police work and undercover investigations.


title: Crime in New York City

text: In August 2006, the New York City Council started initiatives to correct the problems highlighted by the deaths of Moore and St. Guillen. There was also discussions about electronic I.D. scanners. Quinn reportedly threatened to revoke the licenses of bars and clubs without scanners.


title: Crime in New York City

text: In September 2011, the NYPD Nightlife Association updated their Safety Manual Handbook. There is now a section on counterterrorism; this addition came after the planned terrorist attacks on certain bars and clubs worldwide.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Crime in New York City was high in the 1980s during the Mayor Edward I. Koch years, as the crack epidemic hit New York City, and peaked in 1990, the first year of Mayor David Dinkins's administration (1990–1993), but then began to decline; the number of murders fell from the 1990 peak to a level close to Koch's worst year of 1989 by Dinkins's final year of 1993. The decline accelerated dramatically during the first term of Mayor Rudolph Giuliani (1994–1997), the number of murders falling by sixty percent, and continued to decline, though at much slower rates, during both his second term (1998–2001) and Mayor Michael Bloomberg's three terms (2002–2013).


title: Crime in New York City

text: Scholars differ on the causes of the precipitous decline in crime in New York City (which also coincided with a nationwide drop in crime which some have termed the "Great American Crime Decline"). In a 2007 paper, economist Jessica Reyes attributes a 56 percent drop in nationwide violent crime in the 1990s to the removal of lead (a neurotoxin that causes cognitive and behavioral problems) from gasoline. The Brennan Center for Justice has estimated that between 0% and 5% of the drop in crime in the 1990s may be attributed to higher employment; 5% to 10% of the drop may be attributed to income growth; and 0% to 10% of the drop from increased hiring of police officers.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The Brennan Centre has also stated that the introduction of "compstat" procedures, being a combination of targeted enforcement at crime hot spots and the imposition of greater managerial accountability on police command staff, is the only tactic which has lead clearly to subsequent reductions in crime. As law professor Lawrence Rosenthal reported, this was introduced during Giuliani's first term as mayor, together with stop-and-frisk. Economists Steven Levitt and John J. Donohue III argue that the drop in crime in New York City, as in the United States generally, to the legalization of abortion following "Roe v. Wade" (see legalized abortion and crime effect).


title: Crime in New York City

text: The rates of most crimes, including all categories of violent crime, made consecutive declines from their peak in his first year, 1990, during the last 36 months of his four-year term. The 30-year upward spiral was ended and a trend of falling rates was initiated that continued beyond his term and accelerated under his successor. Despite the actual abating of crime, Dinkins was hurt by the perception that crime was out of control during his administration. Dinkins also initiated a hiring program that expanded the police department nearly 25%. "The New York Times" reported, "He obtained the State Legislature's permission to dedicate a tax to hire thousands of police officers, and he fought to preserve a portion of that anticrime money to keep schools open into the evening, an award-winning initiative that kept tens of thousands of teenagers off the street."


title: Crime in New York City

text: In Rudolph Giuliani's first term as mayor, the New York City Police Department, under Giuliani appointee Commissioner Bill Bratton, adopted an aggressive enforcement and deterrence strategy based on James Q. Wilson's Broken Windows research. This involved crackdowns on relatively minor offenses such as graffiti, turnstile jumping, and aggressive "squeegeemen", on the principle that this would send a message that order would be maintained and that the city would be "cleaned up".


title: Crime in New York City

text: At a forum three months into his term as mayor, Giuliani mentioned that freedom does not mean that "people can do anything they want, be anything they can be. Freedom is about the willingness of every single human being to cede to lawful authority a great deal of discretion about what you do and how you do it".


title: Crime in New York City

text: Giuliani also directed the New York City Police Department to aggressively pursue enterprises linked to organized crime, such as the Fulton Fish Market and the Javits Center on the West Side (Gambino crime family). By breaking mob control of solid waste removal, the city was able to save businesses over .


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 1994, in one of his first initiatives, Bratton instituted CompStat, a comparative statistical approach to mapping crime geographically to identify emerging criminal patterns and chart officer performance by quantifying apprehensions. CompStat gave precinct commanders more power, based on the assumption that local authorities best knew their neighborhoods and thus could best determine what tactics to use to reduce crime. In turn, the gathering of statistics on specific personnel aimed to increase accountability of both commanders and officers. Critics of the system assert that it instead creates an incentive to underreport or otherwise manipulate crime data. The CompStat initiative won the 1996 Innovations in Government Award from Harvard Kennedy School. The Brennan Centre for Justice has stated that "compstat" was the only tactic which lead clearly to subsequent reductions in crime.


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 1996, "Time" magazine featured Bratton, not Giuliani, on its cover as the face of the successful war on crime in New York City. Giuliani forced Bratton out of his position after two years, in what was generally seen as a battle of two large egos in which Giuliani was unable to accept Bratton's celebrity.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Giuliani continued to highlight crime reduction and law enforcement as central missions of his mayoralty throughout both terms. These efforts were largely successful. However, concurrent with his achievements, a number of tragic cases of abuse of authority came to light, and numerous allegations of civil rights abuses were leveled against the NYPD. Giuliani's own deputy mayor, [[Rudy Washington]], alleged that he had been harassed by police on several occasions. More controversial still were several police shootings of unarmed suspects, and the scandals surrounding the sexual torture of [[Abner Louima]] and the killing of [[Amadou Diallo]]. In a case less nationally publicized than those of Louima and Diallo, unarmed bar patron [[Patrick Dorismond]] was killed shortly after declining the overtures of what turned out to be an undercover officer soliciting illegal drugs. Even while hundreds of outraged [[New York City|New Yorkers]] protested, Giuliani staunchly supported the [[New York City Police Department]], going so far as to take the unprecedented step of releasing Dorismond's "extensive criminal record" to the public, for which he came under wide criticism. While many New Yorkers accused Giuliani of racism during his terms, former mayor Ed Koch defended him as even-handedly harsh: "Blacks and Hispanics ... would say to me, 'He's a racist!' I said, 'Absolutely not, he's nasty to everybody'."


title: Crime in New York City

text: The amount of credit Giuliani deserves for the drop in the crime rate is disputed. He may have been the beneficiary of a trend already in progress. Crime rates in New York City started to drop in 1991 under previous mayor [[David Dinkins]], three years before Giuliani took office. A small but significant nationwide drop in crime also preceded Giuliani's election, and continued throughout the 1990s. Two likely contributing factors to this overall decline in crime were federal funding of an additional 7,000 police officers and an improvement in the national economy. Many experts believe changing demographics were the most significant cause. Some have pointed out that during this time, murders inside the home, which could not be prevented by more police officers, decreased at the same rate as murders outside the home. Also, since the crime index is based on the FBI crime index, which is self-reported by police departments, some have alleged that crimes were shifted into categories that the FBI does not quantify.


title: Crime in New York City

text: According to some analyses, the crime rate in New York City fell even more in the 1990s and 2000s than nationwide and therefore credit should be given to a local dynamic: highly focused policing. In this view, as much as half of the reduction in crime in New York in the 1990s, and almost all in the 2000s, is due to policing. Opinions differ on how much of the credit should be given to Giuliani; to Bratton; and to the current Police Commissioner, [[Raymond W. Kelly|Ray Kelly]], who had previously served under Dinkins and criticized aggressive policing under Giuliani.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Among those crediting Giuliani for making New York safer were several other cities nationwide whose police departments subsequently instituted programs similar to Bratton's [[CompStat]].


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 2005, Giuliani was reportedly nominated for a [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his efforts to reduce crime rates in the city. The prize went instead to [[Mohamed ElBaradei]] and the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] for their efforts to reduce nuclear proliferation.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Starting in 2005, under the mayoral tenure of [[Michael Bloomberg]], New York City achieved the lowest crime rate among the ten-largest cities in the United States. Since 1991, the city has seen a continuous fifteen-year trend of decreasing crime. Neighborhoods that were once considered dangerous are now much safer. Violent crime in the city has dropped by three quarters in the twelve years ending in 2005 with the murder rate at its lowest then level since 1963 with 539 murders that year, for a murder rate of 6.58 per 100,000 people, compared to 2,245 murders in 1990. The murder rate continued to drop each year since then. In 2012, there were 414 murders, mainly occurring in the outlying, low income areas of NYC. In 2014, there were 328 murders, the lowest number since the introduction of crime statistics in 1963. Among the 182 U.S. cities with populations of more than 100,000, New York City ranked 136th in overall crime.


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 2006, as part of Mayor Michael Bloomberg's gun control efforts, the city approved new legislation regulating handgun possession and sales. The new laws established a gun offender registry, required city gun dealers to inspect their inventories and file reports to the police twice a year, and limited individual handgun purchases to once every 90 days. The regulations also banned the use and sale of kits used to paint guns in bright or fluorescent colors, on the grounds that such kits could be used to disguise real guns as toys. In April, along with Boston mayor [[Thomas Menino]], Bloomberg co-founded [[Mayors Against Illegal Guns]]. A December 2013 press release by the group said the bipartisan coalition included over 1,000 mayors. As mayor, Bloomberg increased the mandatory minimum sentence for illegal possession of a loaded handgun, saying: "Illegal guns don't belong on our streets and we're sending that message loud and clear. We're determined to see that gun dealers who break the law are held accountable, and that criminals who carry illegal loaded guns serve serious time behind bars." He opposes the death penalty, saying he would "rather lock somebody up and throw away the key and put them in [[Penal labour|hard labor]]."


title: Crime in New York City

text: In July 2007, the city planned to install an extensive web of cameras and roadblocks designed to detect, track and deter terrorists called [[Lower Manhattan Security Initiative]].


