title: Maxim Gorky

text: He wrote several successful books while there, but by 1928 he was having difficulty earning enough to keep his large household, and began to seek an accommodation with the communist regime. The General Secretary of the Communist Party Joseph Stalin was equally keen to entice Gorky back to the USSR. He paid his first visit in May 1928 – at the very time when the regime was staging its first show trial since 1922, the so-called Shakhty Trial of 53 engineers employed in the coal industry, one of whom, Pyotr Osadchy, had visited Gorky in Sorrento. In contrast to his attitude to the trial of the Socialist Revolutionaries, Gorky accepted without question that the engineers were guilty, and expressed regret that in the past he had intervened on behalf of professionals who were being persecuted by the regime. During the visit, he struck up friendships with Genrikh Yagoda (deputy head of the OGPU) who vested interest in spying on Gorky, and two other OGPU officers, Semyon Firin and Matvei Pogrebinsky, who held high office in the Gulag. Pogrebinsky was Gorky's guest in Sorrento for four weeks in 1930. The following year, Yagoda sent his brother-in-law, Leopold Averbakh to Sorrento, with instructions to induce Gorky to return to Russia permanently.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky's return from Fascist Italy was a major propaganda victory for the Soviets. He was decorated with the Order of Lenin and given a mansion (formerly belonging to the millionaire Pavel Ryabushinsky, which was for many years the Gorky Museum) in Moscow and a dacha in the suburbs. The city of Nizhni Novgorod, and the surrounding province were renamed Gorky. Moscow's main park, and one of the central Moscow streets, Tverskaya, were renamed in his honour, as was the Moscow Art Theatre. The largest fixed-wing aircraft in the world in the mid-1930s, the Tupolev ANT-20 was named "Maxim Gorky" in his honour.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: He was also appointed President of the Union of Soviet Writers, founded in 1932, to coincide with his return to the USSR. On 11 October 1931 Gorky read his fairy tale poem "A Girl and Death" (which he wrote in 1892) to his visitors Joseph Stalin, Kliment Voroshilov and Vyacheslav Molotov, an event that was later depicted by Viktor Govorov in his painting. On that same day Stalin left his autograph on the last page of this work by Gorky: "This piece is stronger than Goethe's "Faust" (love defeats death)>" Voroshilov also left a "resolution": "I am illiterate, but I think that Comrade Stalin more than correctly defined the meaning of A. Gorky's poems. On my own behalf, I will say: I love M. Gorky as my and my class of writer, who correctly defined our forward movement."


title: Maxim Gorky

text: In 1933, Gorky co-edited, with Averbakh and Firin, an infamous book about the White Sea-Baltic Canal, presented as an example of "successful rehabilitation of the former enemies of proletariat". For other writers, he urged that one obtained realism by extracting the basic idea from reality, but by adding the potential and desirable to it, one added romanticism with deep revolutionary potential. For himself, Gorky avoided realism. His denials that even a single prisoner died during the construction of the aforementioned canal was refuted by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn who claimed thousands of prisoners froze to death not only in the evenings from the lack of adequate shelter and food, but even in the middle of the day. Most tellingly, Solzhenitsyn and Dmitry Likhachov document a visit, on June 20, 1929 to Solovki, the “original” forced labour camp, and the model upon which thousands of others were constructed. Given Gorky's reputation, (both to the authorities and to the prisoners), the camp was transformed from one where prisoners (Zeks) were worked to death to one befitting the official Soviet idea of “transformation through labour”. Gorky did not notice the relocation of thousands of prisoners to ease the overcrowding, the new clothes on the prisoners (used to labouring in their underwear), or even the hiding of prisoners under tarpaulins, and the removal of the torture rooms. The deception was exposed when Gorky was presented with children “model prisoners”, one of who challenged Gorky if he “wanted to know the truth”. On the affirmative, the room was cleared and the 14-year-old boy recounted the truth - starvation, men worked to death, and of the pole torture, of using men instead of horses, of the summary executions, of rolling prisoners, bound to a heavy pole down stairs with hundreds of steps, of spending the night, in underwear, in the snow. Gorky never wrote about the boy, or even asked to take the boy with him. The boy was executed after Gorky left. Gorky left the room in tears, and wrote in the visitor book “I am not in a state of mind to express my impressions in just a few words. I wouldn’t want, yes, and I would likewise be ashamed to permit myself the banal praise of the remarkable energy of people who, while remaining vigilant and tireless sentinels of the Revolution, are able, at the same time, to be remarkably bold creators of culture”.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: As Gorky's biographer Pavel Basinsky notes, it was impossible for Gorky to "take the boy with him" even with his reputation of a "great proletarian writer". As he says, Gorky had to spend over 2 years to free Julia Danzas. Some of the Solovki historians doubt that there was a boy.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky also helped other political prisoners (not without the influence of his wife, Yekaterina Peshkova). For example, because of Gorky's interference Mikhail Bakhtin's initial verdict (5 years of Solovki) was changed to 6 years of exile.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky strongly supported efforts in getting a law passed in 1934, making homosexuality a criminal offense. His attitude was coloured by the fact that some members of the Nazi Sturmabteilung were homosexual. The phrase "exterminate all homosexuals and fascism will vanish" is often attributed to him. He was actually quoting a popular saying. Writing in "Pravda" on 23 May 1934, Gorky said: "There is already a sarcastic saying: Destroy homosexuality and fascism will disappear."


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky was following Bulgakov's literary career since 1925, when he first read "The Fatal Eggs". According to his letters, even then he admired his talent. Partly because of Gorky Bulgakov's plays "The Cabal of Hypocrites" and "The Days of the Turbins" were allowed for staging. Gorky also tried to use his influence to allow the Moscow Art Theater production of Bulgakov's other play, "Flight". However, it was banned because of Stalin's personal reaction.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky's relationship with the regime got colder after his return to the Soviet Union in 1933: the Soviet authorities would never let him out in Italy again. He continued to write the propagandist articles in "Pravda" and glorify Stalin. However, by 1934 his relationship with the regime was getting more and more distant. Leopold Averbakh, whom Gorky regarded as a protege, was denied a role in the newly created Writers Union, and objected to interference by the Central Committee staff in the affairs of the union; Gorky's conception of "Socialist realism" and creation of the Writers Union, instead of ending the RAPP "literary dictatorship" and uniting the "proletarian" writers with the denounced "poputchicks" becomes a tool to increase the censorship. This conflict, which may have been exacerbated by Gorky's despair over the early death of his son, Max, came to a head just before the first Soviet Writers Congress, in August 1934.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: His meetings with Stalin were getting more rare. At that time he gets influenced by Lev Kamenev, who was made the director of " Academia" publishing House because of Gorky's request, and Nikolai Bukharin, who had been Gorky's friend since 1920s. On 11 August, Gorky submitted an article for publication in "Pravda" which attacked the deputy head of the press department, Pavel Yudin with such intemperate language that Stalin's deputy, Lazar Kaganovich ordered its suppression, but was forced to relent after hundreds of copies of the article circulated by hand. Gorky's draft of the keynote speech he was due to give at the congress caused such consternation when he submitted it to the Politburo that four of its leading members – Kaganovich, Vyacheslav Molotov, Kliment Voroshilov, and Andrei Zhdanov – were sent to persuade him to make changes.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Gorky also tried to fight the Soviet censorship as it was growing more power. For example, he tried to defend an issue of Dostoevsky's "Demons".


title: Maxim Gorky

text: As the conflict was becoming more visible, Gorky's political and literary positions became weaker. Panferov wrote an answer to Gorky, in which he criticized him. David Zaslavsky published an ironical response to Gorky's defense of "Demons".


title: Maxim Gorky

text: According to some sources (such as Romain Rolland's diary), because of Gorky's refusal to blindly obey the policies of Stalinism, he had lost the Party' s goodwill and spent his last days under unannounced house arrest.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: With the increase of Stalinist repression and especially after the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, Gorky was placed under unannounced house arrest in his house near Moscow in Gorki-10 (the name of the place is a completely different word in Russian unrelated to his surname). His long-serving secretary Pyotr Kryuchkov had been recruited by Yagoda as a paid informer. Before his death from a lingering illness in June 1936, he was visited at home by Stalin, Yagoda, and other leading communists, and by Moura Budberg, who had chosen not to return to the USSR with him but was permitted to stay for his funeral.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: The sudden death of Gorky's son Maxim Peshkov in May 1934 was followed by the death of Maxim Gorky himself in June 1936 from pneumonia. Speculation has long surrounded the circumstances of his death. Stalin and Molotov were among those who carried Gorky's urn during the funeral. During the Bukharin trial in 1938 (one of the three Moscow Trials), one of the charges was that Gorky was killed by Yagoda's NKVD agents.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: In Soviet times, before and after his death, the complexities in Gorky's life and outlook were reduced to an iconic image (echoed in heroic pictures and statues dotting the countryside): Gorky as a great Soviet writer who emerged from the common people, a loyal friend of the Bolsheviks, and the founder of the increasingly canonical "socialist realism".


title: Maxim Gorky

text: On 6 December 2022 the City Council of the Ukrainian city Dnipro decided to remove from the city all monuments to figures of Russian culture and history, in particular it was mentioned that the monuments to Gorky, Alexander Pushkin and Mikhail Lomonosov would be removed from the public space of the city.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: Maxim Gorky is depicted on postage stamps: Albania (1986), Vietnam (1968) India (1968), Maldives (2018), and many more. Some of them can be found below.


title: Maxim Gorky

text: In 2018, FSUE Russian Post released a miniature sheet dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the writer.


title: Polyandry

text: Polyandry (; ) is a form of polygamy in which a woman takes two or more husbands at the same time. Polyandry is contrasted with polygyny, involving one male and two or more females. If a marriage involves a plural number of "husbands and wives" participants of each gender, then it can be called polygamy, group or conjoint marriage. In its broadest use, polyandry refers to sexual relations with multiple males within or without marriage.


