title: FM broadcasting

text: Two musical programs, consisting of both the Red and Blue Network program feeds of the NBC Radio Network, were simultaneously transmitted using the same system of subcarrier modulation as part of a studio-to-transmitter link system. In April 1935, the AM subcarriers were replaced by FM subcarriers, with much improved results.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The first FM subcarrier transmissions emanating from Major Armstrong's experimental station KE2XCC at Alpine, New Jersey occurred in 1948. These transmissions consisted of two-channel audio programs, binaural audio programs and a fax program. The original subcarrier frequency used at KE2XCC was 27.5 kHz. The IF bandwidth was ±5 kHz, as the only goal at the time was to relay AM radio-quality audio. This transmission system used 75 µs audio pre-emphasis like the main monaural audio and subsequently the multiplexed stereo audio.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In the late 1950s, several systems to add stereo to FM radio were considered by the FCC. Included were systems from 14 proponents including Crosby, Halstead, Electrical and Musical Industries, Ltd (EMI), Zenith, and General Electric. The individual systems were evaluated for their strengths and weaknesses during field tests in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, using KDKA-FM in Pittsburgh as the originating station. The Crosby system was rejected by the FCC because it was incompatible with existing subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) services which used various subcarrier frequencies including 41 and 67 kHz. Many revenue-starved FM stations used SCAs for "storecasting" and other non-broadcast purposes. The Halstead system was rejected due to lack of high frequency stereo separation and reduction in the main channel signal-to-noise ratio. The GE and Zenith systems, so similar that they were considered theoretically identical, were formally approved by the FCC in April 1961 as the standard stereo FM broadcasting method in the United States and later adopted by most other countries. It is important that stereo broadcasts be compatible with mono receivers. For this reason, the left (L) and right (R) channels are algebraically encoded into sum (L+R) and difference (L−R) signals. A mono receiver will use just the L+R signal so the listener will hear both channels through the single loudspeaker. A stereo receiver will add the difference signal to the sum signal to recover the left channel, and subtract the difference signal from the sum to recover the right channel.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The (L+R) signal is limited to 30 Hz to 15 kHz to protect a 19 kHz pilot signal. The (L−R) signal, which is also limited to 15 kHz, is amplitude modulated onto a 38 kHz double-sideband suppressed-carrier (DSB-SC) signal, thus occupying 23 kHz to 53 kHz. A 19 kHz ± 2 Hz pilot tone, at exactly half the 38 kHz sub-carrier frequency and with a precise phase relationship to it, as defined by the formula below, is also generated. The pilot is transmitted at 8–10% of overall modulation level and used by the receiver to identify a stereo transmission and to regenerate the 38 kHz sub-carrier with the correct phase. The composite stereo multiplex signal contains the Main Channel (L+R), the pilot tone, and the (L−R) difference signal. This composite signal, along with any other sub-carriers, modulates the FM transmitter. The terms composite, multiplex and even MPX are used interchangeably to describe this signal.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The instantaneous deviation of the transmitter carrier frequency due to the stereo audio and pilot tone (at 10% modulation) is


title: FM broadcasting

text: where A and B are the pre-emphasized left and right audio signals and formula_2=19 kHz is the frequency of the pilot tone. Slight variations in the peak deviation may occur in the presence of other subcarriers or because of local regulations.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Another way to look at the resulting signal is that it alternates between left and right at 38 kHz, with the phase determined by the 19 kHz pilot signal. Most stereo encoders use this switching technique to generate the 38 kHz subcarrier, but practical encoder designs need to incorporate circuitry to deal with the switching harmonics. Converting the multiplex signal back into left and right audio signals is performed by a decoder, built into stereo receivers. Again, the decoder can use a switching technique to recover the left and right channels.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In addition, for a given RF level at the receiver, the signal-to-noise ratio and multipath distortion for the stereo signal will be worse than for the mono receiver. For this reason many stereo FM receivers include a stereo/mono switch to allow listening in mono when reception conditions are less than ideal, and most car radios are arranged to reduce the separation as the signal-to-noise ratio worsens, eventually going to mono while still indicating a stereo signal is being received. As with monaural transmission, it is normal practice to apply pre-emphasis to the left and right channels before encoding and to apply de-emphasis at the receiver after decoding.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In the U.S. around 2010, using single-sideband modulation for the stereo subcarrier was proposed. It was theorized to be more spectrum-efficient and to produce a 4 dB s/n improvement at the receiver, and it was claimed that multipath distortion would be reduced as well. A handful of radio stations around the country broadcast stereo in this way, under FCC experimental authority. It may not be compatible with very old receivers, but it is claimed that no difference can be heard with most newer receivers. At present, the FCC rules do not allow this mode of stereo operation.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In 1969, Louis Dorren invented the Quadraplex system of single station, discrete, compatible four-channel FM broadcasting. There are two additional subcarriers in the Quadraplex system, supplementing the single one used in standard stereo FM. The baseband layout is as follows:


title: FM broadcasting

text: The normal stereo signal can be considered as switching between left and right channels at 38 kHz, appropriately band-limited. The quadraphonic signal can be considered as cycling through LF, LR, RF, RR, at 76 kHz.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Early efforts to transmit discrete four-channel quadraphonic music required the use of two FM stations; one transmitting the front audio channels, the other the rear channels. A breakthrough came in 1970 when KIOI ("K-101") in San Francisco successfully transmitted true quadraphonic sound from a single FM station using the Quadraplex system under Special Temporary Authority from the FCC. Following this experiment, a long-term test period was proposed that would permit one FM station in each of the top 25 U.S. radio markets to transmit in Quadraplex. The test results hopefully would prove to the FCC that the system was compatible with existing two-channel stereo transmission and reception and that it did not interfere with adjacent stations.


title: FM broadcasting

text: There were several variations on this system submitted by GE, Zenith, RCA, and Denon for testing and consideration during the National Quadraphonic Radio Committee field trials for the FCC. The original Dorren Quadraplex System outperformed all the others and was chosen as the national standard for Quadraphonic FM broadcasting in the United States. The first commercial FM station to broadcast quadraphonic program content was WIQB (now called WWWW-FM) in Ann Arbor/Saline, Michigan under the guidance of Chief Engineer Brian Jeffrey Brown.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Various attempts to add analog noise reduction to FM broadcasting were carried out in the 1970s and 1980s:


title: FM broadcasting

text: A commercially unsuccessful noise reduction system used with FM radio in some countries during the late 1970s, Dolby FM was similar to Dolby B but used a modified 25 µs pre-emphasis time constant and a frequency selective companding arrangement to reduce noise. The pre-emphasis change compensates for the excess treble response that otherwise would make listening difficult for those without Dolby decoders.


title: FM broadcasting

text: A similar system named High Com FM was tested in Germany between July 1979 and December 1981 by IRT. It was based on the Telefunken High Com broadband compander system, but was never introduced commercially in FM broadcasting.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Yet another system was the CX-based noise reduction system FMX implemented in some radio broadcasting stations in the United States in the 1980s.


title: FM broadcasting

text: FM broadcasting has included subsidiary communications authorization (SCA) services capability since its inception, as it was seen as another service which licensees could use to create additional income. Use of SCAs was particularly popular in the US, but much less so elsewhere. Uses for such subcarriers include radio reading services for the blind, which became common and remain so, private data transmission services (for example sending stock market information to stockbrokers or stolen credit card number denial lists to stores,) subscription commercial-free background music services for shops, paging ("beeper") services, non-native-language programming, and providing a program feed for AM transmitters of AM/FM stations. SCA subcarriers are typically 67 kHz and 92 kHz. Initially the users of SCA services were private analog audio channels which could be used internally or leased, for example Muzak-type services. There were experiments with quadraphonic sound. If a station does not broadcast in stereo, everything from 23 kHz on up can be used for other services. The guard band around 19 kHz (±4 kHz) must still be maintained, so as not to trigger stereo decoders on receivers. If there is stereo, there will typically be a guard band between the upper limit of the DSBSC stereo signal (53 kHz) and the lower limit of any other subcarrier.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Digital services are now also available. A 57 kHz subcarrier (phase locked to the third harmonic of the stereo pilot tone) is used to carry a low-bandwidth digital Radio Data System signal, providing extra features such as station name, Alternative Frequency (AF), traffic data for commercial GPS receivers and Radio text (RT). This narrowband signal runs at only 1,187.5 bits per second, thus is only suitable for text. A few proprietary systems are used for private communications. A variant of RDS is the North American RBDS or "smart radio" system. In Germany the analog ARI system was used prior to RDS to alert motorists that traffic announcements were being broadcast (without disturbing other listeners). Plans to use ARI for other European countries led to the development of RDS as a more powerful system. RDS is designed to be capable of being used alongside ARI despite using identical subcarrier frequencies.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In the United States and Canada, digital radio services are being deployed within the FM band rather than using Eureka 147 or the Japanese standard ISDB. This in-band on-channel approach, as do all digital radio techniques, makes use of advanced compressed audio. The proprietary iBiquity system, branded as "HD Radio", currently is authorized for "hybrid" mode operation, wherein both the conventional analog FM carrier and digital sideband subcarriers are transmitted. Eventually, presuming widespread deployment of HD Radio receivers, the analog services could theoretically be discontinued and the FM band become all digital.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The output power of an FM broadcasting transmitter is one of the parameters that governs how far a transmission will cover. The other important parameters are the height of the transmitting antenna and the Antenna gain. Transmitter powers should be carefully chosen so that the required area is covered without causing interference to other stations further away. Practical transmitter powers range from a few milliwatts to 80 kW. As transmitter powers increase above a few kilowatts, the operating costs become high and only viable for large stations. The efficiency of larger transmitters is now better than 70% (AC power in to RF power out) for FM-only transmission. This compares to 50% before high efficiency switch-mode power supplies and LDMOS amplifiers were used. Efficiency drops dramatically if any digital HD Radio service is added.


title: FM broadcasting

text: VHF radio waves usually do not travel far beyond the visual horizon, so reception distances for FM stations are typically limited to . They can also be blocked by hills and to a lesser extent by buildings. Individuals with more-sensitive receivers or specialized antenna systems, or who are located in areas with more favorable topography, may be able to receive useful FM broadcast signals at considerably greater distances.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The knife edge effect can permit reception where there is no direct line of sight between broadcaster and receiver. The reception can vary considerably depending on the position. One example is the Učka mountain range, which makes constant reception of Italian signals from Veneto and Marche possible in a good portion of Rijeka, Croatia, despite the distance being over 200 km (125 miles). Other radio propagation effects such as tropospheric ducting and Sporadic E can occasionally allow distant stations to be intermittently received over very large distances (hundreds of miles), but cannot be relied on for commercial broadcast purposes. Good reception across the country, is one of the main advantages over DAB/+ radio.