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 2007, New York City had 494 reported homicides, down from 596 homicides in 2006, and the first year since 1963 (when crime statistics were starting to be published) that this total was fewer than 500. though homicides rose (to 523) in 2008, they fell again in 2009 to 466, an almost fifty-year low. Homicides continued to decline, with the city reporting 414 in 2012 and only 333 in 2013.


title: Crime in New York City

text: [[Bill de Blasio]] was sworn in as mayor on January 1, 2014. On January 1, 2018, he was sworn in for a second term as mayor.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Until 2018, crime under the de Blasio administration continued a generally downward trend. In January 2020 robberies were up 39% from the previous year, shootings were up 29% and car theft was up 72%. Likewise, February and March saw 20% increases in major index crimes. De Blasio said that the consecutive months of 20% increases had been caused by recent bail reforms. Some advocacy groups who support the bail reforms accused the NYPD of misclassifying non-index crimes to put pressure on politicians in Albany. While the cause remains a subject of debate, recent changes to [[stop and frisk]] may have also had an impact, a view that was supported by former police commissioner [[Raymond W. Kelly]].


title: Crime in New York City

text: In June 2020, gun violence spiked to the highest levels seen in nearly 25 years. De Blasio responded that more officers would be on the streets:


title: Crime in New York City

text: Unlike the crime increases from earlier months, June also saw a spike in [[murders]], up 134% over the previous year. August saw shootings more than double compared to the previous year.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The election of [[Eric Adams]] as mayor was widely seen as a response by the electorate to concerns about rising crime.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Two of the most influential police commissioners of New York City, [[Raymond Kelly]] and [[William Bratton]], helped to greatly reduce the city's crime rate. "The New York Times" has called both men "the city's most significant police leaders of the past quarter-century."


title: Crime in New York City

text: On October 16, 1992, David Dinkins appointed Raymond Kelly the 37th [[New York City Police Commissioner|Police Commissioner of the City of New York]]. The national decline in both violent crime and property crime began in 1993, during the early months of Raymond Kelly's commissionership under Dinkins. At the time a firm believer in community policing, Kelly helped spur the decline in New York City by instituting the Safe Streets, Safe City program, which put thousands more cops on the streets, where they would be visible to and able to get to know and interact with local communities. As the 37th commissioner, he also pursued quality of life issues, such as the "[[squeegee man]]" that had become a sign of decay in the city. The murder rate in New York City had declined from its 1990 mid-Dinkins-administration historic high of 2,254 to 1,927, when Kelly left in 1994, and continued to plummet even more steeply under Mayors Giuliani and Bloomberg.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The decline continued when Kelly returned as 41st Commissioner under Mayor Bloomberg in 2002–2013. As commissioner of the NYPD under Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Kelly had often appeared at outreach events such as the Brooklyn's annual West Indian Day Parade, where he was photographed playing the drums and speaking to community leaders. Bloomberg and Kelly, however, continued to place heavy reliance on the [[CompStat]] system, initiated by Bill Bratton and since adopted by police departments in other cities worldwide. The system, while recognized as highly effective in reducing crime, also puts pressure on local precincts to reduce the number of reports for the seven major crimes while increasing the number of lesser arrests.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Bloomberg and Kelly continued and indeed stepped up Mayor Giuliani's controversial [[Stop-and-frisk in New York City|stop-and-frisk policy]], which is considered by some to be a form of racial profiling. In the first half of 2011, the NYC police made 362,150 such arrests, constituting a 13.5 percent increase from the same period in 2010, according to WNYC radio (which also reported that 84 percent of the people stopped were either black or Latino, and that "nine out 10 stops did not result in any arrest or ticket".) According to New York State Senator [[Eric Adams (politician)|Eric Adams]], "Kelly was one of the great humanitarians in policing under David Dinkins. I don't know what happened to him that all of a sudden his philosophical understanding of the importance of community and police liking each other has changed. Sometimes the expeditious need of bringing down crime numbers bring out the worst in us. So instead of saying let's just go seek out the bad guy, we get to the point of, 'Let's go get them all.' If Kelly can't philosophically change, then we need to have a leadership change at the top."


title: Crime in New York City

text: Under Bloomberg, Commissioner Kelly also revamped New York City's Police Department into a world-class [[counter-terrorism]] operation, operating in conjunction with the CIA. Prior to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] there were fewer than two dozen officers working on terrorism full-time; ten years later there were over 1,000. One of Kelly's innovations was his unprecedented stationing of New York City police detectives in other cities throughout the world following terrorist attacks in those cities, with a view to determining if they are in any way connected to the security of New York. In the cases of both the [[2004 Madrid train bombings|March 11, 2004, Madrid bombing]] and the [[July 7, 2005 London bombings]] and [[July 21, 2005 London bombings]], NYPD detectives were on the scene within a day to relay pertinent information back to New York. An August 2011 article by the Associated Press reported the NYCPD's extensive use of undercover agents (colloquially referred to as "rakers" and "mosque crawlers") to keep tabs, even build databases, on stores, restaurants, mosques. and clubs. NYPD spokesman Paul Browne denied that police trawled ethnic neighborhoods, telling the AP that officers only follow leads. He also dismissed the idea of "mosque crawlers", saying, "Someone has a great imagination."


title: Crime in New York City

text: According to "[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]]" columnist [[Adam Serwer]], "The FBI was reportedly so concerned about the legality of the NYPD's program that it refused to accept information that came out of it." Valerie Caproni, the FBI's general counsel, told the AP that the FBI is barred from sending agents into mosques looking for leads outside of a specific investigation and said the practice would raise alarms. "If you're sending an informant into a mosque when there is no evidence of wrongdoing, that's a very high-risk thing to do," she was quoted as saying. "You're running right up against core constitutional rights. You're talking about freedom of religion."


title: Crime in New York City

text: Under Mayor Bloomberg, Kelly's NYPD also incurred criticism for its handling of the protests surrounding the [[2004 Republican National Convention protest activity|2004 Republican National Convention]], which resulted in the City of New York having to pay out millions in settlement of lawsuits for false arrest and civil rights violations, as well as for its rough treatment of credentialed reporters covering the 2011 [[Occupy Wall Street]] demonstrations.


title: Crime in New York City

text: On March 5, 2007, it was announced that a [[Rikers Island]] inmate offered to pay an undercover police officer posing as a hit man to behead Kelly as well as bomb police headquarters in retaliation for the controversial police shooting of [[Sean Bell shooting incident|Sean Bell]].


title: Crime in New York City

text: [[William Bratton|Bill Bratton]] became the chief of the [[New York City Transit Police]] in 1990. In 1991 the Transit Police gained national accreditation under Bratton. The department became one of only 175 law-enforcement agencies in the country and only the second in New York State to achieve that distinction. The following year it was also accredited by the [[New York (state)|State of New York]], and by 1994, there were almost 4,500 uniformed and civilian members of the department, making it the sixth largest police force in the United States. Bratton had left the NYC Transit Police returning to Boston in 1992 to head the Boston Police Department, one of his long-time ambitions. In 1994, Bratton was appointed the 38th Commissioner of the NYPD by Mayor Rudolph W. Giuliani. He cooperated with Giuliani in putting the [[broken windows theory]] into practice. He had success in this position and introduced the [[CompStat]] system of tracking crimes, which proved successful in reducing crime in New York City and is still in use today. A new tax surcharge enabled the training and deployment of around 5,000 new better-educated police officers, police decision-making was devolved to precinct level, and a backlog of 50,000 unserved warrants was cleared. Bratton resigned in 1996.


title: Crime in New York City

text: On December 5, 2013, New York City mayor-elect Bill de Blasio named Bratton as New York City's new Police Commissioner to replace Raymond Kelly after de Blasio's swearing-in on January 1, 2014. "The New York Times" reported that at Bratton's swearing-in on January 2, 2014, the new Police Commissioner praised his predecessor Raymond Kelly, but also signaled his intention to strike a more conciliatory tone with ordinary New Yorkers who had become disillusioned with policing in the city: "We will all work hard to identify why is it that so many in this city do not feel good about this department that has done so much to make them safe — what has it been about our activities that have made so many alienated?".


title: Crime in New York City

text: On August 2, 2016, [[James P. O'Neill]] was appointed Police Commissioner of New York City by Mayor Bill de Blasio, effective September 2016. He announced his retirement on November 4, 2019.


title: Crime in New York City

text: On December 1, 2019 [[Dermot Shea]] was appointed Police Commissioner of New York City by Mayor Bill de Blasio, this was effective the following day when he was sworn in.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The boroughs of [[Queens]] and [[Staten Island]] have historically had lower crime rates compared to [[Brooklyn]], [[The Bronx]] and [[Manhattan]]. Since 1985, the Bronx has consistently had the highest homicide and violent crime rate among the five boroughs.