title: Polyandry

text: Of the 1,231 societies listed in the 1980 Ethnographic Atlas, 186 were found to be monogamous, 453 had occasional polygyny, 588 had more frequent polygyny, and 4 had polyandry. Polyandry is less rare than this figure suggests, as it considered only those examples found in the Himalayan mountains (28 societies). More recent studies have found more than 50 other societies practicing polyandry.<ref name="Starkweather/Hames 2012"></ref>


title: Polyandry

text: Fraternal polyandry is practiced among Tibetans in Nepal and parts of China, in which two or more brothers are married to the same wife, with the wife having equal "sexual access" to them. It is associated with "partible paternity", the cultural belief that a child can have more than one father. Several ethnic groups practicing polyandry in India identify their customs with their descent from Draupadi, a central character of the Mahabharta who was married to five brothers, although local practices may not be fraternal themselves.


title: Polyandry

text: Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources. It is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child survival. It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among peasant families but also among the elite families. For example, polyandry in the Himalayan mountains is related to the scarcity of land. The marriage of all brothers in a family to the same wife allows family land to remain intact and undivided. If every brother married separately and had children, family land would be split into unsustainable small plots. In contrast, very poor persons not owning land were less likely to practice polyandry in Buddhist Ladakh and Zanskar. In Europe, the splitting up of land was prevented through the social practice of impartible inheritance. With most siblings disinherited, many of them became celibate monks and priests.


title: Polyandry

text: Unlike fraternal polyandry where a woman will receive a number of husbands simultaneously, in successional polyandry a woman will acquire one husband after another in sequence.


title: Polyandry

text: This form is flexible. These men may or may not be related. And it may or may not incorporate a hierarchical system, where one husband is considered "primary" and may be allotted certain rights or privileges not awarded to secondary husbands, such as biologically fathering a child.


title: Polyandry

text: In cases where one husband has a primary role, the "secondary" husbands have the power to succeed the primary if he were to become severely ill or be away from the home for a long period of time or is otherwise rendered incapable of fulfilling his husbandly duties.


title: Polyandry

text: Successional polyandry can likewise be egalitarian, where all husbands are equal in status and receive the same rights and privileges. In this system, each husband will have a wedding ceremony and share the paternity of whatever children she may bear.


title: Polyandry

text: Another form of polyandry is a combination of polyandry and polygyny; whereas women are married to several men simultaneously and the same men may marry other women. It is found in some tribes of native Africa as well as villages in northern Nigeria and the northern Cameroons. Usually, one of the woman's husbands will be chosen to be the husband of a woman from another tribe who would also have many husbands; this double-polyandrous union serves to form a marital alliance between tribes.


title: Polyandry

text: Fraternal polyandry (from the Latin "frater"—brother), also called adelphic polyandry (from the Greek ""—brother), is a form of polyandry in which a woman is married to two or more men who are brothers. Fraternal polyandry was (and sometimes still is) found in certain areas of Tibet, Nepal, and Northern India, as well as some central African cultures where polyandry was accepted as a social practice. The Toda people of southern India practice fraternal polyandry, but monogamy has become prevalent recently. In contemporary Hindu society, polyandrous marriages in agrarian societies in the Malwa region of Punjab seem to occur to avoid division of farming land.


title: Polyandry

text: Fraternal polyandry achieves a similar goal to that of primogeniture in 19th-century England. Primogeniture dictated that the eldest son inherited the family estate, while younger sons had to leave home and seek their own employment. Primogeniture maintained family estates intact over generations by permitting only one heir per generation. Fraternal polyandry also accomplishes this, but does so by keeping all the brothers together with just one wife so that there is only one set of heirs per generation. This strategy appears less successful the larger the fraternal sibling group is.


title: Polyandry

text: Some forms of polyandry appear to be associated with a perceived need to retain aristocratic titles or agricultural lands within kin groups, and/or because of the frequent absence, for long periods, of a man from the household. In Tibet the practice was particularly popular among the priestly Sakya class.


title: Polyandry

text: Anthropologist Stephen Beckerman points out that at least 20 tribal societies accept that a child could, and ideally should, have more than one father, referring to it as "partible paternity". This often results in the shared nurture of a child by multiple fathers in a form of polyandric relation to the mother, although this is not always the case. One of the most well known examples is that of Trobriand "virgin birth". The matrilineal Trobriand Islanders recognize the importance of sex in reproduction but do not believe the male makes a contribution to the constitution of the child, who therefore remains attached to their mother's lineage alone. The mother's non-resident husbands are not recognized as fathers, although the mother's co-resident brothers are, since they are part of the mother's lineage.


title: Polyandry

text: According to inscriptions describing the reforms of the Sumerian king Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2300 BC), the earlier custom of polyandry in his country was abolished, on pain of the woman taking multiple husbands being stoned with stones upon which her crime was written.


title: Polyandry

text: An extreme gender imbalance has been suggested as a justification for polyandry. For example, the selective abortion of female children in India has led to a significant margin in sex ratio and, it has been suggested, results in related men "sharing" a wife.


title: Polyandry

text: Polyandry in Tibet was a common practice and continues to a lesser extent today. A survey of 753 Tibetan families by Tibet University in 1988 found that 13% practiced polyandry. Polyandry in India still exists among minorities, and also in Bhutan, and the northern parts of Nepal. Polyandry has been practised in several parts of India, such as Rajasthan, Ladakh and Zanskar, in the Jaunsar-Bawar region in Uttarakhand, among the Toda of South India.


title: Polyandry

text: It also occurs or has occurred in Nigeria, the Nymba, Irigwe and some pre-contact Polynesian societies, though probably only among higher caste women. It is also encountered in some regions of Yunnan and Sichuan regions of China, among the Mosuo people in China (who also practice polygyny as well), and in some sub-Saharan African such as the Maasai people in Kenya and northern Tanzania and American indigenous communities. The Guanches, the first known inhabitants of the Canary Islands, practiced polyandry until their disappearance. The Zo'e tribe in the state of Pará on the Cuminapanema River, Brazil, also practice polyandry.


title: Polyandry

text: There is at least one reference to polyandry in the ancient Hindu epic "Mahabharata". Draupadi married the five Pandava brothers, as this is what she chose in a previous life. This ancient text remains largely neutral to the concept of polyandry, accepting this as her way of life. However, in the same epic, when questioned by Kunti to give an example of polyandry, Yudhishthira cites Gautam-clan Jatila (married to seven Saptarishis) and Hiranyaksha's sister Pracheti (married to ten brothers), thereby implying a more open attitude toward polyandry in Hindu society.


title: Polyandry

text: The Hebrew Bible contains no examples of women married to more than one man, but its description of adultery clearly implies that polyandry is unacceptable and the practice is unknown in Jewish tradition. In addition, the children from other than the first husband are considered illegitimate (i.e., mamzers), unless he has already divorced her or died, being a product of an adulterous relationship.


title: Polyandry

text: Most Christian denominations in the Western world strongly advocate monogamous marriage, and a passage from the Pauline epistles can be interpreted as forbidding polyandry.


title: Polyandry

text: Joseph Smith and Brigham Young, and other early Latter-day Saints, practiced polygamous marriages with several women who were already married to other men. The practice was officially ended with the 1890 Manifesto. Polyandrous marriages did exist, albeit in significantly less numbers, in early LDS history.


title: Polyandry

text: Polyandrous marriages were practiced in pre-Islamic Arabian cultures, but were outlawed during the rise of Islam. Nikah Ijtimah was a pagan tradition of polyandry in older Arab regions which was condemned and abolished during the rise of Islam.


title: Polyandry

text: Polyandrous behavior exists in the animal kingdom, occurring for example in certain insects, fish, birds, and mammals.


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: Go Youn-jung (; born on April 22, 1996) is a South Korean model and actress signed under MAA. She made her acting debut in the television series "He Is Psychometric" (2019) and gained recognition for her supporting role in the Netflix series "Sweet Home" (2020). She is also known for her works in television dramas "Law School" (2021) and "Alchemy of Souls" (2022), as well as the film "Hunt" (2022).


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: She was born on April 22, 1996, in Seoul, South Korea. She attended Seoul Woman's University to study Contemporary Art.


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: After she graduated from Seoul Woman's University, she joined MAA Entertainment as a model and actress. She first did modeling for various commercials of Sports, Nike, Giorgio Armani, Ritz Crackers and several commercials for KT.


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: In 2019, after expressing interest and talent in acting, she made her acting debut in the television series "He Is Psychometric", playing Kim So-hyun.


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: In 2020, she made a highly praised cameo in the Korean Netflix television series "The School Nurse Files", and in the same year, she appeared in the smash hit Netflix television series "Sweet Home" as Park Yu-ri, a sad caretaker with a tragic past. This role led to additional praise and acknowledgement.


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: In 2021, she starred as Jeon Yeseul in "Law School" and earned acknowledgment for her portrayal of a law student suffering from dating violence. In March of the same year, she was cast in her first film role in the action thriller "Hunt".


title: Go Yoon-jung

text: In December 2022, she returned as the female lead in the second part of the hit tvN drama "Alchemy of Souls: Light and Shadow" with Lee Jae-wook.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: A sole proprietorship, also known as a sole tradership, individual entrepreneurship or proprietorship, is a type of enterprise owned and run by one person and in which there is no legal distinction between the owner and the business entity. A sole trader does not necessarily work alone and may employ other people.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: The sole trader receives all profits (subject to taxation specific to the business) and has unlimited responsibility for all losses and debts. Every asset of the business is owned by the proprietor, and all debts of the business are that of the proprietor. It is a "sole" proprietorship in contrast with a partnership, which has at least two owners.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Sole proprietors may use a trade name or business name other than their or its legal name. They may have to trademark their business name legally if it differs from their own legal name, with the process varying depending upon country of residence.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Registration of a business name for a sole proprietor is generally uncomplicated unless it involves the selection of a name that is fictitious, or “assumed”. The business owner is required to register with the appropriate local authorities, who will determine that the name submitted is not duplicated by another business entity. Furthermore, the business owner must complete a form submitted to the governing authority to acquire title as a “DBA” or "doing business as”. The authority in some US states is the Secretary of State.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: The license for a sole proprietary business entitles the owner to hire employees and enlist the services of independent consultants. Although an employee or consultant may be requested by the owner to complete a specific project or participate in the company's decision-making process, their contribution to the project or decision is considered a "recommendation" under the law. Under the legal doctrine "Respondeat superior" (Latin: "let the master answer"), the legal liability for any business decision arising from such a contribution remains upon the owner and cannot be renounced or apportioned.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: This is transposed by the unlimited liability attached to a sole proprietary business. The owner carries the financial responsibility for all debts and/or losses suffered by the business, to the extent of using personal or other assets to discharge any outstanding liabilities. So, the owner of a sole proprietorship may be forced to use his/her personal holdings, such as his/her car, to pay the debts. The owner is exclusively liable for all business activities conducted by the sole proprietorship and accordingly, entitled to full control and all earnings associated with it. The general aspect according to the general business law is that this type of business owner does not embody a “legal entity” Furthermore, any attempted and unreliable distinctions of the business do not change the classification under this title.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In the Netherlands, a sole trader is called a "ZZPer". Any sole trader needs to register with the Chamber of Commerce and get a VAT ID.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In Ireland, a sole trader who wishes to trade using a business name other than their true surname must register that name with the Companies Registration Office (CRO).