title: FM broadcasting

text: This is still less than the range of AM radio waves, which because of their lower frequencies can travel as ground waves or reflect off the ionosphere, so AM radio stations can be received at hundreds (sometimes thousands) of miles. This is a property of the carrier wave's typical frequency (and power), not its mode of modulation.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The range of FM transmission is related to the transmitter's RF power, the antenna gain, and antenna height. Interference from other stations is also a factor in some places. In the U.S, the FCC publishes curves that aid in calculation of this maximum distance as a function of signal strength at the receiving location. Computer modelling is more commonly used for this around the world.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Many FM stations, especially those located in severe multipath areas, use extra audio compression/processing to keep essential sound above the background noise for listeners, often at the expense of overall perceived sound quality. In such instances, however, this technique is often surprisingly effective in increasing the station's useful range.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The first radio station to broadcast in FM in Brazil was Rádio Imprensa, which began broadcasting in Rio de Janeiro in 1955, on the 102.1 MHz frequency, founded by businesswoman Anna Khoury. Due to the high import costs of FM radio receivers, transmissions were carried out in circuit closed to businesses and stores, which played ambient music offered by radio. Until 1976, Rádio Imprensa was the only station operating in FM in Brazil. From the second half of the 1970s onwards, FM radio stations began to become popular in Brazil, causing AM radio to gradually lose popularity.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In 2021, the Brazilian Ministry of Communications expanded the FM radio band from 87.5-108.0 MHz to 76.1-108.0 MHz to enable the migration of AM radio stations in Brazilian capitals and large cities.


title: FM broadcasting

text: FM broadcasting began in the late 1930s, when it was initiated by a handful of early pioneer stations including W1XOJ/W43B/WGTR (shut down in 1953) and W1XTG/WSRS, both transmitting from Paxton, Massachusetts (now listed as Worcester, Massachusetts); W1XSL/W1XPW/W65H/WDRC-FM/WFMQ/WHCN, Meriden, Connecticut; and W2XMN, KE2XCC, and WFMN, Alpine, New Jersey (owned by Edwin Armstrong himself, closed down upon Armstrong's death in 1954). Also of note were General Electric stations W2XDA Schenectady and W2XOY New Scotland, New York—two experimental FM transmitters on 48.5 MHz—which signed on in 1939. The two began regular programming, as W2XOY, on November 20, 1940. Over the next few years this station operated under the call signs W57A, W87A and WGFM, and moved to 99.5 MHz when the FM band was relocated to the 88–108 MHz portion of the radio spectrum. General Electric sold the station in the 1980s. Today this station is WRVE.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Other pioneers included W2XQR/W59NY/WQXQ/WQXR-FM, New York; W47NV/WSM-FM Nashville, Tennessee (signed off in 1951); W1XER/W39B/WMNE, with studios in Boston and later Portland, Maine, but whose transmitter was atop the highest mountain in the northeast United States, Mount Washington, New Hampshire (shut down in 1948); and W9XAO/W55M/WTMJ-FM Milwaukee, Wisconsin (went off air in 1950).


title: FM broadcasting

text: A commercial FM broadcasting band was formally established in the United States as of January 1, 1941, but initially the stations primarily simulcast their AM sister stations, in addition to broadcasting lush orchestral music for stores and offices, classical music to an upmarket listenership in urban areas, and educational programming.


title: FM broadcasting

text: On June 27, 1945 the FCC announced the reassignment of the FM band to 80 channels from 88–106 MHz (which was soon expanded to 100 channels from 88–108 MHz). In 1961 WEFM (in the Chicago area) and WGFM (in Schenectady, New York) were reported as the first stereo stations. By the late 1960s, FM had been adopted for broadcast of stereo "A.O.R.—'Album Oriented Rock' Format", but it was not until 1978 that listenership to FM stations exceeded that of AM stations in North America. During the 1980s and 1990s, Top 40 music stations and later even country music stations largely abandoned AM for FM. Today AM is mainly the preserve of talk radio, news, sports, religious programming, ethnic (minority language) broadcasting and some types of minority interest music. This shift has transformed AM into the "alternative band" that FM once was. (Some AM stations have begun to simulcast on, or switch to, FM signals to attract younger listeners and aid reception problems in buildings, during thunderstorms, and near high-voltage wires. Some of these stations now emphasize their presence on the FM band.)


title: FM broadcasting

text: The medium wave band (known as the "AM" band because most stations using it employ amplitude modulation) was overcrowded in western Europe, leading to interference problems and, as a result, many MW frequencies are suitable only for speech broadcasting.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark and particularly Germany were among the first countries to adopt FM on a widespread scale. Among the reasons for this were:


title: FM broadcasting

text: Public service broadcasters in Ireland and Australia were far slower at adopting FM radio than those in either North America or continental Europe.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Hans Idzerda operated a broadcasting station, PCGG, at The Hague from 1919 to 1924, which employed narrow-band FM transmissions.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In the United Kingdom the BBC conducted tests during the 1940s, then began FM broadcasting in 1955, with three national networks: the Light Programme, Third Programme and Home Service. These three networks used the sub-band 88.0–94.6 MHz. The sub-band 94.6–97.6 MHz was later used for BBC and local commercial services.


title: FM broadcasting

text: However, only when commercial broadcasting was introduced to the UK in 1973 did the use of FM pick up in Britain. With the gradual clearance of other users (notably Public Services such as police, fire and ambulance) and the extension of the FM band to 108.0 MHz between 1980 and 1995, FM expanded rapidly throughout the British Isles and effectively took over from LW and MW as the delivery platform of choice for fixed and portable domestic and vehicle-based receivers. In addition, Ofcom (previously the Radio Authority) in the UK issues on demand Restricted Service Licences on FM and also on AM (MW) for short-term local-coverage broadcasting which is open to anyone who does not carry a prohibition and can put up the appropriate licensing and royalty fees. In 2010 around 450 such licences were issued.


title: FM broadcasting

text: When the BBC's radio networks were renamed Radio 2, Radio 3 and Radio 4 respectively in 1967 to coincide with the launch of Radio 1, the new station was the only one of the main four to not have an FM frequency allocated, which was the case for 21 years. Instead, Radio 1 shared airtime with Radio 2 FM, on Saturday afternoons, Sunday evenings, weekday evenings (10pm to midnight) and Bank Holidays, eventually having its own FM frequency starting in London in October 1987 on 104.8 MHz at Crystal Palace. Eventually in 1987 a frequency range of 97.6-99.8 MHz was allocated as police relay transmitters were moved from the 100 MHz frequency, starting in London before being broadly completed by 1989, where Radio 1 in London moved from the latter frequency to 98.8 MHz to the BBC's Wrotham transmitter. This followed the BBC Radio 1 FM frequencies being rolled out to the rest of the UK.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Italy adopted FM broadcast widely in the early 1970s, but first experiments made by RAI dated back to 1950, when the "movement for free radio", developed by so-called "pirates", forced the recognition of free speech rights also through the use of "free radio media such as Broadcast transmitters", and took the case to the Constitutional Court of Italy. The court finally decided in favor of Free Radio. Just weeks after the court's final decision there was an "FM radio boom" involving small private radio stations across the country. By the mid-1970s, every city in Italy had a crowded FM radio spectrum.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Greece was another European country where the FM radio spectrum was used at first by the so-called "pirates" (both in Athens and Thessaloniki, the two major Greek cities) in the mid-1970s, before any national stations had started broadcasting on it; there were many AM (MW) stations in use for the purpose. No later than the end of 1977, the national public service broadcasting company EIRT (later also known as ERT) placed in service its first FM transmitter in the capital, Athens. By the end of the 1970s, most of Greek territory was covered by three National FM programs, and every city had many FM "pirates" as well.