title: Crime in New York City

text: With some of the poorest neighborhoods in the country, the Bronx, specifically the [[South Bronx]], became noteworthy as a high-crime area in the later part of the 20th century. Beginning in the 1960s, [[White flight]], landlord abandonment, a decline in city services, reduced investment, economic changes, changing demographics, and the construction of the [[Cross Bronx Expressway]] (CBE) all contributed to the borough's decay.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The construction of expressways in the Bronx, especially the CBE within the South Bronx, divided several neighborhoods and displaced thousands of residents and businesses. The already poor and working-class neighborhoods were further disadvantaged by the decreasing property value and increasing vacancy rates. Racial tensions during the [[Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1950s and 1960s further contributed to middle-class flight and the decline of many neighborhoods. By the late 1960s, the vacancy rate of homes in the South Bronx was the highest of any place in the city.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The early 1970s saw South Bronx property values continue to plummet to record lows, as the city experienced [[1975 New York City fiscal crisis|a fiscal crisis]]. Primarily, White flight led to abandonment and deterioration of large numbers of buildings. This, coupled with a stagnant economy and an extremely high unemployment rate, attracted increased social problems including the proliferation of [[street gangs]] and a large number of [[squatters]]. This had a [[domino effect]], leading landlords of nearby apartment buildings to neglect their properties as well. Police statistics show that as the crime wave moved north across the Bronx, the remaining white tenants in the South Bronx (mostly elderly Jews) were preferentially targeted for violent crime by the influx of young, minority criminals because they were seen as easy prey. This became so common that the slang terms "crib job" (meaning how elderly residents were as helpless as infants) and "push in" ([[home invasion]]) were coined specifically in reference to them.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Moreover, South Bronx residents were reportedly burning down vacant properties, either for scrap or to get better housing, while some landlords were doing the same in order to collect the insurance money. Media attention brought the Bronx, especially its southern half, into common interest nationwide. The phrase "The Bronx is burning," attributed to [[Howard Cosell]] during a Yankees World Series game in 1977, refers to the arson epidemic caused by the total economic collapse of the South Bronx during the 1970s. During the game, as ABC switched to a generic helicopter shot of the exterior of [[Yankee Stadium (1923)|Yankee Stadium]], an uncontrolled fire could clearly be seen burning in the ravaged South Bronx surrounding the park. By the time of Cosell's 1977 commentary, dozens of buildings were being burned in the South Bronx every day, sometimes whole blocks at a time. The local police precinctsalready struggling and failing to contain the Bronx's massive wave of drug and gang crimehad long since stopped bothering to investigate the fires, since there were too many to track.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The 1975 New York City fiscal crisis was succeeded by the [[New York City blackout of 1977]], which triggered massive looting that bankrupted stores. By 1979, many Bronx neighborhoods went aflame and were turned into rubble. Apartment buildings were abandoned or sold to lesser landlords amid rapid urban decay. Its high schools became notorious as the city's worst, and it was struck by the [[crack epidemic]]. During the 1970s, the NYPD's 41st Precinct Station House at 1086 Simpson Street became known as "[[Fort Apache, The Bronx]]". By 1980, the 41st was renamed "[[Little House on the Prairie (novel)|The Little House on the Prairie"]], as two-thirds of the area's 94,000 residents had fled, and the station house was one of the few buildings that had not been abandoned or burnt down. In total, over 40% of the South Bronx was burned or abandoned between 1970 and 1980; 44 [[Census tract|census areas]] lost more than 50% of their area to fires, and seven lost over 97% of their buildings to arson or abandonment. The appearance was frequently compared to that of a bombed-out and evacuated European city following [[World War II]]. One of the most drastic cases of this was Charlotte Street in Crotona Park Eastthe street had become so deteriorated that part of it was de-mapped in 1974. After President [[Jimmy Carter]] personally visited Charlotte Street in 1977, he ordered the head of the [[U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development]] to take steps to salvage the area.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Despite significant investment compared to the post-war period, many exacerbated social problems remain in many neighborhoods including high rates of violent crime, substance abuse, overcrowding, and substandard housing conditions. The Bronx has the highest rate of poverty in New York City, and the greater South Bronx is the poorest area.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Neighborhoods such as [[Brownsville, Brooklyn|Brownsville]], [[Canarsie, Brooklyn|Canarsie]], and [[East New York]] used to be majority Italian and Jewish, but have shifted into mostly Black and Hispanic communities. With the demographic shift that occurred between the 1950s and 1970s, the crime rate in Brooklyn increased and the borough lost almost 500,000 people, most of them White. Those residents moved to neighboring boroughs of Queens and Staten Island, in addition to suburban counties of Long Island and New Jersey.


title: Crime in New York City

text: In 1961, Alfred E. Clark of "The New York Times" referred to [[Bedford–Stuyvesant]] as "Brooklyn's Little Harlem". One of the first urban [[riot]]s of the era took place there. [[Society|Social]] and [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] divisions in the city contributed to the tensions. In 1964, a race riot started in Harlem, Manhattan, after an Irish NYPD lieutenant, Thomas Gilligan shot and killed a black teenager named James Powell, who was only 15. The riot spread to Bedford–Stuyvesant, and resulted in the destruction and looting of many neighborhood businesses, many of which were Jewish-owned. Race relations between the NYPD and the city's black community strained as police were seen as an instrument of oppression and racially biased law enforcement.


title: Crime in New York City

text: On top of this, few black officers were present on the force. In predominantly black New York neighborhoods, arrests and prosecutions for drug-related crimes were higher than anywhere else in the city, despite evidence that illegal drugs were being used at the same rate in white communities. This further contributed to the problems between the white dominated police force and the black community. Race riots followed in 1967 and 1968 as part of the [[political]] and racial tensions in the United States of the era, aggravated by high unemployment among blacks, [[de facto]] [[segregation in housing]], and the failure to enforce [[civil rights]] laws. This contributed to the [[New York City teachers' strike of 1968]], when Brownsville's majority white teacher population clashed with the majority black residential population. Conversely, the mostly white population of Canarsie protested efforts at racial school integration in the early 1970s, which largely led to white flight in Canarsie by the 1980s.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Starting in the mid-19th century, the United States became a magnet for immigrants seeking to escape poverty in their home countries. After arriving in New York, many new immigrants ended up living in squalor in the [[slum]]s of the [[Five Points, Manhattan|Five Points]] neighborhood. By the 1820s, the area was home to many gambling dens and [[brothel]]s, and was known as a dangerous place to go. In 1842, [[Charles Dickens]] visited the area and was appalled by the horrendous living conditions he saw there. The area was so notorious that it even caught the attention of [[Abraham Lincoln]], who visited there in 1860 before his [[Cooper Union speech]]. The predominantly Irish [[Five Points Gang]] was one of the country's first major [[organized crime]] entities.


title: Crime in New York City

text: As Italian immigration grew in the early 20th century, many joined ethnic gangs. A prominent example is [[Al Capone]], who got his start in crime with the Five Points Gang. The [[Italian-American Mafia|Mafia]] (also known as "Cosa Nostra") first developed in the mid-19th century in [[Sicily]], and spread to the [[East Coast of the United States]] during the late 19th century, following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration. [[Lucky Luciano]] established Cosa Nostra in Manhattan, and formed alliances with other criminal enterprises. This included the [[Jewish mob]], which was led by [[Meyer Lansky]], who was the leading Jewish gangster of that period. From 1920 to 1933, [[Prohibition in the United States|U.


title: Crime in New York City

text: S. Prohibition]] helped create a thriving [[black market]] in liquor, which the Mafia was quick to capitalize on.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The borough experienced a sharp increase in crime during the [[post-war]] period. The murder rate in Manhattan hit an all-time high of 42 murders per 100,000 residents in 1979. Manhattan retained the highest murder rate in the city until 1985 when it was surpassed by [[the Bronx]]. Most serious violent crime has been historically concentrated in [[Upper Manhattan]] and the [[Lower East Side]], though robbery in particular was a major quality-of-life concern throughout the borough. Through the 1990s and 2000s, crime in Manhattan plummeted in all categories versus historic highs.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Today crime rates in most of [[Lower Manhattan]], Midtown, the [[Upper East Side]], and the [[Upper West Side]] are consistent with other major city centers in the United States. However, crime rates remain high in the Upper Manhattan neighborhoods of [[East Harlem]], [[Harlem]], Washington Heights, Inwood, and [[NYCHA]] developments across the borough despite significant reductions. In more recent years there has been an increase in violent crime, particularly in Upper Manhattan and NYCHA developments.


title: Crime in New York City

text: [[Harlem]], a large neighborhood within the northern section of the New York City [[borough (New York City)|borough]] of [[Manhattan]], has historically had some of the highest rates of poverty and violent crime citywide. Although the rate of crime has decreased compared to historic highs of the early 1990s, high rates of crime are still prevalent in the neighborhood. Crime in Harlem is primarily related to illicit activities such as [[theft]], [[robbery]], [[drug trafficking]] and [[prostitution]]. Criminal organizations such as street [[gang]]s are responsible for a significant portion of crime, particularly [[violent crime]]. The leading cause of death among young black males in Harlem is [[homicide]]. According to a survey published in 2013 by [[Union Settlement Association]], residents of [[East Harlem]] perceive crime as their biggest single concern. Harlem today maintains one of the highest violent crime rates in New York City. In 2021, the 25th Precinct had the second-highest rates of felony assault and robbery, the sixteenth-highest rate of rape, and the highest rate of murder out of the [[New York Police Department]]'s 77 precincts.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The early days of [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]] were dominated by Chinese "[[tong (gang)|tongs]]" (now sometimes referred to as "[[voluntary association|associations]]")a mix of [[clan]] associations, landsman's associations, political alliances ([[Kuomintang]] vs. [[Chinese Communist Party]]), and (more secretly) [[organized crime|crime syndicates]]. The associations started to give protection from harassment due to anti-Chinese sentiment. Each of these associations was aligned with a [[street gang]]. The associations were a source of assistance to new immigrants, doing things such as giving out [[loan]]s and helping to start businesses.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Until the 1980s, the portion of Chinatown east of the [[Bowery]], considered part of the [[Lower East Side]], had a higher proportion of non-Chinese residents than in Chinatown's western section. During the 1970s and 1980s, this area had deteriorating building conditions, including vacant lots and storefronts, with fewer businesses. It suffered from many violent crimes such as gang activities, robberies, burglaries and rape, as well as racial tensions with other ethnic groups. Female Chinese garment workers were especially targets of robbery and rape, with many leaving work together in groups to protect each other as they were heading home.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Similarly, crime in Chinatown increased due to the poor relations between [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]] and [[Fuzhou]]ese immigrants when the latter group started moving into the area in the 1980s and 1990s. Due to the Fuzhou immigrants having no legal status and an inability to speak Cantonese, many were denied jobs in Chinatown, and instead became criminals to make a living. There was a large amount of Cantonese resentment against Fuzhou immigrants arriving into Chinatown.