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In Malaysia, there are three different laws governing the registration and administration of sole proprietors:-


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In West Malaysia, the registration of sole proprietors come under the purview of the Companies Commission of Malaysia ("Suruhanjaya Syarikat Malaysia", or abbreviated as "SSM"). In Sabah and Sarawak (with the exception of Kuching), the registration of businesses are done at the local authorities (e.g. municipal councils or district offices) while in Kuching, sole proprietors are registered with the Kuching Office of the Malaysian Inland Revenue Board.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Sole proprietors, which includes the self-employed, must register with the relevant authority within thirty days from the commencement of their business. Sole proprietors may register their business using one of two names: (1) their legal name following the registrant's identity card or (2) a trade name. Registration of a business lasts either one or two years, and must be renewed thirty days before its expiry.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In the event of termination of business, the proprietor has thirty days from the termination date to file the notice with the relevant authority. If the termination is caused by the death of the proprietor, the administrators of the estate has four months from the death date to file a notice of termination.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Sole proprietors must register with the Royal Malaysian Customs Department to charge and collect goods and services tax (GST) once their taxable turnover within a 12 month-period exceeds RM500,000.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Similar to other Common Law jurisdiction, proprietors may enter into contracts of employment and/or apprenticeship with their employees. Sole proprietors, as employers, are responsible to:


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In 2016, the SSM took legal action against 478 online businesses who fail to register their businesses whether as sole proprietors, partnerships, or private limited companies. As at May 12, 2017, a total of 50,882 online businesses have registered with the SSM since 2015.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Sole traders in New Zealand must notify the Inland Revenue Department that they are trading and must register for Goods and Services Tax purposes if their income exceeds $60,000 per year. Sole traders may obtain a unique New Zealand Business Number (NZBN), which any business in New Zealand can use to identify the business in commercial relationships and dealing with government.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: A sole trader is the simplest type of business structure defined in UK law. It refers to an individual who owns their own business and retains all the profits from it. When starting up, sole traders must complete a straightforward registration with HM Revenue and Customs as self-employed for tax and National Insurance purposes. They are responsible for maintaining the business's records and submitting an annual Tax return for all income from self-employment and other work.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In Britain, anyone who begins work for themselves is considered by the Government to be a self-employed sole trader, regardless of whether or not they have advised HM Revenue and Customs. A sole trader can keep all the profits of their business after tax has been paid. They must lodge a self-assessment tax return each year, and pay Income Tax as well as National Insurance. If revenue is expected to be more than £85,000 a year, they must also register for the Value Added Tax. A sole trader can employ staff, but is personally responsible for any losses the business makes.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Becoming a sole trader is relatively simple compared to other business structures. It can rapidly enable a business to begin trading; the requirements for record keeping are far more straightforward than other business structures. Sole traders make all operational decisions and are solely responsible for raising business finance. They can invest their own capital into the business, or may be able to access business loans and/or overdrafts. Unlike limited companies or partnerships, it is not necessary to share decision making or the profits.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Unlike many other business entities, the sole proprietorship lacks a clear distinction between personal and business income. The business owner is personally liable for income tax and National Insurance contributions due for the business profits in each given tax year. They are also personally liable for any debts the business incurs. Business analysts may advise sole traders to form a limited company in order to access greater levels of financing, for example for expansion plans. This can limit their personal liability; business lenders may be more inclined to co-operate with a limited company. It can also be the case that within certain industries it is easier to secure work if presenting potential business partners with a limited company structure.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: In the United States, there are no formalities that must be followed to start a sole proprietorship or commence business as a sole proprietor. However, depending upon the business activity of the sole proprietorship, sole proprietors may require licenses and permits in order to conduct business.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: According to the Small Business Administration (SBA) a sole proprietor and their business are considered as one and the same; therefore, the business is not subjected to separate taxation and regarded as the direct income of the owner. Income, losses and expenses may be listed on a Schedule C, which is then transferred to the personal tax return of the owner. It is the responsibility of the owner to ensure all due income taxes and self-employment contributions are paid.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: A permitted exception to the sole proprietor (single owner) stipulation is made by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) permitting the spouse of a sole proprietor to work for the business. They are not classified as partners in the enterprise, or an independent contractor, enabling the business to retain its sole proprietorship status and not be required to submit a partnership income tax return. If an individual elects to incorporate as a Limited liability company but elects to be taxed as a Corporation, the IRS no longer recognizes the individual as a sole proprietorship.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: The setting-up process of a sole proprietorship to comply with local laws and regulations, is obtainable from the Small Business Development Center (SBDC), using their locator facility. A sole proprietor must be prepared to devote their time, utilizing business methods towards establishing a sound and appropriate foundation. Doing so may contribute to increased turnover, profits, minimize taxes, and avoid other potential adversities.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Sole owners are engaged in many varieties of industry and commerce and a comprehensive list of the primary categories, is found in the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). The selection of a business type by a new sole proprietor is in many instances, motivated by appropriate business experience in a particular field, especially those pertaining to enterprises involving the marketing and selling of defined products and services.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: A crucial component of a sole proprietorship within a business plan is the provision of an inherent guideline, for actions that require implementing for a business to achieve growth. The business name and products are critical aspects in the founding of a sole proprietorship and once selected, should be protected. In the event of a determined brand name being legalized, information regarding trademark protection is available from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: For the sole proprietor there are a variety of options in obtaining financial support for their business, including loan facilities available from the U.S. Small Business Administration. The loans are not originated by the SBA, but the administration does guarantee loans made by various independent lending institutions. The primary loan facility for small businesses offered by this agency is the 7(a) loan program, designed for general applications. Sole proprietors are able to finance legitimate operating expenses; for example, working capital, furniture, leasehold improvements and building renovations.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: Many and varied private organizations and individuals seek opportunities to invest and fund a business that may not qualify for traditional financing from institutions, such as banks. For the sole proprietor, seeking to take advantage of this facility, there are various factors that must be understood and adhered to regarding the loan application.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: The Small Business Administration (SBA) advises there are traditionally two forms of financing: debt and equity. For any small business owner seeking funding, they must consider the debt-to-equity ratio of their enterprise. This means the inter-action between the sum of dollars borrowed and the financial dollars invested in the business. The mathematics are simple; greater the finance invested by sole proprietors in their business; easier the obtaining of finance! The SBA statistics show that the majority of small enterprises favor the use of limited equity financing; for example, friends and relatives.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: According to the SBA, there are various private organizations prepared to fund sole proprietor business operations that do not qualify for traditional financing from banks. These private investors can provide loans, credit lines, leasing facilities for equipment, or other forms of capital, to sole proprietorship that have exhausted alternative financial resources. It is also possible for these owners to obtain financing by way of business partners or others, with cash to invest. Financial partners are frequently “silent” and although they do not participate in any business related decisions, they generally receive a percentage of the profits, generated by the business.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: To assist sole proprietors, there are business grants available from the Federal Government or private organizations, providing certain criteria are met. To qualify for Federal grants, small businesses must comply with determined business size and income standards. For consideration regarding various grant opportunities, sole proprietors may apply for a grant in their capacity as an individual. Local governments and state economic development agencies, frequently make grants available, for businesses that stimulate their local economies.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: For any sole proprietor applying for a loan, before starting the loan procedure, it is essential their personal and business credit history is in order and up-to-date. A personal credit report should be obtained from a credit bureau; for example, Trans-Union, Equifax or Experian. This action should be initiated by a business owner well before starting the borrowing process.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: The Small Business Administration specifies that all credit reports received from any source should be carefully reviewed to ensure that all relevant personal information is correct. Other content in the report should also be examined particularly that related to the past credit obtained, from sources such as, credit cards, mortgages, student loans, as well as details pertaining to how the credit was repaid.


title: Sole proprietorship

text: An exact translation of "sole proprietorship" is unusual, because the focus of the concept can change. An example is the Brazilian concept of "sole business" that was split into two main kinds of formal freelancer:


title: Sole proprietorship

text: German and Austrian tax laws also differentiate between sole professionals and other sole proprietors.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Douglas Costa de Souza (born 14 September 1990) is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a winger for Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy. He is known for his dribbling skills, speed, acceleration, and crossing ability.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa started his career with Grêmio, before moving to Shakhtar Donetsk in January 2010 for a fee of €6 million. He won numerous trophies with Shakhtar, including a domestic treble in the 2010–11 season (Premier League, the Ukrainian Cup and the Super Cup). In 2015, he joined Bayern for €30 million, where he won two consecutive league titles. He was loaned out to Juventus in 2017, and won a domestic double with the club in his first season. On 7 June 2018, Juventus made his loan move permanent; he added another two consecutive league titles in his next two seasons with the club, as well as a Supercoppa Italiana title. On deadline day of the 2020 summer transfer window, Costa returned to Bayern Munich on loan.