title: FM broadcasting

text: FM broadcasting started in Australian capital cities in 1947 on an "experimental" basis, using an ABC national network feed, consisting largely of classical music and Parliament, as a programme source. It had a very small audience and was shut down in 1961 ostensibly to clear the television band: TV channel 5 (102.250 video carrier) if allocated would fall within the VHF FM band (98–108 MHz). The official policy on FM at the time was to eventually introduce it on another band, which would have required FM tuners custom-built for Australia. This policy was finally reversed and FM broadcasting was reopened in 1975 using the VHF band, after the few encroaching TV stations had been moved. Subsequently, it developed steadily until in the 1980s many AM stations transferred to FM due to its superior sound quality and lower operating costs. Today, as elsewhere in the developed world, most urban Australian broadcasting is on FM, although AM talk stations are still very popular. Regional broadcasters still commonly operate AM stations due to the additional range the broadcasting method offers. Some stations in major regional centres simulcast on AM and FM bands. Digital radio using the DAB+ standard has been rolled out to capital cities.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Like Australia, New Zealand adopted the FM format relatively late. As was the case with privately owned AM radio in the late 1960s, it took a spate of 'pirate' broadcasters to persuade a control-oriented, technology-averse government to allow FM to be introduced after at least five years of consumer campaigning starting in the mid-1970s, particularly in Auckland. An experimental FM station, FM 90.7, was broadcast in Whakatane in early 1982. Later that year, Victoria University of Wellington's Radio Active began full-time FM transmissions. Commercial FM licences were finally approved in 1983, with Auckland-based 91FM and 89FM being the first to take up the offer. Broadcasting was deregulated in 1989.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Like many other countries in Africa and Asia that drive on the left, New Zealand imports vehicles from Japan. The standard radios in these vehicles operate on 76-to-90 MHz, which is not compatible with the 88-to-108 MHz range. Imported cars with Japanese radios can have FM expanders installed which down-convert the higher frequencies above 90 MHz. New Zealand has no indigenous car manufacturers.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Trinidad and Tobago's first FM Radio station was 95.1FM, now rebranded as 951 Remix, was launched in March 1976 by the TBC Radio Network.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In Turkey, FM broadcasting began in the late 1960s, carrying several shows from the One television network which was transferred from the AM frequency (also known as MW in Turkey). In subsequent years, more MW stations were slowly transferred to FM, and by the end of the 1970s, most radio stations that were previously on MW had been moved to FM, though many talk, news and sport, but mostly religious stations, still remain on MW.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Most other countries implemented FM broadcasting through the 1960s and expanded their use of FM through the 1990s. Because it takes a large number of FM transmitting stations to cover a geographically large country, particularly where there are terrain difficulties, FM is more suited to local broadcasting than for national networks. In such countries, particularly where there are economic or infrastructural problems, "rolling out" a national FM broadcast network to reach the majority of the population can be a slow and expensive process. Despite this, mostly in east European countries, national FM broadcast networks were established in the late 1960s and 1970s. In all Soviet-dependent countries but GDR, the OIRT band was used. First restricted to 68–73 MHz with 100 kHz channel spacing, then in the 1970s eventually expanded to 65.84–74.00 MHz with 30 kHz channel spacing.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The use of FM for domestic radio encouraged listeners to acquire cheap FM-only receivers and so reduced the number able to listen to longer-range AM foreign broadcasters. Similar considerations led to domestic radio in South Africa switching to FM in the 1960s.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The frequencies available for FM were decided by some important conferences of ITU. The milestone of those conferences is the Stockholm agreement of 1961 among 38 countries. A 1984 conference in Geneva made some modifications to the original Stockholm agreement particularly in the frequency range above 100 MHz.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In 2017, Norway became the first country so far to completely switch to Digital audio broadcasting, the exception being some local stations remaining on FM until 2022, and might be extended to 2031. The switchover to DAB+ meant that especially rural areas obtained a far more diverse radio content compared to the FM-only period; several new radio stations had started transmissions on DAB+ in the years before the FM switch-off.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In some countries, small-scale (Part 15 in United States terms) transmitters are available that can transmit a signal from an audio device (usually an MP3 player or similar) to a standard FM radio receiver; such devices range from small units built to carry audio to a car radio with no audio-in capability (often formerly provided by special adapters for audio cassette decks, which are no longer common on car radio designs) up to full-sized, near-professional-grade broadcasting systems that can be used to transmit audio throughout a property. Most such units transmit in full stereo, though some models designed for beginner hobbyists might not. Similar transmitters are often included in satellite radio receivers and some toys.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Legality of these devices varies by country. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission and Industry Canada allow them. Starting on 1 October 2006, these devices became legal in most countries in the European Union. Devices made to the harmonised European specification became legal in the UK on 8 December 2006.


title: FM broadcasting

text: The FM broadcast band is also used by some inexpensive wireless microphones sold as toys for karaoke or similar purposes, allowing the user to use an FM radio as an output rather than a dedicated amplifier and speaker. Professional-grade wireless microphones generally use bands in the UHF region so they can run on dedicated equipment without broadcast interference.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Some wireless headphones transmit in the FM broadcast band, with the headphones tunable to only a subset of the broadcast band. Higher-quality wireless headphones use infrared transmission or UHF ISM bands such as 315 MHz, 863 MHz, 915 MHz, or 2.4 GHz instead of the FM broadcast band.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Some assistive listening devices are based on FM radio, mostly using the 72.1 to 75.8 MHz band. Aside from the assisted listening receivers, only certain kinds of FM receivers can tune to this band.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Low-power transmitters such as those mentioned above are also sometimes used for neighborhood or campus radio stations, though campus radio stations are often run over carrier current. This is generally considered a form of microbroadcasting. As a general rule, enforcement towards low-power FM stations is stricter than with AM stations, due to problems such as the capture effect, and as a result, FM microbroadcasters generally do not reach as far as their AM competitors.


title: FM broadcasting

text: FM transmitters have been used to construct miniature wireless microphones for espionage and surveillance purposes (covert listening devices or so-called "bugs"); the advantage to using the FM broadcast band for such operations is that the receiving equipment would not be considered particularly suspect. Common practice is to tune the bug's transmitter off the ends of the broadcast band, into what in the United States would be TV channel 6 (<87.9 MHz) or aviation navigation frequencies (>107.9 MHz); most FM radios with analog tuners have sufficient overcoverage to pick up these slightly-beyond-outermost frequencies, although many digitally tuned radios have not.


title: FM broadcasting

text: Constructing a "bug" is a common early project for electronics hobbyists, and project kits to do so are available from a wide variety of sources. The devices constructed, however, are often too large and poorly shielded for use in clandestine activity.


title: FM broadcasting

text: In addition, much pirate radio activity is broadcast in the FM range, because of the band's greater clarity and listenership, the smaller size and lower cost of equipment.


title: Amy Robach

text: Amy Joanne Robach (born February 6, 1973) is an American television reporter for ABC News. She is the co-anchor of "20/20" and the breaking news anchor/fill-in anchor for "Good Morning America". She was a national correspondent for NBC News, co-host of the Saturday edition of NBC's "Today", and anchor on MSNBC. Since May 2018, she has been the co-anchor of "20/20" alongside David Muir.


title: Amy Robach

text: Born in St. Joseph, Michigan, Robach grew up in East Lansing, Michigan, before moving to St. Louis, Missouri. Her family moved again to Georgia, where she attended high school and college. She graduated from Brookwood High School in Snellville, Georgia, and from the University of Georgia with high honors in broadcast journalism. She was 4th runner-up in the 1995 Miss Georgia pageant.


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach started her career at WCBD in 1995. Robach then left the station in 1999, and started working at WTTG in Washington, D.C., then moved to MSNBC in 2003 where she spent four years, including a stint anchoring two hours in the morning, and filling in on "Weekend Today", "Countdown with Keith Olbermann" and "Morning Joe". She was named co-anchor of "Weekend Today" in July 2007. Her last day on "Weekend Today" was May 19, 2012, when she announced she would be moving to ABC News.


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach initially appeared on ABC's "Good Morning America" as a correspondent. She became the show's news anchor on March 31, 2014. In 2018, Robach became the new co-anchor of "20/20" .


title: Amy Robach

text: In March 2020, Robach began hosting "" on ABC, a daytime program initially focused on the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, and airing in place of "". The program later replaced "Strahan, Sara & Keke" indefinitely as "GMA3: What You Need to Know", with Robach continuing as host. Robach was removed from "GMA3" in December 2022 after it was revealed that she was having an affair with her married co-anchor T. J. Holmes.


title: Amy Robach

text: On November 2, 2019, Project Veritas released a late August 2019 "hot mic" incident in which Robach discusses ABC shutting down her story on billionaire convicted sex offender and accused sex trafficker Jeffrey Epstein in 2015. Robach's comments came just two days after an NPR story disclosed the existence of an on-camera interview with Virginia Roberts Giuffre and ABC's failure to broadcast it. Giuffre says she was sexually trafficked by Epstein to powerful men including Prince Andrew, Duke of York — a claim the Duke has strenuously denied. In a "hot mic" video, Robach was recorded on set for ABC's "Good Morning America" voicing the following statements:


title: Amy Robach

text: "I've had the story for three years," Robach says in the video. "We would not put it on the air. Um, first of all, I was told, 'Who was Jeffrey Epstein? No one knows who that is. This is a stupid story.' Then the palace found out that we had her whole allegations about Prince Andrew and threatened us a million different ways." Robach goes on to say that Giuffre alluded to others in the interview, including former President Bill Clinton, Harvard University law professor emeritus Alan Dershowitz and Epstein's former girlfriend, Ghislaine Maxwell. Giuffre has made similar accusations against all of them also in court documents. (All deny any wrongdoing or involvement in Epstein's sex trafficking.) Giuffre has said in court papers that she saw Clinton in Epstein's presence but did not witness Clinton participate in any sexual activity.


title: Amy Robach

text: "I tried for three years to get it out to no avail, and now these new revelations and — I freaking had all of it," Robach says on the tape. "I'm so pissed right now. Like, every day I get more and more pissed, 'cause I'm just like, 'Oh my God! It was — what we had, was unreal.' "


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach further stated: “One of the reasons an interview with Roberts was not broadcast was because, we were so afraid we wouldn’t be able to interview Kate and Will, so I think that had also quashed the story.”


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach responded to the leaked video with this statement: "As a journalist, as the Epstein story continued to unfold last summer, I was caught in a private moment of frustration. I was upset that an important interview I had conducted with Virginia Roberts didn’t air because we could not obtain sufficient corroborating evidence to meet ABC’s editorial standards about her allegations. My comments about Prince Andrew and her allegation that she had seen Bill Clinton on Epstein's private island were in reference to what Virginia Roberts said in that interview in 2015. I was referencing her allegations—not what ABC News had verified through our reporting. The interview itself, while I was disappointed it didn't air, didn't meet our standards. In the years since, no one ever told me or the team to stop reporting on Jeffrey Epstein, and we have continued to aggressively pursue this important story."


title: Amy Robach

text: ABC News issued a statement, asserting: "At the time, not all of our reporting met our standards to air, but we have never stopped investigating the story. Ever since, we’ve had a team on this investigation and substantial resources dedicated to it. That work has led to a two-hour documentary and 6-part podcast that will air in the new year."


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach is a cousin of former "Nashville Star" contestant Matt Lindahl. Her aunt and uncle were performing-arts teachers at her high school.