title: Crime in New York City

text: During the mid-to-late 1980s, Chinatown began to experience an influx of [[Vietnamese boat people|Vietnamese refugees]] from the [[Vietnam War]]. Since most of the Vietnamese could not speak [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] or [[Cantonese]], which was solely used for most social services, they struggled to survive and lived on the fringes of the community. Eventually, many Vietnamese youth within the city started to form gang factions. Under the leadership of a wealthy Vietnamese immigrant named [[David Thai]], who combined many separate gangs into one known as [[Born to Kill (gang)|Born to Kill]], Vietnamese youths began a violent crime spree in Chinatown robbing, extorting, and racketeering drawing much resentment from the Chinese community.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Washington Heights and Inwood, neighborhoods in [[Upper Manhattan]], recorded a total of 103 murders in 1990. The [[crack epidemic]] of the late 1980s and early 1990s impacted the community especially hard. The 33rd precinct was established in the area in 1993. The violent crime rate remains higher than the city as a whole today despite a significant decline compared to the crack epidemic. [[Drug trafficking]] and [[human trafficking]] continue to be a major quality of life issues in the community.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The [[broken windows theory]] is a [[Criminology|criminological]] theory of the norm-setting and signalling effect of urban disorder and [[vandalism]] on additional [[crime]] and [[anti-social behavior]]. The theory states that maintaining and monitoring [[Urban area|urban environments]] in a well-ordered condition may stop further [[vandalism]] and escalation into more serious crime.


title: Crime in New York City

text: [[CompStat]] is the name given to the New York City Police Department's accountability process and has since been replicated in many other departments. CompStat is a [[management]] philosophy or organizational management tool for police departments, roughly equivalent to [[Six Sigma]] or [[Total quality management|TQM]], and was not a computer system or software package in its original form. Through an evolutionary process, however, some commercial entities have created [[turnkey]] packages including computer systems, software, mobile devices, and other implements collectively assembled under the heading of CompStat. Instead, CompStat is a multilayered dynamic approach to [[crime]] reduction, [[quality of life]] improvement, and personnel and resource management. CompStat employs [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information Systems]] and was intended to [[crime mapping|map crime]] and identify problems. In weekly meetings, ranking NYPD executives meet with local precinct commanders from one of the eight patrol boroughs in New York City to discuss the problems. They devise strategies and tactics to solve problems, reduce crime, and ultimately improve quality of life in their assigned area.


title: Crime in New York City

text: Law enforcement in New York City is carried out by numerous [[law enforcement agencies]]. New York City has the highest concentration of law enforcement agencies in the United States. As with the rest of the US, agencies operate at federal, state, and local (county and city) levels. However, New York City's unique nature means many more operate at lower levels. Many private police forces also operate in New York City. The New York City Police Department is the main police agency in the city.


title: Crime in New York City

text: The NYPD has come under scrutiny for its use of [[New York City stop-and-frisk program|stop-and-frisk]], implemented under Rudy Giuliani's tenure as mayor.


title: Crime in New York City

text: It is a practice of the New York City Police Department by which police officers stop and question hundreds of thousands of pedestrians annually, and frisk them for weapons and other contraband. The rules for stop, question and frisk are found in New York State Criminal Procedure Law section 140.50, and are based on the decision of the [[United States Supreme Court]] in the case of "[[Terry v. Ohio]]". About 684,000 people were stopped in 2011. The vast majority of these people were black or Hispanic. Some judges have found that these stops are not based on [[reasonable suspicion]] of criminal activity.


title: Crime in New York City

text: On October 31, 2013, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] blocked the order requiring changes to the New York Police Department's stop-and-frisk program and removed Judge Shira Scheindlin from the case. On November 9, 2013, the city asked a federal appeals court to vacate Scheindlin's orders. Bill de Blasio, who succeeded Bloomberg as mayor in 2014, has pledged to reform the stop-and-frisk program, and is calling for new leadership at the NYPD, an inspector general, and a strong racial profiling bill.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Buffy the Vampire Slayer is a 1992 American comedy horror film directed by Fran Rubel Kuzui and starring Kristy Swanson, Donald Sutherland, Paul Reubens, Rutger Hauer, Luke Perry, Hilary Swank, and David Arquette. It follows a Valley Girl cheerleader named Buffy who learns that it is her fate to hunt vampires. It was a moderate success at the box office, but received mixed reception from critics. The film took a different direction from that which its writer, Joss Whedon, intended. Five years later, he created the darker, and critically acclaimed, television series of the same name.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Buffy Summers is a cheerleader at Hemery High School in Los Angeles. Her main concerns are shopping and spending time with her rich, snooty friends and her boyfriend, Jeffrey. While at school one day, she is approached by a man who calls himself Merrick. He informs her that she is The Slayer, or Chosen One, destined to kill vampires and his duty is to guide and train her. She initially rejects his claim but changes her mind when he vividly describes a recurring dream of hers. Additionally, Buffy is exhibiting abilities not known to her, including heightened agility, senses, and endurance, yet she repeatedly tries Merrick's patience with her frivolous nature, indifference to slaying, and sharp-tongued remarks.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Conflict starts with local vampire king, Lothos, and his acolyte, Amilyn. Two young men, Oliver Pike and Benny, are out drinking when they're attacked by Amilyn. Benny is turned, but Pike is saved by Merrick. As a vampire, Benny visits his friend Pike and tries to get him to join him. Amilyn also abducts Cassandra, a girl from Buffy's class, and sacrifices her to Lothos.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Pike decides to leave town when he realizes he is no longer safe. His plan is thwarted when he encounters Amilyn and his gang of vampires. Buffy and Merrick rescue him. After this encounter, Buffy and Pike start a friendship that eventually becomes romantic, and Pike becomes Buffy's partner in fighting the undead.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Buffy discovers her friend Grueller is a vampire. Shortly after he is dispatched, Buffy encounters Lothos and Amilyn. The vampire king puts Buffy into a hypnotic trance. Merrick intervenes, but he is killed by Lothos when he attempts to stake him. As Merrick dies, he tells Buffy to do things her own way rather than live by the rules of others.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: At school, Buffy attempts to explain things to her friends, but they refuse to understand her, as they are more concerned with an upcoming school dance. Buffy falls out with them as she realizes she has outgrown their immature, selfish behavior.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: At the senior dance, Buffy is dismayed to find Jeffrey has dumped her for one of her friends. She meets with Pike, and dances with him instead. Lothos sends his army of vampire minions to the school to attack the dance. During the attack, students and attendants try to fight off the vampires in the gym. Pike fights and kills Benny, while Buffy confronts Amilyn and Lothos in the school’s basement. She kills Amilyn, but Lothos starts to hypnotize her again. The trance is broken when Buffy is reminded of Merricks’s last words and she defends herself against Lothos.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Buffy returns to the gym and Lothos suddenly emerges with a sword. The Slayer and vampire king duel, and Buffy manages to defeat him. The survivors leave, Buffy and Pike share another dance and the couple ride away on a motorcycle.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Writer Whedon sold the film to country singer Dolly Parton's production company, Sandollar, in the fall of 1991. Production was limited to five weeks to accommodate Luke Perry's "Beverly Hills, 90210" filming schedule.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Whedon was involved in an advisory role early in the production but departed after becoming dissatisfied with the direction the film was taking. Executives at 20th Century Fox removed many of Whedon's jokes, believing the humor to be too abstract for audiences. They also disliked the darker elements in Whedon's original script, wanting to make it a lighter comedy. Merrick's suicide was replaced with his being killed by Lothos, and Buffy's burning down her high school gym to kill all the vampires was eliminated altogether.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: All this led Whedon to finally walk off the set. He has been highly critical of actor Donald Sutherland's behavior on set, describing him as entitled and difficult to work with. Sutherland had a penchant for improvising or altering his lines in the script, which director Rubel Kuzui allowed him to do freely because he was the film's most high-profile star. Whedon felt this made Merrick's dialogue in the film disjointed and unintelligible.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Filming in Los Angeles included the ballroom of the Park Plaza Hotel, where Merrick lives and trains Buffy, John Marshall High School in Los Feliz, and the gymnasium of University High School in West Los Angeles, where the high school dance and vampire attack was filmed.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: The film debuted at #5 at the North American box office and eventually grossed $16,624,456 against a $7 million production budget.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 36%, based on 53 reviews, with an average rating of 4.4/10. The consensus reads, ""Buffy the Vampire Slayer"s supernatural coming of age tale is let down by poor directing and even poorer plotting -- though Kristy Swanson and Paul Reubens' game performances still manage to slay." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: The film was released on VHS and Laserdisc in the U.S. in November 1992 and in the U.K. in April 1993 by Fox Video and re-released in 1995 under the Twentieth Century Fox Selections banner. It was released on DVD in the U.S. in 2001 and on Blu-ray in 2011.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: The film was taken in a different direction from what one of its writers Joss Whedon intended, and five years later, he created the darker and acclaimed TV series of the same name.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Many of the details given in the film differ from those of the later television series. For example, Buffy's age and history are dissimilar; she is a senior in high school in the film, but the series starts with her as a sophomore. The film does portray who the Buffy of the TV series was before she learned of her destiny as the Slayer: a popular but selfish and superficial cheerleader. In the film, her parents are wealthy but negligent socialites who care little for her and spend their time at parties and golf tournaments; in the TV series, Buffy has a caring, newly divorced mother named Joyce. The supernatural abilities of both vampires and the Slayer are depicted differently. The vampires in the film die like humans; in the TV series, they turn to dust. Unlike the TV series, their faces remain human albeit pale, fanged, and with notched ears, whereas in the TV series, they take on a demonic aspect, especially when newly raised. The TV series suggests that new vampires must consciously learn to maintain a human appearance. In the film, Merrick is hundreds of years old, having lived many lives training many Slayers; in the TV series, Watchers are mortal and specially trained for their role and mission. Merrick's British accent and the manner of his death are different when he appears in flashbacks in the TV series.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Joss Whedon has expressed his dissatisfaction with the film's interpretation of the script, stating, "I finally sat down and had written it and somebody had made it into a movie, and I felt like — well, that's not quite her. It's a start, but it's not quite the girl."