title: Douglas Costa

text: A full international since 2014, Costa represented Brazil at the 2015 Copa América and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Born in Sapucaia do Sul, Rio Grande do Sul, Douglas began his career with Grêmio, joining the club at the age of 11. He made his debut for the club at the age of 18 in a 2–1 victory over Botafogo on 4 October 2008, scoring his first goal for the club in the same match. He completed the 2008 season with one goal in six matches. On 14 June 2009 he was given a red card in a 0–0 draw with Fluminense. On 29 November 2009, he netted the first goal in a 4–2 victory over Grêmio Recreativo Barueri.


title: Douglas Costa

text: He joined Ukrainian side Shakhtar Donetsk on 10 January 2010. He made 37 appearances for Grêmio, including 28 league appearances, scoring twice.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 10 January 2010, Costa signed a five-year contract with Shakhtar Donetsk in a deal worth €6 million. His debut came in a UEFA Europa League tie against English side Fulham on 18 February which Shakhtar lost 2–1. He came on as a substitute in the 75th minute, replacing Jádson. His home debut came in the return leg on 25 February; he came on as 53rd-minute replacement for Willian, assisting Jádson for Shakhtar's equaliser in a 1–1 draw. Shakhtar lost the tie 3–2 on aggregate. He scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 win against Metalist Kharkiv on 14 March 2010. On 28 March, he scored a goal in injury time in a 3–1 victory against Arsenal Kyiv, then scored a goal in a 3–0 victory over Chornomorets Odesa on 25 April. On 1 May, Costa scored a late goal in Shakhtar's 2–0 win against Metalurh Zaporizhya. He scored Shakhtar's third goal in a 3–2 victory over Tavriya Simferopol on 9 May.


title: Douglas Costa

text: In his first season with Shakhtar, Douglas made 15 appearances, including 13 league appearances, scoring five goals, all of which came in the league. Shakhtar won the 2009–10 Premier League title, Costa's first trophy with the club.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa's first appearance in the 2010–11 season came in the 7–1 Super Cup win against Tavriya on 4 July. On 30 July, he netted a brace in a 3–1 victory against Arsenal Kyiv. He scored the fourth goal in Shakhtar's 5–0 victory over PFC Sevastopol. On 28 September, he scored a penalty, and assisted two Luiz Adriano goals in a 3–0 UEFA Champions League victory over Portuguese club Braga. On 28 September, he scored a penalty in a 4–0 win against Arsenal Kyiv. On 16 February, he netted the second goal, and assisted the third for Luiz Adriano, in a 3–2 victory over Roma. Shakhtar won the tie 6–2 on aggregate. On 1 April, he scored a late goal in a 3–1 victory over Illichivets Mariupol. He came on as a 95th-minute substitute in Shakhtar's 2–0 Ukrainian Cup Final victory over Dynamo Kyiv on 25 May.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Shakhtar managed to end the season as treble winners, winning the Premier League, Ukrainian Cup and the Super Cup. Costa made a total of 39 appearances for the club, scoring seven goals. Twenty-seven of the appearances and five of the goals came in the league.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Shakhtar started the 2011–12 season with a 3–1 loss in the Super Cup to Dynamo Kyiv on 5 July. Costa played the full 90 minutes. His first goal of the season came on 9 September, scoring the final goal in a 5–1 victory against Volyn Lutsk. On 2 October, he scored the equalising goal in a 4–1 victory over Zorya Luhansk. On 6 November, he scored the first goal in a 2–0 win over Obolon Kyiv. On 27 November, he scored a penalty to open the scoring in a 5–0 victory over Karpaty Lviv. On 2 December, he netted a goal against Arsenal Kyiv in a comprehensive 5–0 win. On 11 December, he scored the first goal in a 4–0 win against Kryvbas. On 27 April, he scored a 90th-minute goal in a 4–3 victory over Volyn in the Ukrainian Cup. He made a 62nd-minute substitute appearance, replacing Henrikh Mkhitaryan, in Shakhtar's 2–1 extra time victory over Metalurh Donetsk.


title: Douglas Costa

text: At the end of the season, Shakhtar won the Premier League and the Ukrainian Cup, Costa's third Premier League title success in his third year with the club. He played 34 matches, scoring six goals. Twenty-seven of the appearances and all six of the goals came in the league.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa opened the 2012–13 season with a goal in Shakhtar's 2–0 win against Metalurh Donetsk in the Super Cup, his second success in the Super Cup with Shakhtar. He scored his first league goal of the season on 3 November 2012 when he converted a 20th-minute penalty against Metalurh Zaporizhya; the match finished 2–0 thanks to a late goal by Luiz Adriano. On 24 November, Douglas came off the bench in the 55th minute, replacing team captain Darijo Srna, and netted a goal seven minutes later when he was played in by Armenian forward Henrikh Mkhitaryan, as Shakhtar defeated Hoverla Uzhhorod 5–1.


title: Douglas Costa

text: During the group stages of the season's edition of Champions League, Costa only managed three substitute appearances, totaling 23 minutes played, as Shakhtar finished second in the group behind Serie A champions Juventus, while dumping holders Chelsea out of the competition. Following an underwhelming first half of the 2012–13 campaign, Costa came off the bench to score a vital goal in Shakhtar's 2–2 first leg draw with Borussia Dortmund in the Champions League Round of 16 tie on 13 February 2013.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa made his season debut in the Super Cup. In mid-season, he helped Shakhtar win the 2014 United Supercup, a tournament between the top-two placed clubs from Russia and Ukraine, becoming the joint top scorer of the tournament. He helped the club win the Premier League and was a joint assist leader of the league with nine assists.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa played 33 games in all competitions and scored 5 goals in his final season at Shakhtar Donetsk, including a goal in a 7–0 away win over BATE Borisov in the Champions League. He also played in both matches in the Champions League round of 16 against Bayern Munich.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 1 July 2015, Bayern Munich announced they had signed Costa for a transfer fee of €30 million. Costa signed a five-year contract. The €30 million transfer fee was the fourth-highest in Bayern's history. He was given the number 11 shirt previously worn by Xherdan Shaqiri. He made his debut as a starter on 1 August in the 2015 DFL-Supercup away to VfL Wolfsburg, crossing for Arjen Robben to open the scoring in an eventual 1–1 draw; he netted his attempt in the subsequent penalty shoot-out, but his team lost nonetheless. Costa scored his first Bundesliga goal in his first Bundesliga game in a 5–0 win against Hamburger SV. On 21 May 2016, Costa scored the winning kick of the penalty shootout against Borussia Dortmund to win the 2016 DFB-Pokal Final and secure a league and cup double for Bayern.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa enjoyed a good first season at Bayern scoring seven goals in 43 matches throughout all competitions. He started the season in great form and had 12 assists in his first 13 games. Then he picked up a muscle injury, and missed the last four games before the winter break. After the winter break, Costa could not regain his former form. In 27 Bundesliga matches, Costa scored four goals and had 14 assists.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa got a new manager when Bayern hired Carlo Ancelotti. He had enjoyed regular playing time under Pep Guardiola and was a regular starter, but Ancelotti preferred Franck Ribéry as the left winger. Costa had a hamstring and knee injuries during the season and played in 34 matches in all competitions. He scored seven goals in those matches and matching his scoring tally from last season and did play nearly 1,400 fewer minutes than the season before. Costa had a fall-out with the Bayern board when he complained publicly about his lack of playing time under Ancelotti. Costa said "I speak to the club often," he said. "We talk about my situation, if I'll stay here or if I have to find another team to play for. I'm not always that happy here. But soon we will find a situation." Shortly before, Bayern president Uli Hoeneß, had accused Costa of attempting to earn himself an improved contract when Costa publicly revealed he was unsure about where his future lay and cited interest from the Premier League, La Liga, Ligue 1 and the Chinese Super League.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 12 July 2017, Costa joined Juventus on loan until the end of the 2017–18 season, for €6 million. Juventus has an option to make the move permanent on 1 July 2018, for an additional €40 million fee (plus €1M in bonuses). On 13 August, he made his club debut, coming on as a substitute in a 3–2 defeat to Lazio in the 2017 Supercoppa Italiana. On 14 October, he scored his first goal for the club in a 2–1 home defeat to Lazio. In his debut season he scored four goals in Serie A in 31 appearances, and two goals in five appearances in the Coppa Italia (one of which came in Juventus's 4–0 victory over Milan in the 2018 Coppa Italia Final, at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome, on 9 May), recording six goals in 47 appearances across all competitions, as Juventus won a domestic double; he also led the league in dribbles (106) and recorded the second-most assists (14) in Serie A.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 7 June 2018, Juventus made his loan move permanent, signing Costa to a four-year deal for a fee of €40 million plus bonuses. On 16 September 2018, in a 2–1 home win over Sassuolo in Serie A, Costa was sent-off in injury time following an altercation with Federico Di Francesco. The two players had clashed in the build-up to Sassuolo's 91st minute consolation goal, scored by Khouma Babacar, following a late challenge on Di Francesco by Costa. As both players got up, Costa appeared to elbow Di Francesco and later attempted to headbutt him, before finally spitting in his face. Costa was initially booked for the headbutt, but the controversial incident was later reviewed by VAR officials, who alerted the referee of his subsequent actions, and as a result, he was sent off. Juventus manager Massimiliano Allegri commented in the post-match press conference that Costa will be fined by the club. Costa later wrote a public apology on Instagram, stating "I want to apologise to all the Juventus fans for this over the top reaction I had during today’s game. I also apologise to my teammates, who are always by my side, in good and bad times. It was ugly, I am aware of that and I apologise to everyone for that. I want to make clear that this isolated conduct has nothing to do with what I’ve shown throughout my career." Two days later on 18 September, Costa was given a four-match Serie A ban for his elbow, attempted headbutt and spit on Federico Di Francesco.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 6 November 2019, Costa scored his first Champions League goal with Juventus in a 2–1 away win against Lokomotiv Moscow. On 20 July 2020, he made his 100th appearance for Juventus in a 2–1 home win over Lazio.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 5 October 2020, on deadline day, Bayern Munich announced the return of Costa on a season-long loan. On 28 November, he scored his first goal of the season in a 3–1 away win over Stuttgart. After winning his third Bundesliga title with the club, his loan was brought to an end on 21 May 2021.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 10 February 2022, Costa joined Major League Soccer club LA Galaxy on a six-month loan from Grêmio as a Designated Player. Following the conclusion of his loan spell he was signed to a one-and-a-half-year contract.