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach was married to Tim McIntosh from 1996 until filing for an uncontested divorce in 2008. They have two daughters, Ava (2002) and Analise (2006).


title: Amy Robach

text: Robach became engaged to former "Melrose Place" star Andrew Shue in September 2009, after meeting him at a book party the previous April. They were married on Robach's 37th birthday, February 6, 2010, at The Lighthouse at Chelsea Piers, adjacent to the Hudson River. It was reported she and Shue separated in August 2022 before Robach's relationship with her "GMA3" co-anchor T. J. Holmes was publicly disclosed.


title: Amy Robach

text: On November 11, 2013, Robach revealed on "Good Morning America" that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer after receiving a mammogram on live television on October 1, 2013, and after undergoing follow-up tests. She took time off from broadcasting to undergo a bilateral mastectomy. On November 22, 2013, Robach revealed that during the surgery, doctors found a second malignant tumor in her other breast and that the cancer had spread to her lymph nodes (classified as Stage IIB). She then underwent eight rounds of chemotherapy, radiation and reconstructive surgery. As of March 2022, Robach was cancer free.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan Company Limited is an Indian company that mainly manufactures fashion accessories such as jewellery, watches and eyewear. Part of the Tata Group and started as a joint venture with the TIDCO, the company has its corporate headquarters in Electronic City, Bangalore, and registered office in Hosur, Tamil Nadu.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan company commenced operations in 1984 under the name Titan Watches Limited. In 1994, Titan diversified into jewellery with Tanishq and subsequently into eyewear with Titan Eyeplus. In 2005, it launched its youth fashion accessories brand Fastrack. The company is the largest branded jewellery maker in India, with more than 80% of its total revenues coming from the jewellery segment. As of 2022, Titan has a 6% market share in India's jewellery market. As of 2019, it is also the fifth-largest watch manufacturer in the world.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan Company Limited was inaugurated on 26 July 1984 under the name Titan Watches Limited in Chennai. A plant was set up to manufacture quartz analog electronic watches in the State Industries Promotion Corporation of Tamil Nadu, Ltd. Industrial area at Hosur. In November 1986, Titan Company and Casio signed a MoU proposing to manufacture 2 million digital and analog-digital watches. In 1989, a satellite case plant was set up in Dehradun, Uttarakhand at present with a manufacturing capacity of 500,000 watch cases annually.


title: Titan Company

text: In September 1993, the company changed its name to Titan Industries Ltd. as it ventured into other range of products other than watches.


title: Titan Company

text: In 1998, the company launched its watch & accessories brand, Fastrack, targeted at a younger audience in a bid to compete with Timex.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2001, Titan launched kids’ watches brand, Dash. The brand saw poor performance and was discontinued in 2003. In 2004, the company entered into an agreement with Moet Hennessy Louis Vuitton Group, to service the latter's range of watches in India through its customer care centres. In 2005, Fastrack was positioned as an independent accessory brand targeting the urban youth. With the objective to become a fashion brand, Fastrack launched sunglasses in the same year and launched bags, belts and wallets in 2009.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan acquired Swiss watch maker Favre-Leuba in 2011 to enter the European market. In 2013, Titan entered the fragrances segment with the brand Skinn and later that year, it ventured into the helmets category under its brand Fastrack. In the same year, it changed its name to Titan Company Ltd. In 2014, it entered into a joint venture with Montblanc to establish its retail stores in India.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2016, Titan opened prescription lens manufacturing facilities in Noida, Kolkata, and Mumbai to improve its order processing time. In 2018, Titan merged its jewellery brand, Gold Plus targeted at customers in South India with Tanishq to establish the brand's presence in South.


title: Titan Company

text: Taneira is an ethnic wear brand from Titan that retails hand-woven sarees from different weaving clusters of India.  The brand was launched in 2016.  The first retail store was opened in Bengaluru in 2017 with more stores followed in New Delhi and Hyderabad.


title: Titan Company

text: Also, Titan announced recently (during the last quarter of 2016) about launching a series of affordable smartwatches under its brands like Sonata and Fastrack soon.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2016, Titan entered the wearable devices market by introducing its smartwatch, Juxt, made through a collaboration with Hewlett Packard. In 2017, the company launched a fitness tracker, named Gesture Band under its youth accessories brand, Fastrack. In the same year, it invested $3 million in a Singapore based wearable tech company, CoveIoT. In 2018, the company added new fitness tracker bands. The company had a 7.4% market share in the wearable devices market as of 2018.


title: Titan Company

text: In November 2020, Titan opened its first overseas Tanishq store in Dubai as well as an exclusive website for Dubai showcasing its collections.


title: Titan Company

text: The watches division comprises brands Fastrack, Sonata, Raga, Octane and Xylys. In 2011, the company secured licence for marketing and distribution of Tommy Hilfiger and Hugo Boss watches. Favre Leuba was incorporated in 2012. In 2018, the division accounted for ₹2,126 crore in revenue which was 10% of the total of the company.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2007, Titan Industries forayed into the fashion accessories industry with the launch of sunglasses. It introduced Titan Eye Plus that makes frames, contact lenses, prescription eyewear, and sunglasses. The division accounted for ₹415 crore in FY 2016-17 maintaining a stable growth of 8%.


title: Titan Company

text: Xerxes Desai started the brand Tanishq in 1995. Zoya was launched in the luxury segment, while Mia, a sub-brand was under Tanishq for work-wear jewellery. Titan's total revenue grew 20.44% in 2017-18 to ₹15,656 crore, of which jewellery sales fetched ₹13,036 crore. In 2016, Titan invested in CaratLane. As of 2022, Titan has a 6% market share in India's jewellery market.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2013, Titan launched six variants of perfume in the Indian perfume market under the brand name ‘Skinn’. They collaborated with world-renowned perfumers including Alberto Morillas and Olivier Pescheux.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan Engineering & Automation Limited is a wholly owned subsidiary of Titan. It was formerly known as Titan-Precision Engineering Division. The company now deals in machine building, automation and component manufacturing.


title: Titan Company

text: Swiss watchmaker, Favre Leuba, was acquired in 2011 and incorporated as a subsidiary of Titan in 2012. The company was acquired for €2 million. Its headquarters in Solothurn, Switzerland.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan Watch Company Limited, Hong Kong, is currently a 100% subsidiary of Favre Leuba AG, Switzerland.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2015, Titan entered a joint venture to sell products of Swiss luxury brand Montblanc through its retail outlets. Titan's equity share in Montblanc India Retail Private Limited is 49% and Montblanc Services B.V. holds 51%.


title: Titan Company

text: Titan Company is awarded in many national and international forums for various activities and categories.


title: Titan Company

text: In 2018, as part of their corporate social responsibility the company sponsored entrepreneur and skater Rana Uppalapati’s mission titled Titan ECHO (Educate to Carry Her Onwards), to raise support for the education of 25,000 girl children in India.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund (; Westphalian ; ) is the third-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia after Cologne and Düsseldorf, and the eighth-largest city of Germany, with a population of 588,250 inhabitants as of 2021. It is the largest city (by area and population) of the Ruhr, Germany's largest urban area with some 5.1 million inhabitants, as well as the largest city of Westphalia. On the Emscher and Ruhr rivers (tributaries of the Rhine), it lies in the Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Region and is considered the administrative, commercial, and cultural center of the eastern Ruhr. Dortmund is the second-largest city in the Low German dialect area after Hamburg.


title: Dortmund

text: Founded around 882, Dortmund became an Imperial Free City. Throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the "chief city" of the Rhine, Westphalia, and the Netherlands Circle of the Hanseatic League. During the Thirty Years' War, the city was destroyed and decreased in significance until the onset of industrialization. The city then became one of Germany's most important coal, steel and beer centres. Dortmund consequently was one of the most heavily bombed cities in Germany during World War II. The devastating bombing raids of 12 March 1945 destroyed 98% of buildings in the inner city center. These bombing raids, with more than 1,110 aircraft, hold the record to a single target in World War II.


title: Dortmund

text: The region has adapted since the collapse of its century-long steel and coal industries and shifted to high-technology biomedical technology, micro systems technology, and also services. Dortmund was classified as a "Node city" in the Innovation Cities Index published by 2thinknow, ranked among the twelve innovation cities in European Union and is the most sustainable and digital city in Germany.<ref name="https://www.nachhaltigkeitspreis.de/sonstige/english-summary/"></ref> Other key sectors include retail, leisure and the visitor economy, creative industries, and logistics. With its central station and airport, the third-busiest airport in North Rhine-Westphalia, Dortmund is an important transport junction, especially for the surrounding Ruhr area as well as Europe (Benelux countries), and with the largest canal port in Europe it has a connection to important seaports on the North Sea.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is home to many cultural and educational institutions, including the Technical University of Dortmund and Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts, International School of Management and other educational, cultural and administrative facilities with over 49,000 students, many museums, such as Museum Ostwall, Museum of Art and Cultural History, German Football Museum, as well as theatres and music venues like the Konzerthaus or the Opera House of Dortmund. Nearly half the municipal territory consists of waterways, woodland, agriculture and green spaces with spacious parks such as Westfalenpark and Rombergpark. This stands in a stark contrast with nearly a hundred years of extensive coal mining and steel milling in the past. Borussia Dortmund is one of the most successful German football clubs.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund was first mentioned in the Werden Abbey, which was built between 880 and 884. The Latin entry reads: "In Throtmanni liber homo Arnold viii den nob solvit." (German: "In Throtmanni zahlt uns der freie Mann Arnold 8 Pfennige" and English: "In Throtmanni the free man Arnold pays us 8 pfennigs")).


title: Dortmund

text: According to this, there are a large number of different names, but they all go back to the same phoneme stem. Their respective use in the sources appears arbitrary and random.


title: Dortmund

text: In the course of time the name changed many times: "trut munia" 899, "Thortmanni, Trutmania, Trotmunni" 939, "Tremonia" 1152. From the 13th century on, the "Dortmunde" appeared for the first time, but it was not until a few centuries later that it became generally accepted.


title: Dortmund

text: In the Middle Ages 1389, when the city had withstood the siege of 1200 knights under the leadership of the Archbishop of Cologne, it chose as its motto a saying that is still upheld today by traditional societies: "So fast as Düörpm". (High German: As firm as Dortmund).


title: Dortmund

text: In the past, the city was called "Dortmond" in Dutch, "Tremonia" in Spanish and "Trémoigne" in Old French. However, these exonyms have fallen into disuse and the city is now internationally known by its German name of "Dortmund". The common abbreviation for the name of the city is "DTM", the IATA code for Dortmund Airport.


title: Dortmund

text: The Sigiburg was a hillfort in the South of present-day Dortmund, overlooking the River Ruhr near its confluence with the River Lenne. The ruins of the later Hohensyburg castle now stand on the site of the Sigiburg. The hillfort is presumably of Saxon origin, but there are no archeological or documentary proofs. During the Saxon Wars, it was taken by the Franks under Charlemagne in 772, retaken by the Saxons (possibly under Widukind) in 774, and taken again and refortified by Charlemagne in 775. Archaeological evidence suggests the Sigiburg site was also occupied in the Neolithic era.


title: Dortmund

text: The first time Dortmund was mentioned in official documents was around 882 as Throtmanni – In throtmanni liber homo arnold[us] viii den[arios] nob[is] soluit [solvit]. In 1005 the "Ecclesiastical council" and in 1016 the"Imperial diet" met in Dortmund.