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: According to the "Official Buffy Watcher's Guide", Whedon wrote the pilot to the TV series as a sequel to his original script, which is why the TV series makes references to events that did not occur in the film. In 1999, Dark Horse Comics released a graphic novel adaptation of Whedon's original script under the title "The Origin". Whedon stated: "The "Origin" comic, though I have issues with it, CAN pretty much be accepted as canonical. They did a cool job of combining the movie script with the series, that was nice, and using the series Merrick and not a certain OTHER thespian who shall remain hated."


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: Other songs featured in the film but not the soundtrack album include: "Everybody Hurts" by R.E.M., "In the Wind" by War Babies, and "Inner Mind" by Eon.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: On May 25, 2009, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that Roy Lee and Doug Davison of Vertigo Entertainment were working with Fran Rubel Kuzui and Kaz Kuzui on a re-envisioning or relaunch of the "Buffy" film for the big screen. The film would not be a sequel or prequel to the existing film or television franchise, and Joss Whedon would have no involvement in the project. None of the characters, cast, or crew from the television series would be featured. Television series executive producer Marti Noxon later reflected that this story might have been produced by the studio in order to frighten Whedon into taking the reins of the project. On November 22, 2010, "The Hollywood Reporter" confirmed that Warner Bros. had picked up the movie rights to the remake. The film was set for release sometime in 2012. 20th Century Fox, which usually holds the rights to both "Buffy" and "Angel" television series, would retain merchandising and some distribution rights.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: The idea of the remake caused wrath among fans of the TV series, since Whedon was not involved. The project did not have any connection with the show and would not conform to the continuity maintained with the "Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight" and "Season Nine" comic book titles. Not only the fandom, but the main cast members of both the "Buffy" and "Angel" series expressed disagreement with the report on Twitter and in recent interviews. Sarah Michelle Gellar said, "I think it's a horrible idea. To try to do a "Buffy" without Joss Whedon... to be incredibly non-eloquent: that's the dumbest idea I've ever heard." Proposed shooting locations included Black Wood and other areas in rural England, due to budgetary constraints and the potential setting being outside of the city, an unusual change for the franchise.


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: In December 2011, more than a year after the official reboot announcement, the "Los Angeles Times" site reported that Whit Anderson, the writer picked for the new "Buffy" movie, had her script rejected by the producers behind the project, and that a new writer was being sought. Sources also stated that "If you're going to bring it back, you have to do it right. [Anderson] came in with some great ideas and she had reinvented some of the lore and it was pretty cool but in the end there just wasn't enough on the page."


title: Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)

text: As of July 2018, Joss Whedon announced at San Diego Comic Con that he was working on a reboot of the series and that it might feature a slayer of color.


title: Ramjet

text: A ramjet, or athodyd (aero thermodynamic duct), is a form of airbreathing jet engine that uses the forward motion of the engine to produce thrust. Since it produces no thrust when stationary (no ram air) ramjet-powered vehicles require an assisted take-off like a rocket assist to accelerate it to a speed where it begins to produce thrust. Ramjets work most efficiently at supersonic speeds around and can operate up to speeds of .


title: Ramjet

text: Ramjets can be particularly useful in applications requiring a small and simple mechanism for high-speed use, such as missiles. The US, Canada, and UK had widespread ramjet powered missile defenses during the 1960s onward, such as the CIM-10 Bomarc and Bloodhound. Weapon designers are looking to use ramjet technology in artillery shells to give added range; a 120 mm mortar shell, if assisted by a ramjet, is thought to be able to attain a range of . They have also been used successfully, though not efficiently, as tip jets on the ends of helicopter rotors.


title: Ramjet

text: Ramjets differ from pulsejets, which use an intermittent combustion; ramjets employ a continuous combustion process.


title: Ramjet

text: As speed increases, the efficiency of a ramjet starts to drop as the air temperature in the inlet increases due to compression. As the inlet temperature gets closer to the exhaust temperature, less energy can be extracted in the form of thrust. To produce a usable amount of thrust at yet higher speeds, the ramjet must be modified so that the incoming air is not compressed (and therefore heated) nearly as much. This means that the air flowing through the combustion chamber is still moving very fast (relative to the engine), in fact it will be supersonic—hence the name supersonic-combustion ramjet, or scramjet.


title: Ramjet

text: "L'Autre Monde: ou les États et Empires de la Lune (Comical History of the States and Empires of the Moon)" (1657) was the first of three satirical novels written by Cyrano de Bergerac that are considered among the first science fiction stories. Arthur C Clarke credited this book with conceiving of the ramjet, and being the first fictional example of a rocket-powered space flight.


title: Ramjet

text: The ramjet was conceived in 1913 by French inventor René Lorin, who was granted a patent for his device. Attempts to build a prototype failed due to inadequate materials. His patent FR290356 showed a piston internal combustion engine with added 'trumpets' as exhaust nozzles.


title: Ramjet

text: In 1915, Hungarian inventor Albert Fonó devised a solution for increasing the range of artillery, comprising a gun-launched projectile which was to be united with a ramjet propulsion unit, thus giving a long range from relatively low muzzle velocities, allowing heavy shells to be fired from relatively lightweight guns. Fonó submitted his invention to the Austro-Hungarian Army, but the proposal was rejected. After World War I, Fonó returned to the subject of jet propulsion, in May 1928 describing an "air-jet engine" which he described as being suitable for high-altitude supersonic aircraft, in a German patent application. In an additional patent application, he adapted the engine for subsonic speed. The patent was granted in 1932 after four years of examination (German Patent No. 554,906, 1932-11-02).


title: Ramjet

text: In the Soviet Union, a theory of supersonic ramjet engines was presented in 1928 by Boris Stechkin. Yuri Pobedonostsev, chief of GIRD's 3rd Brigade, carried out a great deal of research into ramjet engines. The first engine, the GIRD-04, was designed by I.A. Merkulov and tested in April 1933. To simulate supersonic flight, it was fed by air compressed to , and was fueled with hydrogen. The GIRD-08 phosphorus-fueled ramjet was tested by firing it from an artillery cannon. These shells may have been the first jet-powered projectiles to break the speed of sound.


title: Ramjet

text: In 1939, Merkulov did further ramjet tests using a two-stage rocket, the R-3. That August, he developed the first ramjet engine for use as an auxiliary motor of an aircraft, the DM-1. The world's first ramjet-powered airplane flight took place in December 1940, using two DM-2 engines on a modified Polikarpov I-15. Merkulov designed a ramjet fighter "Samolet D" in 1941, which was never completed. Two of his DM-4 engines were installed on the Yak-7 PVRD fighter, during World War II. In 1940, the Kostikov-302 experimental plane was designed, powered by a liquid fuel rocket for take-off and ramjet engines for flight. That project was cancelled in 1944.


title: Ramjet

text: In 1947, Mstislav Keldysh proposed a long-range antipodal bomber, similar to the Sänger-Bredt bomber, but powered by ramjet instead of rocket. In 1954, NPO Lavochkin and the Keldysh Institute began development of a Mach 3 ramjet-powered cruise missile, "Burya". This project competed with the R-7 ICBM being developed by Sergei Korolev, and was cancelled in 1957.


title: Ramjet

text: On 1 March 2018 President Vladimir Putin announced Russia had developed a (presumed) nuclear powered ramjet cruise missile capable of extended long range flight.


title: Ramjet

text: In 1936, Hellmuth Walter constructed a test engine powered by natural gas. Theoretical work was carried out at BMW and Junkers, as well as DFL. In 1941, Eugen Sänger of DFL proposed a ramjet engine with a very high combustion chamber temperature. He constructed very large ramjet pipes with and diameter and carried out combustion tests on lorries and on a special test rig on a Dornier Do 17Z at flight speeds of up to . Later, with petrol becoming scarce in Germany due to wartime conditions, tests were carried out with blocks of pressed coal dust as a fuel (see e.g. Lippisch P.13a), which were not successful due to slow combustion.


title: Ramjet

text: Stovepipe (flying/flaming/supersonic) was a popular name for the ramjet during the 1950s in trade magazines such as Aviation Week & Space Technology and other publications such as The Cornell Engineer and the Journal Of The American Rocket Society. The simplicity implied by the name came from a comparison with the turbojet engine which also has, together with the inlet, combustor and nozzle of a ramjet, complex and expensive spinning turbomachinery (compressor and turbine).


title: Ramjet

text: The US Navy developed a series of air-to-air missiles under the name of "Gorgon" using different propulsion mechanisms, including ramjet propulsion on the Gorgon IV. The ramjet Gorgon IVs, made by Glenn Martin, were tested in 1948 and 1949 at Naval Air Station Point Mugu. The ramjet engine itself was designed at the University of Southern California and manufactured by the Marquardt Aircraft Company. The engine was long and in diameter and was positioned below the missile.