title: Douglas Costa

text: In November 2014, Costa was called up to the Brazil national team for the first time by coach Dunga, making his international debut against Turkey in Istanbul.


title: Douglas Costa

text: In May 2015, Costa was included in Brazil's 23-man squad for the 2015 Copa América. In the team's opening match, he came on as a substitute for Diego Tardelli and scored a stoppage-time winning goal against Peru, his first for the "Seleção". In the quarter-final against Paraguay in Concepción, he replaced former Shakhtar teammate Willian for the final 30 minutes of a 1–1 draw, and then missed in the penalty shoot-out which eliminated Brazil. On 17 November, Costa scored his second goal for Brazil in 3–0 victory against Peru for 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Costa was initially included in Brazil's squad for the Copa América Centenario, but was forced to withdraw from the squad in late May 2016 after sustaining an injury to his left thigh; he was replaced by Kaká.


title: Douglas Costa

text: On 14 June 2016, then-technical director Gilmar Rinaldi for the Brazilian Football Confederation, "shortly after he was sacked", stated that Bayern would let Costa play at the 2016 Summer Olympics.


title: Douglas Costa

text: Regarded as a promising prospect in his youth, in 2010, Costa was included in Don Balón's list of the 100 best young players born after 1989. A diminutive player, with a slender build and an eye for goal, he initially played as a forward or attacking midfielder in his early career, but later established himself as a versatile winger, capable of playing on either flank, and of adapting himself to several different formations, due to his energy and work-rate, as well as his powerful and accurate striking ability from distance with either foot; however, he usually favours the right wing, as it enables to cut into the centre onto his stronger left foot. Nicknamed the "Flash", he is mainly known for his speed, agility, and explosive acceleration, both with and without the ball, as well as his dribbling skills, technical ability, creativity, and trickery in possession, which enable him to beat opponents in one on one situations. A creative player, he is also highly regarded for his crossing ability from the left flank, which makes him an excellent assist provider, despite not being particularly prolific in front of goal. His former Bayern Munich manager Guardiola once labelled him "one of the best wingers in the world." Despite his talent, however, his discipline, mentality, and consistency have been brought into question at times by managers and pundits.


title: Vole

text: Voles are small rodents that are relatives of lemmings and hamsters, but with a stouter body; a longer, hairy tail; a slightly rounder head; smaller eyes and ears; and differently formed molars (high-crowned with angular cusps instead of low-crowned with rounded cusps). They are sometimes known as meadow mice or field mice in North America.


title: Vole

text: Vole species form the subfamily Arvicolinae with the lemmings and the muskrats. There are approximately 155 different vole species.


title: Vole

text: Voles are small rodents that grow to , depending on the species. Females can have five to ten litters per year, though with an average lifespan of three months and requiring one month to adulthood, two litters is the norm. Gestation lasts for three weeks and the young voles reach sexual maturity in a month. As a result of this biological exponential growth, vole populations can grow very large within a short time. A mating pair can produce a hundred more voles in a year.


title: Vole

text: Voles outwardly resemble several other small animals. Moles, gophers, mice, rats and even shrews have similar characteristics and behavioral tendencies.


title: Vole

text: Voles thrive on small plants yet, like shrews, they will eat dead animals and, like mice and rats, they can live on almost any nut or fruit. In addition, voles target plants more than most other small animals, making their presence evident. Voles readily girdle small trees and ground cover much like a porcupine. This girdling can easily kill young plants and is not healthy for trees and other shrubs.


title: Vole

text: Voles often eat succulent root systems and burrow under plants and eat away until the plant is dead. Bulbs are another favorite target for voles; their excellent burrowing and tunnelling skills give them access to sensitive areas without clear or early warning. The presence of large numbers of voles is often identifiable only after they have destroyed a number of plants. However, like other burrowing rodents, they also play beneficial roles, including dispersing nutrients throughout the upper soil layers.


title: Vole

text: Many predators eat voles, including martens, owls, hawks, falcons, coyotes, bobcats, foxes, raccoons, snakes, weasels, domestic cats and lynxes. Vole bones are often found in the pellets of the short-eared owl, the northern spotted owl, the saw-whet owl, the barn owl, the great gray owl, and the northern pygmy owl.


title: Vole

text: The average life of the smaller vole species is three to six months. These voles rarely live longer than 12 months. Larger species, such as the European water vole, live longer and usually die during their second, or rarely their third, winter. As many as 88% of voles are estimated to die within the first month of life.


title: Vole

text: The prairie vole is a notable animal model for its monogamous social fidelity, since the male is usually socially faithful to the female, and shares in the raising of pups. The woodland vole is also usually monogamous. Another species from the same genus, the meadow vole, has promiscuously mating males, and scientists have changed adult male meadow voles' behavior to resemble that of prairie voles in experiments in which a viral vector was used to increase a single gene's expression within a particular brain region.


title: Vole

text: The behavior is influenced by the number of repetitions of a particular string of microsatellite DNA. Male prairie voles with the longest DNA strings spend more time with their mates and pups than male prairie voles with shorter strings. However, other scientists have disputed the gene's relationship to monogamy, and cast doubt on whether the human version plays an analogous role. Physiologically, pair-bonding behavior has been shown to be connected to vasopressin, dopamine, and oxytocin levels, with the genetic influence apparently arising via the number of receptors for these substances in the brain; the pair-bonding behavior has also been shown in experiments to be strongly modifiable by administering some of these substances directly.


title: Vole

text: Voles have a number of unusual chromosomal traits. Species have been found with 17 to 64 chromosomes. In some species, males and females have different chromosome numbers, a trait unusual in mammals, though it is seen in other organisms. Additionally, genetic material typically found on the Y chromosome has been found in both males and females in at least one species. In another species, the X chromosome contains 20% of the genome. All of these variations result in very little physical aberration; most vole species are virtually indistinguishable. In one species, the creeping vole "Microtus oregoni", it was discovered the Y chromosome has been lost entirely, the male-determining chromosome is actually a second X that is largely identical to the female X, and both the maternally inherited and male-specific sex chromosomes carry vestiges of the ancestral Y. This is quite unusual in mammals, as the XY system is fairly stable across a number of mammal species.


title: Vole

text: Voles may be either monogamous or polygamous, which leads to differing patterns of mate choice and parental care. Environmental conditions play a large part in dictating which system is active in a given population. Voles live in colonies due to the young remaining in the family group for relatively long periods. In the genus "Microtus", monogamy is preferred when resources are spatially homogeneous and population densities are low; where the opposites of both conditions are realized polygamous tendencies arise. Vole mating systems are also sensitive to the operational sex ratio and tend toward monogamy when males and females are present in equal numbers. Where one sex is more numerous than the other, polygamy is more likely. However the most marked effect on mating system is population density and these effects can take place both inter and intra-specifically.


title: Vole

text: Male voles are territorial and tend to include territories of several female voles when possible. Under these conditions polyandry exists and males offer little parental care. Males mark and aggressively defend their territories since females prefer males with the most recent marking in a given area.


title: Vole

text: Voles prefer familiar mates through olfactory sensory exploitation. Monogamous voles prefer males who have yet to mate, while non-monogamous voles do not. Mate preference in voles develops through cohabitation in as little as 24 hours. This drives young male voles to show non-limiting preference toward female siblings. This is not inclusive to females' preference for males which may help to explain the absence of interbreeding indicators.


title: Vole

text: Although females show little territoriality, under pair bonding conditions they tend to show aggression toward other female voles. This behavior is flexible as some "Microtus" females share dens during the winter months, perhaps to conserve heat and energy. Populations which are monogamous show relatively minor size differences between genders compared with those using polygamous systems.


title: Vole

text: The grey-sided vole ("Myodes rufocanus") exhibits male-biased dispersal as a means of avoiding incestuous matings. Among those matings that involve inbreeding, the number of weaned juveniles in litters is significantly fewer than that from noninbred litters, due to inbreeding depression.


title: Vole

text: Brandt's vole ("Lasiopodomys brandtii") lives in groups that mainly consist of close relatives. However, they show no sign of inbreeding. The mating system of these voles involves a type of polygyny for males and extra-group polyandry for females. This system increases the frequency of mating among distantly related individuals, and is achieved mainly by dispersal during the mating season. Such a strategy is likely an adaptation to avoid the inbreeding depression that would be caused by expression of deleterious recessive alleles if close relatives mated.


title: Vole

text: A 2016 study into the behavior of voles, "Microtus ochrogaster" specifically, found that voles comfort each other when mistreated, spending more time grooming a mistreated vole. Voles that were not mistreated had levels of stress hormones that were similar to the voles that had been mistreated, suggesting that the voles were capable of empathizing with each other. This was further proven by blocking the vole's receptors for oxytocin, a hormone involved in empathy. When the oxytocin receptors were blocked this behavior stopped.


title: Vole

text: This type of empathetic behavior has previously been thought to occur only in animals with advanced cognition such as humans, apes and elephants.


title: Kawaii

text: Kawaii is the culture of cuteness in Japan. It can refer to items, humans and non-humans that are charming, vulnerable, shy and childlike. Examples include cute handwriting, certain genres of manga, anime, and characters including Hello Kitty and Pikachu.


title: Kawaii

text: The cuteness culture, or "kawaii" aesthetic, has become a prominent aspect of Japanese popular culture, entertainment, clothing, food, toys, personal appearance, and mannerisms.


title: Kawaii

text: The word "kawaii" originally derives from the phrase "kao hayushi", which literally means "(one's) face (is) aglow," commonly used to refer to flushing or blushing of the face. The second morpheme is cognate with "-bayu" in "mabayui" (眩い, 目映い, or 目映ゆい) "dazzling, glaring, blinding, too bright; dazzlingly beautiful" ("ma-" is from "me" "eye") and "-hayu" in "omohayui" (面映い or 面映ゆい) "embarrassed/embarrassing, awkward, feeling self-conscious/making one feel self-conscious" ("omo-" is from 面 "omo", an archaic word for "face, looks, features; surface; image, semblance, vestige"). Over time, the meaning changed into the modern meaning of "cute" or "shine" , and the pronunciation changed to "kawayui" and then to the modern "kawaii". It is commonly written in hiragana, , but the ateji, , has also been used. The kanji in the ateji literally translates to "able to love/be loved, can/may love, lovable."