title: Dortmund

text: After it was destroyed by a fire, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) had the town rebuilt in 1152 and resided there (among other places) for two years. In 1267 St. Mary's Church, Dortmund, and three years later in 1270 St. Reinold's Church first mentioned. The combination of crossroad, market place, administrative centre – town hall, made Dortmund an important centre in Westphalia.


title: Dortmund

text: It became an Imperial Free City and one of the first cities in Europe with an official Brewing right in 1293. Throughout the 13th to 14th centuries, it was the "chief city" of the Rhine, Westphalia, the Netherlands Circle of the Hanseatic League.


title: Dortmund

text: After 1320, the city appeared in writing as "Dorpmunde". In the years leading up to 1344, the English King even borrowed money from well-heeled Dortmund merchant families Berswordt and Klepping, offering the regal crown as security. In 1388, the Count of Mark joined forces with the Archbishop of Cologne and issued declarations of a feud against the town. Following a major siege lasting 18 months, peace negotiations took place and Dortmund emerged victorious. In 1400 the seat of the first Vehmic court () was in Dortmund, in a square between two linden trees, one of which was known as the "Femelinde". With the growing influence of Cologne during the 15th century, the seat was moved to Arnsberg in 1437. After Cologne was excluded after the Anglo-Hanseatic War (1470–74), Dortmund was made capital of the Rhine-Westphalian and Netherlands Circle. This favors the founding of one of the oldest schools in Europe in 1543 – . In 1661 an earthquake made the Reinoldikirche collapse.


title: Dortmund

text: With the "Reichsdeputationshauptschluss" resolution in 1803, Dortmund was added to the Principality of Nassau-Orange-Fulda, with as a result that it was no longer a free imperial city. William V, Prince of Orange-Nassau did not want stolen areas and therefore let his son Prince Willem Frederik (the later King William I of the Netherlands) take possession of the city and the principality. This prince held its entry on 30 June 1806, and as such the County of Dortmund then became part of the principality. On 12 July 1806, most of the Nassau principalities were deprived of their sovereign rights by means of the Rhine treaty. In October of the same year, the County of Dortmund was occupied by French troops and was added to the Grand Duchy of Berg on 1 March 1808. It is the capital of the Ruhr department. In 1808 Dortmund becomes capital of French satellite Ruhr (department). At the Congress of Vienna in 1815, the entire Grand Duchy of Berg, including Dortmund, was added to the Kingdom of Prussia. The state mining authority of the Ruhr area was founded in 1815 and moved from Bochum to Dortmund. Within the Prussian Province of Westphalia, Dortmund was a district seat within Regierungsbezirk Arnsberg until 1875, when it became an urban district within the region.


title: Dortmund

text: During the industrialisation of Prussia, Dortmund became a major centre for coal and steel. The town expanded into a city, with the population rising from 57,742 in 1875 to 379,950 in 1905. Sprawling residential areas like the North, East, Union and Kreuz district sprang up in less than 10 years. In 1920, Dortmund was one of the centres for resistance to the Kapp Putsch – a right-wing military coup launched against the Social Democratic-led government. Radical workers formed a Red Army who fought the freikorps units involved in the coup. On 11 January 1923, the Occupation of the Ruhr was carried out by the invasion of French and Belgian troops into the Ruhr. The French Prime Minister Raymond Poincaré was convinced that Germany failed to comply the demands of the Treaty of Versailles. On the morning of 31 March 1923, it came to the sad culmination of this French-German confrontation.


title: Dortmund

text: Under Nazi Germany, the Old Synagogue, which had opened in 1900, was destroyed in 1938. With a capacity of 1,300 seats, it was one of the largest Jewish houses of worship in Germany. Also, the Aplerbeck Hospital in Dortmund transferred mentally and/or physically disabled patients to the Hadamar Killing Facility as part of "Aktion T4", where they were murdered. An additional 229 children were murdered in the "Children's Specialist Department", which was transferred from Marburg in 1941.


title: Dortmund

text: Bombing targets of the Oil Campaign of World War II in Dortmund included Hoesch-Westfalenhütte AG, the "Hoesch-Benzin GmbH" synthetic oil plant, and the "Zeche Hansa". The bombings destroyed about 66% of Dortmund homes. The devastating bombing raids of 12 March 1945 with 1,108 aircraft (748 Lancasters, 292 Halifaxes, 68 Mosquitos) destroyed 98% of buildings in the inner city center, and 4,851 tonnes of bombs were dropped on Dortmund city centre and the south of the city; this was a record for a single target in the whole of World War II.


title: Dortmund

text: The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Dortmund in April 1945. The US 95th Infantry Division attacked the city on 12 April 1945 against a stubborn German defense. The division, assisted by close air support, advanced through the ruins in urban combat and completed its capture on 13 April 1945.


title: Dortmund

text: Post-war, most of the ancient buildings were not restored, and large parts of the city area were completely rebuilt in the style of the 1950s. A few historic buildings such as the main churches Reinoldikirche and Marienkirche were restored or rebuilt, and extensive parks and gardens were laid out. The simple but successful postwar rebuilding has resulted in a very mixed and unique cityscape. Dortmund was in the British zone of occupation of Germany, and became part of the new state (Land) of North Rhine-Westphalia in 1946. The LWL-Industriemuseum was founded in 1969. In 1987 the pit Minister Stein closed, marking the end of more than 150 years of coal mining. Dortmund has since adapted, with its century-long steel and coal industries having been replaced by high-technology areas, including biomedical technology, micro systems technology, and services. This has led Dortmund to become a regional centre for hi-tech industry.


title: Dortmund

text: In 2001 a new era began for the district Hörde in Dortmund, 160 years of industrial history ended with the beginning of the Phoenix See. The development of the Phoenix See area was carried out by a subsidiary of the Stadtwerke AG. In 2005 the first cornerstone was laid on the Phoenix area. The work started with full speed to manage the work with over 2.5 million meters of ground motion and 420.000 cubic meters of ferroconcrete. On 1 October 2010, the largest and most highly anticipated milestone could be celebrated: the launch of the flooding of the Phoenix See. Since 9 May 2011, the fences disappeared and the Phoenix See has been completed. In 2009, Dortmund was classified as a "Node city" in the Innovation Cities Index published by 2thinknow and is the most sustainable city in Germany.


title: Dortmund

text: On 3 November 2013, more than 20,000 people were evacuated after a 4,000-pound bomb from World War II was found. German authorities safely defused the bomb. The bomb was found after analysing old aerial photographs while searching for unexploded bombs dropped by Allied aircraft over Germany's industrial Ruhr region.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is an independent city located in the east of the Ruhr area, one of the largest urban areas in Europe (see also: megalopolis), comprising eleven independent cities and four districts with some 5.3million inhabitants. The city limits of Dortmund itself are long and border twelve cities, two independent and ten "kreisangehörig" (i.e., belonging to a district), with a total population of approximately 2.4million. The following cities border Dortmund (clockwise starting from west): Bochum, Castrop-Rauxel, Waltrop, Lünen, Kamen, Unna, Holzwickede, Schwerte, Hagen, Herdecke and Witten. Historically speaking, Dortmund is a part of Westphalia which is situated in the Bundesland North Rhine-Westphalia. Moreover, Dortmund is part of Westphalian Lowland and adjoins with the Ardey Hills in the south of the city to the Sauerland.


title: Dortmund

text: The Ruhr forms the reservoir on the Hengsteysee next to the borough of Syburg in the south of Dortmund between the cities of Hagen and Herdecke, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The Klusenberg, a hill that is part of the Ardey range, is located just north of the Hengsteysee and the highest point of Dortmund . There is also a pumped-storage plant on this reservoir, named Koepchenwerk. The lowest point can be found in the northern borough of Brechten at .


title: Dortmund

text: The Emscher is a small river and has its wellspring in Holzwickede, east of the city of Dortmund, and flows west through Dortmund. Towns along the Emscher take in Dortmund, Castrop-Rauxel, Herne, Recklinghausen, Gelsenkirchen, Essen, Bottrop, Oberhausen and Dinslaken, where it flows into the Rhine.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund comprises 62 neighbourhoods which in turn are grouped into twelve boroughs (called Stadtbezirke), often named after the most important neighbourhood. Three boroughs cover the area of the inner city (Innenstadt-West (City centre West), Innenstadt-Nord (City centre North), Innenstadt-Ost (City centre East)) and the remaining nine boroughs make up the surrounding area (Eving, Scharnhorst, Brackel, Aplerbeck, Hörde, Hombruch, Lütgendortmund, Huckarde, Mengede). Each Stadtbezirk is assigned a Roman numeral and has a local governing body of nineteen members with limited authority. Most of the boroughs were originally independent municipalities but were gradually annexed from 1905 to 1975. This long-lasting process of annexation has led to a strong identification of the population with "their" boroughs or districts and to a rare peculiarity: The borough of Hörde, located in the south of Dortmund and independent until 1928, has its own coat of arms.


title: Dortmund

text: The centre can be subdivided into historically evolved city districts whose borders are not always strictly defined, such as


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is situated in the temperate climate zone with oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb"). Winters are cool; summers are warm. The average annual temperature lies at approximately , the total average annual amount of precipitation lies at approximately . Precipitation evenly falls throughout the year; steady rain (with some snow), prevails in the wintertime, isolated showers dominate the summer season. Dortmund features characteristics of densely populated areas as for example the occurrence of urban heat islands is typical.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund's population grew rapidly in the time of the 19th century industrialisation when coal mining and steel processing in the city began. 1904 marks the year when Dortmund saw a population of more than 100,000 for the first time in its history. During the 19th century the area around Dortmund called Ruhr attracted up to 500,000 ethnic Poles, Masurians and Silesians from East Prussia and Silesia in a migration known as "Ostflucht" (flight from the east). Most of the new inhabitants came from Eastern Europe, but immigrants also came from France, Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Almost all their descendants today speak German as a mother tongue, and for various reasons they do not identify with their Polish roots and traditions, often only their Polish family names remaining as a sign of their past. Not taking the fluctuation of war years into account, the population figures rose constantly to 657,804 in 1965. As a result of the city's post-industrial decline, the population fell to just under 580,000 in 2011. Today with a population of 601.402 (2017) the City of Dortmund is the eighth largest city in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne, Frankfurt, Stuttgart and Düsseldorf. It is also the largest city in the Ruhr agglomeration.