title: Ramjet

text: In the early 1950s the US developed a Mach 4+ ramjet under the Lockheed X-7 program. This was developed into the Lockheed AQM-60 Kingfisher. Further development resulted in the Lockheed D-21 spy drone.


title: Ramjet

text: In the late 1950s the US Navy introduced a system called the RIM-8 Talos, which was a long range surface-to-air missile fired from ships. It successfully shot down several enemy fighters during the Vietnam war, and was the first ship-launched missile to destroy an enemy aircraft in combat. On 23 May 1968, a Talos fired from USS Long Beach shot down a Vietnamese MiG at a range of about . It was also used as a surface-to-surface weapon and was modified to destroy land-based radars.


title: Ramjet

text: Using the technology proven by the AQM-60, In the late 1950s and early 1960s the US produced a widespread defense system called the CIM-10 Bomarc, which was equipped with hundreds of nuclear armed ramjet missiles with a range of several hundred miles. It was powered by the same engines as the AQM-60, but with improved materials to withstand the longer flight times. The system was withdrawn in the 1970s as the threat from bombers was reduced.


title: Ramjet

text: In April 2020, the U.S. Department of Defense and the Norwegian Ministry of Defense jointly announced their partnership to develop advanced technologies applicable to long range high-speed and hypersonic weapons. The "Tactical High-speed Offensive Ramjet for Extended Range (THOR-ER)" program completed a solid fuel ramjet (SFRJ) vehicle test in August 2022.


title: Ramjet

text: A project called Blue Envoy was supposed to equip the country with a long range ramjet powered air defense against bombers, but the system was eventually cancelled.


title: Ramjet

text: It was replaced by a much shorter range ramjet missile system called the Bloodhound. The system was designed as a second line of defense in case attackers were able to bypass the fleet of defending English Electric Lightning fighters.


title: Ramjet

text: In the 1960s the Royal Navy developed and deployed a ramjet powered surface to air missile for ships called the Sea Dart. It had a range of and a speed of Mach 3. It was used successfully in combat against multiple types of aircraft during the Falklands War.


title: Ramjet

text: Eminent Swiss astrophysicist Fritz Zwicky was research director at Aerojet and holds many patents in jet propulsion. U.S. patents 5121670 and 4722261 are for ram accelerators. The U.S. Navy would not allow Fritz Zwicky to publicly discuss his own invention, U.S. Patent 2,461,797 for the Underwater Jet, a ram jet that performs in a fluid medium. "Time" magazine reported Fritz Zwicky's work in the articles "Missed Swiss" on 11 July 1955 and "Underwater Jet" in the 14 March 1949 issue.


title: Ramjet

text: In France, the works of René Leduc were notable. Leduc's Model, the Leduc 0.10 was one of the first ramjet-powered aircraft to fly, in 1949.


title: Ramjet

text: Air as it passes through a ramjet duct changes state (eg changes in temperature, pressure, volume) as it is compressed, heated and expanded in a thermodynamic cycle known as the Brayton cycle. This cycle also applies to the gas turbine engine. For a fixed amount of air its change in state is represented with pairs of quantities on diagrams, usually temperature~entropy or pressure~volume. The cycle is named after George Brayton, the American engineer who developed it, although it was originally proposed and patented by Englishman John Barber in 1791. It is also sometimes known as the Joule cycle.


title: Ramjet

text: The first part of a ramjet is its diffuser (compressor) in which the forward motion of the ramjet is used to raise the pressure of its working fluid (air) as required for the combustion of fuel. It is then passed through a nozzle to accelerate it to supersonic speeds. This acceleration gives the ramjet forward thrust.


title: Ramjet

text: A ramjet is much less complex than a turbojet in so far as it comprises an air intake, a combustor, and a nozzle but no turbomachinery. Normally, the only moving parts are those in the fuel pump, which sends the fuel to the spray nozzles in the combustor (liquid-fuel ramjet). Solid-fuel ramjets are simpler with no need for a fuel system.


title: Ramjet

text: By way of comparison, a turbojet uses a compressor driven by a turbine. This type of engine produces thrust when stationary because the high velocity air required to produce compressed air (i.e. ram air in a ramjet) is produced by the compressor itself (fast spinning rotor blades).


title: Ramjet

text: The diffuser is that part of the ramjet which converts the high velocity of the air approaching the intake into high (static) pressure required for combustion. High combustion pressures minimize wasted thermal energy which appears in the exhaust gases, (by reducing entropy rise during heat addition).


title: Ramjet

text: Subsonic and low-supersonic ramjets use a pitot-type entrance for the inlet to capture air. This is followed by a widening internal passage (subsonic diffuser) to achieve a lower subsonic velocity which is required at the combustor. At low supersonic speeds a normal (plane) shock wave forms in front of the inlet.


title: Ramjet

text: For higher supersonic speeds the pressure loss through a normal shock wave in front of the inlet becomes prohibitive and a protruding spike or cone has to be used to produce oblique shock waves in front of a final normal shock which now occurs at the inlet entrance lip. The diffuser in this case consists of two parts, the supersonic diffuser, with its shock waves external to the inlet, followed by the internal subsonic diffuser.


title: Ramjet

text: At higher speeds still, part of the supersonic diffusion has to take place internally so there are external and internal oblique shock waves. The final normal shock has to occur in the vicinity of a minimum flow area known as the throat, which is followed by the subsonic diffuser.


title: Ramjet

text: As with other jet engines, the combustor has to raise the temperature of the air by burning fuel. This takes place with a small pressure loss. The air velocity entering the combustor has to be low enough such that continuous combustion can take place in sheltered zones provided by flame holders.


title: Ramjet

text: Since there is no downstream turbine, a ramjet combustor can safely operate at stoichiometric fuel: air ratios, which implies a combustor exit stagnation temperature of the order of for kerosene. Normally, the combustor must be capable of operating over a wide range of throttle settings, for a range of flight speeds and altitudes. Usually, a sheltered pilot region enables combustion to continue when the vehicle intake undergoes high yaw/pitch during turns. Other flame stabilization techniques make use of flame holders, which vary in design from combustor cans to simple flat plates, to shelter the flame and improve fuel mixing. Over-fuelling the combustor can cause the final (normal) shock in the diffuser to be pushed forward beyond the intake lip, resulting in a substantial drop in engine airflow and thrust.


title: Ramjet

text: The propelling nozzle is a critical part of a ramjet design, since it accelerates exhaust flow to produce thrust.


title: Ramjet

text: Subsonic ramjets accelerate exhaust flow with a nozzle. Supersonic flight typically requires a convergent–divergent nozzle.


title: Ramjet

text: Although ramjets have been run as slow as , below about they give little thrust and are highly inefficient due to their low pressure ratios.


title: Ramjet

text: Above this speed, given sufficient initial flight velocity, a ramjet will be self-sustaining. Indeed, unless the vehicle drag is extremely high, the engine/airframe combination will tend to accelerate to higher and higher flight speeds, substantially increasing the air intake temperature. As this could have a detrimental effect on the integrity of the engine and/or airframe, the fuel control system must reduce engine fuel flow to stabilize the flight Mach number and, thereby, air intake temperature to reasonable levels.


title: Ramjet

text: Due to the stoichiometric combustion temperature, efficiency is usually good at high speeds (around ), whereas at low speeds the relatively poor pressure ratio means the ramjets are outperformed by turbojets, or even rockets.


title: Ramjet

text: In a liquid fuel ramjet (LFRJ), hydrocarbon fuel (typically) is injected into the combustor ahead of a flameholder which stabilises the flame resulting from the combustion of the fuel with the compressed air from the intake(s). A means of pressurizing and supplying the fuel to the ramcombustor is required, which can be complicated and expensive. Aérospatiale-Celerg designed an LFRJ where the fuel is forced into the injectors by an elastomer bladder which inflates progressively along the length of the fuel tank. Initially, the bladder forms a close-fitting sheath around the compressed air bottle from which it is inflated, which is mounted lengthwise in the tank. This offers a lower-cost approach than a regulated LFRJ requiring a turbopump and associated hardware to supply the fuel.


title: Ramjet

text: A ramjet generates no static thrust and needs a booster to achieve a forward velocity high enough for efficient operation of the intake system. The first ramjet-powered missiles used external boosters, usually solid-propellant rockets, either in tandem, where the booster is mounted immediately aft of the ramjet, e.g. Sea Dart, or wraparound where multiple boosters are attached alongside the outside of the ramjet, e.g. 2K11 Krug. The choice of booster arrangement is usually driven by the size of the launch platform. A tandem booster increases the overall length of the system, whereas wraparound boosters increase the overall diameter. Wraparound boosters will usually generate higher drag than a tandem arrangement.


title: Ramjet

text: Integrated boosters provide a more efficient packaging option, since the booster propellant is cast inside the otherwise empty combustor. This approach has been used on solid, for example 2K12 Kub, liquid, for example ASMP, and ducted rocket, for example Meteor, designs. Integrated designs are complicated by the different nozzle requirements of the boost and ramjet phases of flight. Due to the higher thrust levels of the booster, a differently shaped nozzle is required for optimum thrust compared to that required for the lower thrust ramjet sustainer. This is usually achieved via a separate nozzle, which is ejected after booster burnout. However, designs such as Meteor feature nozzleless boosters. This offers the advantages of elimination of the hazard to launch aircraft from the ejected boost nozzle debris, simplicity, reliability, and reduced mass and cost, although this must be traded against the reduction in performance compared with that provided by a dedicated booster nozzle.


title: Ramjet

text: A slight variation on the ramjet uses the supersonic exhaust from a rocket combustion process to compress and react with the incoming air in the main combustion chamber. This has the advantage of giving thrust even at zero speed.