title: Kawaii

text: The original definition of "kawaii" came from Lady Murasaki's 11th century novel "The Tale of Genji", where it referred to pitiable qualities. During the Shogunate period under the ideology of neo-Confucianism, women came to be included under the term "kawaii" as the perception of women being animalistic was replaced with the conception of women as docile. However, the earlier meaning survives into the modern Standard Japanese adjectival noun かわいそう "kawaisō" (often written with "ateji" as 可哀相 or 可哀想) "piteous, pitiable, arousing compassion, poor, sad, sorry" (etymologically from 顔映様 "face / projecting, reflecting, or transmitting light, flushing, blushing / seeming, appearance"). Forms of "kawaii" and its derivatives "kawaisō" and "kawairashii" (with the suffix "-rashii" "-like, -ly") are used in modern dialects to mean "embarrassing/embarrassed, shameful/ashamed" or "good, nice, fine, excellent, superb, splendid, admirable" in addition to the standard meanings of "adorable" and "pitiable."


title: Kawaii

text: In the 1970s, the popularity of the kawaii aesthetic inspired a style of writing. Many teenage girls participated in this style; the handwriting was made by writing laterally, often while using mechanical pencils. These pencils produced very fine lines, as opposed to traditional Japanese writing that varied in thickness and was vertical. The girls would also write in big, round characters and they added little pictures to their writing, such as hearts, stars, emoticon faces, and letters of the Latin alphabet.


title: Kawaii

text: These pictures made the writing very difficult to read. As a result, this writing style caused a lot of controversy and was banned in many schools. During the 1980s, however, this new "cute" writing was adopted by magazines and comics and was often put onto packaging and advertising of products, especially toys for children or “cute accessories”.


title: Kawaii

text: From 1984 to 1986, studied the development of the cute handwriting (which he called Anomalous Female Teenage Handwriting) in depth. This type of cute Japanese handwriting has also been called: , meaning "round writing", , meaning "kitten writing", , meaning "comic writing", and , meaning "fake-child writing". Although it was commonly thought that the writing style was something that teenagers had picked up from comics, Kazuma found that teenagers had come up with the style themselves, spontaneously, as an ‘underground trend’. His conclusion was based on an observation that cute handwriting predates the availability of technical means for producing rounded writing in comics.


title: Kawaii

text: , author of "Cool Japan", says cute fashion in Japan can be traced back to the Edo period with the popularity of netsuke. Illustrator Rune Naito, who produced illustrations of "large-headed" ("nitōshin") baby-faced girls and cartoon animals for Japanese girls' magazines from the 1950s to the 1970s, is credited with pioneering what would become the culture and aesthetic of kawaii.


title: Kawaii

text: Because of this growing trend, companies such as Sanrio came out with merchandise like Hello Kitty. Hello Kitty was an immediate success and the obsession with cute continued to progress in other areas as well. More recently, Sanrio has released kawaii characters with deeper personalities that appeal to an older audience, such as Gudetama and Aggretsuko. These characters have enjoyed strong popularity as fans are drawn to their unique quirks in addition to their cute aesthetics. The 1980s also saw the rise of cute idols, such as Seiko Matsuda, who is largely credited with popularizing the trend. Women began to emulate Seiko Matsuda and her cute fashion style and mannerisms, which emphasized the helplessness and innocence of young girls. The market for cute merchandise in Japan used to be driven by Japanese girls between 15 and 18 years old.


title: Kawaii

text: , in his work "Kawaii Syndrome", claims "cute" and "neat" have taken precedence over the former Japanese aesthetics of "beautiful" and "refined". As a cultural phenomenon, cuteness is increasingly accepted in Japan as a part of Japanese culture and national identity. , author of "Cool Japan", believes that "cuteness" is rooted in Japan's harmony-loving culture, and , a sociology professor at Musashi University in Tokyo, has stated that "cute" is a "magic term" that encompasses everything that is acceptable and desirable in Japan.


title: Kawaii

text: In Japan, being cute is acceptable for both men and women. A trend existed of men shaving their legs to mimic the neotenic look. Japanese women often try to act cute to attract men. A study by Kanebo, a cosmetic company, found that Japanese women in their 20s and 30s favored the "cute look" with a "childish round face". Women also employ a look of innocence in order to further play out this idea of cuteness. Having large eyes is one aspect that exemplifies innocence; therefore many Japanese women attempt to alter the size of their eyes. To create this illusion, women may wear large contact lenses, false eyelashes, dramatic eye makeup, and even have an East Asian blepharoplasty, commonly known as double eyelid surgery.


title: Kawaii

text: are media personalities in their teens and twenties who are considered particularly attractive or cute and who will, for a period ranging from several months to a few years, regularly appear in the mass media, e.g. as singers for pop groups, bit-part actors, TV personalities ("tarento"), models in photo spreads published in magazines, advertisements, etc. (But not every young celebrity is considered an idol. Young celebrities who wish to cultivate a rebellious image, such as many rock musicians, reject the "idol" label.) Speed, Morning Musume, AKB48, and Momoiro Clover Z are examples of popular idol groups in Japan during the 2000s & 2010s.


title: Kawaii

text: Lolita fashion is a very well-known and recognizable style in Japan. Based on Victorian fashion and the Rococo period, girls mix in their own elements along with gothic style to achieve the porcelain-doll look. The girls who dress in Lolita fashion try to look cute, innocent, and beautiful. This look is achieved with lace, ribbons, bows, ruffles, bloomers, aprons, and ruffled petticoats. Parasols, chunky Mary Jane heels, and Bo Peep collars are also very popular.


title: Kawaii

text: Sweet Lolita is a subset of Lolita fashion that includes even more ribbons, bows, and lace, and is often fabricated out of pastels and other light colors. Head-dresses such as giant bows or bonnets are also very common, while lighter make-up is sometimes used to achieve a more natural look. Curled hair extensions, sometimes accompanied by eyelash extensions, are also popular in helping with the baby doll look. Another subset of Lolita fashion related to "sweet Lolita" is Fairy Kei.


title: Kawaii

text: Themes such as fruits, flowers and sweets are often used as patterns on the fabrics used for dresses. Purses often go with the themes and are shaped as hearts, strawberries, or stuffed animals. "Baby, the Stars Shine Bright" is one of the more popular clothing stores for this style and often carries themes. Mannerisms are also important to many Sweet Lolitas. Sweet Lolita is sometimes not only a fashion, but also a lifestyle. This is evident in the 2004 film "Kamikaze Girls" where the main Lolita character, Momoko, drinks only tea and eats only sweets.


title: Kawaii

text: Gothic Lolita, Kuro Lolita, Shiro Lolita, and Military Lolita are all subtypes, also, in the US Anime Convention scene Casual Lolita.


title: Kawaii

text: Decora is a style that is characterized by wearing many "decorations" on oneself. It is considered to be self-decoration. The goal of this fashion is to become as vibrant and characterized as possible. People who take part in this fashion trend wear accessories such as multicolor hair pins, bracelets, rings, necklaces, etc. By adding on multiple layers of accessories on an outfit, the fashion trend tends to have a childlike appearance. It also includes toys and multicolor clothes. Decora and Fairy Kei have some crossover.


title: Kawaii

text: Although typically a female-dominated fashion, some men partake in the kawaii trend. They transform themselves into women—specifically kawaii women—by wearing wigs, false eyelashes, applying makeup, and wearing kawaii female clothing. This is seen predominately in male entertainers, such as Torideta-san, a DJ who transforms himself into a kawaii woman when working at his nightclub.


title: Kawaii

text: Japanese pop stars and actors often have longer hair, such as Takuya Kimura of SMAP. Men are also noted as often aspiring to a neotenic look. While it doesn't quite fit the exact specifications of what cuteness means for females, men are certainly influenced by the same societal mores - to be attractive in a specific sort of way that the society finds acceptable. In this way both Japanese men and women conform to the expectations of Kawaii in some way or another.


title: Kawaii

text: The concept of "kawaii" has had an influence on a variety of products, including candy, such as Hi-Chew, Koala's March and Hello Panda. Cuteness can be added to products by adding cute features, such as hearts, flowers, stars and rainbows. Cute elements can be found almost everywhere in Japan, from big business to corner markets and national government, ward, and town offices. Many companies, large and small, use cute mascots to present their wares and services to the public. For example:


title: Kawaii

text: "Cute" can be also used to describe a specific fashion sense of an individual, and generally includes clothing that appears to be made for young children, apart from the size, or clothing that accentuates the cuteness of the individual wearing the clothing. Ruffles and pastel colors are commonly (but not always) featured, and accessories often include toys or bags featuring anime characters.


title: Kawaii

text: There have been occasions on which popular Western products failed to meet the expectations of "kawaii", and thus did not do well in the Japanese market. For example, Cabbage Patch Kids dolls did not sell well in Japan, because the Japanese considered their facial features to be "ugly" and "grotesque" compared to the flatter and almost featureless faces of characters such as Hello Kitty. Also, the doll Barbie, portraying an adult woman, did not become successful in Japan compared to Takara's Licca, a doll that was modeled after an 11-year-old girl.


title: Kawaii

text: Kawaii has gradually gone from a small subculture in Japan to an important part of Japanese modern culture as a whole. An overwhelming number of modern items feature kawaii themes, not only in Japan but also worldwide. And characters associated with kawaii are astoundingly popular. "Global cuteness" is reflected in such billion-dollar sellers as Pokémon and Hello Kitty. "Fueled by Internet subcultures, Hello Kitty alone has hundreds of entries on eBay, and is selling in more than 30 countries, including Argentina, Bahrain, and Taiwan."