title: Dortmund

text: Contrary to earlier projections, population figures have been on the rise in recent years due to net migration gains. Dortmund has seen a moderate influx of younger people (18 to 25 years of age) mainly because of its universities. Data of the EU-wide 2011 census revealed massive inaccuracies with regard to German population figures. Consequently, respective figures have been corrected, which resulted in a statistical "loss" of 9,000 inhabitants in Dortmund. In 2016 it was announced that the population was back above 600,000.


title: Dortmund

text: , Dortmund had a population of 571,403 of whom about 177,000 (roughly 30%) were of non-German origin. The table shows the number of first and second generation immigrants in Dortmund by nationality as of 31 December 2014. As with much of the Ruhr area, Dortmund has sizable Turkish and South European communities (particularly Spanish), and had one of Germany's most visible Slavic populations.


title: Dortmund

text: the largest Christian denominations were Protestantism (49.9%) and Catholicism (27.4% of the population). Furthermore, in Dortmund the Greek Orthodox Church, the Serbian Orthodox Church and the Macedonian Orthodox Church are represented. The Church of the Holy Apostles (gre. I.N. Αγίων Αποστόλων Ντόρτμουντ – I.N. Agíon Apostólon Dortmund) was the first Greek church in Germany to be founded due to the influx of "guest workers". Also Dortmund is home of the New Apostolic Church in North Rhine-Westphalia with more than 84,944 community members.


title: Dortmund

text: The Jewish community has a history dating back to Medieval times and has always ranked among the largest in Westphalia. Dortmund is home to the National Association of Jewish Communities of Westfalen-Lippe. The synagogues operate there in City center, Hörde and Dorstfeld. Due to the growing immigration of people from Muslim countries beginning in the 1960s. Dortmund has a large Muslim community with more than 30 mosques.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is one of nineteen independent district-free cities ("kreisfreie Städte") in North Rhine-Westphalia, which means that it does not form part of another general-purpose local government entity, in this case it is not part of a Landkreis. Since 1975, Dortmund is divided into twelve administrative districts. Each district ("Bezirk") has its own elected district council (Bezirksvertretung) and its own district mayor (Bezirksbürgermeister). The district councils are advisory only.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is often called the "Herzkammer der SPD" (roughly translated as "heartland of the Social democrats") after the politically dominant party in the city. During the Nazi era (1933–1945), mayors were installed by the Nazi Party. After World War II, the military government of the British occupation zone installed a new mayor and a municipal constitution modeled on that of British cities. The first major elected by the population of Dortmund was Fritz Henßler. Since the end of the war, the SPD has held a plurality in the city council, except for the period from 1999 to 2004.


title: Dortmund

text: The current Mayor of Dortmund is Thomas Westphal of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), who was elected in 2020.


title: Dortmund

text: The most recent mayoral election was held on 13 September 2020, with a runoff held on 27 September, and the results were as follows:


title: Dortmund

text: The Dortmund city council ("Dortmunder Stadtrat") governs the city alongside the Mayor. The most recent city council election was held on 13 September 2020, and the results were as follows:


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund's city centre offers a picture full of contrasts. Historic buildings like Altes Stadthaus or the Krügerpassage rub shoulders with post-war architecture like Gesundheitshaus and concrete constructions with Romanesque churches like the Reinoldikirche and the Marienkirche. The near-complete destruction of Dortmund's city centre during World War II (98%) has resulted in a varied architectural landscape. The reconstruction of the city followed the style of the 1950s, while respecting the old layout and naming of the streets. The downtown of Dortmund still retains the outline of the medieval city. A ring road marks the former city wall, and the Westen-/Ostenhellweg, part of a medieval salt trading route, is still the major (pedestrian) street bisecting the city centre.


title: Dortmund

text: Thus, the city today is characterized by simple and modest post-war buildings, with a few interspersed pre-war buildings which were reconstructed due to their historical importance. Some buildings of the "Wiederaufbauzeit" (era of reconstruction), for example the opera house are nowadays regarded as classics of modern architecture.


title: Dortmund

text: Unlike the Dortmund city centre, much of the inner districts around the old medieval centre escaped damage in the second world war and post war redevelopment.


title: Dortmund

text: The Kreuzviertel is characterised by old buildings, the majority of which come from the turn of the 20th century (1884 to 1908). Over 80% of all housing in this area was constructed before 1948, with the oldest building the Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts still standing being from 1896. In the second World War, relatively few buildings were destroyed in comparison to other areas of the city. Today, Kreuzviertel forms a nearly homogeneous historic building area. Over 100 buildings remain protected as historic monuments, like the Kreuzkirche at Kreuzstraße and the first Concrete Church in Germany St.-Nicolai. Nowadays the Kreuzviertel is a trendy district with pubs, restaurants, cafés, galleries and little shops. Moreover, local efforts to beautify and invigorate the neighbourhood have reinforced a budding sense of community and artistic expression. The West park is the green lung of the Kreuzviertel and in the months between May and October a centre of the student urban life. The district has the highest real estate prices in Dortmund.


title: Dortmund

text: Even today many artists choose Kreuzviertel as their residence: Sascha Schmitz, Christina Hammer and players of Borussia Dortmund.


title: Dortmund

text: The northern downtown part of Dortmund called Nordstadt, situated in a territory of is shaped by a colorful variety of cultures. As the largest homogeneous old building area in Ruhr the Nordstadt is a melting pot of different people of different countries and habits just a few steps from the city center. The Nordstadt is an industrial urban area that was mainly developed in the 19th Century to serve the Westfalenhütte steelworks, port and rail freight depot. All of the residents live in a densely populated 300 hectare area (the most densely populated residential area in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia with steelworks, port and railway lines acting as physical barriers cutting off the area from the city centre and other residential districts).


title: Dortmund

text: The area has been badly affected by the deindustrialisation of these heavy industries, with the target area developing a role as the home for growing numbers of immigrants and socially disadvantaged groups partly because of the availability of cheaper (although poor quality) accommodation. Nevertheless, two parks – Fredenbaumpark and Hoeschpark – are situated there. There is also much equipment for children to spend their free time. For example, the 35 meters high Big Tipi, which was brought in from the Expo 2000 in Hanover. All of that should attract families to settle in, but low prices of apartments and a variety of renting offers speak for the contrary. This developed into the youngest population of Dortmund is living and created a district with art house cinemas to ethnic stores, from exotic restaurants to student pubs.


title: Dortmund

text: The Borsigplatz is probably one of the best known squares in Germany. Ballspielverein Borussia Dortmund was founded nearby, north-east of the main railway station. The streets radiating outward to form a star shape, the sycamore in the middle of the square and the tramline running diagonally across the square give Borsigplatz its very own flair.


title: Dortmund

text: The Kaiserstraßen District is located east of the former ramparts of Dortmund and follows the course of the Westenhellweg. In this district numerous magnificent buildings from the 1900s and new buildings from the 1950s are located next to the heritage-protected State Mining Office Dortmund, several Courts, Consulate and the East Cemetery. The district is characterize by the employee of the Amtsgericht, Landgericht (the first and second instances of ordinary jurisdiction) and the Prison.


title: Dortmund

text: Today the historical Kaiserbrunnen and the entrance sign for Kaiserstraße are important starting points for a tour to the popular shopping district. The Moltkestreet also known as the Cherry Blossom Avenue, became famous after photographers started posting pictures of blooming trees. Every spring, usually in April, the street in the Kaiserstraßen district is booming with pink blossoms and attracts tourists.


title: Dortmund

text: The Union District is located west of the former ramparts of Dortmund and follows the course of the Westenhellweg. For a long time, the neighbourhood at the Dortmunder U and along the Rheinische Straße was marked by vacancy and social distortion due to structural change. Today it is developing an inspiring young artist scene, with more and more students thanks to cheaper apartments near the university and a vibrant gastronomy. This development benefits strongly from the new, widely visible beacon, the art and creative centre Dortmunder U, opened in 2010. Yet, for a time, it was mainly the Union Gewerbehof activists and other single stakeholders who initiated change.


title: Dortmund

text: Hörde is borough in the south of the city of Dortmund. Originally Hörde was a separate town (until 1929) and was founded by the Counts of Mark in opposition to their principal enemy, the town of Dortmund. In 1388, the "Großen Dortmunder Fehde" (great feud of Dortmund) took place, where the city of Dortmund battled against the alliance of surrounding towns. The struggle ended in 1390, with defeat for Hörde and its allies of Herdecke, Witten, Bochum, Castrop, Lünen, Unna und Schwerte. Today Hörde is a part of Dortmund with restored old buildings combined with modern architecture. The Hörder Burg (Hörde castle) was built in the 12th century and is located in the east of the town, close to the Emscher and Lake Phoenix.


title: Dortmund

text: Lake Phoenix was one of the largest urban redevelopment projects in Europe. On the area of the former blast furnace and steel plant site of ThyssenKrupp newly formed and developed a new urban resident and recreational area from the city centre of Dortmund. The development of the Phoenix See area cost €;170 million. The lake is 1.2 km long directed to east–west and 320 meters wide in north–south direction. The water surface area of 24 acres is larger than the Hamburg Alster. Lake Phoenix is a shallow water lake with a depth of 3 to 4 meters and a capacity of around 600,000 cubic meters. Attractive high priced residential areas were thus created on the southern and northern sides of the Lake. On the western lakeside, the existing district centre of Hörde is enlarged by a city port and a mixed functional urban area.


title: Dortmund

text: The finished sole is primarily fed by groundwater and unpolluted rainwater from the new building sites.


title: Dortmund

text: The River Emscher flows through an embanked riverbed without direct link to the Lake. Together with the renatured Emscher, the Lake forms a water landscape of 33 hectares, which, as a linking area, is an important element of the Emscher landscape park. The renaturation of the Emscher River is managed by the public water board Emschergenossenschaft. The financial frame is 4.5 billion Euro and the aim is to finish the main work by 2020.