title: Ramjet

text: In a solid fuel integrated rocket ramjet (SFIRR), the solid fuel is cast along the outer wall of the ramcombustor. In this case, fuel injection is through ablation of the propellant by the hot compressed air from the intake(s). An aft mixer may be used to improve combustion efficiency. SFIRRs are preferred over LFRJs for some applications because of the simplicity of the fuel supply, but only when the throttling requirements are minimal, i.e. when variations in altitude or Mach number are limited.


title: Ramjet

text: In a ducted rocket, a solid fuel gas generator produces a hot fuel-rich gas which is burnt in the ramcombustor with the compressed air supplied by the intake(s). The flow of gas improves the mixing of the fuel and air and increases total pressure recovery. In a throttleable ducted rocket, also known as a variable flow ducted rocket, a valve allows the gas generator exhaust to be throttled allowing control of the thrust. Unlike an LFRJ, solid propellant ramjets cannot flame out. The ducted rocket sits somewhere between the simplicity of the SFRJ and the unlimited throttleability of the LFRJ.


title: Ramjet

text: Ramjets generally give little or no thrust below about half the speed of sound, and they are inefficient (Specific Impulse of less than 600 seconds) until the airspeed exceeds due to low compression ratios.


title: Ramjet

text: Even above the minimum speed, a wide flight envelope (range of flight conditions), such as low to high speeds and low to high altitudes, can force significant design compromises, and they tend to work best optimised for one designed speed and altitude (point designs). However, ramjets generally outperform gas turbine-based jet engine designs and work best at supersonic speeds (Mach 2–4). Although inefficient at slower speeds, they are more fuel-efficient than rockets over their entire useful working range up to at least .


title: Ramjet

text: The performance of conventional ramjets falls off above Mach 6 due to dissociation and pressure loss caused by shock as the incoming air is slowed to subsonic velocities for combustion. In addition, the combustion chamber's inlet temperature increases to very high values, approaching the dissociation limit at some limiting Mach number.


title: Ramjet

text: An air turboramjet has a compressor powered by a gas heated via a heat exchanger within the combustion chamber.


title: Ramjet

text: Ramjet diffusers slow the incoming air to a subsonic velocity before it enters the combustor. Scramjets are similar to ramjets, but the air flows through the combustor at supersonic speed. This increases the stagnation pressure recovered from the freestream and improves net thrust. Thermal choking of the exhaust is avoided by having a relatively high supersonic air velocity at combustor entry. Fuel injection is often into a sheltered region below a step in the combustor wall. The Boeing X-43 was a small experimental ramjet which achieved for 200 seconds on the X-51A Waverider.


title: Ramjet

text: Standing oblique detonation ramjets (Sodramjets) replace the diffusive ramjet combustion with an oblique detonation. See also: Shcramjet


title: Ramjet

text: A variant of the pure ramjet is the 'combined cycle' engine, intended to overcome the limitations of the pure ramjet. One example of this is the SABRE engine; this uses a precooler, behind which is the ramjet and turbine machinery.


title: Ramjet

text: The ATREX engine developed in Japan is an experimental implementation of this concept. It uses liquid hydrogen fuel in a fairly exotic single-fan arrangement. The liquid hydrogen fuel is pumped through a heat exchanger in the air intake, simultaneously heating the liquid hydrogen and cooling the incoming air. This cooling of the incoming air is critical to achieving a reasonable efficiency. The hydrogen then continues through a second heat exchanger position after the combustion section, where the hot exhaust is used to further heat the hydrogen, turning it into a very high pressure gas. This gas is then passed through the tips of the fan to provide driving power to the fan at subsonic speeds. After mixing with the air, it is burned in the combustion chamber.


title: Ramjet

text: The Reaction Engines Scimitar has been proposed for the LAPCAT hypersonic airliner, and the Reaction Engines SABRE for the Reaction Engines Skylon spaceplane.


title: Ramjet

text: During the Cold War, the United States designed and ground-tested a nuclear-powered ramjet called Project Pluto. This system, intended for use in a cruise missile, used no combustion; a high-temperature, unshielded nuclear reactor heated the air instead. The ramjet was predicted to be able to fly at supersonic speeds for months. Because the reactor was unshielded, it was dangerous to anyone in or around the flight path of the low-flying vehicle (although the exhaust itself wasn't radioactive). The project was ultimately cancelled because ICBMs seemed to serve the purpose better.


title: Ramjet

text: The upper atmosphere above about contains monatomic oxygen produced by the sun through photochemistry. A concept was created by NASA for recombining this thin gas back to diatomic molecules at orbital speeds to power a ramjet.


title: Ramjet

text: The Bussard ramjet is a spacecraft propulsion concept intended to fuse interstellar wind and exhaust it at high speed from the rear of the vehicle.


title: Ramjet

text: An afterburning turbojet or bypass engine can be described as transitioning from turbo to ramjet mode if it can attain a flight speed at which the engine pressure ratio (epr) has fallen to one. The turbo afterburner then acts as a ramburner. The intake ram pressure is present at entry to the afterburner but is no longer augmented with a pressure rise from the turbomachinery. Further increase in speed introduces a pressure loss due to the presence of the turbomachinery as the epr drops below one.


title: Ramjet

text: A notable example was the propulsion system for the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird with an epr= 0.9 at Mach 3.2. The thrust required, airflow and exhaust temperature, to reach this speed came from a standard method for increasing airflow through a compressor running at low corrected speeds, compressor bleed, and being able to increase the afterburner temperature as a result of cooling the duct and nozzle using the air taken from the compressor rather than the usual, much hotter, turbine exhaust gas.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The Stanford marshmallow experiment was a study on delayed gratification in 1972 led by psychologist Walter Mischel, a professor at Stanford University. In this study, a child was offered a choice between one small but immediate reward, or two small rewards if they waited for a period of time. During this time, the researcher left the room for about 15 minutes and then returned. The reward was either a marshmallow or pretzel stick, depending on the child's preference. In follow-up studies, the researchers found that children who were able to wait longer for the preferred rewards tended to have better life outcomes, as measured by SAT scores, educational attainment, body mass index (BMI), and other life measures. A replication attempt with a sample from a more diverse population, over 10 times larger than the original study, showed only half the effect of the original study. The replication suggested that economic background, rather than willpower, explained the other half. The predictive power of the marshmallow test was challenged in a 2020 study.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The first experiment in delayed gratification was conducted by Walter Mischel and Ebbe B. Ebbesen at Stanford University in 1970. The purpose of the study was to understand when the control of delayed gratification, the ability to wait to obtain something that one wants, that develops in children. Most of the research conducted during that time was done with delayed rewards in areas such as time perspective and the delay of rewards, resistance to temptation, and psychological disturbances. Not many studies had been conducted in the area of human social behavior. The authors hypothesized that an increased salience of a reward would in turn increase the amount of time children would be able to delay gratification (or wait). Since the rewards were presented in front of them, children were reminded of why they were waiting. The attention on the reward (that was right in front of them) was supposed to make them wait longer (for the larger reward).


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The children were led into a room, empty of distractions, where a treat of their choice (either two animal cookies or five pretzel sticks) were placed on a table. The researchers let the children know they could eat the treat, but if they waited 15 minutes without giving in to the temptation, they would be rewarded with a second treat. Mischel and Ebbesen observed, "(some children) covered their eyes with their hands, rested their heads on their arms, and found other similar techniques for averting their eyes from the reward objects. Many seemed to try to reduce the frustration of delay of reward by generating their own diversions: they talked to themselves, sang, invented games with their hands and feet, and even tried to fall asleep while waiting - as one successfully did."