title: Kawaii

text: Japan has become a powerhouse in the kawaii industry and images of Doraemon, Hello Kitty, Pikachu, Sailor Moon and Hamtaro are popular in mobile phone accessories. However, Professor Tian Shenliang says that Japan's future is dependent on how much of an impact kawaii brings to humanity.


title: Kawaii

text: The Japanese Foreign Ministry has also recognized the power of cute merchandise and has sent three 18-year-old women overseas in the hopes of spreading Japanese culture around the world. The women dress in uniforms and maid costumes that are commonplace in Japan.


title: Kawaii

text: Kawaii manga and magazines have brought tremendous profit to the Japanese press industry. Moreover, the worldwide revenue from the computer game and its merchandising peripherals are closing in on $5 billion, according to a Nintendo press release titled "It's a Pokémon Planet".


title: Kawaii

text: In recent years, Kawaii products have gained popularity beyond the borders of Japan in other East and Southeast Asian countries, and are additionally becoming more popular in the US among anime and manga fans as well as others influenced by Japanese culture. Cute merchandise and products are especially popular in other parts of East Asia, such as mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and South Korea, as well as Southeast Asian countries including the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.


title: Kawaii

text: Sebastian Masuda, owner of 6%DOKIDOKI and a global advocate for kawaii influence, takes the quality from Harajuku to Western markets in his stores and artwork. The underlying belief of this Japanese designer is that "kawaii" actually saves the world. The infusion of kawaii into other world markets and cultures is achieved by introducing kawaii via modern art; audio, visual, and written media; and the fashion trends of Japanese youth, especially in high school girls.


title: Kawaii

text: Japanese kawaii seemingly operates as a center of global popularity due to its association with making cultural productions and consumer products "cute". This mindset pursues a global market, giving rise to numerous applications and interpretations in other cultures.


title: Kawaii

text: The dissemination of Japanese youth fashion and "kawaii culture" is usually associated with the Western society and trends set by designers borrowed or taken from Japan. With the emergence of China, South Korea and Singapore as global economic centers, the Kawaii merchandise and product popularity has shifted back to the East. In these East Asian and Southeast Asian markets, the kawaii concept takes on various forms and different types of presentation depending on the target audience.


title: Kawaii

text: Taiwanese culture, the government in particular, has embraced and elevated kawaii to a new level of social consciousness. The introduction of the A-Bian doll was seen as the development of a symbol to advance democracy and assist in constructing a collective imagination and national identity for Taiwanese people. The A-Bian dolls are kawaii likeness of sports figure, famous individuals, and now political figures that use kawaii images as a means of self-promotion and potential votes. The creation of the A-Bian doll has allowed Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian staffers to create a new culture where the "kawaii" image of a politician can be used to mobilize support and gain election votes.


title: Kawaii

text: Japanese popular "kawaii culture" has had an effect on Singaporean youth. The emergence of Japanese culture can be traced back to the mid-1980s when Japan became one of the economic powers in the world. Kawaii has developed from a few children's television shows to an Internet sensation. Japanese media is used so abundantly in Singapore that youths are more likely to imitate the fashion of their Japanese idols, learn the Japanese language, and continue purchasing Japanese oriented merchandise.


title: Kawaii

text: The East Asian countries of Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea, as well as the Southeast Asian country of Thailand either produce kawaii items for international consumption or have websites that cater for kawaii as part of the youth culture in their country. Kawaii has taken on a life of its own, spawning the formation of kawaii websites, kawaii home pages, kawaii browser themes and finally, kawaii social networking pages. While Japan is the origin and Mecca of all things kawaii, artists and businesses around the world are imitating the kawaii theme.


title: Kawaii

text: Kawaii has truly become "greater" than itself. The interconnectedness of today's world via the Internet has taken kawaii to new heights of exposure and acceptance, producing a kawaii "movement".


title: Kawaii

text: The Kawaii concept has become something of a global phenomenon. The aesthetic cuteness of Japan is very appealing to people globally. The wide popularity of Japanese kawaii is often credited with it being "culturally odorless". The elimination of exoticism and national branding has helped kawaii to reach numerous target audiences and span every culture, class, and gender group. The palatable characteristics of kawaii have made it a global hit, resulting in Japan's global image shifting from being known for austere rock gardens to being known for "cute-worship".


title: Kawaii

text: In 2014, the "Collins English Dictionary" in the United Kingdom entered "kawaii" into its then latest edition, defining it as a "Japanese artistic and cultural style that emphasizes the quality of cuteness, using bright colours and characters with a childlike appearance".


title: Kawaii

text: In his book "The Power of Cute", Simon May talks about the 180 degree turn in Japan’s history, from the violence of war to "kawaii" starting around the 1970s, in the works of artists like Takashi Murakami, amongst others. By 1992, "kawaii" was seen as "the most widely used, widely loved, habitual word in modern living Japanese." Since then, there has been some controversy surrounding the term "kawaii" and the expectations of it in Japanese culture. Natalia Konstantinovskaia, in her article “Being Kawaii in Japan”, says that based on the increasing ratio of young Japanese girls that view themselves as "kawaii", there is a possibility that “from early childhood, Japanese people are socialized into the expectation that women must be "kawaii."” The idea of "kawaii" can be tricky to balance - if a woman’s interpretation of "kawaii" seems to have gone too far, she is then labeled as "buriko", “a woman who plays bogus innocence.” In the article “Embodied Kawaii: Girls’ voices in J-pop”, the authors make the argument that female J-pop singers are expected to be recognizable by their outfits, voice, and mannerisms as "kawaii" - young and cute. Any woman who becomes a J-pop icon must stay "kawaii", or keep her girlishness, rather than being perceived as a woman, even if she is over 18.


title: Kawaii

text: Japanese women who feign kawaii behaviors (e.g., high-pitched voice, squealing giggles) that could be viewed as forced or inauthentic are called "burikko" and this is considered superficial charm. The neologism developed in the 1980s, perhaps originated by comedian .


title: Jewel Staite

text: Jewel Belair Staite (born June 2, 1982) is a Canadian actress. She is known for her roles as Kaylee Frye in the Fox television series "Firefly" (2002–2003) and its spin-off theatrical film "Serenity" (2005), and as Jennifer Keller on Sci-Fi Channel's science fiction television series "Stargate Atlantis" (2007–2009). Staite also starred as Catalina in "Space Cases" (1996), as "Becca" Fisher in "Flash Forward" (1996–1997), as Raquel Westbrook in the Canadian drama "The L.A. Complex" (2012), and as Caroline Swift in AMC's crime drama "The Killing" (2013–2014). Since 2021, she has starred as Abigail Bianchi in the Canadian legal drama series "Family Law".


title: Jewel Staite

text: Staite was born in White Rock, British Columbia. The youngest of seven children, she modeled as a child and has acted since age six. She has stated that she is of British, Irish, French Canadian, and Iroquois ancestry. Staite attended Vancouver Film School and worked at the Vancouver Youth Theatre.


title: Jewel Staite

text: Staite began her career as a child actress, with appearances in television movies such as CBC's "Liar, Liar" in 1993 (which was later aired on CBS in the United States that same year) and ABC's "The Only Way Out". In 1995, Staite had a key guest-starring role in a third-season episode of "The X-Files", titled "Oubliette".


title: Jewel Staite

text: After appearing on "Are You Afraid of the Dark?" (1994), Staite's first co-starring role on a television series was as Catalina, the ship's engineer, in the first season of Nickelodeon science fiction television series "Space Cases" in 1996. This was immediately followed by her role as Rebecca "Becca" Fisher on the 1995–1997 Disney Channel series "Flash Forward", a series in which Staite was the co-lead with Ben Foster.


title: Jewel Staite

text: In 2000, she was cast in a main role on the FOX Family Channel drama series "Higher Ground". She was also a voice actress in the animated TV series "Mummies Alive!" and "" for DIC Entertainment.


title: Jewel Staite

text: Staite played Kaylee Frye in the short-lived television series "Firefly" and its subsequent 2005 film, "Serenity". She wrote a chapter in the book "Finding Serenity", called "Kaylee Speaks: Jewel Staite On "Firefly"". She played the recurring role of Heidi Gotts in the television series "Wonderfalls" in 2004.


title: Jewel Staite

text: Staite played the role of head medical doctor Jennifer Keller in the "Stargate SG-1" spinoff "Stargate Atlantis", making her the third actor from the "Firefly" series to move on to appear in a "Stargate" series (the first being Adam Baldwin, who had a brief role as a colonel in the "Stargate SG-1" episode "Heroes", and the second being Morena Baccarin, who played Adria, the main villain in the tenth season of "SG-1"), and the second to take a recurring role. She replaced Paul McGillion (Dr. Carson Beckett).


title: Jewel Staite

text: In the fifth season of "Stargate", her character was changed from recurring status to part of the main cast. Before taking on the role as Dr. Keller, she previously played the Wraith child Ellia in the "Stargate Atlantis" episode "Instinct". She also appeared in the 2010 Syfy film, "Mothman", under direction from Sheldon Wilson.


title: Jewel Staite

text: Also in 2010, Staite guest-starred in an episode of "Warehouse 13" as the love interest of Sheldon (played by Sean Maher, who played her love interest in "Firefly"), and in 2011, she guest-starred on an episode of "Supernatural" as a former love interest of Sam.


title: Jewel Staite

text: In 2012, Staite was a series regular on "The L.A. Complex", in which she portrayed Raquel Westbrook, a struggling actress. The show aired in Canada on CTV and MuchMusic and in the U.S. on The CW. She also appeared in an episode of "The Listener". Staite appeared in 10 episodes of the AMC crime drama, "The Killing", as Detective Stephen Holder's girlfriend Caroline Swift, from 2013–2014.


title: Jewel Staite

text: Staite was married to actor Matt Anderson from 2003 to 2011. In May 2015, she became engaged to her boyfriend Charlie Ritchie. Later the same month, she announced she was pregnant with her first child, a boy. On December 9, 2015, she announced the birth of her son Wilder Cathcart Ritchie. She married Charlie Ritchie on July 23, 2016.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu (; ), officially the Province of Cebu (; ; ), is a province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, and consists of a main island and 167 surrounding islands and islets. Its capital and largest city is Cebu City, nicknamed "the Queen City of the South", the oldest city and first capital of the Philippines, which is politically independent from the provincial government.