title: Dortmund

text: The most industrial building in Dortmund are part of the Industrial Heritage Trail (). The trail links tourist attractions related to the industrial heritage in the whole Ruhr area in Germany. It is a part of the European Route of Industrial Heritage.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund tallest structure is the Florianturm telecommunication tower at . Other tall buildings are the churches around the city centre. A selection of the tallest office buildings in Dortmund is listed below.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund also serves as a major European and German crossroads for the Autobahnsystem. The Ruhrschnellweg follows old Hanseatic trade routes to connect the city with the other metropolises of the Ruhr Area. It crosses the Dutch-German border as a continuation of the Dutch A67 and crosses the Rhine, leads through the Ruhr valley toward Bochum, becoming B 1 (Bundesstraße 1) at the Kreuz Dortmund West and eventually merging into the A 44 near Holzwickede. It has officially been named Ruhrschnellweg (Ruhr Fast Way), but locals usually call it Ruhrschleichweg (Ruhr Crawling Way) or "the Ruhr area's longest parking lot". According to "Der Spiegel", it is the most congested motorway in Germany.


title: Dortmund

text: Connections to more distant parts of Germany are maintained by Autobahn routes A1 and A2, which traverse the north and east city limits and meet at the Kamener Kreuz interchange north-east of Dortmund.


title: Dortmund

text: In combination with the Autobahn A45 to the west these form the Dortmund Beltway ("Dortmunder Autobahnring").


title: Dortmund

text: Cycling in Dortmund is supported by urban planners – an extensive network of cycle paths exists which had its beginnings in the 1980s. Dortmund was admitted to the German "Association of Pedestrian and Bicycle-Friendly Cities and Municipalities in NRW" (AGFS) on August 8, 2007. Dortumund is connected to a number of long-distance cycle paths and a Bike freeway called the "Radschnellweg Ruhr" (Ruhr Area Fast Cycle Path).


title: Dortmund

text: As with most communes in the Ruhr area, local transport is carried out by a local, publicly owned company for transport within the city, the DB Regio subsidiary of Deutsche Bahn for regional transport and Deutsche Bahn itself for long-distance journeys. The local carrier, Dortmunder Stadtwerke (DSW21), is a member of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr (VRR) association of public transport companies in the Ruhr area, which provides a uniform fare structure in the whole region. Within the VRR region, tickets are valid on lines of all members as well as DB's railway lines (except the high-speed InterCity and Intercity-Express networks) and can be bought at ticket machines and service centres of DSW21, all other members of VRR, and DB.


title: Dortmund

text: The central train station (Dortmund Hauptbahnhof) is the third largest long-distance traffic junction in Germany. Dortmund has a railway service with Deutsche Bahn InterCity and ICE-trains stopping at "Dortmund Hauptbahnhof" (Dortmund Main Station). ICE and TGV Thalys high-speed trains link Dortmund with Amsterdam, Brussels (in 2h 30) and Paris (in 3h 50). There are frequent ICE trains to other German cities, including Frankfurt am Main, Berlin and other cities in the Rhein-Ruhr Region.


title: Dortmund

text: For public transportation, the city has an extensive Stadtbahn and bus system. The Stadtbahn has eight lines (U41 to U47 and U49) serving Dortmund and the large suburb of Lünen in the north. The trains that run on the line are in fact lightrails as many lines travel along a track in the middle of the street instead of underground further from the city centre. The minimum service interval is 2.5 minutes, although the usual pattern is that each line runs at 5 to 10 minute intervals. On Sundays the trains run at a 15 minute interval. In April 2008, the newly constructed east–west underground light rail line was opened, completing the underground service in the city centre and replacing the last trams on the surface.


title: Dortmund

text: A number of bus lines complete the Dortmund public transport system. Night buses replace Stadtbahn services between 1:30 am and 7:30 am on weekends and public holidays. The central junction for the night bus service is Reinoldikirche in the city centre, where all night bus lines start and end.


title: Dortmund

text: The H-Bahn at Dortmund University of Technology is a hanging monorail built specifically to shuttle passengers between the university's two campuses, which are now also flanked by research laboratories and other high-tech corporations and startups. A nearly identical monorail system transfers passengers at Düsseldorf Airport.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund Airport is a medium-sized, but fast growing airport east of the city centre at the city limit to Holzwickede. The airport serves the area of the Ruhrgebiet, Sauerland, Westphalia and parts of the Netherlands and features flights to Munich, London, Vienna, Porto and a lot of eastern European city and leisure destinations. The airport is served by an express bus to Dortmund main station, a shuttle bus to the nearby railway station "Holzwickede/Dortmund Flughafen", a bus to the city's metro line "U47", as well as a bus to the city of Unna.


title: Dortmund

text: In 2019, the airport served 2,719,563 passengers mainly used for low-cost and leisure charter flights. The closest intercontinental airport is Düsseldorf Airport.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund Harbour ("Hafen") is the largest canal harbour in Europe and the 11th fluvial harbour in Germany.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund has adapted since the collapse of its century long steel, coal and beer industries. The region has shifted to high technology, robotics, biomedical technology, micro systems technology, engineering, tourism, finance, education, services and is thus one of the most dynamic new-economy cities in Germany. In 2009, Dortmund was classified as a "Node city" in the "Innovation Cities Index" published by 2thinknow.


title: Dortmund

text: Hundreds of SMEs are still based in and around Dortmund (often termed "Mittelstand"). Dortmund is also home to a number of medium-sized information technology companies, many linked to the local university TU Dortmund at the first technology center in Germany named "Technologiepark Dortmund" opened in the 1980s. With around 280 companies like Boehringer Ingelheim and Verizon Communications and more than 8,500 employees, TechnologiePark Dortmund is one of the most successful technology parks in Europe. The city works closely with research institutes, private universities, and companies to collaborate on the commercialisation of science initiatives. Furthermore, 680 IT and software companies with 12,000 employees are based in Dortmund, making the city one of Germany's biggest software locations. Two of the top 10 IT service provider in Germany are based in Dortmund – adesso SE and Materna Group.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is home to many insurance companies e.g. Signal Iduna, Continentale Krankenversicherung, Bundesinnungskrankenkasse Gesundheit (BIG direkt) and Volkswohl Bund. In recent years a service sector and high-tech industry have grown up. Some of its most prominent companies of these sectors include Amprion and RWE-Westnetz (Electricity), Rhenus Logistics (Logistics), Wilo, KHS GmbH, Elmos Semiconductor, ABP Induction Systems, Nordwest Handel AG – all of whom have their headquarters here. Companies with operations in or around Dortmund include Zalando, Daimler AG: EvoBus, RapidMiner, Gap Inc. and ThyssenKrupp.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is also the headquarter of Century Media Records, a heavy metal record label with offices in the United States and London. In August 2015, Century Media was acquired by Sony Music for US$17 million.


title: Dortmund

text: Tourism in Dortmund is a fast-growing economic factor every year: new overnight records can be announced, new hotels open and new visitor magnets are added. Starting in the mid-1990s, Dortmund, formerly an industrial centre, saw rapid development that expanded its cultural and tourism possibilities, and transformed it into a newly vibrant city. An important strategic step was the start of construction the new Konzerthaus Dortmund, the reuse of vacant old industrial buildings like the Zollern II/IV Colliery, Kokerei Hansa, Dortmund U-Tower and the strategic reorientation of the Dortmund Christmas market with over 300 stalls packed around a gigantic Christmas tree creation that stands 45 metres tall – reputed to be the biggest in the world. A new Tourist Information center right next to the U-Tower, gives visitors a quick overview of the tourist attractions in the City and Ruhr Area. Today Dortmund is with more than 1.450.528 (2017) overnight stays one of the most popular destinations in North Rhine-Westphalia.


title: Dortmund

text: The majority of tourists are domestic visitors, coming from Germany. International travellers arrive from the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria and Switzerland. Dortmund also draws business tourism, having been equipped with facilities like WILO, Amprion next to Westfalenhallen and football tourism with Fans of Borussia Dortmund. The top 5 most visited attractions were the Christmas market, with more than three and a half million visitors, Signal Iduna Park, Deutsches Fußballmuseum, Dortmund U-Tower, Zollern II/IV Colliery and Westfalenpark.


title: Dortmund

text: The Westenhellweg is a popular shopping destination and with nearly 13,000 visitors per hour it was Germany's most frequented shopping street in 2013. During the Middle Ages, Dortmund was the only free imperial city in Westphalia, having already been regarded as an important centre of trade. Today some of the most reputed shops, department stores have stores here. It is a pedestrian-only area and is bordered by the Reinoldikirche in the east and U-Tower in the west. The Westenhellweg has one of the highest rents for retail and office space in North Rhine-Westphalia. 85 percent of the shops are retail chains such as H&M, Saturn, Esprit, Zara or NewYorker. In 2009 a new shopping mall named Thier-Galerie opened, with nearly 100 stores and chains, including; Armani, Adidas, Diesel and Hollister.


title: Dortmund

text: Three more shopping malls occupy the Thier-Galerie; Galeria Kaufhof and Karstadt, as well as large fashion retail clothing stores from Peek & Cloppenburg and C&A. During the month before Christmas, the extended pedestrian-only zone is host to Dortmund Christmas Market, one of the largest and oldest Christmas markets in Germany. With more than 3.5 million visitors and 300 stalls around a gigantic Christmas tree that stands 45 metres tall, it is one of the most visited and popular market in the world.


title: Dortmund

text: In close proximity to the Dortmund concert hall lies the Brückstraßenviertel – a quarter hub especially for young people. The "Rue de Pommes Frites", which is what the Dortmund citizens have called the Brückstraße, has turned into a modern shopping promenade, geared towards a younger market.


title: Dortmund

text: For a long time, the Kampstraße had a shadowy existence as a parallel street to the Westenhellweg and Ostenhellweg, but it has become a grand boulevard containing specialist stores. Right next to the Kampstraße is the Kleppingstraße – a shopping street with a high concentration of gastronomy and expensive, prestigious shops like van Laack, Lindner Fashion, Marc Cain. It is located between the Ostenhellweg and Neutor to Wallring.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is one of the most important logistic hubs in Germany, more than 900 companies working in logistics, as well as nationally and internationally recognised scientific institutes. Dortmund Port which terminates the Dortmund-Ems Canal connecting Dortmund to the North Sea is the biggest European canal port with 10 docks and a pier length of 11 km. The variety of different activities taking place at the Fraunhofer Institute Material Flow and Logistics (Fraunhofer Society) has, over the past few years, led to a bundling of skills in the areas of logistics and digitalisation in the city. Industry-based initiatives and pilot projects, such as the Hybrid Services in Logistics innovation lab, the efficiency cluster LogistikRuhr, Industrial Data Space, the Dortmund Mittelstand 4.0 Centre of Excellence, and the enterprise labs. The Digital Hub for Logistics of the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action is based in Dortmund and twinned with Hamburg.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is home to Germany's twelve biggest exhibition centre, Halls of Westphalia which lies near the city center next to Dortmund Airport. With around 77.000 visitors each year, Jagd & Hund is by far the largest event held there. Other important fairs open to consumers include "Intermodelbau", the world's biggest consumer fair for model making, and one of the leading fairs for youth culture "YOU". Important fairs restricted to professionals include "D.I.M" (Deutsche Immobilienmesse, German property fair), Creativa (Hobby) and InterTabac (Tabaco).