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: There were 32 children who were used as participants in this experiment consisting of 16 boys and 16 girls. The participants attended the Bing Nursery School of Stanford University. The children ranged in age from three years and six months, to five years and eight months. The median age was four years and six months. Three subjects were disqualified from the experiment because they were unable to understand the instructions and choices given by the experimenters.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The procedures were conducted by two experimenters. There was an opaque cake tin presented on a table in the experimental room. Under the cake tin, there were five pretzels and two animal cookies. There were two chairs in front of the table; on one chair was an empty cardboard box. Near the chair with the empty cardboard box, there were four battery operated toys on the floor. The experimenter pointed out the four toys before the child could play with the toys. The experimenter asked the child to sit in the chair and then demonstrated each toy briefly, and in a friendly manner said they would play with the toys later on. Then the experimenter placed each toy in the cardboard box and out of sight of the child. The experimenter explained to the child that he needed to leave the room, and if the child ate the pretzel, the experimenter would return to the room. These instructions were repeated until the child seemed to understand them completely. The experimenter left the room and waited for the child to eat the pretzel – they repeated this procedure four times.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: Then the experimenter returned to the experimental room and opened the cake tin to reveal two sets of rewards (in the form of edibles): five pretzels and two animal crackers. The experimenter asked the child which of the two they preferred. Once the child chose, the experimenter explained that the child could either continue to wait for the more preferred reward until the experimenter returned, or the child could stop waiting by bringing back the experimenter. If the child stopped waiting then the child would receive the less preferred reward and forgo the more preferred one.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: Depending on the condition and the child's choice of preferred reward, the experimenter picked up the cake tin and along with it either nothing, one of the rewards, or both. The experimenter returned either as soon as the child signaled him to do so or after 15 minutes.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The results indicated the exact opposite of what was originally predicted. Instead of the rewards serving as a cue to attend to possible delayed rewards, the rewards themselves served to increase the children's frustration and ultimately decreased the delay of gratification. The results seemed to indicate that "not" thinking about a reward enhances the ability to delay gratification, rather than focusing attention on the future reward.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The following study, conducted by Mischel, Ebbesen, and Zeiss (1972), is generally recognized as the Stanford marshmallow experiment due to its use of marshmallows as a preferred reward item. Building on information obtained in previous research regarding self-control, Mischel "et al" hypothesized that any activity that distracts a participant from the reward they are anticipating will increase the time of delay gratification. It was expected that overt activities, internal cognitions, and fantasies would help in this self-distraction. Through such distraction it was also hypothesized that the subject would be able to take the frustrative nature of the situation and convert it into one psychologically less aversive. To test their expectations, the researchers contrived three settings under which to test participants; an overt activity, a covert activity, or no activity at all.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: They predicted that under the overt and covert activities that delay of gratification should increase, while under the no activity setting it would decrease. To assess the children's ability to understand the instructions they were given, the experiment asked them three comprehension questions; "Can you tell me, which do you get to eat if you wait for me to come back by myself?", "But if you want to, how can you make me come back?", and "If you ring the bell and bring me back, then which do you get?" Three distinct experiments were conducted under multiple differing conditions.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The participants consisted of 50 children (25 boys and 25 girls) from the Bing Nursery School at Stanford University. They ranged in age from 3 years 6 months to 5 years 6 months. The mean age was 4 years 6 months. Six subjects were eliminated because they failed to comprehend the instructions given by the experimenters.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The procedures were conducted by one male and one female experimenter. During the test conditions the male experimenter conducted his session with 3 male and 2 female participants, while the female experimenter conducted her session with 3 female and 2 male participants. The small room where the tests were conducted contained a table equipped with a barrier between the experimenter and the child. On the table, behind the barrier, was a slinky toy along with an opaque cake tin that held a small marshmallow and pretzel stick. Next to the table equipped with the barrier there was another table that contained a box of battery- and hand-operated toys, which were visible to the child. Against one wall of the small room there was a chair, another table, and a desk bell.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: In experiment 1 the children were tested under the conditions of (1) waiting for delayed reward with an external distractor (toy), (2) waiting for delayed reward with an internal distractor (ideation), (3) waiting for a delayed reward (no distractor), (4) external distractor (toy) without delay-of-reward waiting contingency, and (5) internal distractor (ideation) without delay of reward contingency.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The participants consisted of 32 children from the Bing Nursery School of Stanford University. They ranged in age from 3 years 9 months to 5 years 3 months. The mean age was 4 years and 9 months. Six of the subjects were eliminated from the study because they failed to comprehend the instructions or because they ate one of the reward objects while waiting for the experimenter.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: Experiment 2 focused on how the substantive content of cognitions can affect subsequent delay behavior. The conditions in Experiment 2 were the same as in Experiment 1, with the exception that after the three comprehension questions were asked of the children the experimenter suggested ideas to think about while they were waiting. These suggestions are referred to as "think food rewards" instructions in the study. They were intended to induce in the subject various types of ideation during the delay-of-gratification period.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The participants consisted of 16 children (11 boys and 5 girls). They ranged in age from 3 years 5 months to 5 years 6 months. The mean age was 4 years 6 months.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: In experiment 3 all of the conditions and procedures were the same as in experiment 1 and experiment 2, except that the reward items were not visible to the children while they waited. In the previous experiments both of the reward objects were directly available to the children while they waited in the delay period. To achieve this change in condition the children were told that the food items needed to be kept fresh. The marshmallow and pretzel stick were then placed under the opaque cake tin and put under the table out of sight of the child. In this experiment the same "think food rewards" were given to the children as in experiment 2.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The three separate experiments demonstrate a number of significant findings. The effective delay of gratification depends heavily on the cognitive avoidance or suppression of the reward objects while waiting for them to be delivered. Additionally, when the children thought about the absent rewards, it was just as difficult to delay gratification as when the reward items were directly in front of them. Conversely, when the children in the experiment waited for the reward and it was not visibly present, they were able to wait longer and attain the preferred reward. The Stanford marshmallow experiment is important because it demonstrated that effective delay is not achieved by merely thinking about something other than what we want, but rather, it depends on suppressive and avoidance mechanisms that reduce frustration.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: The frustration of waiting for a desired reward is demonstrated nicely by the authors when describing the behavior of the children. "They made up quiet songs...hid their head in their arms, pounded the floor with their feet, fiddled playfully and teasingly with the signal bell, verbalized the contingency...prayed to the ceiling, and so on. In one dramatically effective self-distraction technique, after obviously experiencing much agitation, a little girl rested her head, sat limply, relaxed herself, and proceeded to fall sound asleep."


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: In follow-up studies, Mischel found unexpected correlations between the results of the marshmallow experiment and the success of the children many years later. The first follow-up study, in 1988, showed that "preschool children who delayed gratification longer in the self-imposed delay paradigm, were described more than 10 years later by their parents as adolescents who were significantly more competent."


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: A second follow-up study, in 1990, showed that the ability to delay gratification also correlated with higher SAT scores.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: A 2006 paper to which Mischel contributed reports a similar experiment, this time relating ability to delay in order to receive a cookie (at age 4) and reaction time on a go/no go task.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: A 2011 brain imaging study of a sample from the original Stanford participants when they reached mid-life showed key differences between those with high delay times and those with low delay times in two areas: the prefrontal cortex (more active in high delayers) and the ventral striatum, (more active in low delayers) when they were trying to control their responses to alluring temptations.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: A 2012 study at the University of Rochester (with a smaller N= 28) altered the experiment by dividing children into two groups: one group was given a broken promise before the marshmallow test was conducted (the unreliable tester group), and the second group had a fulfilled promise before their marshmallow test (the reliable tester group). The reliable tester group waited up to four times longer (12 min) than the unreliable tester group for the second marshmallow to appear. The authors argue that this calls into question the original interpretation of self-control as the critical factor in children's performance, since self-control should predict ability to wait, not strategic waiting when it makes sense. Prior to the marshmallow experiment at Stanford, Walter Mischel had shown that the child's belief that the promised delayed rewards would actually be delivered is an important determinant of the choice to delay, but his later experiments did not take this factor into account or control for individual variation in beliefs about reliability when reporting correlations with life successes.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: In the studies Mischel and his colleagues conducted at Stanford University, in order to establish trust that the experimenter would return, at the beginning of the "marshmallow test" children first engaged in a game in which they summoned the experimenter back by ringing a bell; the actual waiting portion of the experiment did not start until after the children clearly understood that the experimenter would keep the promise. Participants of the original studies at the Bing School at Stanford University appeared to have no doubt that they would receive a reward after waiting and chose to wait for the more desirable reward. However, Mischel's earlier studies showed there are many other situations in which children cannot be certain that they would receive the delayed outcome. In such situations, waiting for delayed rewards may not be an adaptive response.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: Watts, Duncan and Quan's 2018 conceptual replication yielded mostly statistically insignificant correlations with behavioral problems but a significant correlation with achievement tests at age 15. These effects were lower than in the original experiment and reduced further when controlling for early cognitive ability and behavior, family background, and home environment.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: A 2020 study at University of California showed that a reputation plays significant role in the experiment.


title: Stanford marshmallow experiment

text: In findings presented in the journal "Proceedings of the Royal Society B" in 2021, Marine Biological Laboratory, researchers described cuttlefish ("Sepia officinalis") that were able to pass an adapted version of the marshmallow test. Cephalopods engage in "future-oriented foraging" and the nine-month-old cuttlefish in the experiments were able to tolerate delays of 50 to 130 seconds, comparable to the performances of chimpanzees and crows. Individuals that had better self-control also demonstrated greater cognition in learning tests.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Mastan Mirza (1 March 1926 25 June 1994), popularly known as Haji Mastan or Sultan Mirza, was an Indian mafia gang leader, originally from Tamil Nadu and based in Bombay. He was one of an infamous trio of mafia gang leaders in Bombay for over two decades from the 1960s to the early 1980s, along with Karim Lala leader of the Pathan gang, and Varadarajan Mudaliar, another famous gang leader from Tamil Nadu in South India.


title: Haji Mastan

text: At his peak, Mastan operated a powerful smuggling syndicate in Mumbai and along the Gujarat coast and later diversified into film financing and real estate business.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Mastan was known to be a shrewd businessman and a cunning deal-maker. He always maintained friendly relations with the police and government officials and often promoted peace between rival gangs, and was good friends with Lala, Mudaliar, Hassan Patni and Shiv Sena supremo Bal Thackeray.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Very early in his career, Mastan realized the importance of being seen among famous personalities from politics and the film industry as a symbol of power. Therefore, he hobnobbed among the city's rich and famous and was frequently seen with Bollywood personalities at public functions.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Mastan was arguably the most influential mafia don of his time. He was also seen as a "style icon" by many due to his extravagant lifestyle including immaculate white clothes, white shoes, white Mercedes cars and expensive gold watches. Mastan flaunted an extravagant lifestyle to appear affluent and influential.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Haji Mastan was born in 1926 in a Tamil Muslim family in Panaikulam, an area mostly inhabited by Tamil Muslims in the Madras Presidency (modern-day Tamil Nadu) of British India. He lived in the coastal town of Cuddalore before migrating to Bombay with his father at the age of 8.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Mastan started doing odd jobs as a small boy in the famous Crawford Market and soon joined the docks and started working long hours there. During his early twenties, due to the high import duty on gold, people started smuggling gold from overseas. Working in the docks made it easy for him to participate in smuggling and soon Mastan started his own business. Mastan began making a decent sum of money by diverting his sectors into this business. At an early age he also went on Hajj.


title: Haji Mastan

text: Mastan joined hands with Sukkur Narayan Bakhia, a smuggler from Daman to control the illegal items smuggled into Mumbai and Daman from the countries in the Persian Gulf. Mastan purchased properties at various locations in South Bombay including a sea-facing bungalow at Peddar Road. He lived in a small room built on the roof of his bungalow.