title: Cebu

text: The Cebu Metropolitan Area or Metro Cebu is the second largest metropolitan area in the Philippines (after Metro Manila) with Cebu City as the main center of commerce, trade, education and industry in the Visayas. Being one of the most developed provinces in the Philippines, in a decade it has transformed into a global hub for business processing services, tourism, shipping, furniture-making, and heavy industry. Mactan–Cebu International Airport, located on Mactan Island, is the second busiest airport in the Philippines.


title: Cebu

text: The name "Cebu" comes from the old or ("trade"), a shortened form of . It was originally applied to the harbors of the town of Sugbu, the ancient name for Cebu City. Alternate renditions of the name by traders between the 13th to 16th centuries include "Sebu", "Sibuy", "Zubu", or "Zebu", among others. Sugbu or Sugbo, in turn, is derived from the Old Cebuano term for "scorched earth" or "great fire".


title: Cebu

text: The Rajahnate of Cebu was a native kingdom which existed in Cebu prior to the arrival of the Spaniards. It was founded by Sri Lumay otherwise known as "Rajamuda Lumaya", a half-Malay, half-Tamil prince of the Chola dynasty who invaded Sumatra in Indonesia. He was sent by the Maharajah to establish a base for expeditionary forces to subdue the local kingdoms, but he rebelled and established his own independent Rajahnate instead. The capital of the nation was Singhapala (சிங்கப்பூர்) which is Tamil-Sanskrit for "Lion City", the same rootwords with the modern city-state of Singapore. The later Spanish chronicler Antonio Pigafetta misprounounced Singhapala as Cingopola instead.


title: Cebu

text: The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 began a period of Spanish exploration and colonization.


title: Cebu

text: Losing the favour of King Manuel I of Portugal for his plan of reaching the Spice Islands by sailing west from Europe, Magellan offered his services to King Charles I of Spain (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor). On September 20, 1519, Magellan led five ships with a total complement of 250 people from the Spanish fort of Sanlúcar de Barrameda en route to southeast Asia via the Americas and the Pacific Ocean. They reached the Philippines on March 16, 1521. Rajah Kolambu the king of Mazaua told them to sail for Cebu, where they could trade and obtain provisions.


title: Cebu

text: Arriving in Cebu City, Magellan, with Enrique of Malacca as a translator, befriended Rajah Humabon the Rajah or King of Cebu, and persuaded the natives to ally themselves with Charles I of Spain. Humabon and his wife were given Christian names and baptized as "Carlos" and "Juana". The Santo Niño was presented to the native queen of Cebu, as a symbol of peace and friendship between the Spaniards and the Cebuanos. On April 14 Magellan erected a large wooden cross on the shores of Cebu. Afterwards, about 700 islanders were baptized.


title: Cebu

text: Magellan soon heard of Datu Lapu-Lapu, a native king in nearby Mactan Island, a rival of the Rajahs of Cebu. It was thought that Humabon and Lapu–Lapu had been fighting for control of the flourishing trade in the area. On April 27 the Battle of Mactan occurred, where the Spaniards were defeated and Magellan was killed by the natives of Mactan in Mactan Island. According to Italian historian and chronicler Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan's body was never recovered despite efforts to trade for it with spice and jewels. Magellan's second-in-command, Juan Sebastián Elcano, took his place as captain of the expedition and sailed the fleet back to Spain, circumnavigating the world.


title: Cebu

text: Survivors of the Magellan expedition returned to Spain with tales of a savage island in the East Indies. Consequently, several Spanish expeditions were sent to the islands but all ended in failure. In 1564, Spanish explorers led by Miguel López de Legazpi, sailing from Mexico, arrived in 1565, and established a colony. The Spaniards fought the King, Rajah Tupas, and occupied his territories. The Spaniards established settlements, trade flourished and renamed the island to "Villa del Santísimo Nombre de Jesús" (Town of the Most Holy Name of Jesus). Cebu became the first European settlement established by the Spanish Cortés in the Philippines. In 1595, the Universidad de San Carlos was established and in 1860, Cebu opened its ports to foreign trade. The first printing house ("Imprenta de Escondrillas y Cia") was established in 1873 and in 1880, the Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepcion (College of the Immaculate Conception) was established and the first periodical "The Bulletin of Cebu" ("El Boletin de Cebú") began publishing in 1886.


title: Cebu

text: In 1898, the island was ceded to the United States after the Spanish–American War and Philippine–American War. In 1901, Cebu was governed by the United States for a brief period, however, it became a charter province on February 24, 1937, and was governed independently by Filipino politicians.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu, being one of the most densely populated islands in the Philippines, served as a Japanese base during their occupation in World War II which began with the landing of Japanese soldiers in April 1942. The 3rd, 8th, 82nd and 85th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was re-established from January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, and the 8th Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was reestablished again from October 28, 1944, to June 30, 1946, at the military general headquarters and the military camps and garrisoned in Cebu city and Cebu province. They started the Anti-Japanese military operations in Cebu from April 1942 to September 1945 and helped Cebuano guerrillas and fought against the Japanese Imperial forces. Almost three years later in March 1945, combined Filipino and American forces landed and reoccupied the island during the liberation of the Philippines. Cebuano guerrilla groups led by an American, James M. Cushing, is credited for the establishment of the "Koga Papers", which is said to have changed the American plans to retake the Philippines from Japanese occupation in 1944, by helping the combined United States and the Philippine Commonwealth Army forces enter Cebu in 1945. The following year the island achieved independence from colonial rule in 1946.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu became a key center of resistance against the Marcos dictatorship, first becoming apparent when the hastily put-together lineup of Pusyon Bisaya defeated the entire slate of Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (KBL) in Region VII.


title: Cebu

text: Among the Cebuanos immediately arrested by the Marcos dictatorship when Martial law was announced on September 23, 1972, were columnist and future National Artist Resil Mojares and human rights lawyer and Carcar Vice Mayor Democrito Barcenas, who were both detained at Camp Sergio Osmeña.


title: Cebu

text: One of the Marcos Martial Law Desaparecidos from Cebu was Redemptorist Priest Fr. Rudy Romano, a prominent Marcos critic and Executive Secretary of Cebu's Coalition against People's Persecution, who was accosted by armed men in Tisa, Labangon, Cebu City on June 11, 1985, and never seen again. Levi Ybañez, Romano's colleague in the Coalition against People's Persecution, was abducted on the same day as Fr. Romano, and was also never heard from again. Ribomapil Holganza, a prominent leader of Cebu's opposition was also arrested together with his son on Christmas Day, December 25, 1983, on political charges. He was subsequently released and cleared of all charges.


title: Cebu

text: Later, Cebu would play a key role in the days leading up to the 1986 People Power revolution and the ouster of Marcos. It was from Fuente Osmeña circle in Cebu City that the opposition forces relaunched Civil Disobedience Campaign against the Marcos regime and its cronies on February 22, 1986. After that, the Carmelite Monastery in Barangay Mabolo, Cebu City, served as a refuge for opposition candidates Aquino and Laurel during the first day of the People Power revolution, because it was not yet safe to go back to Manila.


title: Cebu

text: In February 2012 Cebu island experienced the effects of magnitude 6.7 earthquake on the neighboring island of Negros and was the largest quake in the area for 90 years. The tremor shook buildings but there were no reports of major building damage or loss of life on Cebu Island itself. This tremor was caused by a previously unrecorded fault.


title: Cebu

text: In October 2013, Cebu and Bohol were hit by record-setting 7.2 magnitude earthquake which left more than 100 dead and collapsed some buildings, including 5 historical churches. There were over 700 aftershocks. The northern part of the province was devastated by Typhoon Haiyan a month later.


title: Cebu

text: In December 2021, Typhoon Rai wreaked havoc across the province, leading to a disaster declaration by the governor.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu is located to the east of Negros, to the west of Leyte and Bohol islands. The province consists of Cebu Island, as well as 167 smaller islands, which include Mactan, Bantayan, Malapascua, Olango and the Camotes Islands. But the highly urbanized cities of Cebu, Lapu-Lapu and Mandaue are independent cities not under provincial supervision, yet are often grouped with the province for geographical and statistical purposes.


title: Cebu

text: The province's land area is , or when the independent cities are included for geographical purposes, the total area is .


title: Cebu

text: Cebu's central location, proximity to an unusually exotic tourist destination, ready access to a diversity of plant, animal and geological wonders within the island, and remoteness from earthquake and typhoon activity are some of the special attributes of Cebu.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu Island is the 126th largest island in the world. Cebu Island itself is long and narrow, stretching from north to south and across at its widest point. It has narrow coastlines, limestone plateaus, and coastal plains. It also has rolling hills and rugged mountain ranges traversing the northern and southern lengths of the island.


title: Cebu

text: Cebu's highest mountains are over high. Flat tracts of land can be found in the city of Bogo and in the towns of San Remigio, Medellin and Daanbantayan at the northern region of the province.


title: Cebu

text: The island's area is , making it the 9th largest island in the Philippines. It supports over 4.4 million people, of which 2.5 million live in Metro Cebu.


title: Cebu

text: Coal was first discovered in Cebu about 1837. There were 15 localities over the whole island, on both coasts; some desultory mining had been carried out Naga near Mount Uling, but most serious operations were at Licos and Camansi west of Compostela and Danao. Active work ceased about 1895 with insurrections, and no production worked for more than ten years. A topographic and geologic survey of Compostela, Danao, and Carmen took place in 1906. The Compostela-Danao coalfield contained about six million workable tons. The tramroads, one from Danao to Camansi, one from Compostela to Mount Licos, were undertaken in 1895, together with a wagon road built in 1877, from Cotcot to Dapdap.


title: Cebu

text: The climate of Cebu is tropical. There are 2 seasons in Cebu − the dry and wet season. It is dry and sunny most of the year with some occasional rains during the months of June to December. The province of Cebu normally gets typhoons once a year or none.