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is home of the Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, the National Material Testing Office of North Rhine-Westphalia material and the main customs office.


title: Dortmund

text: As a profoundly international city, Dortmund hosts diplomatic missions (consulates and consulates-general) of Italy, Greece, Bangladesh, Ghana, South Africa, the Czech Republic, and Slovenia.


title: Dortmund

text: Two important daily newspapers are published in and around Dortmund. The conservative "Ruhr Nachrichten", also known as "RN", was founded in 1949. The RN has a circulation of over 225,000 copies daily. The other important newspaper, the "Westfälische Rundschau", was first published in 1945 and has a daily circulation of over 181,000. The WR is published by Germany's third largest newspaper and magazine publisher "Funke Mediengruppe".


title: Dortmund

text: Several magazines also originate from Dortmund. The Rock "Rock hard (magazine)" is a metal and hard rock magazine, with subsidiaries in various countries worldwide, including France, Spain, Brazil/Portugal, Italy and Greece."Visions" is a German music magazine with a circulation of approximately 35,000.


title: Dortmund

text: The Westdeutscher Rundfunk (WDR, West German Broadcasting Cologne has a big studio in Dortmund, which is responsible for the east Ruhr area. Each day, it produces a 30-minute regional evening news magazine (called "Lokalzeit Ruhr"), a 5-minute afternoon news programme, and several radio news programmes. A local broadcasting station called Radio 91.2 went "on-the-air" in the early 1990s. Sat.1 have a regional studio in Dortmund. The City stands alongside London and Paris as one of the three head offices of Global Tamil Vision and GTV-Deutschland.


title: Dortmund

text: The films "Trains'n'Roses", "Bang Boom Bang", "Oi! Warning", "Do Fish Do It?", "If It Don't Fit, Use a Bigger Hammer", "Guys and Balls", "Goldene Zeiten", "Marija" and television series "Tatort", "Balko", "Helden der Kreisklasse" and more German movies like ', "Die Libelle und das Nashorn", "Ein Schnitzel für alle", ' and "Radio Heimat" were filmed in the city.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund has 160 schools and 17 business, technical colleges teach more than 85,000 pupils. The city has a 4-year primary education program. After completing primary school, students continue to the Hauptschule, Realschule, Gesamtschule or Gymnasium (college preparatory school). The Stadtgymnasium Dortmund which was founded in 1543 as Archigymnasium is one of the oldest schools in Europe. The Leibniz Gymnasium, a bilingual public school located in the Kreuzviertel district, is particularly popular with children of the English-speaking expatriate community. The school is an International Baccalaureate school. The Goethe-Gymnasium was founded in 1867 as the first school offering higher education to girls in the city. It has been a NRW Sportschule, focused on sports, from 2009.


title: Dortmund

text: TU Dortmund (Technical University of Dortmund) is founded in 1968 and located in the southern part of the city.


title: Dortmund

text: It has about 30,000 students and a wide range of subjects in of physics, electrical engineering, chemistry, spatial planning and economics. The university has its own train station at the campus's main gate which is only seven minutes away from the city center. The university is highly ranked in terms of its research performance in the areas of physics, electrical engineering, chemistry and economics. The university's most noticeable landmark is the H-Bahn, a monorail train which connects the north and south campuses.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund University of Applied Sciences and Arts is a Fachhochschule with 12,300 students, and 669 staff, 232 of which are professors. The Fachhochschule was created by a merger of several institutions of higher learning in 1971. Owing to its history as separate institutions, it consists of three campuses in different parts of Dortmund. The departments of mechanical and electrical engineering are located at Sonnenstraße near the city center. The department of design has its own campus at Max-Ophüls-Platz while the departments of social work, economics, computer science and architecture are housed in several buildings next to the Technical University of Dortmund campus in the suburb of Eichlinghofen. Additional offices in the city centre are used for administrative purposes.


title: Dortmund

text: The city is the site of several other universities, colleges and academies, which attract about 45,000 students. Among them there are:


title: Dortmund

text: The city has a high density of internationally renowned research institutions, such as the Fraunhofer Society, the Leibniz Association and the Max Planck Society, which are independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities.


title: Dortmund

text: In November 2017, according to a study by data of the German National Statistics Office, the National Employment Agency, Mercer, Handelsblatt, Numbeo and Immowelt, Dortmund was ranked on position seven of the "most livable cities in Germany for expats". In September 2017, "The New York Times" praised the city of Dortmund, which has been adapting since the collapse of its century-old steel and coal industries and has shifted to high technology biomedical technology, micro systems technology and other services, as the "hidden star of structural change" providing a good quality of life for employees. According to "the 2017 Global Least & Most Stressful Cities Ranking" Dortmund is one of the least stressful cities in the world. It's ranked 27th out of 150, between Copenhagen and Vancouver, and is highly ranked in the categories traffic & public transport, gender equality and debt per capital.


title: Dortmund

text: "Like a Phoenix Rising from the Ashes" and exemplary for structural transformation – This was the title of an article in the online version on "Neue Zürcher Zeitung" of the urban livability and new exceptional architecture in Dortmund.


title: Dortmund

text: In a 2012 study of the "most livable biggest cities in Germany", Dortmund ranked on position ten between Nuremberg and Stuttgart and first of all large cities in Germany due to sport, gastronomy and shopping opportunities.


title: Dortmund

text: In 2009, Dortmund was classified as a "Node city" in the Innovation Cities Index published by 2thinknow and in 2014 acclaimed as the most sustainable city in Germany.


title: Dortmund

text: The city has a long tradition of music and theatre. The orchestra was founded in 1887 and is now called Dortmunder Philharmoniker. The first opera house was built in 1904, destroyed in World War II and opened again in 1966 as Opernhaus Dortmund. It is operated by Theater Dortmund together with other locations, including (since 2002) the Konzerthaus Dortmund. The Konzerthaus Dortmund is listed in the ECHO list as one of the 21 most outstanding concert halls in Europe.


title: Dortmund

text: The Domicil Jazz Club is one of the "100 best jazz venues world wide" according to the American jazz magazine "DownBeat".


title: Dortmund

text: The Dortmund U-Tower, which was once a brewery, is now European centre for creative economy and the Museum am Ostwall. The area around the U-Tower called "Union Viertel" is part of the Creative.Quarters Ruhr and are rooted in the European Capital of Culture RUHR.2010.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund leading cabaret-stage is the Cabaret Queue, which is located next to Lake phoenix. Some other famous cabaret-stages are the Fletch Bizzel and the theatre Olpktetal. The most important cabaret event is the RuhrHOCHdeutsch, which is one of the most successful cabaret festivals in Germany. It features artists from around the world.


title: Dortmund

text: Dortmund is also famous for its Christmas market, which draws well over three and a half million visitors to its 300 stalls around a gigantic Christmas tree creation that stands 45 metres tall. The market is famous for its handmade ornaments and delicacies.


title: Dortmund

text: The Botanischer Garten Rombergpark, or informally Rombergpark, is an extensive municipal arboretum and botanical garden located in the south of the city center of Dortmund. With its total area of 65 hectares the Rombergpark is one of the largest botanical gardens in the world. The garden was established in 1822 as the Romberg family's English landscape park. In 1927–1929 it was acquired by the city and under city planning director Richard Nose enhanced by a small herb garden. The park and castle were badly damaged in World War II, but starting in 1950 director Gerd Krüssmann rebuilt it as an arboretum, adding some 4,500 species to the park. Today the garden contains a historic English landscape park with monuments; an arboretum containing thousands of species of woody plants, including some of the largest trees in North Rhine-Westphalia; a terrace with palm trees; and four greenhouses (1,000 m total area) for cactus and succulents, ferns, tropical plants, and camellias, jasmine, and lemons.


title: Dortmund

text: The Dortmund Zoo is the zoological garden with 28 hectares next to the Rombergpark and was founded 1953. With 1,800 animals belonging to 250 species, the Dortmund Zoo is the second largest in the Ruhr Valley. It is specialized in the keeping and breeding of South American species and is leading in the breeding of the giant anteater, the tamandua and the giant otter.


title: Dortmund

text: The Westfalenpark is Dortmunds's most popular inner-city park. The park is 72 hectares in size and is one of the largest urban gardens of Germany. It was first opened in 1959 as the second Bundesgartenschau (abbr. BUGA) in North Rhine-Westphalia. With the National Rosarium with 3,000 different rose varieties, theme gardens, an environmental protection centre, the German Cookbook Museum, a geological garden, cafés and recreation areas, it provides numerous opportunities for a day of diverse activities. Dortmund's Westfalenpark is also a popular location for events in the Ruhr area- with parties, festivals, events, theatre, music, and flea and garden markets. One of the best views across the whole Ruhr valley is offered by the visitors platform and the revolving restaurant in the 209-metre-high Florian tower. Another summer attraction is the chair lift, which opened in 1959 and runs on Sundays between a "Mountain" and "Valley" station 500 metres apart.


title: Dortmund

text: With more than 20 museums, Dortmund has one of the largest variety of museums in the Ruhr Valley. There a some anchor points on the European Route of Industrial Heritage.


title: Dortmund

text: The Museum am Ostwall (known as Museum am Ostwall until 2010) is a museum of modern and contemporary art. It was founded in the late 1940s, and has been located in the Dortmund U-Tower since 2010. The collection includes paintings, sculptures, objects and photographs from the 20th century, plus over 2,500 graphics, spanning Expressionism through classic modern art to the present day. At the heart of the collection are works by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Otto Mueller, Emil Nolde and graphics by Pablo Picasso from the 1940s and '50s, plus others by Joan Miró, Marc Chagall and Salvador Dalí.